DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY ROUND TABLE IN PARTNERSHIP WITH CSDS
NEW DELHI, 17–18 JUNE 2008 DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY ROUND TABLE IN PARTNERSHIP WITH CSDS
NEW DELHI, 17–18 JUNE 2008
© International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance 2008
International IDEA publications are independent of specific national or political interests. Views expressed in this publication do not necessarily represent the views of International IDEA, its Board or its Council Members.
Applications for permission to reproduce or translate all or any part of this publication should be made to:
International IDEA SE -103 34 Stockholm Sweden
Graphic design by: Turbo Design, Ramallah Printed by: Bulls Graphics, Sweden Report from a Round Table co-organized by International IDEA and ISBN 978-91-85724-58-1 the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), India. CONTENTS Part 2. Room for politics – democratizing national ownership of development Windows of opportunity – the Ghana experience ...... 45 Akwasi Osei Adjei (delivered by William Brandful) (Ghana) Making development efficient – national ownership and strengthened parliaments ... 49 François-Xavier de Donnea (Belgium) Reclaiming Indian democracy through poor people’s protest...... 53 Aruna Roy (India) Democracy and pro-poor development ...... 56 Ravi Srivastava (India) Questions and answers ...... 59
Introduction ...... 1 Preface ...... 2 Part 3. Democracy and development – the impact of globalization Acronyms and abbreviations ...... 5 Towards a multiplication of specialized assemblages of territory, authority and rights ...... 64 Opening statements ...... 6 Saskia Sassen (USA) Vidar Helgesen, Secretary-General of International IDEA ...... 6 Globalization, democracy and development – rethinking the linkages ...... 74 Rajeev Bhargava, Director of the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies ...... 9 Nivedita Menon (India) Jairam Ramesh, Minister of State for Commerce and Industry and Power, Globalization and democracy: how well do they mesh? ...... 77 Government of India ...... 12 Jorge Heine (Canada/Chile) Globalization, Pakistan and terrorism ...... 84 Najam Sethi (Pakistan)
Part 1. Development – an ideal, an electoral slogan, or a sine qua non of democracy? Questions and answers ...... 88 Democracy – facilitating or hampering development? ...... 17 Concluding remarks and messages ...... 93 Pranab K. Bardhan (USA/India) Vidar Helgesen Challenges to Mexican democracy – structure and key issues on the agenda ...... 20 Maria Amparo Casar (Mexico)
Democratic development and economic development – linkages and Appendices policy imperatives ...... 26 A. About the speakers, panellists and moderators ...... 95 Larry Diamond (USA) B. The Democracy and Development Round Table programme ...... 101 Democracy, development and poverty – on strengthening the capacity of African parliaments and political parties to play a more effective role in poverty reduction .... 36 Gloria Somolekae (South Africa/Botswana) Questions and answers ...... 40 INTRODUCTION PREFACE
The Democracy and Development Round racy worldwide. It strives to create, compile 1 There is an evolving broad understanding that the The democracy and development landscapes 2 Table held in New Delhi from 17 to 18 June and share knowledge for democracy building linkages between democracy and development are both changing rapidly and in many ways. 2008 was a joint initiative taken by the Inter- in the form of handbooks, expert networks, are multiple and equally relevant for national po- Regional differences are important as prob- national Institute for Democracy and Elec- databases and training curricula; it seeks litical actors on the one hand, and for the devel- lems, opportunities and assets vary greatly, toral Assistance – International IDEA – and to influence policy to improve democracy- opment and democracy assistance communities for example between Asia, Africa and Latin the Centre for the Study of Developing Soci- building processes and supports democratic on the other. The implications of these linkages America. eties – the CSDS – in order to take forward reforms and initiatives in specific countries appear to be at the core of some of the key chal- the challenging debate on the interlinkages when requested. More information is avail- lenges the various actors face today, such as: DEMOCRACY–DEVELOPMENT LINKAGES between democracy and development. able at
the sense of the programme implemented ownership’ in development more difficult to 3 ficials of the executive may risk exacerbating • the role of the ‘political society’ – parties, 4 by a specific political party, but as a system define and more challenging to implement. the polarization. If in the eyes of the politi- parliaments and other actors – in of governance that is expected to deliver on cal opposition the international community developing countries in formulating social and economic rights and development National development processes have be- is seen as caring for the government party policy proposals geared towards in the broadest sense. come a function of multiple domestic and only, it will be hard to avoid a ‘winner takes sustainable development and effective external influences, the latter ranging from all’ political culture in which being in gov- poverty reduction while also holding In spite of the ambiguous findings on the im- changing terms of trade to volatile financial ernment means access to big resources while their executives accountable for the pact of democracy on growth and vice versa, markets, to shifting investment opportuni- being in opposition means trying to block implementation of such policies, as there is a growing consensus about – almost ties and to uneven security situations. whatever effort the government makes, well as being themselves accountable to a universal acceptance of – three points: and trying to reap the benefits of office at their citizens; Development cooperation mechanisms cur- the next elections. The space for nationally • first, that both development and de- rently based on the ‘poverty reduction strat- owned, broadly-based visions for develop- • the role of the international commu- mocracy are desirable – and values to egy processes’ (PRSPs) have gone a long way ment may thus be hard to achieve, and the nity in contributing to the opening of be pursued in themselves; to address the issue of national ownership of international community may, inadvertently broader spaces for the political society the development priorities of partner coun- and paradoxically, be part of the reason why. in developing countries in the shaping • second, that development is more than tries. The ‘recipes’ of the 1990s (embodied The problem has been identified on both of national development priorities and economic growth; and in the ‘structural adjustment policies’) are sides of the North–South divide and there poverty reduction strategies; and no longer considered valid and have evolved • third, that democracy is more than the are debates about how to overcome it. from advocating ‘a minimum of govern- • the impact of globalization on democracy institutions and the mechanics of de- ment’ towards advocating ‘accountability – as an opportunity for building more mocracy, that is that democracy is also For democracy to grow and be consolidated and responsiveness’ of government – in oth- open democratic societies whose citi- expected to deliver in terms of a better in developing countries, national political er words, ‘good governance’. The emphasis zens are aware of global challenges, but quality of life. society – political parties and legislators – today is on sound public policies, account- need to assume a key role in the shaping and also as an external force that is difficult Thus we may say that there has been a con- ability, poverty reduction, and above all, na- approval of national development agendas. to control through established national verging evolution of the two terms towards tional ownership of development policies. They need to translate citizens’ expectations institutions of democracy. each other: democracy is more and more into coherent development programmes. However, national ownership is still too of- We hope that their in-depth analysis of the meant to include development and develop- ten interpreted as ownership by the execu- challenges and their lively debate as reflect- ment is more and more meant to include the The ongoing debate in international forums tive branch of government. PRSPs and other ed in this publication will inspire further realization of basic human rights, including, testifies to the surfacing of new approaches instruments are essentially negotiated and thinking and, possibly, the development of of course, civic and political rights. that take into account not only the close in- agreed with the executive branches of gov- terlinkages between democracy and develop- policies that will promote a more support- The importance of these linkages has been ernments, as they represent the respective ment support, but also the eminently politi- ive relationship between development and grasped by the international community and countries in negotiating international and cal nature of both processes. democracy. is reflected in the fact that good governance bilateral agreements. This basic fact should has been included in the Millennium Devel- not, however, reduce the scope for a real in- The 2008 Round Table on Democracy and opment Goals and that democratic gover- ternal democratic debate on national devel- Development brought together key scholars Vidar Helgesen nance is often incorporated as an important opment agendas. An excessive emphasis on from different parts of the world, authors, Secretary-General criterion for aid allocation. the executive branch may undermine the policy makers and practitioners. They ad- functions of other actors in political systems, dressed three dimensions of the challenge: International IDEA INCLUSIVE NATIONAL OWNERSHIP in particular parliaments and political par- THROUGH POLITICAL PROCESSES ties.
