Using Seasonal Morphological Changes in <I>Brodiaea

SEASONS OF CHANGE: USING SEASONAL MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN BRODIAEA CORMS TO DETERMINE SEASON OF HARVEST FROM ARCHAEOBOTANICAL REMAINS

Kristina M. Gill

I present archaeobotanical evidence for intensive and long-term harvesting of edible geophytes in the Brodiaea complex, most likely blue dicks ( Dichelostemma capitatum ), during multiple seasons on California’s Santa Cruz Island. Ethnographic data indicate that Brodiaea corms were an important food source throughout prehistoric California, usually harvested in the late spring–early summer, after flowering. However, at least two ethnographic sources may suggest multiple seasons of harvest, an idea supported by careful examination of seasonal morphological changes in modern and ancient Brodiaea corms. Archaeobotanical identification of features associated with these morphological changes allows inferences about the specific seasons in which Brodiaea corms were harvested, a conclusion that has the potential to provide higher resolution seasonality data for geophyte remains recovered in western North America and other areas around the world.

En este artículo presento evidencia arqueobotánica de la recolección intensiva y a largo plazo de geófitos comestibles perte - necientes al complejo Brodiaea, muy probablemente Covenas ( Dichelostemma capitatum ), durante múltiples temporadas en la Isla Santa Cruz en California. Los datos etnográficos indican que los bulbos de plantas Brodiaea constituyeron una fuente importante de alimento a lo largo de la prehistoria de California, y fueron usualmente recolectados después de su florecimiento durante la parte tardía de la primavera e inicios del verano. Sin embargo, al menos dos fuentes etnográficas adicionales sugieren múltiples temporadas de recolección, una posibilidad sustentada por el cuidadoso estudio de cambios morfológicos estacionales en bulbos de Brodiaea antiguos y modernos. La identificación arqueobotánica de rasgos asociados a estos cambios morfológicos permite establecer inferencias sobre las estaciones específicas en que los bulbos de Brodiaea fueron recolectados, y esta conclusión tiene el potencial de brindar datos de estacionalidad de mayor resolución para los restos de geófitos recuperados en el oeste de Norteamérica y otras áreas alrededor del mundo.

eophytes were an important food source Vaughton and Ramsey 2001). Generally rich in around the world, particularly in Mediter - carbohydrates and other nutrients, many geophytes ranean climate zones (Anderson 2005; provided foragers and farmers with a source of Deacon 1993; Deacon 1984; Ertu? 2000; Gott energy that complements diets where sources of G1982; Kelly 1995; Klein 1975; Laden and Wrang - whole proteins are regularly available from re - ham 2005; Marean 2010a; Opperman and Hey - sources such as shellfish, fish, birds, and mammals denrych 1990; Vincent 1985; Wohlgemuth 2010). (Erlandson 1988). In South Africa, Marean Geophytic plants are characterized by an under - (2010a, 2010b) suggested that Middle Stone Age ground storage organ (incl. tubers, bulbs, corms, exploitation of shellfish and geophytes was sig - and rhizomes), from which the leaves and flowers nificant in the development of anatomically mod - originate perennially. Most geophytes are well ern humans, based on abundant ethnographic and adapted to Mediterranean climates, experiencing archaeobotanical evidence for the use of Watsonia seasonal dormancy, where aboveground parts die sp. corms, which are morphologically similar to back and the underground storage organ conserves Brodiaea , and other geophytes as far back as nutrients until favorable environmental conditions 22,000 years ago (Deacon and Deacon 1999; Dea - return (Dafni et al. 1981; Rankiær 1934:65; Run - con 1984; Klein 1975, 1977; Opperman and Hey - del 1996; Schlising and Chamberlain 2006; denrych 1990; Parkington and Poppenpoel 1968; Ⅲ Kristina M. Gill Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106 ([email protected])

638 Gill] USING SEASONAL MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN BRODIAEA CORMS TO DETERMINE SEASON OF HARVEST 639

Figure 1. Map of Santa Cruz Island showing the Diablo Valdez site and the corm collecting location at Centinela.

Wadley 1993; Wells 1965). In Island Southeast America (Pires and Sytsma 2002:1342). These Asia and Oceania, corms of the taro plant ( Colo - seven genera are morphologically similar with casia sp.) were a significant, carbohydrate-rich overlapping biogeographic ranges, but Diche - cultivar that was often consumed alongside pro - lostemma capitatum has by far the widest distri - tein-rich marine resources (Furey 2006; Greenwell bution, from Oregon to Baja California, including 1947; Sand 1996). all the islands off the coast of Alta and Baja Cal - In western North America, geophytes have ifornia except for San Geronimo and Natividad, long been recognized as important food sources, and from the Pacific Coast east to Utah and New including camas ( Camassia sp.) and wapato Mexico (Junak et al. 1995:278; Keator 1968; (Sagittaria sp.) in the Pacific Northwest, biscuit - Schlising and Chamberlain 2006). root ( Lomatium sp.) and yampah (Perideridia As described here, corms in the Brodiaea com - sp.) in the Great Basin, and species in the Brodi - plex (hereafter referred to simply as Brodiaea ) un - aea complex throughout western North America dergo significant seasonal morphological changes, (Anderson 2005; Prouty 1995; Todt 1997). The whereby a new corm replaces the old annually. Brodiaea complex is described by Fay and Chase These seasonal changes can be used to determine (1996:446) as “perennial herbs, with a corm, hav - the season of harvest in carbonized archaeological ing a tunic of parallel or reticulate fibers and specimens. Occurring largely in western North lacking alliaceous [onionlike] chemistry.” A corm America, Brodiaea were an important food source, is technically an underground stem, resembling as they are high in carbohydrates and fiber, in ad - a bulb, but with a solid internal structure, rather dition to vitamins and minerals such as iron and than layers of fleshy scales like an onion. The manganese (Gilliland 1985; Martin and Popper Brodiaea complex currently includes three closely 2001). Ethnographic literature suggests that most related genera described as “ Brodiaea sensu lato” geophytes, including Brodiaea , were harvested (s.l.) ( Brodiaea spp., Dichelostemma spp., and during the spring or early summer (Anderson Triteleia spp.), and four “satellite genera” ( An - 1997:153; Prouty 1995:15–19; Timbrook 2007:75). drostephium spp., Bloomeria spp., Muilla spp., However, archaeobotanical evidence from car - and Triteleiopsis spp.) found in western North bonized Brodiaea corms recovered from the Diablo 640 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 79, No. 4, 2014

Figure 2. A: Beginning stage of new corm development. Note the adventitious root scars around the base of the old corm (January 21, 2013); B: Intermediate stage of new corm development and withering old corm (January 31, 2014); C: Final stages of new corm development with the old corm nearly entirely withered below. Two cormlets grow from axillary buds at the base of the new corm (January 31, 2014); and D: Cormlet producing a single contractile root (January 21, 2013). Centinela, Santa Cruz Island, California.