The impact of globalization, on the one hand, In polarized political environments, not and the dynamics of some international co- least in post-conflict situations, applying the operation mechanisms, on the other, seem principle of ownership essentially through to have rendered the concept of ‘national ministries and senior finance or planning of- ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS OPENING STATEMENT
Vidar Helgesen Secretary-General of International IDEA
5 As the current chair of International IDEA’s International IDEA views democracy as a sys- 6 AU African Union Council of Member States, India is a given tem of governance in which there is popular CARICOM Caribbean Community venue for this event. However, beyond and control over public decision making and de- CSDS Centre for the Study of Developing Societies above this official reason, one could hardly cision makers, and equality between citizens think of a more appropriate place to further in the exercise of that control. IDEA strives FATA Federally Administered Tribal Area (Pakistan) and deepen the debate on democracy and to create, compile and share knowledge for HDI Human Development Index development; we are in the largest democra- democracy building, to influence policy and cy in the world and we are also in a country to improve democracy-building processes at IMF International Monetary Fund that, in the six decades of its independence, the national level and in international fo- IPU Inter-Parliamentary Union has become one of the most dynamic and rums. We also support democratic reform IT information technology vibrant economies of the world. processes and initiatives when requested by a specific country. MDGs Millennium Development Goals Indian researchers in social, economic and NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization political sciences are breaking new ground Our own work in support of democracy has and founding new schools of thought at provided us with ample evidence that insti- NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development many universities in India and all over the tutions can rapidly lose popular trust and NGO non-governmental organization world. The very idea of human development support, particularly when they are monop- has its cradle on the subcontinent – an idea olized by complacent elites and isolated from PRSP poverty reduction strategy process that has already had a major impact on the social realities. Wherever democracy is in the SADC Southern African Development Community way we perceive some global issues and envi- making today – from Bolivia to Nepal, from sion their possible solutions. Egypt to Morocco – those who invest their TAR territory, authority and rights hopes and their political commitment regard UNDP United Nations Development Programme At the same time, India’s infinitely diverse the process as something beyond elections, reality continues to pose new challenges, in- USD US dollars beyond a system of well-designed institu- cluding those stemming from a long legacy tions, and beyond a state that refrains from WTO World Trade Organization of deep-rooted poverty and social inequality. interfering in individual freedoms; they as- Nowhere as much as in India are democra- pire to a safer, freer, more dignified and more cy and development so closely intertwined; rewarding life. while clearly valued for their own sake, they also cross paths at every step of the road. Many current debates conclude that democ- racy is in a state of crisis, or in recession. INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
As witnessed in several countries across the waiting to be mobilized through South– 7 done. In many countries, political parties Regional organizations of the global South 8 globe in recent months, however, the prob- South cooperation. There is much to be and parliaments are considered the ‘weak- seem particularly well placed to lead the way lem today is not the lack of popular support learned from non-Western and customary est links’ of democracy. Helping them to as- towards a more holistic and integrated ap- for the idea of democracy, but the way in experiences of dialogue, reconciliation and sume a greater role may not be free of risks. proach to the building of democracy. They which some vital institutions of democracy consensus building, and about their possible Yet bypassing them is a far more dangerous operate in dynamic environments where de- are functioning; elections are being ‘stolen’; synergies with more formal mechanisms. risk as it may lay the ground for both popu- mocracy and development clearly add sense political parties are often perceived as top- list short cuts and systems in which political to each other and make engagement on both heavy, corrupt, male-dominated and ineffec- In the field of development, the landscape is actors become alienated from key national fronts an indivisible whole. tive; parliaments are powerless and compla- changing: new emerging economies are en- issues, and consequently from their natural cent, and fail to exercise their oversight role. tering the stage, thus broadening, for those constituencies. International IDEA is proud to be the only in need of experience and support, the range intergovernmental organization with a spe- The major challenge for democracy is to de- of options to choose from and to combine in Ideally, citizens choose their governments and cific mandate to support sustainable democ- liver on its promises and to generate inclu- accordance with their own needs and priori- hold them accountable. But how responsive racy. But, more importantly, our approach sion, more equitable development and a bet- ties. can the government of a Sub-Saharan coun- is based on the understanding that democ- ter quality of life for the population at large. try be to the popular outcry caused by ris- racy needs to grow from within, that no ex- But development is also one of those ideas ing food prices? In industrialized countries, ternal actor can replace those who pursue In too many places around the world, pover- that require a deeper insight. Who is shaping ironically, the problem these days seems to democracy as a vital necessity of their own ty and exclusion – particularly the exclusion it and for whom? Do ordinary people have be not that of filling stomachs, but of filling and who will ultimately be its beneficiaries of women and of indigenous and migrant a say? Can they rely on their elected repre- petrol tanks. And yet there too governments – the citizens of the country concerned. We populations – are preventing people from sentatives to set the right priorities? What is have a difficult task in responding to public help in sharing experiences and we provide exercising their political rights. By stepping the real meaning of ‘national ownership’ in pressure. Add these problems to those of cli- tools, but these tools are always to be used up their commitments to reduce poverty, these circumstances? Highly valued as one of mate change, HIV-AIDS, terrorism and the by national stakeholders. One such new tool promote inclusiveness, enhance women’s the guiding principles of international devel- ‘war on terror’, and wise democratic leader- produced by IDEA is Assessing the Quality political participation and implement the opment cooperation, ‘national ownership’ is ship soon appears to be the squaring of a of Democracy: A Practical Guide. It is a tool Millennium Development Goals in their often reduced, for all practical purposes, to circle. based on IDEA’s already well-known de- totality, governments from the North and ownership by the executive branch of gov- mocracy self-assessment methodology and it the South together with international and ernment. This is the case in both developed Our planet may be on the way to becoming takes into account the experience acquired regional organizations will make a most im- and developing countries. a global village, but our democratic systems in more than 20 citizen-driven democracy portant contribution to democracy. This is still function within national borders; de- assessment processes, from Mongolia to the Ownership of development needs to be ‘de- not to say, however, that democracy will flow mocracy beyond borders remains essentially Netherlands. from economic development alone. mocratized’. For this to happen, those who an ideal. Global governance is, however, ‘do democracy’ – political parties and legis- emerging in the laborious building of inter- The aim of the Democracy Round Table is Democracy building is by no means an area lators, as well as civil society and the media national law, in the development of regional to share the reflections of eminent policy where a divide can be drawn between ‘do- – need to assume a key role in the debating entities such as the European Union or the makers, scholars and opinion leaders on the nors’ and ‘receivers’. No country can ‘do- and shaping of development strategies and African Union, and in the peace-building democracy–development nexus and the im- nate’ democracy and no country can receive agendas. and developmental engagement of the Unit- pact of globalization. Their contributions will it from abroad. The idea that the West (or ed Nations and international financial insti- be a source of invaluable inspiration for our Likewise, those who ‘do development’ – the North) should coach the South into de- tutions among others. own work and the way in which we translate whether national planning agencies or the mocracy is one of those harmful colonial our own commitments into practice. paradigms to be unlearned – the sooner the providers of development assistance – need better. to allow more room for a genuine political debate and political process so that citizens’ Rich pools of historical experience and expectations are translated into coherent de- knowledge, best practices and lessons learned velopment policy proposals. exist in all parts of the world. Untapped re- sources for shared democracy building are Recognizing the eminently political nature of development is, of course, easier said than INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
OPENING STATEMENT play in the development of poor nations. ment must be morally sensitive, grounded 10 Specialists are needed to clarify the conse- in ethical and moral principles. This is im- quences of different policies and to assess portant because it must not be assumed that Rajeev Bhargava their different impacts on different people. pro-poor development is necessarily sensi- Director of the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies Yet it is equally important to understand the tive to moral values. In this context it is im- sense that people make of the intended out- portant to ask what the less well-off will do come of a policy and the process by which it when they become well-off. Will they act as is implemented. Development is impossible the rich do now? Will they act in accordance without this common understanding and with the newly-found interests or in accor- participation. dance with principles they adhered to? His- tory is replete with examples of principles The problem is not just limited to different that have been summarily junked after they understandings of goals but also extends to have stopped serving the purposes of those policies which are formulated keeping vest- who earlier benefited from them. Thus, de- ed interests in mind, which frequently come velopment must not only be context-sen- From its very inception, democracy and de- The most obvious implication of the above 9 into conflict with the interests of the poor sitive, plural and democratic but be firmly velopment have been important concerns is decentralization and the strengthening of and powerless. This means that we are faced grounded in moral principles. of the CSDS. The centre continually and institutions of panchayati raj, a decentralized with not only two models of development consistently interrogates the idea that the form of government where each village is re- but also two different types of globalization A multifaceted understanding of economic development of any country must sponsible for its own affairs, which should – one espoused by the rich and powerful, globalization is required for development follow a ‘universal’ paradigm and that all de- not remain just a rhetorical ploy but become which is entrenched and hegemonic; and and democracy. First, globalization should veloping countries must follow one unique a truly living practice for making the full- the other espoused by the poor and power- not be allowed to become a hold-all term, path. It has frequently challenged the view est possible use of the enormous wealth of less, which is counter-hegemonic. Thus eco- a ragbag to mean either anything that some that multiple paths lead to the same point of practical know-how and local knowledge nomic development need not always reduce people love or everything that some people arrival. Thus, the CSDS has championed the of drought-affected villagers. For example, inequalities and poverty but can instead detest. It is fruitless to speak of the impact of idea of pluralizing development. faced with an unresponsive government, vil- deepen them. Also, because the first model is globalization on the poor without unpacking lagers in Rajasthan have built water-harvest- grounded in the belief that it already knows the term and clarifying just which element The second crucial ingredient in the cen- ing structures locally known as ‘johads’ to all, and because it is profoundly implicated we wish to single out. Once the strands tre’s thinking is that development for all is create more effective and efficient land-use in the interests of the powerful, it does not have been properly separated, we will find impossible without the involvement of its and water-management systems. The inclu- yield to the second model without resistance that many of the processes covered by the intended beneficiaries. This idea must be sion of local political institutions is therefore and protests. The establishment of land- and term have mixed effects which vary from understood in two senses. First, the very ar- imperative if initiatives towards agricultural water-management systems in Rajasthan by case to case and country to country. Second, ticulation of what development means can- or rural development are to succeed. the Tarun Bharat Sangh, the Samata and resistance to globalization may dovetail with not properly begin without the involvement Shakti movement against bauxite mining domestic vested interests, deflecting attention in public discussion and deliberation of its Decisions taken only by experts and a hand- in tribal Andhra Pradesh, and the struggle from domestic, institutional failures. Third, intended beneficiaries; and, second, the ul- ful of international organizations, bypassing of the mass-based organization Mazdoor whether a particular method associated with timate responsibility for realizing develop- even the representative institutions of nation Kisan Shakti Sangathana in Rajasthan, are globalization works or fails depends on a ment goals lies with the people, who must states, are both unethical and a violation of examples of such defiance and protests. Re- cluster of institutions and policies. Fourth, become fully involved in decisions concern- democratic norms, and are likely to bring sistance of this kind is dangerous, but these ethical reasoning is as valid in economics as ing the direction and course of their society outcomes the opposite of what is intended. movements have sometimes been successful in other aspects of our lives and it must have and its future. This is the link between de- Every society has a right to make its own in restructuring state institutions. It is cru- roughly the same contextual and comparative velopment and participatory democracy. A choices and this needs to be understood by cial to acknowledge that these movements form. Its form should be: given that we people-sensitive development is impossible international organizations and non-govern- have given content to the pluralization and wish to achieve a certain set of ends and without multiple rights of political freedom mental organizations (NGOs). This does not democratization of development. meet certain principles, and given that the bringing issues into the public domain, en- mean that experts, national political elites or following relevant alternatives are available suring transparency and accountability. international organizations have no role to Implicit in all this is the fact that develop- to us, which package of policies must we INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
choose? Judgements that impact on the We have assembled here to discuss serious 11 OPENING STATEMENT livelihoods of peoples, that involve life-and- and urgent issues. I hope that the dialogue death issues, need to be made responsibly. will help to clarify some of the issues relating Finally, rich nations and international to democracy, development and globaliza- Jairam Ramesh organizations such as the World Bank must tion, allowing us to arrive at a wise response Minister of State for Commerce and Industry and Power practise what they preach. They cannot and help distil common derivatives for fu- Government of India expect developing countries to open up their ture actions. This is obviously a very tall or- economies to everything under the sun and der but it can be our small contribution to protect their own agriculture and industry other efforts in developing a more humane when it suits them. and just society.
On behalf of the Indian government, I Although it has been forced to comply with 12 would like to pay my tribute to International public demands, which has led to improve- IDEA and the CSDS not only for organiz- ments (such as extensive legislative changes, ing this important event but also for their illustrated by the Right to Information Act), vital contributions to the research into and Indian democracy scores less well on the re- implementation of democracy. sponsive dimension. Our network of institu- tions of democracy has been quite successful I would like to share some thoughts on the in ensuring the system’s responsiveness, but evolution of Indian democracy by asking it is still far from capable of meeting the im- three fundamental questions. mense demands.
• Is Indian democracy representative? The third dimension – responsibility – proves more problematic. Is Indian democracy re- • Is Indian democracy responsive? sponsible? There has, regretfully, been a trend • Is Indian democracy responsible? over the past decades to use democracy as an alibi for our failures, for example, adducing As regards the representation dimension, time-consuming democratic processes to ex- Indian democracy undoubtedly receives a plain India’s laggard economic performance. high mark. During the past 20–25 years, Within the democratic framework we need large social groups that were traditionally ex- to ask ourselves, as we become more repre- cluded from the political process have been sentative and responsive, whether we can included. Thanks to actors such as an active also become more responsible, especially judiciary, a dynamic civil society and lively in terms of decision making related to the media, there have been great achievements welfare of the poor and the larger section of in regard to linguistic, ethnic and religious society. diversity. Nevertheless, more must be done, especially in regard to institutionalizing the Given this scenario it is time to investigate representation of women, particularly in our the main concerns within current Indian so- legislatures. ciety. The world’s most diverse society and INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
largest democracy is facing three fundamen- society, to whom the state is still fundamen- 13 tal challenges that deserve particular atten- tally significant? tion. The third is the social challenge of a peo- The first challenge consists of how Indian de- ple that is becoming more empowered and mocracy will accommodate to the dramatic aware of its own rights. Ethnic, linguistic political shift that has taken place in the past and regional identities are intensifying and two decades, moving from a unicentric to a becoming more assertive throughout the na- decentralized, polycentric democracy. New tion and Indian society does not experience structures at local and state levels demand a single day without an upsurge of particu- more financial and administrative autonomy lar groups’ claims on the democratic system. from the national government which must Indian democracy implicitly encourages the not only be reflected in our constitution but atomization of society, but the challenge is also – albeit this may be more difficult – be to meet the great range of demands that fol- manifested in the workings of the Indian low. national government. This process requires a comprehensive redrawing of the physical Finally, a few words on the export of democ- framework of the flow of funds between dif- racy – a matter in which India, seen through ferent layers of government, and leaves us the international lens, has not been very vis- with two main questions – how to create a ible so far. While we are convinced of demo- national government and a national frame- cratic principles, we have been – and will con- work in order to prevent an atomization of tinue to be – somewhat ambivalent towards the country? the idea that external forces ought to force democratic change. However, confident that Second, moving from an inward-looking, there is no homogeneous democracy model public sector-dominated economy to a more which may be prescribed to all societies, In- outward-looking economy in which private dia is ready to assist in the great transforma- initiatives also have more political impact tions of the regional political landscape that presents another trial to the nation’s demo- are currently evolving in Pakistan, Bangla- cratic system. How does Indian democracy desh, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Myanmar, and respond on the one hand to the economic to share its experiences on creating a demo- imperative for redefining the role of the cratic society which – although confronted state, and on the other to the social impera- with challenges – determinedly endeavours tive to maintain the state as an instrument to represent, respond and be responsible. of empowerment for the weaker sections of MODERATOR: PETER DESOUZA
PART 1
DEVELOPMENT – AN IDEAL, AN ELECTORAL SLOGAN, OR A SINE QUA NON OF DEMOCRACY?
Over the years the relationship between de- and economic elite in Davos. On a similar 16 mocracy and development has been compre- note, multilateral agencies and institutions hensively contested, and recent cross-nation- are gaining influence in determining the al statistics as well as comparative historical direction of development and, consequen- data show that the relationship is not as tially, determine the futures of regions and causal as conventionally perceived. of people. In contestation to these centres of unaccountable power, globalization has also Successful development has, for example, generated the rise of different social move- been achieved in both democracies and au- ments which aspire to have an impact on the thoritarian regimes, and similarly democracy global agenda. has been sustained in countries with lower gross national product (GNP) than the tra- Finally, debates on democracy and ditional minimum threshold of 300 US dol- development tend to depart from the lars (USD) per capita per year. The rela- traditional notion of North and South. tionship is also complicated by conceptual Today however, a new North and South challenges in different regions of the world; are emerging within each country, and it different cultures delineate democracy and is within this unequal relationship that the development differently and there are no ex- new global elite – responsible for setting the act definitions of the two concepts. global agenda but without being committed to national policies – and the large subaltern Globalization adds a further dimension classes who have to live with the outcome to the matter as countries are increasingly of these policies, exist but rarely interact. pushed along what appears to be a single I believe the discussion on democracy and path. Large centres of unaccountable power development must come to terms with how are created along the way, perhaps best illus- to democratize this global super-elite which trated by the annual World Economic Fo- has been entrusted with democratizing the rum that brings together the world’s political world before we proceed any further. INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
DEMOCRACY – FACILITATING OR HAMPERING DEVELOPMENT? India, the response would be enormous the electorate with populist decisions; before 18 political upheaval, demanding justifica- elections in India, a handful of aspiring poli- tion. ticians announce that water for irrigation Pranab K. Bardhan or electricity will be free. Populist gestures DEMOCRACY HINDERING DEVELOPMENT of this sort have adverse long-term conse- quences such as irreversible over-extraction Despite the many positive aspects, India of groundwater, the drying up of ponds, and is also currently experiencing democracy’s underinvestment in electricity. more obstructive effects on development, such as domination by elites, slow decision Since the elections at the three tiers of the In- making and political competition. dian government are staggered, there is con- stantly an election forthcoming somewhere First, democratic processes are often captured in the country, which encourages short-ter- by an exclusive circle; this is a well-known mism and competitive populism. The lack of phenomenon in US politics where corporate internal democracy within the political par- lobbyists and the most generous donors in The Indian electorate may be larger than nism for avoiding catastrophic mis- 17 ties is a further impediment as young, ambi- electoral campaigns influence law-making. tious politicians find it easier to start their those of Europe, North America and Japan takes. Events that have cast a shadow Similarly, Indian democracy is in many re- combined, but a deeper measure of the qual- over China’s past six decades – the con- own parties than to attempt to climb up the spects captured by the elite, especially at the party’s internal ladder. This leads to political ity of democracy additionally involves aspects sequences of the Great Leap Forward local level. Despite a movement towards lo- of human rights and day-to-day procedures and the Cultural Revolution – would fragmentation and unwieldy coalition gov- cal self-government, India is still at the local ernments. of accountability. India’s record in regard to have had a less fatal outcome if a func- level more of an oligarchy than a democracy. this broader definition of democracy is rath- tioning structure of checks and balance The appalling quality of social services such IF DEMOCRACY, HOW COME POVERTY? er mixed, and involves a complex relation to had been in place. as health and education, supposedly the re- what is meant by the term ‘development’. sponsibility of the local governments, is vivid The puzzling question yet to be resolved is • Democracy functions as a tool for con- proof of that. how large-scale poverty persists in a coun- Mapping the reciprocal influence between flict management: in extremely hetero- try which for the past six decades has been democracy and development continues to be geneous and conflict-ridden countries Second, decision making within the demo- the world’s largest democracy, and where the a matter for research. By referring to a num- like India, democracy has played a vital cratic system is politically more complex poor to a greater extent than elsewhere actu- ber of examples I will argue that democracy role in relieving tensions. Kashmir re- and time-consuming. Development often ally participate in the political processes. is neither necessary nor sufficient for devel- mains a challenge to Indian politicians requires adaptation to changes in markets opment, unless one defines development to but the overall settlement of friction and technology, and decisions on long-term One issue to recognize in approaching this include democratic rights. Democracy cer- has come a long way thanks to the vital investment. Referring once again to India’s riddle is that the electoral agenda is multidi- tainly supports development in many ways, role played by democracy as a pacifier neighbour, the Chinese road system was less mensional. Doing away with poverty is often but in terms of socio-economic standards for and soother. developed than India’s around 1990, but a lower priority than issues of social dignity, the most underprivileged part of the demos, within 10 years China had constructed the especially in democracies sprung out of a • Democracy has an embedded effect on democracy is at times also an obstacle. world’s second-largest express highway sys- social revolution. An Indian political leader fairer distribution as it exposes capitalist tem. Attempting something similar in India perceived to have made a disparaging remark DEMOCRACY FACILITATING DEVELOPMENT excesses to greater pressure; if events like would immediately generate endless land about a disadvantaged group will generate those of contemporary Chinese history disputes, lawsuits and agitation, impeding an uproar which will be directly reflected in Unquestionably, several key features of de- – where more then 40 million Chinese the decision-making processes. the electoral results; but if the policies of the mocracy directly favour socio-economic de- farmers have been uprooted from their same politician ignore disease or large-scale velopment. Some brief examples to support land for the purpose of commercial de- A third feature is the matter of short-horizon child malnutrition that lead to the death of this claim are the following. velopment and where, between 1996 political competition which commonly, as thousands of children in the same disadvan- and 2001, 35 million workers were laid in the case of India, evolves into competitive taged group, it is often less of a pressing elec- • Democracy’s implicit system of checks off from the Chinese state-owned en- populism. Competing politicians pander to toral issue. and balances is an uncontested mecha- terprises – were to present themselves in INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