Valdez site (CA-SCRI-619/620) on Santa Cruz Is - Themidaceae, the Milla complex, occur in Mex - land (Figure 1) suggests that ancient people also ico and include four genera ( Dandya sp., Bessera harvested them during the fall. In the sections that sp., Milla sp., and Petronymphe sp.; see Pires and follow, I discuss ethnographic evidence of geo - Sytsma 2002) . Milla corms are very similar to phyte use and Brodiaea in particular, Brodiaea those of Brodiaea , separated largely by biogeo - corm biology and seasonal morphological changes graphic distribution and corm coat characteristics. the plant undergoes during winter (Figure 2:A– The corms of the Milla complex have “membra - D), spring (Figure 3), summer (Figure 4:A–C), neous tunics of minute parallel fibers” whereas and fall (Figure 5:A–C), and the paleobotanical Brodiaea corms have “fibrous-reticulate tunics” remains from a nearly 6,000-year sequence at Di - (Pires and Sytsma 2002:1353). ablo Valdez (Figure 6:A–C; Tables 1–2). As botanists have debated taxonomic classifi - cations through the years, genus and species Brodiaea Complex names have changed numerous times. Heterotypic synonyms (year assigned in parentheses) for blue The genera included in Brodiaea have a convo - dicks ( Dichelostemma capitatum ) alone include luted taxonomic history, having been variously Hookera pulchella (1808), Brodiaea insularis classified within the Lily (Lilaceae), Onion (Al - (1886) , Brodiaea capitata var. alba (1891) , Dich - liaceae), and Amaryllis (Amaryllidaceae) families elostemma insulare (1907) , Dipterostemon insu - over the past century, and only recently classified laris (1912), Brodiaea capitata var. insularis within their own family, Themidaceae (Baldwin (1918) , and Hookera pauciflora (1925; see Gov - et al. 2012; Fay and Chase 1996; Hoover 1940; aerts 2011; Keator 1968). These variable names Keator 1968; Pires and Sytsma 2002; Preston can make it difficult to determine which genus 2006; Schlising and Chamberlain 2006). A closely or species are being referenced in various ethno - related group of corm-producing geophytes in graphic accounts. Here, I refer primarily to Bro - Gill] USING SEASONAL MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN BRODIAEA CORMS TO DETERMINE SEASON OF HARVEST 641

Figure 3. Flower head cluster of D. capitatum at the end of a single flower stalk.

diaea , although the most likely candidate for the steadily recovering since the removal of grazing archaeobotanical corms recovered on the Channel animals in recent years. Blue dicks are now par - Islands is the blue dick ( Dichelostemma capita - ticularly abundant, found in a variety of soils and tum ), based on modern distribution, abundance, habitats, at all elevations, and on all eight of the and overall fecundity. Despite the significant im - Channel Islands (Gill 2013; Gill and Erlandson pacts of historical overgrazing in the past, the 2014; Junak et al. 1995). Archaeobotanical iden - flora of the northern Channel Islands has been tification of carbonized Brodiaea corms to one

Figure 4. A: Corm with fibrous outer coating; B: Corm with fibrous outer coating removed. Note the remnant withered corm and adventitious roots from the previous year attached at the base; and C: Base of corm with remnant old corm removed. Note the smooth sides around the base of the corm (June 6, 2013). Centinela, Santa Cruz Island, California. 642 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 79, No. 4, 2014

Figure 5. A: Adventitious roots just beginning to emerge, exhibiting peaklike features around the basal margins; B: Emergence of adventitious roots at base and leaf shoot on top; and C: Adventitious roots continue to grow once fully emerged. Note that adventitious roots form around the basal margins of the corm only (September 26–30, 2013). Centinela, Santa Cruz Island, California. genus or another is difficult, however, as the tax - Ethnographic Use of Geophytes onomic classifications used to differentiate genera by botanists are typically based largely on leaf Ethnographic information for the Santa Barbara and flower structure. Channel region and other areas of California, the Great Basin, and Columbia Plateau indicate that geophytes generally were harvested in the spring

Figure 6. A: Carbonized corms with no adventitious root growth (Locus 3, Stratum 2); B: Carbonized corms with emerg - ing adventitious roots (Locus 2, Stratum 8, Roasting Pit Feature); and C: Carbonized corms with adventitious root scars (Locus 2, Stratum 8, Roasting Pit Feature). Gill] USING SEASONAL MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN BRODIAEA CORMS TO DETERMINE SEASON OF HARVEST 643

1 8

d 0 8 9 3 6

5 5 9 6 9 0 3 7 9 8 e

2 2 6 0 6 . . g 3 3 8 1 9 3 7 3 . . . . . n

...... 1 2 i t 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 o m r N e

3 6 e

2 2 9 9 1 1 9 8 9 6 6 n 7 4 1 6 1 3 3 3 1 3 4 4 3 1 2 D

3 6

e 2 g

a t s

t 2 2

n g u 7 7 S — — — — — — — — — — — — — . .

e c t s

o o b

L n 2 2 A — — — — — — — — — — — — —

R ,

s z

u e

9 9 g

d i 8 8 n g t l . . i — — — — — — — — — — — — — i t a 2 2 g r n e V e

m o

d n 9 9 l E — — — — — — — — — — — — — A b a i

3 7

1 1 2 D t

1 2

g 0 0 1 . . n — — — — — — — — — — . . . 5 5 e m s e o r r

f P

0 3

n 1 1 1 — — — — — — — — 2 — — 2 s

r l

o d y y y y y y y y y y r e e e e o l l l l l l l l l l t t t t u C i

r r r r r r r r r r t

a a a a r a a a a a a a a a a l l e L L L L u E E E E E E E E E E a P C c i n

) ) ) ) ) ) ) )

) ) )

9 1 8 2 0 9 4 7 ) ) ) ) o 2 1 b 1

2 9 5 5 9 0 9 0 8 5 0 3 . )

...... 0

4 4 0 9

! . 0 . . . . = o =

2 ======

e ( . p = = = = p

( =

p p p p p p p p a (

e B ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (

p p p p

h 0 p g l ( ( ( ( 0

(

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c 3 a n 3 — — — — — — — r 0 0 0 0 4 8 8 8 7 7 3 8 c a 5 0 8

9 1 5 2 6 6 5 7 7 0 1 2 4 1 4 R A 1 3 3 5 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 C

–

2 – 4 e – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 1 – 0 n g 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 8 o 5 7 3 4 7 7 2 7 8 6 1 7 4

A 1 7 1 2 3 4 4 6 4 7 5 9 1 1 4 s 2 4 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 e r u

1 0 3 0 3 4 7

a ...... C

e 3 7 4 2 2 4 7 6 1 — — — — — — — 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 F "

! ! ! ! ! ! ! t o

a o l a R i

s e C C C C C C A — — — — — — — t u a o i M t i t

4 8 e ! ± ± ± ± ± 2 2 1

1 8 5 7 5 4 9 1 1 3

± ± d ±

3 0 3 5 4 3 2 3 3 2 — — — — — — — 6 1 3 0 0 1 4 A C

2 2 4 3 4 4 4 4

1 2 4 d ) n 3 a 9

s 1 b

e a r t e

L a

7 8 9 4 6 6 2

m ) S

4 4 4 7 4 7 7 i m . # i e — — — — — — — 0 0 0 9 0 9 9 p t M 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 p R s

s A

- d E s

n D o e a l

y g r h e A p v

i a g t n

t t t n s r i i o i o S o

r p p t ( b

e o a

c r l r g g e

0 r f l a t . u

n n

i t c A i i c 7 e

t t ( a — — — — — — — — — —

p s

s s o h e t t u i B a a i r F I o d o o p a

L a e H R R a t A i R H

C n .

a h 1 z t

4 6 2 6 7 0

l w 2

7 7 2 3 5 5 6 8 3 0 0 6 ) b 1 0 m e 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 !

1 2 a v m – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 = – –

e c

8 7 2 4 6 2 6 7 0 3 3 4 T t ( 0 7 L a 2 2 2 4 4 8 1 2 3 5 5 6 A

1 1 1 1 1 1 , d e m t

r a

o r

m l c

1 b

a u i

A – t t l

F E B A H = 1 3 4 5 6 7 9 0 a a

o 2 2 8 B 2 8 r 1 t T 2 C C

S a b

644 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 79, No. 4, 2014

2 4 6

n 1 2 5 2 6 9 4 4

i . 1 6 8 8 0 g . . . . . 7 1 1 5 3 0 5 3 ...... 2 5 1 m 1 r e t

e .