THE CHALLENGE OF EMPOWERMENT the relation between the participatory and 19 CHALLENGES TO MEXICAN DEMOCRACY – STRUCTURE AND KEY ISSUES procedural aspects of democracy. The current rise of subordinate groups in In- ON THE AGENDA dia has shown an important dilemma that Although concurring with the importance of is worth pondering. Undoubtedly positive empowerment and its many beneficial social as a phenomenon, empowerment also cre- consequences, I would like to conclude by Maria Amparo Casar ates a challenge to governance, particularly mentioning an additional kind of tension from the aspect of delivery of social services. which tramples upon individual rights and The general presumption among oppressed freedom of expression. Should the remotest ethnic groups is that the time has come for chance exist that members of a particular them to be compensated for the many years group may be offended by a book, film or when the upper groups of society looted the exhibition, Indian leaders do not hesitate in system. They therefore remain loyal in vot- banning it. Individual rights are hence com- ing for their leader, no matter how corrupt promised at the first opportunity for the sake he or she is. In this sense, empowerment has of not offending group sensibilities. Natu- nurtured a culture of impunity for corrupt rally, group sensibilities are important, but In the extensive literature on the relation goods and services the citizens are en- 20 and inept leaders. the tension that is thus created between the between democracy and development it has titled to; participatory and the procedural aspects of been established that there are multiple and A further challenge is the manner in which democracy must not be forgotten. complex linkages between them; however, • governments must find a way to show important controversial issues are common- there is no consensus on whether democracy people that there is no need to choose ly dealt with. As the parliament is often just The challenges highlighted in the relation- has a causal effect on economic growth. To between one and the other and a display ground for a theatre of the absurd ship between democracy and development put it succinctly, researchers have been un- instead of for deliberative processes, urgent call for democratic procedures and institu- • although growth can be attained under able to produce a causal inference.1 None- matters are increasingly taken to the streets. tions which will be capable of relieving the any kind of regime, development – a theless, what the literature does show is that India is more a democracy of popular mobi- tension between participatory and proce- concept that includes not only the re- growth and development are favourable to lization than one of deliberation on impor- dural aspects of democracy and maintain the duction of disparities in income distri- the thriving of democracy, which in turn has tant issues. This unavoidably puts a strain on balance. bution but also the dimension of cer- to do precisely with one of the concerns of tain rights – is inconceivable without this seminar – the delivery aspect of democ- democracy; in other words, democracy racy. and development are inseparable part- Rather than dwelling on the as yet irresolv- ners. able discussion as to whether there is a causal The consequence of these premises is that link between the two sides of the equation, democracy should be put to the service of I will – departing from the assumption that development. Two key points are that: both development and democracy are desir- able – concentrate on the challenges to de- • sound public policies can arise through mocracy, especially those concerning the dis- effective democratic processes; and satisfaction with democracy that comes from a poor economic performance and its impact • once attained, sound public policies re- on the well-being of the citizenry. inforce and enhance democratic insti- tutions. The basic premises of the argument I want to put forward are that: The question is whether particular democ- racies are better suited to accomplish these • the best way for democracies to thrive goals than others and, if they are, under is for them to deliver the basic rights, what conditions. I believe that the short- INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
comings that distinguish and challenge Latin countries included in the Organisation 21 past decade. Inflation has been low over the erful external influences; and, although in a 22 American democracies are mostly identical for Economic Co-operation and Devel- past six years and the fiscal deficit has been less pronounced fashion, the temptation to to those that hinder growth. Why? Because opment (OECD) Programme for In- restored to perfect balance. This unquestion- turn to populist politics and policies as a way Latin American democracies not only have ternational Student Assessment (PISA) able achievement is, however, clearly not to promise a better quality of life. less competitive economic systems than evaluation and last among the OECD enough to promote growth, let alone to situ- more consolidated democracies and stronger countries. ate the country advantageously in a global- Two of the most important challenges for economies, but also have a less competitive ized economy. the survival and consolidation of democracy political system. • Only 51 per cent of the population has are (a) the way in which national ownership access to public health services.2 The economic reasons why the delivery as- of development policies is equated with the Given this background it is time to turn pect of democracy is in short supply are nat- executive power (conceptualized by scholars to my specific subject. The challenges to • While the top 10 per cent of Mexican urally intimately linked to the political sys- as ‘government by executive decree’ and ‘inef- democratic consolidation are not uniform households accounted for 36 per cent of tem and the institutions on which it rests. fective checks and balances’), and (b) the in- among Latin American countries. Although total national income, the lower 60 per fluence of institutional actors, in particular all countries in the region share the un- cent had 26 per cent of total national THE INSTITUTIONAL STABILITY ASPECT OF from parliaments and parties. fortunate characteristic of having some of income (in 2006). DEMOCRACY – THE MEXICAN CASE the most unequal distributions of income Although Mexico suffered from these two • According to the World Bank’s (2006) and inadequate rates of growth, they differ Mexico undoubtedly shows severe symptoms endemic illnesses for over six decades, the Rule of Law indicator, Mexico is below greatly regarding the challenges to demo- of its democratic deficits – decreasing trust situation has now changed. The successful average among 207 countries and with cratic consolidation that they face. While in vital institutions (see table 1); the percep- democratic transition brought about a dis- no improvement in the last decade.3 Ac- some nations (such as Chile) have relatively tion that domestic democratic processes are tribution of power, opening up for a more cording to the Mexican ombudsman, stable democratic institutions, others (such becoming less relevant in the light of pow- transparent system, including checks and the National Human Rights Com- as Venezuela) are on the brink of relapsing to mission (Comisión Nacional de los single-person rule. While all have problems Derechos Humanos, CNDH), 36 per regarding the delivery component of democ- Table 1. Trust in institutions* cent of Mexico’s convicts have access to racy, some additionally face the challenge of a reliable lawyer during a judicial pro- institutional stability. Looking specifically at cess while in 97 per cent of cases the Mexico, its democracy ranks rather poorly delinquents go unpunished. on the delivery aspect and relatively well on the institutional stability side (although this Mexico has failed to create a business climate stability should by no means be taken for that allows healthy competition, and this in granted). turn has led to poor economic performance.
Expensive electricity, the concentration of Universities Church Army Media Banks institute Electoral Industrialist Executive Court Supreme Deputies Senators Unions Policy parties Political THE DELIVERY ASPECT OF DEMOCRACY market share in strategic areas (e.g. com- 2005 8.1 7.8 7.7 7.2 7.2 - 6.5 5.9 6.4 5.4 5.2 4.9 5.4 5.4 2006 8.2 7.9 7.9 6.6 7.6 7.4 5.8 6.9 6.5 6.6 6.0 6.0 5.9 5.9 Figures reflecting democracy’s poor delivery munications), cumbersome procedures for 2007 Feb. in the Mexican context are numerous. setting up businesses and inflexibility in the 8.2 8.2 8.1 7.3 7.2 6.9 6.8 6.0 6.7 5.6 5.8 5.8 6.3 5.6 labour market, which hinders the expansion Sep.–Nov. 7.9 7.8 8.0 7.5 7.1 6.6 6.8 6.7 6.7 5.8 5.6 5.6 5.8 5.6 • From 2000 to 2007, the average annual of employment, are a few of the obstacles. 2008 7.9 7.9 7.8 7.5 6.9 6.9 6.8 6.8 6.7 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.8 5.3 growth rate was 2.3 per cent. Labour productivity in Mexico has fallen drastically and is one-third below that of US • Thirty-two per cent of the rural popula- workers. In addition, the informal sector has tion and 10 per cent of the urban pop- grown to account for 27 per cent of the na- ulation live in extreme poverty. tional economy. * Respondents were asked to rank the following institutions from 0 to 10, where 0 is no trust and 10 is • The average years of schooling are 7.2 On a more optimistic note, the Mexican absolute trust. Consulta Mitofsky, 2008 but the quality of schooling is appall- government has succeeded in keeping the ing. Mexico ranks 48th among the 57 macroeconomic variables in order during the INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
balance, than the nation’s traditional ‘hyper- greater role in the shaping and approval of 23 • foster parliamentary coalitions; and It is also true that the so-called factual powers, 24 presidentialism’. With the advent of democ- national development programmes. This un- including private monopolies and powerful racy Mexico is now learning a new experience doubtedly necessary condition is present in • promote cooperation and avoid or trade unions, exert, if not actually unlawful – the slower procedures that follow from the the case of Mexico and it has been shown to reduce gridlock. restraints, at the least unacceptable influence principles of the separation of powers. be far from sufficient. (Naturally, this does in both the executive and the legislative These are three of the endemic problems of not mean that Mexico’s democracy is free branches of power. Private monopolies or presidential regimes that are aggravated by I believe there are no grounds (as some ob- from challenges. It simply means that they companies with dominant market shares some structural features of the Mexican con- servers have suggested) for claiming that come from other quarters.) have been very successful in obstructing the stitutional and electoral systems. the consolidation of democracy in Mexico passing of laws on fair competition and in is challenged by an over-concentration of Apart from deficits of delivery there are two Nonetheless it is also true that no institu- constraining the performance of government. power and decision-making authority in the other categories of democratic shortcomings tional design is good enough if a sense of Trade unions have managed to check executive branch. In present-day Mexico we in the Mexican context: those concerning common purpose is not created. efforts at modernization, competitiveness, can by no means equate national ownership the structure and workings of the Mexican efficiency and transparency in state-owned of development policies with ownership by political system; and those springing from What needs to be avoided – at least in the enterprises. the executive branch. The present political political practices that have proved resilient case of Mexico – is the widely held idea that arrangement and the distribution of power and resistant to change. These are as inimical a political reform needs to weaken the presi- A final challenge worth mentioning is that of within the popular elected bodies have rath- as poor economic and social delivery to the dency or to strengthen the Congress at the social, political and/or dissident forces which er resulted – at least since 1997 – in equi- thriving of democracy and constitute what I expense of the executive power. On the one either play against established institutions or librium between the branches. In fact, the call a non-competitive political system – one hand, experience has shown that, deprived at least thrive on their weakening. Mexico challenges to the delivery side of democracy that hinders efficient decision-making pro- of the majorities that were formerly gener- has traditionally faced forces operating out- are the outcome more of a stalemate in the cesses and encourages conflict among pow- ated by a highly undemocratic electoral sys- side the institutional arena; some of them Congress and/or conflicts between the two ers (or at least does not incorporate effective tem and of the associated partisan powers changed their tactics once electoral reforms branches, which obstruct decision making, ways of overcoming differences). of his office, the Mexican president is not as opened up the chance of real participation, than of a concentration of power in the ex- powerful as he was thought to be. On the but others held to their purpose of revolu- In terms of political design, three of the most ecutive branch. other hand, it is clear that a presidential sys- tionary transformation of what they still call acute problems the Mexican political system tem requires cooperation in order to push bourgeois democracy. In my view, the notion of national ownership has encountered as it has moved away from a through either the presidential or any other of development policies in the sense of po- unified to a divided government are: Most leftist movements excluded from any alternative political agenda in order to start litical parties and legislators assuming a key meaningful institutional political participa- addressing some of the most pressing social role in the shaping of national development • the shortcomings of a constitution tion during the main part of the past centu- and economic problems of the country. programmes is well established in Mexico. which proved to work reasonably well ry, and who suffered repression until the late in a context of large majorities for the Certainly there is a long way to go on the The second set of challenges pertains to the 1980s, took advantage of the political re- president’s party; road to a greater level of accountability, but domain of the democratic exercise of pow- forms. They gathered around the largest left checks and balances are in place and making party – the Party of the Democratic Revolu- • the difficulty of gathering the majorities er. Corruption and patronage/clientelism progress. tion (Partido de la Revolución Democrática, needed to reach agreement within the are probably the two most widespread and undemocratic practices in Mexico, and the PRD) – and have since been consistently Thus, and at the risk of sounding politically Congress; and democratic transition has done little to re- growing in terms of both electoral prefer- incorrect, I subscribe to the standpoint that • the lack of mechanisms to promote co- place or at least curb them. ‘Exchange of ences and numbers of representative posts, what may be needed is the strengthening of operation and break deadlocks. favours among national leaders, local poli- both at national and sub-national levels and the executive branch’s capacities, and at the ticians, economic potentates, poor constitu- at the executive and legislative levels. same time, of course, enhancing the scope Reforms should be guided by the need to es- encies and sometimes even criminal orga- and degree of its accountability. More recently, however, and as a result of the tablish rules that: nizations’4 is still the rule in many political highly contested 2006 election, the broad transactions and in many areas. The abuse of In this sense I do not agree with the thesis that • reduce the chances of conflict between social movement headed by the losing can- public office and public resources for private for democracy to grow and be consolidated, the executive and the Congress; didate – Andrés Manuel López Obrador, gain (e.g. personal enrichment or political national political society needs to assume a or AMLO – has been growing. It would be advantage) are still pervasive. INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
inaccurate to claim that this movement has In conclusion, Mexico stands as a relatively 25 DEMOCRATIC DEVELOPMENT AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT – LINKAGES engaged in generalized unlawful practices new democracy that has advanced unequal- stretching far up in the government, but evi- ly on the different aspects of democratic AND POLICY IMPERATIVES dence shows that it is favoured by society’s consolidation. Its credentials in relation to polarization, that it moves in the margins of equal and fair elections are good. We have legality and that it is not ready to play by moved forward in the aspect of power shar- Larry Diamond the majority rule. Currently it presents the ing between the branches of power; we have greatest challenge to institutionalized poli- progressed somewhat, but not sufficiently, tics in Mexico, but it still remains to be seen in aspects of access to public information, how far this movement is willing to go. transparency and accountability. Finally, the advances made have proved inadequate and CONCLUSION not sufficient to sustain, let alone to increase, the citizenry’s trust in vital institutions, and The democratic deficits deriving from the we have a long way to go regarding a legal two separate sources mentioned above – an culture and establishing an acceptable degree inadequate political design and the persis- of rule of law. This includes the elusiveness Few subjects in the comparative study of de- way, and that we need to look at more specific 26 tence of undemocratic practices – pose dif- of constitutional guarantees and rights such mocracy have attracted more scholarly and institutional features of a regime. This relates ferent challenges. While the former can be as equality of gender, non-discrimination, intellectual attention than the relationship to the third question: what is the impact on addressed through political reform and ne- ethnic issues and access to justice. between democracy and development. The democracy of the economic performance of gotiation, the latter presents more difficult issues are multifold but come down to un- the system? The assumption has been that issues. derstanding the reciprocal relationship: what democracy must deliver the economic goods impact does economic development have if it is to survive. on the type of political system in a country, democracy or not? And what impact does Without question, this is important, but we democracy – and in particular the form or must not neglect the questions of political degree of democracy – have on the prospects process and of distributive equity. In essence, for rapid and broadly-based economic devel- I will argue here that the poor care about and opment? need democracy as much as the wealthy; that more poor countries are democracies today A number of assumptions in the established than ever before; that the survival of de- academic literatures on these issues deserve mocracy in low- and lower-middle-income to be questioned, however. First, there is the countries depends heavily but not exclusive- Notes long-standing proposition that the prospects ly or even immediately on economic perfor- for democracy are closely related to the level mance; and that the two key challenges are 1. For a recent discussion on this literature see Seawright, Jason, ‘Democracy of economic development, and therefore first to improve the quality and accountabil- and Growth: A Case Study in Failed Causal Inference’, in Gerardo L. Munck that democratic prospects are poor in poor ity of democracy, and second to devise spe- (ed.), Regimes and Democracy in Latin America: Theories and Methods(Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2007). countries. Related to this, second, is the idea cific and effective policies to reduce poverty that the poor do not care about political and social injustice. 2. Encuesta Nacional de Ingreso y Gasto en los Hogares, 2005. and civil rights, or that they are in no posi- tion to care until their basic economic needs Before proceeding, I must make clear the 3. Rule of law represents the extent to which agents have confidence in and strictly political sense in which I am using abide by the established rules. are met. There is as well a raft of arguments about the impact of type of regime on eco- the term ‘democracy’. At a minimum, de- 4. Mazzuca, Sebastián L., ‘Reconceptualizing Democratization: Access to Power nomic development. In this paper I will not mocracy is a system of government in which versus Exercise of Power’, in Munck (ed.), Regimes and Democracy in Latin systematically address this other end of the all (or virtually all) adult citizens can choose America, (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2007). equation. My point here, briefly, is that we and replace their leaders in regular, free, ask the wrong question when we pose it this fair and competitive (multiparty) elections. INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
However, I will argue that to advance broad- • civilian democratic control of the mili- 27 At the lower end of the spectrum of coun- cy and development is very strong. Stanford 28 ly-based development, a higher level of de- tary and state security apparatus. tries, however, the relationship between economist Henry Rowen found in 1990 that mocracy is required. My principal argument development and democracy has eroded the positive association between economic is that democracy advances broadly-based DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT dramatically in recent years, as a surpris- development and freedom remains powerful development to the extent that it reflects the ing number of poor countries have adopted even when the rich Western democracies are following dimensions of democratic quality: Over the last half-century, the notion that democratic systems. Of the 22 countries excluded. In fact, the strong correlation be- there is a strong association between a coun- ranking low on the latest UNDP HDI (for tween economic development and freedom • extensive freedom for citizens and try’s level of economic development and its 2005), nine (41 per cent) are at least elec- levels holds within all but the Arab world. groups to express their opinions and likelihood of being a democracy has been one toral democracies. Of the next 37 countries Rowen concluded, ‘These results support the beliefs, organize, petition, demonstrate, of the most prominent theories of the social (low-to-medium HDI), 14 (38 per cent) are interpretation that the wealth-democracy write, speak and broadcast; sciences, and one of the best sustained by the democracies. If we take the bottom third of nexus is more than just a Western phenom- evidence. Since 1959, when Seymour Mar- the distribution of countries, in all, 39 per enon’.10 • extensive pluralism in the sources of tin Lipset published his famous essay ‘Some cent of relatively poor countries (23 of 59) information and sources of organiza- Social Requisites of Democracy’, one study are democracies today. To be sure, many of Of course, this still leaves open two pos- tion independent of the state – in other after another has documented the powerful these are low-quality, illiberal democracies, sibilities. One is that development makes words, an open and vigorous civil soci- relationship between economic development with very serious problems of governance, transitions to democracy more likely. The ety; 5 and democracy. and in some cases one could debate whether other – Lipset’s original argument – is that they even meet the test of electoral democ- development sustains democracy whenever • equality of all citizens before the law At the upper end of the continuum of de- racy.9 Still, there is no historical precedent it emerges. Both appear to be true. A com- and in their rights and abilities to ex- velopment, the relationship remains quite for so many poor countries in the world be- prehensive study of regime change between press and secure their interests; striking. According to the United Nations ing democracies. 1850 and 1990 found that per capita income Development Programme (UNDP)’s Hu- levels have a strong positive effect on transi- • genuine and diverse opportunities at all 6 man Development Index (HDI), among There is debate about the grounds for this tions to democracy. This was especially true levels of formal and informal power for the 25 independent countries ranked with citizens to participate in the decisions association between development and de- before World War II, but the effect remains the highest level of ‘human development’ mocracy, and between development and strong today at lower to moderate levels of that affect their lives and to hold politi- only Singapore is not a democracy. Of the cal authorities accountable; freedom. Some social scientists have sug- development. ‘More development always 40 most developed countries, only three gested that democracies produce more rapid increases the probability that a transition to small oil-rich monarchies – Kuwait, Bahrain 11 • a rule of law, protected and upheld by economic development, but the evidence is democracy will occur.’ and Brunei – join the list of non-democra- an independent judiciary, that treats all murky. For a time, there was a vogue for the cies. In the 50 wealthiest countries, there are citizens equally, ensures human rights, argument that it was because democracy had SOCIAL CHANGE GIVING RISE TO NEW only two more authoritarian exceptions, Qa- and holds government officials, local emerged in the West, and the West, with its ATTITUDES AND VALUES tar and the United Arab Emirates, which are power brokers and the privileged ac- Protestant, capitalist and liberal traditions, also small, oil-rich states.7 countable before the law; was better poised for development; thus, Economic development transforms a society development followed or coincided with de- in several ways that make it more difficult The association between economic devel- • institutional checks on the power of mocracy. That causal just-so story turned out to sustain the concentration of power in one opment and freedom – political rights and elected officials by an independent leg- to be untenable when a number of poorer person, one party, or a narrow, unaccount- civil liberties, as measured annually by Free- islature, the courts, counter-corruption countries in Asia and Latin America devel- able elite. First, it alters a country’s social and dom House – is no less striking.8 In fact, the commissions, auditing agencies, and oped and then became democracies. economic structure, widely dispersing power 44 democracies among the world’s 50 most other instruments of ‘horizontal ac- and resources. Second, it profoundly shifts developed states are all liberal democracies, countability’; Clearly, countries could develop economi- attitudes and values in a democratic direc- save for the tiny island country of the Sey- cally and then transition to democracy, re- tion. • a high degree of transparency in the chelles. Most of them (38 of the 44) have the gardless of their region and history: an au- way government conducts its affairs, highest freedom ratings granted by Freedom thoritarian regime could lift the country into On the structural side, economic develop- affording citizens widespread access to House on both political rights and civil lib- middle- or upper-middle-income status, and ment enlarges the middle class and raises information; and erties. Illiberal democracies now only emerge then give way to democracy. Indeed, outside levels of education and information among at lower levels of economic development. the West the relationship between democra- the general public. After a country attains a INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