5 6

t s 9 6 4 9 1 9 9 7

7 6 3 6 5 e N 0 4 o 1 3 4 2 3 1 1 2 u . . 2 g c N a t o S

9 4 3 t 6

, t 2

2 5 8 o 2 g z n . . . — — — — — — — — — — ! o e ! e 2 2 4 s d R

l b

A u 3 3 6 N — — — — — — — — — — — — V o

i t o i

1 1 b n

n g e 0 0 a i — — — — — — — — — — — — — . . i v g r d D e

m m 1 1 N — — — — — — — — — — — — — E o r f

t s 1 1 1 8 3 4

g n 0 0 0 0 0 1 — — — — — — — — — ...... m e r s e o

C 1 1 1 3 2 8 P N

— — — — — — — — — l

c l

i e a

d l r y y y y y y y y y y y n e e o l l l l l l l l l l l d t t u a i

r r r r r r r r r r r t t a a d r l a a a a a a a a a a a i e o L L u E E E E E E E E E E E P b M C o e

a ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )

) ) ) h

) ) 0 9 1 9 1 1 4 5 1 1 1 e c 1 5 3 9 0 0 0 9 0 0

...... r

6 4 b = = = . .

) ======A A

p p p ! = = . ( ( ( p p p p p p p p

2 ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( P

p p (

. o 0 0 0

( (

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

6 3 8 e B s — — — — — — —

1 2 1 2 4 7 0 2 5 0 3 6 9 g e l 4 6 7 2 2 1 2 4 1 6 r 2 3 4 n a 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 6 6 – – – a c u

t – – – – – – – – – – 0 0 0 R a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 C 3 7 0 4 e 7 3 3 6 3 6 8 3 5 1 3 4 8 1 3 4 6 0 2 1 1 2 5 6 F 2 3 4

2 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 t o

2 4 2 6 0 2

......

R C

3 3 8 7 5 9 8 9 . 1 s — — — — — — — 1 2 2 2 1 2 " u ! ! ! ! ! ! o

i )

t a i 3 l t 9 a n i

r e

1 e C C C C C C v M

— — — — — — — t r d a e

A ) M

m s i d u

5 2 1 9 3 8 n 8 a R ! 2 2 2 3 2 2

1 i s

d ± ± ± ± ± ± n e

± n t

— — — — — — — 1 4 1 0 5 9 a a 3 o

3 6 6 2 7 1 C f 2 r 4 i 3 4 9 3 8 9 m 1 6 l e i 2 2 2 3 3 4 t a v s i

u E

t s

# e u S 8 3 0 5 1 2 7

l M ( g 7 7 5 7 5 5 6

i b

t 9 9 0 9 0 0 9 — — — — — — — a A 0 A y - .

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 L 7 n D M

o (

b l

I l r e h h r e a L t t

r r u c h

t a a A s o a — — — — — — — — — — — —

e e i l C e

d H H e F a h s t s i R

0 4 5 9

w 5

0 2 0 0 0 0 2 1 3 6 9 1 5 2 ) m 0 e

2 2 4 5 5 6 1 1 1 1 6 7 8 ! 1

v e m – – – – – – – – – – – – – = 2 l – e

c 0 6 0 0 1 5 4 5 4 0 0 3 1 t b ( 5 L 1 0 1 3 1 1 2 3 4 4 6 6 7 a a 8 M

1 1 1 1

T ; d e

m t

m l

r o a u

B A t t 1

c b A A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0 0 i a o 1 1 2 l r 1 1 = t T a

S C C

a b Gill] USING SEASONAL MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN BRODIAEA CORMS TO DETERMINE SEASON OF HARVEST 645

before, during, or after flowering, depending on weighted with a perforated stone, once the flowers the particular geophyte used (Anderson 1997:153; had died back in late spring or early summer Anderson and Rowney 1999:233; Prouty (Sutton 2014; Timbrook 2007). They could then 1995:15–19; Timbrook 1993:56, 2007:75). This be eaten raw, but were more commonly taken is especially true of regions where non-corm pro - back to the village or temporary camp to be ducing geophytes were particularly important, cooked in a roasting pit. Fernando Librado, a such as camas, biscuitroot, and yampah. Some Chumash consultant to ethnographer John Har - of these geophytes, such as biscuitroot and yam - rington, indicated that shiq’o’n was particularly pah, were available for only a few weeks in early important on the islands, where several families spring, and others, such as camas, were harvested were involved in harvesting and cooking large during flowering to avoid the poisonous death quantities in large roasting pits that often mea - camas ( Zigadenus sp.), which have bulbs similar sured more than a meter across (Anderson to camas but have white rather than blue flowers 2005:295; Gill 2013; Hudson and Blackburn (Prouty 1995). Spring harvests of geophytes in 1983:213; Timbrook 2007:75). the Pacific Northwest, northern Great Basin, and Columbia Plateau were important for securing Ethnographic Indicators for Season of Harvest sufficient food reserves to last through the long winter months, and some estimates of dietary Most California ethnographic accounts of the sea - contribution suggest the spring geophyte harvest son of harvest for Brodiaea suggest a late spring– supplied nearly 50 percent of the annual caloric early summer harvest, usually in June, after flow - intake (Hunn 1990; Prouty 1995:22). ering and going to seed (Anderson 1997:154; A folk term for geophytes common throughout Anderson and Rowney 1999; Harrington 1930; western North America is “Indian potato” (An - Lawton et al. 1976; Timbrook 2007:75). In an derson and Rowney 1999; Todt 1997). According article translating Karuk stories from the Klamath to Todt (1997:255), in the Klamath Basin the area, however, Harrington [1930:131] indicates term “Indian potato” or “tule potato” refers to another season of harvest for Brodiaea : wapato , an aquatic plant that produces a perennial ‘Atáytcúkkinatc , a name given to the Cacomite, tuberous rhizome. Elsewhere, and throughout Brodiaea capitata Benth., when the top is only much of California, “Indian potato” often refers about 3” above the ground. The entire plant is to the corms of species within Brodiaea (Todt gathered at this stage early in April and is baked 1997). Other common names for Brodiaea seen in the ashes wrapped with Blue-bell or other in the ethnographic literature include “ cacomite ,” leaves and is eaten by the hungry Indians. After “wild hyacinth,” and “grass-nut” (Anderson the Cacomites pass this stage they are not 1997:19; Timbrook 2007; Todt 1997). The term molested until they get mature in midsummer, cacomite is often attributed to early Spanish ex - when they are called tayî·?. A swampy place plorers, although the term derives from a Nahuatl where tayî·? is found is designated at either word ( cacomitl ), defined as “certain roots that stage of growth by the special name ‘icrávic . have the flavor of chestnuts,” indicating the im - portance of a similar edible geophyte (likely Harrington’s description is consistent with other Milla ) in Central Mexico (Molina 1571:11). ethnographic references to a spring harvest, but Among Chumash informants of the Santa Bar - he notes that cacomites are harvested again in bara Channel region, the term cacomite was most midsummer after they “mature,” at which point commonly applied to blue dicks ( D. capitatum ), they are given a different name. The assignment while other geophytic plants such as the mariposa of two different names to the same plant in dif - lily ( Calochortus sp.) were referred to as “another ferent seasons is intriguing, and this practice may kind of cacomite ” (Timbrook 2007:75). The Chu - have occurred elsewhere in California as well. mash used the term shiq’o’n to describe the plant The separate name ( ‘icrávic ) given specifically “as having blue flowers and a root like garlic” to “a swampy place where tayî·? is found” is also (Timbrook 2007:75). Ethnographic accounts sug - interesting. There may be several advantages to gest the corms were dug using a digging stick collecting corms in wet areas during any season. 646 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 79, No. 4, 2014