middling level of development and national Lerner calls ‘psychic mobility’.15 As people 29 to influence government.16 Some of these in a democracy alert the world to food (and 30 income, inequality tends to fall, reducing leave the countryside for the cities, they also democratic values even appear to be fostered other) emergencies, while the mechanisms the social distance, and political polariza- adopt new political attitudes and beliefs. simply by living in a more developed coun- of political accountability give politicians a tion, between classes. For Lipset, well before With recent technological revolutions, the try, independent of the individual’s socio- powerful incentive to be responsive. Beyond the democratic boom of the ‘third wave’, this ability to generate information and opin- economic status.17 this, however, Sen argues that people cannot was a crucial factor in making democracy ion has been radically decentralized through even properly conceive their economic needs feasible: ‘Economic development, producing low-cost FM radio, cable television stations, As people come to embrace self-expression until they have some sense of what is feasible increased income, greater economic security, Web-based blogs and international news values, they come to demand democracy – – until they determine, through free discus- and widespread higher education, largely sources, all of which are more difficult for and not just any democracy, but the insti- sion and information, which types of depri- determines the form of the “class struggle” authoritarian regimes to control than the tutions to protect individual freedom and vation are preventable and what can be done by permitting those in the lower strata to mass media in the past. As people acquire choice that encompass liberal democracy. about them. Thus, ‘People in economic need develop longer time perspectives and more more income and information, they become also need a political voice. Democracy is not complex and gradualist views of politics’.12 more politically aware and confident, more IS DEMOCRACY A LUXURY FOR THE a luxury that can await the arrival of general In recent years, Princeton University politi- inclined to participate in politics, to think POOR? prosperity [and] there is very little evidence cal scientist Carles Boix has shown that this for themselves, and thus to break free of tra- that poor people, given the choice, prefer The above analysis suggests that there is a is not just theory. As countries develop, in- ditional patron–client ties. to reject democracy’.18 There are countless particularly powerful relationship between comes do become more equally distributed, examples of poor people mobilizing pas- economic development and ‘effective’, lib- which diminishes the threat of excessive tax- With these sweeping social and psycho- sionately for (and in defence of) democratic eral or high-quality democracy. It could still ation and intense class conflict and enables logical changes, people in growing num- change. The fact that they have sometimes, be argued, then, that poor people in low-in- the wealthy to tolerate the uncertainties of bers form and join organizations, including as in Burma, been crushed by sheer force, come countries are mainly obsessed with the dispensing with authoritarian rule – and the professional and student associations, trade while a timid world watched and protested material struggle for survival, and in mani- less well-off to be patient for change. Hence, unions, and human rights and civic groups, ineffectually, does not negate the overwhelm- festing ‘survival values’ they are relatively greater equality increases the chances both to service their interests and needs. As these ing expression of their sentiment. Nor do the apathetic about, or unsupportive of, democ- for a transition to democracy and then for independent organizations grow in number, pervasive abuses of power and theft of public racy. This does not accord with the evidence, its survival.13 resources and sophistication, they become resources by elites who have been given (or however. Liberal values of accountability more assertive and more capable of check- have claimed) the power to rule. Often economic development also realigns ing and challenging the state, generating the and rule of law are more widespread among interest coalitions as shrewder or more vi- foundations for a vibrant civil society. So, as the citizenries of more developed countries, Sen argues that the mark of a universal value sionary elites realize that the withering of a country gets richer, the balance of power but the aspiration for democracy has become is not that it has the consent of everyone, extremist threats renders a dictator obsolete; shifts from the state to the society. surprisingly universal. but that ‘people anywhere may have reason that uneven development under authori- to see it as valuable’.19 By this measure, there To be sure, democracy is weak and has to tarian rule – as in Brazil and South Africa Most striking, however, is the wealth of is growing evidence of all kinds that democ- contend with serious difficulties in many – must be mitigated to preserve the state’s data that has accumulated to show that as racy is becoming a truly universal value. poor, and even some middle-income, coun- stability; or that newly assertive social groups people’s lives are transformed by economic tries. But in most of these countries the must be incorporated into the political sys- development they increasingly espouse dem- Fortunately, a growing body of data from problems of democracy have more to do tem. In large part this may be because as ocratic values: the higher the levels of edu- public opinion surveys is telling us what or- with the shortcomings and betrayals of elites more people join the middle class the power cation, income, mass media exposure and dinary people in diverse regions really think than with the apathy or authoritarian senti- of populist labour and peasant organizations occupational status, the more democratic about democracy. Globally, answers to ques- ments of the population. declines. In such populations flushed with the people’s attitudes, values and behaviour. tions on different democratic values show In particular, more educated people tend to surprisingly high levels of democratic com- economic development, middle-class groups A strong case has been made that democracy be more tolerant of differences and opposi- mitment in non-Western societies. More- ‘became increasingly confident of their abil- is not an extravagance for the poor but a ne- tion, more respectful of minority rights, to over, while regions or cultural groupings ity to advance their interests through elec- cessity. Amartya Sen won the Nobel Prize for 14 value freedom more and to be more trustful (and certainly countries) differ in their levels toral politics’. Economics in 1998 in part for showing that of other people. They are more inclined to of commitment to democratic values, those democracies do not have famines. This is be- This newly emerging middle class may em- participate in politics and to join organiza- differences are not always in the direction cause the relatively free flows of information brace what the late social scientist Daniel tions and more confident of their capacities that cultural theories expect. INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
Results produced by World Values Survey following decolonization after World War II. 31 case: that people in new democracies form how democracy performs in delivering what 32 show that the belief that democracy is (at It has been the repeated fate of numerous their judgements about the legitimacy of de- people most expect from democracy – free least in principle) the best system is over- influential lower-income countries such as mocracy (and thus their willingness to con- and fair elections, individual freedom, the whelming and universal. While there is a Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria and Kenya. tinue to support it and to reject authoritar- rule of law and accountability (in particular, slightly higher preference among the West- Then there is the considerable number of ian alternatives) based partly on the extent to control of corruption). ern industrialized countries, in every region ‘hybrid’ or ‘electoral authoritarian’ regimes which they perceive the new system to really no less than 80 per cent of people on average that combine the superficial or even substan- be delivering on its promises of greater free- This conclusion can be observed in both say democracy is the best system. Majorities tial reality of multiparty electoral competi- dom, accountability and the rule of law. In negative and positive developments. Nega- in every region would also like to see greater tion with degrees of ruling party control over fact, data from the post-communist democ- tively, we see erosion of support for democ- respect for authority. But, while there is no the state and the electoral machinery that are racies during the 1990s showed that these racy when citizens experience protracted bad difference between the slight majorities fa- inconsistent with electoral democracy. Such popular perceptions of the political perfor- government, or a sharp decline in the above vouring more respect in the West, Asia and hybrid regimes are found in countries at a mance of the regime had a stronger impact political parameters of democratic perfor- Eastern Europe, it is clearly desired in the wide range of levels of economic develop- on democratic legitimacy than did percep- mance. Thus in the wake of deepening cor- former Soviet Union, and especially in Latin ment, from Singapore and Malaysia at one tions of economic performance.22 Country- ruption and cronyism support for democ- America and the Muslim Middle East. end to Cambodia, Tanzania and Morocco at level evidence from Korea and South Africa racy fell in the Philippines between 2001 the other. They also vary widely in their real pointed in a similar direction.23 People who and 2005, along the dimensions shown in What do we learn from these regional com- levels of social and political pluralism, and in saw the new democracy to be accountable table 1. parisons? One lesson is to be wary of the their levels of repression. and responsive were much more likely to be Analysing the early Afrobarometer sur- stereotypes and assumptions of culturally- satisfied with parliament’s performance and veys (from 2000 and 2002), Bratton and based theories. There is a broad desire for The standing assumption, as I noted earlier with democracy in general.24 democracy in the world, stretching across in this paper, has been that poor countries his survey co-founders, Robert Mattes and regions. Even in Africa, the poorest region of were probably doomed to democratic fail- In the past ten years, with the growth of the E. Gyimah-Boadi, found that the most the world, there is surprisingly strong com- ure, if they made the transition to democ- regional ‘barometers’ of attitudes and values powerful factors shaping the ‘supply of de- mitment to democracy, with three in five cit- racy at all, or, by a different logic, that sus- toward democracy around the world, we mocracy’ (a combination of satisfaction with izens, on average, saying that democracy is tained economic growth is particularly vital have a much better and more comprehensive democracy and the perceived extent of de- preferable to any other form of government to the survival of democracy in poor coun- basis for assessing the relationship between mocracy) concerned the performance of the – a proportion exceeding those in Latin tries. Lipset as well, in thinking about the re- regime performance and legitimacy. When system. In keeping with the prevalence of America and the former Soviet Union.20 In lationship between legitimacy and effective we examine the evidence from these surveys neo-patrimonial rule, evaluation of presi- fact, in every major region outside the West, performance, did so primarily in terms of in East Asia, South Asia, Latin America, Af- dential performance had the most power- the majority preference is for democracy. economic performance.21 rica and the Arab world, it shows ‘economic ful impact on the supply of democracy, but factors to be relatively unimportant in ex- whether citizens believed the last elections SUSTAINING DEMOCRACY IN POOR But there is another dimension to the re- plaining levels of popular support for de- were free and fair was almost as strong a fac- COUNTRIES lationship between regime performance mocracy’.25 Democratic satisfaction with and tor. Other factors included the government’s and legitimacy. We should not assume that support for democracy are directly shaped by overall performance on employment, educa- If democracy is to survive for the long run, it people only value economic development. must develop legitimacy. Historically, in the After the considerable investment that so majority of less developed countries, democ- many people in so many societies have made Table 1. Changes in support for democracy in the Philippines racy has performed poorly, both economi- in mobilizing for democracy, and after the Statement 2001 2005 cally and politically, and as a result of tepid extensive abuses they have experienced un- Democracy is always preferable 64% 51% growth, persistent injustice, massive corrup- der authoritarian rule, we should not be sur- Democracy is suitable for our country 80% 57% tion and abuse of power, people have lost prised to find that people value the political Satisfaction with the way democracy works in our country 54% 39% faith in it. This, in turn, has made it easy for performance of democracy as well, both as Percentage rejecting the alternative of a strong authoritarian leader 70% 59% ambitious politicians or military officers to an end in itself and as a means to getting overturn or subvert democracy in the name broadly-based, sustainable economic devel- of development. This was not only the fate opment. Over the years, a growing body of of most new democracies in Asia and Africa evidence has suggested that this is in fact the INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