As noted by early botanical research, the “corms descriptions, ethnographic, and linguistic work, growing near water as a rule produce more offsets arguing that nahavita most likely refers to Bro - i than those in drier habitats” (Smith 1930:926), diaea , harvested around June, and tüpüsi’ (har - which would result in an overall higher abun - vested in the fall) most likely refers to yellow dance of corms in areas that are consistently sub - nut-grass ( Cyperus esculentus ), a member of the ject to wetter conditions than others. Digging sedge family that produces small edible tubers. corms with a digging stick may also be easier in Although Lawton et al. were likely correct in wet areas simply because wetter soils are easier identifying yellow nut-grass as an important food to penetrate. This may be especially true of soils cultivated by the Owens Valley Paiute, and its i after they are subjected to the long, hot summers connection to the term tüpüsi’ , they acknowl - typical of Mediterranean climates (author’s per - edged some ambiguity as several early accounts i sonal observation). in addition to Steward’s clearly identified tüpüsi’ As with the Karuk, it is possible that the as Brodiaea . Kerr’s unpublished ethnobotanical Owens Valley Paiute also harvested Brodiaea in notes from the 1930s, compiled by DeDecker in two separate seasons, providing a different name Lawton et al. (1976:34), identified “ ‘te-posie ’ as for each. On the basis of Steward’s (1930, 1933) tubers used for food” and “his notes on Owens ethnographic work and various early European Valley plant names also listed ‘ tupu si ’ as the accounts, Lawton et al. (1976) argued that two name for wild-hyacinth.” Furthermore, Fowler’s i i staple root crops, nahavita and tüpüsi’ , were cul - linguistic analysis of the term tüpüsi’ (personal tivated in the Owens Valley using ditch irrigation. communication in Lawton et al. 1976:34) sug - i As discussed by Lawton et al. (1976), botanical gests that tüpüsi’ is “really a ‘food name’ rather i identifications of nahavita and tüpüsi’ have been than a plant name… [and] the semantic focus wrought with confusion, as Steward originally among the Northern Paiute is on the product, i i described tüpüsi’ (harvested in the fall) as having rather than the plant.” If the term tüpüsi’ refers a small “bulb” (likely Brodiaea capitata ) and na - to any plant that produces a “tuber” or other edible havita as “having a number of bulbs,” identifying geophyte, perhaps it is no mistake that Brodiaea it as spike rush ( Eleocharis sp.) (Lawton et al. was included in the early plant lists identified as i 1976:33; Steward 1933:245–247). On the basis tüpüsi’ and harvested in the fall along with yellow of the fact that spike rush does not produce tubers nut-grass. or bulbs, and the assumption that wild-hyacinth Steward’s (1930:245–247) original description i (Brodiaea ) is “not a fall plant,” Lawton et al. of tüpüsi’ “having a small bulb” and nahavita [1976:33] suggested that Steward’s identifications “having a number of bulbs” may reference two were wrong: different plants ( Brodiaea s.l. and C. esculentus ) as suggested by Lawton et al. (1976). The de - Such a description [for nahavita ] appears bet - scriptions may alternatively be applicable to the ter suited to the wild-hyacinth, or blue dicks. same plant ( Brodiaea ) in different seasons. As … This was the species Steward identified as i described in more detail below, the reference to tüpüsi’ , sometimes called ‘grass-nuts’ or ‘nut- nahavita’s numerous “bulbs” in the spring may grass’ by laymen. … Wild-hyacinth blooms in refer to the numerous cormlets produced by par - the spring with violet flowers and probably ent corms of Brodiaea during the late winter– would have been harvested in late May or early i early spring months prior to flowering (Figure June. … Steward’s tüpüsi’ or taboose grass 2:C; Anderson and Rowney 1999:236). The corm - was also clearly misidentified, since his plant lets and parent corms are just as numerous in list showed it as gathered in the fall after the midsummer–early fall, yet by this time the corm - dams were destroyed. … Since wild-hyacinth i lets have grown in size and can be detached rel - (Steward’s tüpüsi’ ) is not a fall plant, it was atively easily from the parent corm through the necessary to reconsider this identification. process of digging, giving the appearance of a Lawton et al. (1976:33–36) provided a detailed single “bulb” as described by Steward. Given the i analysis of the probable botanical identifications ambiguity over whether tüpüsi’ refers to a spe - i for nahavita and tüpüsi’ based on early European cific plant or the “product” of various geophytic Gill] USING SEASONAL MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN BRODIAEA CORMS TO DETERMINE SEASON OF HARVEST 647

plants during the fall, it is conceivable that both Winter: December 21–March 20 i terms nahavita and tüpüsi’ refer to Brodiaea har - vested in different seasons, similar to the Karuk Beginning in the early winter months and into practice described by Harrington (1930). early spring, underground corms undergo signif - icant change. The parent corm begins to wither A Year in the Life of Brodiaea Corms from its base, using its reserved starches to de - velop a new corm on top, giving the appearance The seasonal morphological characteristics de - that the corm is dividing in two (Figure 2:A) scribed below are all based on field observations (Keator 1968; Rimbach 1902; Smith 1930). As and growth experiments with blue dicks collected the growth of a new corm on top progresses, the on Santa Cruz Island between 2009 and 2014, old corm becomes progressively more withered although they should be broadly applicable to all as it transfers its energy to the new developing species within the Brodiaea complex. Scientific corm (Figure 2:A–B). Eventually the old corm research on the life cycle of Brodiaea corms be - withers entirely, including the remnant withered gan with early botanists focused on gross mor - adventitious roots, yet remains attached to the phology and taxonomy (Hoover 1940; Smith new corm at its base (Figure 2:C, 4:B; see also 1930), and more recently with researchers study - Schlising and Chamberlain 2006; Smith 1930). ing potential for commercial cultivation (Han As the “dividing” corm nears its final stages, 2001; Han et al. 1991). Keator (1968) also cormlets (also known as cormels or offsets) are amassed morphological information on six Dich - formed from axillary buds around the base of the elostemma species and modern phylogenetic stud - new corm (Figure 2:C; see Hoover 1940; Schlis - ies have become important in taxonomic classi - ing and Chamberlain 2006:322; Smith 1930). The fication as well (Schlising and Chamberlain number of cormlets produced generally depends 2006). Despite years of botanical research on on the size of the mother corm (which increases Brodiaea taxonomy, much remains unknown and with age), sometimes numbering over 15 per plant overall the “life cycle biology and natural history (Han et al. 1991; Keator 1968), and is genus de - in the field is incompletely known for geophytes pendent, with Dichelostemma consistently pro - in California” (Schlising and Chamberlain ducing more than Triteleia , which usually produce 2006:322). As a result, the degree to which vari - only one or two cormlets each year (Han 2001; ous environmental factors affect the annual life Schlising and Chamberlain 2006). Unless de - cycle of corms, and Brodiaea in particular, is also tached via mechanical means such as digging, largely unknown. For example, the timing of sea - the cormlets remain attached to the parent corm sonal changes experienced by Brodiaea at higher and are protected by the fibrous outer coating elevations, or at latitudes further north into north - (Figure 4:A) until the following winter when the ern California and Oregon, may be slightly dif - parent corm divides again. ferent (e.g., flowering later) than in lower eleva - Cormlets formed during the previous year also tions or in southern Alta and Baja California undergo significant change the winter after they (Keator 1968). My observations of morphological were first produced. Each cormlet develops a changes in modern corms were made in the Santa contractile root (Figure 2:D), the primary function Barbara Channel region, located approximately of which is to pull the cormlet deeper into the 34-degrees north latitude and characterized by a ground and away from the parent corm (Schlising Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and Chamberlain 2006). Each small cormlet and cool, wet winters and an average annual rain - shrinks in size, using most of its energy to produce fall between 8 and 40 inches (National Park Ser - the large contractile root, measuring upward of vice 2013). The dates assigned to seasonal bound - 20 cm long and 3–4 mm wide (Keator 1968; Rim - aries were determined based on modern equinox bach 1902; Smith 1930:921). Rather than tasting and solstice dates, which fluctuated only slightly starchy like the corm itself, the raw contractile through time. root is high in water content, slightly sweet, and crunchy in texture (author’s personal observa - 648 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 79, No. 4, 2014