tion and health; the perceived level of cor- and mass publics in lower-income countries 33 (health and education, not income). If the per capita income data were avail- 34 ruption; trust in state institutions; and the are coming to realize that free and fair elec- able, Cuba would rank well below 50, and I therefore exclude Cuba from the perceptions that political rights are being tions, accessible courts and honest govern- rankings here. protected and that one’s own ethnic group ment are important instruments for eco- 8. Diamond, ‘Economic Development and Democracy Reconsidered’; and is being treated fairly.26 Analysing the 2005 nomic development and social justice. The Rowen, Henry S., ‘The Tide Underneath the “Third Wave”’,Journal of data, Bratton found that perceiving the last quality of governance is thus the essential Democracy, 6 (January 1995), pp. 52–64. elections to have been free and fair has be- and too often neglected intervening variable 9. In other words, whether elections are truly free and fair. With only a very come far and away the most powerful factor between democracy and development. Once few exceptions, I rely on the annual classifications of Freedom House as to in shaping the extent of democracy citizens we pay attention to that, and once we focus which countries qualify as electoral democracies, but one could argue that in perceive. Thus, the ruler’s performance is no on improving the fairness and neutrality of some cases the countries they consider democracies are really better consid- longer enough to satisfy the public, and for- electoral administration, the independence ered ‘electoral authoritarian’. mal institutions are starting to matter more and capacity of the courts, the representa- 10. Rowen, ‘The Tide Underneath the “Third Wave”’, p. 55. than informal ones.27 tiveness, capacity and accessibility of politi- cal parties and local representative bodies at 11. Boix, Carles and Stokes, Susan C., ‘Endogenous Democratization’, World CONCLUSION all levels, and the overall transparency and Politics, 55 (July 2003), p. 531. Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel reach accountability of government to use public a somewhat similar conclusion using data from 1950–90 in their Modern- Public opinion is giving us a new and power- resources to advance the public welfare, we ization, Cultural Change and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 169. Both studies spe- ful window on the possibilities and impera- will find that democracy is not only consis- tives of democracy in poor countries. It is cifically reject the finding of Adam Przeworski and his colleagues that the tent with economic development, but can be likelihood of the emergence of democracy is not related to the level of eco- not that poor people do not value democ- a great asset for getting the kind of devel- nomic development. Przeworski, Adam, Alvarez, Michael E., Cheibub, Jose racy, nor is it that they expect democracy to opment that lifts people out of poverty and Antonio and Limongi, Fernando, Democracy and Development: Political In- transform their life circumstances immedi- into dignified lives. stitutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950–1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge ately. Increasingly, it appears, poor people University Press, 2000). 12. Lipset, Seymour Martin, Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), p. 45. The book was originally published in 1960, and the chapter from which this is drawn essentially re- produces his 1959 article, ‘Some Social Requisites of Democracy’.
13. Boix, Carles, Democracy and Redistribution (Cambridge and New York: Cam- bridge University Press, 2003).
14. Huntington, Samuel, The Third Wave: Democratisation in the Late Twenti- eth Century (London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), p. 67. This was not simply the result of economic development, however. In much of Latin America, the power of populist groups often decreased precisely because of Notes repression under authoritarian rule.
5. Lipset, Seymour Martin, ‘Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic 15. Lerner, Daniel, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East Development and Political Legitimacy’, American Political Science Review, 53 (New York: Free Press, 1958). (March 1959), pp. 69–105; and Diamond, Larry, ‘Economic Development and Democracy Reconsidered’, in Gary Marks and Larry Diamond (eds), 16. The early studies establishing this were Almond, Gabriel and Verba, Sidney, Re-examining Democracy: Essays in Honor of Seymour Martin Lipset (Newbury The Civic Culture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963) and In- Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992), pp. 93–139. keles, Alex, ‘Participant Citizenship in Six Developing Countries’, American Political Science Review, 63 (1969), pp. 1120–41. But these associations also 6. See United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report emerge in most of the recent studies of attitudes and values towards democ- 2004 (New York: UNDP, 2004), pp. 258–9. racy as well as in the research associated with the World Values Survey. See Inglehart and Welzel, Modernization, Cultural Change and Democracy, and 7. United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2006 the sources they cite on p. 164. (New York: UNDP, 2006), table 1, p. 283. Cuba is ranked 50 by the UNDP, but speciously, as the ranking is based on only two of the three indicators 17. Inkeles, Alex and Diamond, Larry J., ‘Personal Development and National INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
Development: A Cross-National Perspective’, in Alexander Szalai and Frank 35 DEMOCRACY, DEVELOPMENT AND POVERTY – ON STRENGTHENING THE M. Andrews (eds), The Quality of Life: Comparative Studies(London: Sage, 1980), pp. 73–109. CAPACITY OF AFRICAN PARLIAMENTS AND POLITICAL PARTIES TO PLAY A 18. Sen, Amartya, ‘Democracy as a Universal Value’, in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (eds), The Global Divergence of Democracies (Baltimore, Md: MORE EFFECTIVE ROLE IN POVERTY REDUCTION Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), p. 13.
19. Sen, ‘Democracy as a Universal Value’, p. 12. Gloria Somolekae
20. This question is not a simple yes/no question, but allows two other potential- ly plausible options: ‘In some circumstances a non-democratic government can be preferable’ or ‘For someone like me, it doesn’t matter what kind of government we have’. Wording varies slightly across the regional barometers. This one is drawn from the Afrobarometer,
21. See Lipset, Political Man, pp. 64–70. 36 22. See in particular Rose, Richard, Mishler, William and Haerpfer, Christian, The great shift from military dictatorships intensified North–South polarization has Democracy and Its Alternatives: Understanding Postcommunist Societies (Cam- and one-party regimes to multiparty rule moreover provided arguments for opponents bridge: Polity Press, 1998), chapters 7–9. in the Sub-Saharan region during the early of multiparty democracy as they consider 1990s released a wave of renewed optimism democracy and the idea of human rights to 23. See Diamond, Larry, Developing Democracy: Toward Consolidation (Balti- about the prospects for development on the be a ploy used to maintain the structural sta- more, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), pp. 192–200. conflict-ridden continent. Two decades later, tus quo that has undermined the interests of 24. Institute for Democracy in South Africa (IDASA), ‘Parliamentary Ethics and while a lot of progress has been recorded in the South. Government Corruption: Playing with Public Trust’, Public Opinion Service a number of areas, including the creation Reports no. 3, 1996, pp. 12–13. of democratic institutional infrastructure, Numerous examples exist to support the better human rights climates, some modest widely acknowledged coexistence of and 25. Yun-han Chu et al., ‘Public Opinion and Democratic Legitimacy’, Journal of causal link between democracy and devel- Democracy, 19 (April 2008), p. 75. economic growth and so on, questions are being asked as to whether there is a link be- opment, but, although the claim may be 26. Bratton, Michael, Mattes, Robert and Gyimah-Boadi, E., Public Opinion, tween democracy and development, what it debated, it remains obvious that conditions Democracy, and Market Reform in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- consists of, and whether or not it is causal. of instability, major conflict or war explic- sity Press, 2005), pp. 272–7. These results are based on analysis of the first itly obstruct development. If we agree that two rounds of surveys (around 2000 and 2002), not on the third round in The fact remains that Sub-Saharan Africa 2005. has the highest incidence of poverty in the democracy is essential in order to create the world and, unlike in all other regions in the conditions necessary for development, we 27. Bratton, Michael, ‘Formal versus Informal Institutions in Africa’, Journal of world, poverty is continuously deepening. must explain why on the other hand – de- Democracy,18/3 (July 2007), pp. 81–95, table 2. Were our expectations of democracy and its spite the fact that many countries on the fruits unrealistic? African continent embraced multiparty de- mocracy for nearly two decades – develop- While many countries still struggle to con- ment still remains a colossal challenge. solidate a democratic culture, constituencies are increasingly showing declining levels of CONSOLIDATING DEMOCRACY IN THE trust in parliaments, political parties and AFRICAN CONTEXT other democratic institutions. Governments’ poor delivery has fuelled the rise of populist Democracy in a condensed version may be regimes and the role of powerful external in- defined as rule of the people by the people. fluences such as trade protectionism has led Key institutional infrastructure such as to the perception that the role of domestic legislative, judicial and executive branches democratic processes is now outplayed. The alongside free and fair elections between INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