tion). Once the cormlets have moved lower into ditions experienced in Mediterranean climates the soil, the contractile root is resorbed, and the (Dafni et al. 1981; Schlising and Chamberlain cormlet grows until it is large enough to flower, 2006; Smith 1930). The flower stalks and leaves usually in the second year, dependent on favorable die back after the flowers have gone to seed, con - environmental conditions (Dafni et al. 1981). centrating the plant’s energy into the underground Contractile roots are produced by cormlets only corm. The dry summers of the Santa Barbara in their first year, and never by a parent corm. Channel region typically last from late June through late September, during which time there Spring: March 21–June 21 are no significant changes in corm morphology, As the dividing corms reach their final stages, with corms exhibiting smooth sides (Figure 4:B– the plants begin to produce flower stalks. Brodi - C). During summer, plants may receive consid - aea typically flowers in spring, between late erable moisture from fog drip, however, espe - March and late May or early June in the Santa cially in upland areas. Barbara Channel region (Junak et al. 1995). Each plant produces between one and five flower Fall: September 23–December 20 stalks, each as much as 50 cm tall and with a The emergence from dormancy usually occurs cluster of flowers at the end, usually ranging from during fall, when the corms begin to produce new blue to purple in color (Figure 3), although some leaf shoots and adventitious roots ahead of fall species produce white ( T. hyacinthina ) or even and winter rains (Schlising and Chamberlain red ( D. ida-maia ) flowers. The springtime flow - 2006). These adventitious roots anchor the corm ering highlights the extraordinary abundance of more securely in the ground and provide nutrients blue dicks on the Channel Islands, turning large to the corm from the surrounding soil, allowing swaths of grasslands blue. After flowering, the cormlets to grow larger as well. The timing of dried flower stalks can remain upright in areas the emergence from dormancy in any given year not subject to high winds or mechanical breakage, may vary slightly between plant populations lo - a reminder of their presence throughout the dry cated in highland versus lowland settings on the summer months. Channel Islands, and possibly elsewhere in Cali - During flowering and after going to seed, the fornia as well. Highland locations on the islands surfaces of parent corms are smooth when the are consistently subjected to greater amounts of outer fibrous coating is removed (Figure 4:B–C). precipitation than lower elevations (Fischer and The previous year’s withered corm remains at - Still 2007:7; Glassow et al. 2008), which may tached to the base of the parent corm (Figure allow for higher overall corm productivity as well 4:B) and is removed prior to consumption (Figure as emergence from dormancy slightly earlier in 4:C). Corms eaten during this time of year tend highland settings. Corms collected from the same to be very starchy and stick to the teeth, even highland location (Centinela, Santa Cruz Island; after roasting (author’s personal observation), and Figure 1) and same month in different years show are a likely culprit behind high dental caries rates that adventitious roots were fully formed on Oc - seen in island populations (Walker and Erlandson tober 8, 2011, while they were just emerging on 1986). The apparent higher levels of carbohy - October 27, 2012. Newly emerging adventitious drates in corms during this time of year, however, roots, which occur only around the basal margin may have been important for island populations of the corm, appear first as peaklike features (Fig - with access to abundant protein (i.e. shellfish, ure 5:A–B) and continue to grow outward (Figure sea mammals, birds, fish), and future research 5:C). Given the range in climatic fluctuations into the seasonal changes of corm nutritional throughout the Holocene, the timing of adventi - properties is warranted. tious root growth likely fluctuated through time, possibly ranging from September through No - Summer: June 22–September 22 vember. Nevertheless, adventitious roots are During summer, Brodiaea corms enter a dormant formed after summer dormancy, and before divi - period, an adaptation to the seasonal drought con - sion occurs in winter. On the basis of my field Gill] USING SEASONAL MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN BRODIAEA CORMS TO DETERMINE SEASON OF HARVEST 649

observations, corms eaten during this period are plots harvested at 50 percent versus 100 percent noticeably less starchy and slightly sweeter than when the cormlets were replanted (Anderson and those eaten in spring or summer, as the stored Rowney 1999:238). These harvesting experi - starches in the corm are used for adventitious ments were conducted after the flowering and root growth. seed stages, as has been most commonly recorded Some botanical literature suggests a second ethnographically. However, on the basis of the dormancy period in Brodiaea during the winter life cycle of corms, harvesting in other seasons months (Smith 1930:920). As with summer dor - is not only feasible but also should have no ad - mancy patterns, variation in timing and duration verse effect on overall plant population compared of winter dormancy may depend on regional en - with harvesting only once after seeding. A possi - vironmental conditions. Santa Cruz Island rarely ble exception might be harvesting contractile experiences freezing temperatures, which may roots in the winter. Overharvesting contractile reduce the advantage of a long winter dormancy roots could diminish the cormlet population, and in southern Alta and Baja California. Neverthe - therefore the overall long-term plant population. less, Brodiaea corms do not appear to experience much morphological change after the formation Storage Potential of Brodiaea Corms of adventitious roots, until January when the cycle Seasonality may be inferred from other types of begins again with the formation of replacement archaeobotanical remains, but the problem of corm and cormlets. storage complicates the determination of the sea - son a site was occupied. Small seeds collected Discussion during the spring or summer are often stored for long periods of time, especially through the win - The annual life cycle of Brodiaea corms is im - ter, making it difficult to assign occupation of a portant for understanding their potential as a food site to a particular season (Anderson 2005; Tim - resource, determining season of harvest for ar - brook 2007). Geophytes may also be stored once chaeological specimens, and interpreting ethno - harvested, but they are often baked, roasted, or graphic descriptions of Brodiaea harvest. Al - dried prior to storage (Anderson 2005:295–296; though there are undoubtedly changes in Prouty 1995). Ethnographic information from the nutritional properties of corms throughout various Chumash area, and the islands in particular, de - stages of its annual cycle, including variation in scribing roasting large quantities of Brodiaea starches, the corms, cormlets, and contractile roots corms in roasting pits may indicate preparation are potentially edible year round . The corm is for storage after cooking. Fernando Librado re - technically edible at any stage of development, ported to Harrington that “the cacomite … they although the withering old corm is slightly tough roast in pits, then take it out and spread it to dry, when forming the new corm on top in the winter. and then when dry, one or two days later, they Geophytes in other regions of the world were take it and gather it and put it in a dish and rub it similarly available in more than one season, al - between their hands and then winnow it in an though other resources were targeted at certain abalone a little at a time” (Hudson and Blackburn times of the year. For instance, the Hadza in north - 1983:213). Cooking the corms prior to storage ern Tanzania regarded “roots [as] available and effectively kills them, inhibiting further growth edible throughout the year, although they are (i.e. adventitious root formation). Without cook - mainly eaten during the main rains and again dur - ing, drying blue dick corms is difficult as they ing the late dry” seasons (Vincent 1985:135). are particularly well adapted to surviving dry Anderson and Rowney (1999) conducted ex - conditions (author’s personal observation). periments on blue dicks over a three-year period, Carbonized archaeobotanical corms with mor - investigating the sustainability of various har - phological features that occur only in the fall, vesting regimes, ranging from 50 percent to 100 therefore, suggest one of two scenarios, if corms percent harvest, and replanting or not replanting were stored at all. First, although not consistent cormlets. They found that blue dicks are highly with the ethnographic description provided above, resilient, with no significant difference between it is possible that Brodiaea corms were harvested 650 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 79, No. 4, 2014

only in the spring and stored long term in an un - dense shell midden extending to 214 cm below cooked, undried state, with adventitious root for - surface, and five house depressions, with chipped mation occurring during the fall regardless of stone debitage, projectile points, mortar frag - storage conditions. In this case, adventitious root ments, donut stone fragments (digging stick growth identified on archaeobotanical corms weights), and shell beads noted on the surface. would only indicate the use of stored corms dur - Excavations during the summer of 2011 revealed ing the fall, rather than the harvest itself. Alter - numerous domestic features, including hearths, natively, Brodiaea corms were harvested, roasted, areas of burned earth, postholes, several possible and prepared for storage as described by Librado living surfaces, and multiple hearth-clearing pit above, without storing uncooked corms. In this features (Gill 2013). Two probable roasting pit case, adventitious root features on archaeobotan - features were identified, similar to those described ical corms would directly indicate a fall harvest . by Fernando Librado for roasting cacomites on Archaeologically, adventitious roots formed be - the islands (Timbrook 2007). Whole and frag - low ground versus those formed on corms stored mentary carbonized Brodiaea corms have been in an uncooked state cannot be distinguished. identified from nearly every stratum at both loci. Nonetheless, adventitious roots on archaeobotan - Despite the prevalence of fish, sea mammal, bird, ical corms indicate the use of Brodiaea during and shellfish remains, geophytes were clearly an the fall. important resource as well. The abundance of carbonized corms may also help explain the site’s Archaeological Evidence of Brodiaea Use in location away from the coast, particularly if geo - the Santa Barbara Channel Region phytes were more productive in highland areas Although limited paleobotanical work has been receiving more summer fog precipitation than conducted in the Santa Barbara Channel area, the lowland coastal plains. While people occupied carbonized remains of Brodiaea have been iden - Diablo Valdez from 5700 cal B.P. through the tified on two of the northern Channel Islands Historic Period, radiocarbon dating shows that (Gill 2013). Carbonized corm fragments identi - use of the site was most intensive between 5,000 fied in multiple strata of a trans-Holocene se - and 2,000 years ago, with the two roasting pit quence at Daisy Cave (CA-SMI-261) on San features dating between 4770 and 4420 cal B.P. Miguel Island, point to the importance of Brodi - (Table 1). A roasting pit feature excavated at Lo - aea on the islands for the last 10,000 years (Reddy cus 2, identified as Stratum 7 (~124–136 cm be - and Erlandson 2012). Martin and Popper (2001) low surface), was most clearly defined. It mea - also reported carbonized corms from Middle, sures over a meter across and consists of a shallow Transitional, and Late Period deposits on Santa basin containing large burned rocks, a thin layer Cruz Island. The Diablo Valdez site (CA-SCRI- of charcoal at the base and between the rocks, 619/620), however, located in the highlands on with mottled ashy deposits throughout. Paleob - the north side of Santa Cruz Island (Figure 1), otanical analysis of this feature is consistent with has produced more carbonized corms than any - geophyte roasting pit features described elsewhere where yet reported for southern California. These (Cheatham 1988; Peacock 2009), with abundant corms occur in nearly every stratum at two loci wood charcoal, few small seeds, and hundreds with occupations from 5700 cal B.P. through the of whole and fragmentary carbonized corms. historic period (A.D. 1782–1822; see Gill 2013). Diablo Valdez is a large residential site asso - Determining Seasonality of Carbonized Corms ciated with bedrock outcrops that include a rock Because the old corm is replaced every winter, shelter and bedrock mortars, surrounded by open the morphological characteristics described for grasslands and deep, densely wooded and well- each season are replaced annually as well. Thus, watered canyons containing abundant oaks ( Quer - identifying adventitious roots or root scars on cus spp.), cherry trees ( Prunus sp.), and other carbonized corms indicate a fall use, whereas plants. Situated at ~500 m asl adjacent to a peren - smooth corms with no signs of such features must nial stream northwest of Diablo Peak, the site have been harvested after flowering in the late contains three loci with six bedrock mortars, a spring–early summer, but prior to adventitious Gill] USING SEASONAL MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN BRODIAEA CORMS TO DETERMINE SEASON OF HARVEST 651

root formation in the fall. were bagged, washed, and sorted in the labora - The excellent preservation of a large quantity tory. Corms and corm fragments recovered from of whole, carbonized Brodiaea corms at Diablo Unit 1 (excavated primarily in arbitrary levels) Valdez provides an opportunity to investigate the and column samples are not presented here, as season of harvest based on corm morphology. the Unit 2 data have the best stratigraphic control Overall, identification of the presence or absence and abundance of whole or nearly whole corms. of adventitious root growth was conducted con - The proportion of corms and corm fragments as - servatively. As a result, most carbonized corms signed to one of the three stages of adventitious cannot be conclusively assigned to one category root formation is relatively low compared to the or another. The positive identification of adventi - overall assemblage, largely because of preserva - tious root scars and emerging roots is considerably tion issues and the conservative approach taken easier than identifying their absence, particularly in identifying these features. In many cases, how - on small fragments. In addition, Early Period de - ever, adventitious root features were confidently posits comprise the majority of deposition at both identified on small fragments of carbonized loci, so the sample size of carbonized corms with corms, when the basal portion of the corm is re - identifiable features from this period is larger as covered. well. Nevertheless, the archaeobotanical corms At Diablo Valdez, Brodiaea corms appear to from Diablo Valdez indicate they were harvested have been harvested and/or used during various before, during, and after the formation of adven - points throughout the year, including fall, rather titious roots, with raw counts and weights provided than in a single late spring–early summer harvest. for each stratum and locus (Tables 1–2). The largest sample of corms with adventitious Figure 6 illustrates two different archaeob - root scars present, emerging, and absent occur in otanical corms that exhibit each stage of adven - the well-preserved roasting pit feature (Stratum titious root formation, with the base of each corm 7), indicating apparent reuse of the same feature shown. Smooth archaeobotanical corms indicate over multiple seasons. These data also support harvest after flowering but before adventitious botanical and ecological data that suggest blue root formation in fall (Figure 6:A). This corrob - dicks and other corms may have been an abundant orates ethnographic accounts that blue dick har - and important food resource available on Cali - vest took place in June, but it is also possible fornia’s Channel Islands during multiple seasons that they were harvested at any point during the of the year. summer dormant period. Corms with prominent peaklike features in a regular pattern around the Summary and Conclusions basal margins indicate harvest at a time just as the adventitious roots were emerging, likely be - I have shown that Brodiaea corms undergo sea - tween September and October (Figure 6:B). These sonal morphological changes annually and that features must not be confused with surficial “bub - such changes can be identified archaeologically. bling” that sometimes occurs during carboniza - The presence of adventitious roots on carbonized tion, where the entire surface of the corm may be corms from Diablo Valdez is significant, demon - distorted by small, irregular bubbling. Corms with strating that corms were harvested during more adventitious root scars, characterized by nearly than one season of an annual cycle. Although circular holes in a regular pattern around the basal most ethnographic accounts suggest that harvest margin, indicate harvest after the adventitious of Brodiaea was primarily a late spring–early roots are fully formed in the fall, but before the summertime endeavor, the archaeological data corm divides in the winter (Figure 6:C). presented here indicate harvest during the fall as Raw counts and weights of carbonized corms well. Given the scant ethnographic data available and corm fragments from Unit 2 excavations are supporting multiple seasons of harvest elsewhere presented for locus 2 (Table 1) and locus 3 (Table in California, it is possible that more instances of ϫ 2). At each locus, Unit 2 was a .5 1-m unit ex - a fall harvest for Brodiaea corms were recorded cavated stratigraphically with sediments field ethnographically, yet have not been recognized screened over .32 cm mesh. All screen residuals because archaeologists and ethnobotanists were 652 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 79, No. 4, 2014 largely unaware of the specifics of corm biology Harvesting Regimes in California. Restoration Ecology 7:231–240. when the aboveground plant parts are not visible. Baldwin, Bruce G., Douglas Goldman, David J. Keil, Robert Knowing that the Karuk assigned two different Patterson, Thomas J. Rosatti, and Dieter Wilken (editors) names for the same plant harvested in different 2012 The Jepson Manual: Vascular Plants of California . University of California Press, Berkeley. seasons, as recorded by Harrington (1930), further Cheatham, Richard D. complicates potential inference from ethnobotan - 1988 Late Archaic Settlement Pattern in the Long Tom ical literature, although more work in this area Sub-Basin, Upper Willamette Valley, Oregon . Anthropo - logical Papers No. 39. University of Oregon, Eugene. may be warranted. Dafni, Amots, Dan Cohen, and Immanuel Noy-Mier There are still many unknown aspects of Bro - 1981 Life-Cycle Variation in Geophytes. Annals of the diaea biology and phylogeny, but the seasonal Missouri Botanical Garden 68:652–660. Deacon, Hilary J. morphological changes these corms undergo an - 1993 Planting an Idea: An Archaeology of Stone Age nually are clear. Edible corms occur worldwide— Gatherers in South Africa. South African Archaeological from Watsonia sp. in South Africa, Crocus sp. Bulletin 48:86–93. Deacon, Hilary J., and Janette Deacon throughout Eurasia, and taro in Southeast Asia 1999 Human Beginnings in South Africa: Uncovering the and Oceania— and may experience similar sea - Secrets of the Stone Age. AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek, sonal changes that can be identified archaeolog - California. Deacon, Janette ically. Archaeobotanical corms, when well-pre - 1984 Later Stone Age People and their Descendants in served and recovered in sufficient quantities, may Southern Africa. In Southern African Prehistory and Pa - be excellent indicators of seasonality that have leoenvironments , edited by Richard G. Klein, pp. 221– 328. A. A. Balkema, Boston, Massachusetts. gone largely unrecognized. Given the growing Ertu, Füsun evidence that geophytes and other plant foods 2000 An Ethnobotanical Study in Central Anatolia (Turkey). were important in human diets around the world, Economic Botany 54:155–182. Erlandson, Jon M. a better understanding of seasonal morphological 1988 The Role of Shellfish in Coastal Economies: A changes typical of various genera may provide Protein Perspective. American Antiquity 53:102–109. valuable data on the ecology of our hominin an - Fay, Michael F., and Mark W. Chase 1996 Resurrection of Themidaceae for the Brodiaea cestors and the seasonality of their occupations Alliance, and Recircumscription of Alliaceae , Amarylli - at specific sites. daceae and Agapanthoideae . Taxon 45:441–451. Fischer, Douglas T., and Christopher J. Still Acknowledgments. Support for this research was provided by 2007 Evaluating Patterns of Fog Water Deposition and an NSF Dissertation Improvement Grant (BCS-1232523) and Isotopic Composition on the California Channel Islands. the Peter F. Paige Memorial Fund through UCSB’s Depart - Water Resources Research 43(4):1–13. ment of Anthropology. I am grateful to The Nature Conser - Furey, Louise 2006 Maori Gardening: An Archaeological Perspective . vancy and the UC Natural Reserve System for supporting ar - Department of Conservation, Science & Technical Pub - chaeological and ecological research on Santa Cruz Island. I lishing, Wellington, New Zealand. thank Jon Erlandson, Mike Glassow, Amber VanDerwarker, Gill, Kristina M. and Eric Wohlgemuth for providing thoughtful comments on 2013 Paleoethnobotanical Investigations on the Channel earlier drafts of this article, as well as Steve Junak and Curtis Islands: Current Directions and Theoretical Considerations. Marean for their expertise and gracious correspondence. I In California’s Channel Islands: The Archaeology of Hu - also thank three anonymous reviewers and the editors at man-Environment Interactions , edited by Christopher S. American Antiquity for providing comments and suggestions Jazwa and Jennifer E. Perry, pp. 113–136. University of that greatly improved this article, as well as Patricia Chirinos Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Gill, Kristina M., and Jon M. Erlandson Ogata for assistance with the Spanish abstract. 2014 The Island Chumash and Exchange in the Santa Barbara Channel Region. American Antiquity , in press. Gilliland, Linda E. References Cited 1985 Proximate Analysis and Mineral Composition of Traditional California Native American Foods. Unpublished Anderson, M. Kat Master’s thesis, Department of Nutrition Studies, University 1997 From Tillage to Table: The Indigenous Cultivation of California, Davis. of Geophytes for Food in California. Journal of Ethnobi - Glassow, Michael A., Jennifer E. Perry, and Peter F. Paige ology 17:149–169. 2008 The Punta Arena Site: Early and Middle Holocene 2005 Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge and Cultural Development on Santa Cruz Island . Contributions Management of California’s Natural Resources. University in Anthropology No. 3. Santa Barbara Museum of Natural of California Press, Berkeley. History, Santa Barbara, California. Anderson, M. Kat, and David L. Rowney Gott, Beth 1999 The Edible Plant Dichelostemma capitatum : Its Veg - 1982 Ecology of Root Use by the Aborigines of Southern etative Reproduction Response to Different Indigenous Australia. Archaeology in Oceania 17:59–67. Gill] USING SEASONAL MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN BRODIAEA CORMS TO DETERMINE SEASON OF HARVEST 653

Govaerts, Richard Sites on Santa Cruz Island. In Origins of a Pacific Coast 2011 World Checklist of Selected Plant Families, Kew Chiefdom: The Chumash of the Channel Islands , edited Royal Botanic Gardens. Electronic document, by Jeanne E. Arnold, pp. 245–259. University of Utah http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/home.do, accessed August 3, Press, Salt Lake City. 2013. Molina, Alonso de Greenwell, Amy B. H. 1571 Vocabulario en lengua castellana y mexicana. Antonio 1947 Taro: With Special Reference to Its Culture and Uses de Spinola, Mexico. Electronic document, Universidad in Hawaii. Economic Botany 1:276–289. Complutense de Madrid, http://alfama.sim.ucm.es/ Han, Susan S. dioscorides/consulta_libro.asp?ref=B23658927&idioma=0, 2001 Flowering of Three Species of Brodiaea in Relation accessed February 7, 2014. to Bulb Size and Source. Scientia Horticulturae 91:349– National Park Service 355. 2013 Channel Islands Weather. Electronic document, Han, Susan S., Abraham H. Halvey, Roy M. Sachs, and http://www.nps.gov/chis/naturescience/weather.htm, ac - Michael S. Reid cessed August 3, 2013. 1991 Flowering and Corm Yield of Brodiaea in Response Opperman, H., and B. Heydenrych to Temperature, Photoperiod, Corm Size, and Planting 1990 A 22,000 Year-Old Middle Stone Age Camp Site Depth. Journal of American Society for Horticultural with Plant Food Remains from the North-Eastern Cape. Science 116:19–22. South African Archaeological Bulletin 45:93–99. Harrington, John P. Parkington, John, and Cedric Poppenpoel 1930 Karuk Texts. International Journal of American Lin - 1968 Excavations at De Hangen. South African Archaeo - guistics 6:121–161. logical Bulletin 26:3–36. Hoover, Robert F. Peacock, Sandra L. 1940 The Genus Dichelostemma. American Midland Nat - 2009 Perusing the Pits: The Evidence for Prehistoric Root uralist 24:463–476. Resource Processing on the Canadian Plateau. In Hunter Hudson, Travis, and Thomas C. Blackburn Gatherer Archaeobotany: Perspectives from the Northern 1983 The Material Culture of the Chumash Interaction Temperate Zone , edited by Sarah L. R. Mason and Jon G. Sphere. Volume II: Food Preparation and Shelter . Ballena Hather, pp. 188–196. Institute of Archaeology, University Press and Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History Co - College, London. operative Publication, Santa Barbara, California. Pires, J. Chris, and Kenneth J. Sytsma Hunn, Eugene S. 2002 A Phylogenetic Evaluation of a Biosystematic Frame - 1990 Nch’i-Wana: “The Big River”: Mid-Columbia Indians work: Brodiaea and Related Petaloid Monocots (Themi - and Their Land . University of Washington Press, Seattle. daceae). American Journal of Botany 89:1342–1359. Junak, Steve, Tina Ayers, Randy Scott, Dieter Wilken, and Preston, Robert E. David Young 2006 Brodiaea sierrae (Themidaceae), A New Species 1995 A Flora of Santa Cruz Island . Santa Barbara Natural from the Sierra Nevada Foothills of California, U.S.A. History Museum, Santa Barbara, California. Journal for Biological Nomenclature 16:254–259. Keator, Richard G. Prouty, Guy L. 1968 Ecological and Taxonomic Studies of the Genus 1995 Roots and Tubers: Prehistoric Plant Use, Settlement Dichelostemma (Amaryllidaceae). Ph.D. Dissertation, and Subsistence Intensification, and Storage in the Fort Department of Botany, University of California Berkeley. Rock Basin, Northern Great Basin, Oregon . Ph.D. dis - University Microfilms, Ann Arbor. sertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Kelly, Robert L. Oregon, Eugene. 1995 The Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Rankiær, Christen C. Lifeways. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 1934 The Life Forms of Plants and Statistical Plant Geog - Klein, Richard G. raphy . Oxford University Press, Oxford. 1975 Ecology of Stone Age Man at the Southern Tip of Reddy, Seetha, and Jon M. Erlandson Africa. Archaeology 28:238–247. 2012 Macrobotanical Food Remains from a Trans-Holocene 1977 The Ecology of Early Man in South Africa. Science Sequence at Daisy Cave (CA-SMI-261), San Miguel 197:115–126. Island, California. Journal of Archaeological Science Laden, Greg, and Richard Wrangham 39:33–40. 2005 The Rise of the Hominids as an Adaptive Shift in Rimbach, A. Fallback Foods: Plant Underground Storage Organs 1902 Physiological Observations on the Subterranean (USOs) and Australopith Origins. Journal of Human Organs of some California Liliaceae. Botanical Gazette Evolution 49:482–498. 33:401–420. Lawton, Harry W., Philip J. Wilke, Mary DeDecker, and Rundel, Philip W. William M. Mason 1996 Monocotyledonous Geophytes in the California Flora. 1976 Agriculture among the Paiute of Owens Valley. Madroño 43:355–368. Journal of California Anthropology 3:13–50. Sand, Cristophe Marean, Curtis W. 1996 Recent Developments in the Study of New Caledonia’s 2010a Pinnacle Point Cave 13B (Western Cape Province, Prehistory. Archaeology in Oceania 31:45–71. South Africa) in Context: The Cape Floral Kingdom, Schlising, Robert A., and Scott A. Chamberlain Shellfish, and Modern Human Origins. Journal of Human 2006 Biology of the Geophitic Lily, Triteleia laxa (Themi - Evolution 59:425–443. daceae), in Grasslands of the Northern Sacramento Valley. 2010b When the Sea Saved Humanity. Scientific American Madroño 53:321–341. August:54–61. Smith, Frank H. Martin, Steve L., and Virginia S. Popper 1930 The Corm and Contractile Roots of Brodiaea lactea . 2001 Paleoethnobotanical Investigations of Archaeological Journal of Botany 17:916–927. 654 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 79, No. 4, 2014

Steward, Julian H. Vaughton, Glenda, and Mike Ramsey 1930 Irrigation without Agriculture. Papers of the Michigan 2001 Variation in Summer Dormancy in the Lilioid Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters 12:149–156. Geophyte Burchardia umbellata (Colchicaceae). American 1933 Ethnography of the Owens Valley Paiute . Berkeley: Journal of Botany 88:1223–1229. Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology Vincent, Anne S. Vol. 33, No. 3. University of California, Berkeley. 1985 Plant Foods in Savanna Environments: A Preliminary Sutton, Elizabeth A. Report of Tubers Eaten by the Hadza of Northern Tanzania. 2014 Digging Stick Weights and Doughnut Stones: An World Archaeology 17:131–148. Analysis of Perforated Stones from the Santa Barbara Wadley, Lyn Channel Region. Journal of California and Great Basin 1993 The Pleistocene Later Stone Age South of the Anthropology 34:17–42. Limpopo River. Journal of World Prehistory 7(3):243– Timbrook, Janice 296. 1993 Island Chumash Ethnobotany. In Archaeology on Walker, Phillip L., and Jon M. Erlandson the Northern Channel Islands of California: Studies of 1986 Dental Evidence for Prehistoric Dietary Change on Subsistence, Economics and Social Organization , edited the Northern Channel Islands, California. American by Michael A. Glassow, pp. 47–62. Archives of California Antiquity 51:375–383. Prehistory No. 34. Coyote Press, Salinas, California. Wells, M. J. 2007 Chumash Ethnobotany: Plant Knowledge among the 1965 An Analysis of Plant Remains from Scott’s Cave in Chumash People of Southern California . Santa Barbara the Gamtoos Valley. The South African Archaeological Museum of Natural History Monographs No. 5, Publications Bulletin 20:79–84. in Anthropology No. 1. Santa Barbara Museum of Natural Wohlgemuth, Eric History/Heydey Books, Santa Barbara/Berkeley, California. 2010 Plant Resource Structure and the Prehistory of Plant Todt, Donn L. Use in Central Alta California. California Archaeology 1997 Cross-Cultural Folk Classifications of Ethnobotanically 2:57–76. Important Geophytes in Southern Oregon and Northern California. Journal of California and Great Basin An - Submitted February 8, 2014; Revised April 15, 2014; thropology 19:250–259. Accepted May 22, 2014.

Using Seasonal Morphological Changes in &lt;I&gt;Brodiaea

Using Seasonal Morphological Changes in <I>Brodiaea