competing political parties are the key Africa published a report on the theme ‘Striv- 37 • Lack of resources is all-pervasive. De- area, since experience from recent decades 38 structures for channelling people’s political ing for Good Governance in Africa’. One of spite the great responsibility implicit shows that the power to bring people out wishes. A number of African countries its prime recommendations is to strengthen in dealing with policies and legislation, of poverty lies not with governments, have made significant progress in terms of the capacity of parliaments in Africa in order which puts great demands on access to donors or bureaucrats, but with the people institutionalizing democratic rule, but there to enable them to perform their core func- information, many parliamentarians themselves. are still many cases that demonstrate the tions and, most importantly, so that they lack adequate library and research fa- urgency of consolidating the democratic may improve their operational effectiveness. cilities. The reasons why parliaments and political gains already made. The prospect of Legislatures in many parts of Africa remain parties play a limited role in poverty reduc- succeeding in this task, however, depends ineffective, mainly due to lack of knowledge With all these weaknesses taken into account, tion in many African countries are varied. entirely on whether this ‘new’ system will and resources, and are therefore marginalized parliamentarians are often not taken seri- First of all, at the time when many of the trickle down to the vast majority and on its in day-to-day governance. The report noted ously by the executive branch and are often African countries moved out of military ability to coexist with traditional structures. that ‘their autonomy, though guaranteed by excluded from vital processes, for example, dictatorships and one-party regimes to em- the constitutions, is often compromised by they are not consulted when major interna- brace democratic reforms, the common To many Africans, particularly in rural ar- the executive through lobbying, financial in- tional protocols are signed. Hence they are strategy was to adopt structural adjustment eas, traditional systems of governance re- ducements and even intimidation’. left in a position where they ultimately focus programmes. These policy frameworks were main central and more relevant than the fine on critiquing issues of which they have little rapidly implemented in order to address de- institutions at the central or national level. Progress has been made in regard to one of understanding, which in turn further under- velopment issues, but governments found The strongest democracies on the continent parliaments’ core duties – to exercise over- mines their credibility before the executive. themselves on the defensive as some of these are those that have based their modern sys- sight over the executive branch of govern- reforms brought about the – now infamous tems on existing traditional structures, en- ment in order to ensure public accountabil- In regard to the relationship between the – adverse consequences of hardship and suring that the new order is designed to fit ity – but their efficiency is constrained by a executive and political parties, the difficulty heightened political tensions. Parliamentar- the people’s customs. The Kgotla system in number of factors. Due to the legacy of the of finding sufficiently trained persons to run ians, civil society and others attacked from Botswana is a good illustration of this phe- one-party/military dictatorship period: for political office, along with the fact that the opposite side of the aisle, disagreeing nomenon. some parties lack even the basic facilities and with the reforms on the basis of their well- • Institutional tensions remain and criti- access to information to craft relevant policy known side effects and arguing that many THE DEVELOPMENT SCENE ON THE cism is still viewed by some govern- positions, leaves the parties and elected rep- political actors had not been involved in the AFRICAN CONTINENT ments with suspicion. As one expert resentatives uninformed on key issues and process. In a similar way, parliaments and has observed, ‘in many SADC [South- puts them in a position that is marginal- political parties still find themselves on the Gone is the era when development referred ern African Development Community] ized or downright ignored by the executive outside as the donor community and gov- strictly to economic growth. Today, develop- countries, attempts to exercise oversight branch. ernments work out policies. A large part of ment refers to a much broader concept and are regarded as unpatriotic, disloyal, dis- the explanation for this lies in some of these includes questions of people’s quality of life, respectful or even treacherous. There is THE ROLE OF PARLIAMENT AND POLITICAL nations’ great dependence on donor financ- respect for human rights, and equitable and very little acceptance of the necessity of PARTIES IN THE FIGHT AGAINST POVERTY: ing in order to run their programmes. In inclusive systems of governance. Given this a healthy institutional tension between WHICH WAY FORWARD? countries such as Mozambique, Lesotho or background, my presentation focuses on the executive and legislative branches Malawi, governments depend on this type how to strengthen the capacity of democrat- for representative democracy to remain The same reasons that hamper the of aid for more than 50 per cent of their re- ic institutions (such as parliaments and po- vital and vibrant’. effectiveness of parliaments in providing sources. This reliance explains why national litical parties) in developing policy proposals oversight on a number of issues are also governments have to be accommodating • The relationship between civil society geared towards sustainable development in relevant for the poverty eradication role. to other actors when setting their political and parliament is very weak. Some have its broader sense, and especially in regard to Although democracy provides the possibility agendas. effective poverty reduction. dubbed this state of affairs ‘institutional for governments to respond to people’s elitism and chauvinism’ in order to un- needs, much depends on whether or not The poverty reduction strategies and the PARLIAMENTS AND POLITICAL PARTIES IN derscore the tendency for MPs to be re- such governments interact with their Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT garded with high reverence while main- constituents and base their policies on broad are some of the most significant policy taining a distance from the public. consultation. This is particularly relevant interventions introduced in order to fight In 2005, the UN Economic Commission for in regard to the poverty and development poverty. The poverty reduction strategy INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
processes were highly consultative in some • The capacity of parliamentarians to per- 39 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS countries (e.g. Lesotho), but, as with other form their operational duties more effi- non-home grown initiatives, people need ciently must be strengthened; training a more accessible introduction to the for parliamentarians is needed. 1. Please elaborate on the terms ‘democratic rollback’ and ‘democratic recession’. implications of these strategies for their daily lives. In Southern Africa, the SADC Indicative • Efforts should be made to ensure that Larry Diamond. The democratic rollback Hugo Chávez in Venezuela) overturning 40 Strategic Plan and the African Union’s both government and the population at refers to the fact that, among the nearly democratic institutions and concentrating New Partnership for Africa’s Development large are educated about the role of the 100 countries that have undergone transi- power in their own hands. Of the approxi- (NEPAD) framework are all-important parliament. tions to democracy since 1974, a number mately 23 instances of breakdown of de- but, in this case as well, parliaments and are permeated by corruption and bad gov- mocracy during this period, two-thirds have • The interaction between parliament and political parties have to catch up in terms of ernance. These democracies saw their legiti- occurred in the last eight years. Hence there civil society must be strengthened and knowledge and information. macy wane dramatically, to the extent that is an accelerating tendency of democratic a culture of accessibility of this institu- an authoritarian option was created – either reversal. The survival of democracy in these tion to the public must be established. It is not surprising that poverty continues to through military coup (i.e. Pakistan) or by countries is probably at stake if the politi- In this regard some have suggested the be on the increase on the African continent. the actions of a strong leader (Vladimir Pu- cal performance of democracy continues to formation of a parliament–civil society While many of the problems emanate from tin in Russia, Alberto Fujimori in Peru or only satisfy the agenda of limited elites. factors within the international economic forum. system, it is evident that the people – in the • Greater efforts should be made to build shape of parliaments and political parties – the capacity of political parties and to of- have to be brought in to the centre of com- fer them the necessary infrastructure; only bating poverty. The current practice, where 2. Following 11 September 2001, virtually all Western and Asian democracies have implemented then will they become more effective and in terms of both building democracies and legislation to combat terrorism. What will be the effects on the liberal aspects of democracy in the turn into credible entities that may be seeking to drive the process of development long-term perspective? trusted to govern. Part of the problem em- nations are focusing on building from the anates from the fact that the private sector centre or national level, is not bearing fruit. Larry Diamond. The events of 11 Septem- that the executive action taken and legisla- in many African countries equates funding As Professor M. Rukuni has rightly noted in ber underscore the importance of no longer tion passed to combat terror have eroded the ruling party with strengthening democ- his latest book on Being African (2007), this limiting the analysis to developing countries, constitutionalism in regard to the rule of law racy. While they do this in order to ensure is almost the same as attempting to build a but rather assessing the quality of democ- and individual liberties in the United States. economic benefits from state business, they house from the roof. It is not happening. racy in all democratic nations. We have an Although they are certainly worrying, I do also undermine their own future by con- increasingly common set of concerns about not believe these are irreversible actions. On the basis of the points and challenges tributing to the concentration of power, the scope of judicial review, and some argue noted above, it is important to realize that thus weakening democratic prospects. This the necessary solutions require political mea- destructive tradition must be discussed as a sures, and hence great compromises must be public challenge that requires a solution. made. Possible resolutions include the fol- • Political parties have to finally realize that 3. What is the impact of information technology going to be on the efficiency of democracy? lowing: they can no longer involve lower-calibre • The role of the parliaments in the na- candidates, or they will continue to be Pranab K. Bardhan. The sword of informa- common people aware of their rights, and to tional governance system must be marginalized by the executive branch. tion technology is double-edged as it can be mobilize the rapid dissemination of rumours strengthened by ensuring that their con- used efficiently for different purposes, both and disinformation, as is often seen in the • Both parliaments and political parties stitutional roles are performed and that to improve democracy (opening up for criti- case of fanatical religious or sectarian groups have to strive to ensure the presence of the executive branch commits itself to cisms of governments in authoritarian coun- or ultra-nationalists. women and young people in leadership respecting this institution; undermining tries such as China, for example) and make structures, especially since these two parliaments denies people a chance to be groups are the most affected by poverty heard in a democracy. and should therefore take part in the search for a solution. INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
4. Even though there are no empirical data about the link between democracy, welfare and devel- opment, there must be a conclusion that rules and institutions that are valid for economic growth MODERATOR: PETER DESOUZA India has once again served as an example 42 and welfare are also a precondition for democratization. Do you agree? to illustrate most of the problems shared by Each of the four presentations has contrib- democracies worldwide – corruption, clien- uted to clarify the complex landscape of the telism, patronage, abuse of state and public Larry Diamond. Recent data show that de- Maria Amparo Casar. Institutions are cen- 41 relationship between democracy and devel- resources, and the paradox of democracy mocracies in Sub-Saharan Africa are actually tral for both development and democracy opment. Whether one agrees with Professor leading to oligarchies that rely on populism growing faster than the non-democratic re- and it is the same set of rules that usually in- Pranab Bardhan’s position – that democracy to gain power. By pointing to these persis- gimes. And, in contrast to Asian examples, hibit or foster both. The experience of politi- may be an asset to development, but de facto tent problems of democracy, the discussion there have been no developmental dictator- cal transition in Mexico, however, has led me in many cases is also an obstacle – or, as ad- has also touched upon the way forward ships in Africa. Although this point should to the conclusion that institutional design vocated by Professor Larry Diamond, that – strengthening institutions in terms of not be made on a global scale, or in cases and the right incentives are just part of the the two share a necessary relationship, the accountability, recognizing the lack of re- such as those of Vietnam and China, I have solution to the problems facing our country. panellists agree that the debate should move sources, and developing strategies to combat come to the conclusion that democracy is a That is, democratic rules might be in place into a second phase, focusing on the quality corruption. precondition for sustained economic devel- but if the political elite – both government of democracy rather than on the relationship opment in Africa. The African context suf- and opposition – do not share the same pur- between the two concepts. fers profound ethnic divisions that create pose, recognize the need to collaborate and deep mistrust, and because of this strong agree to work through the established insti- tendency power is cornered and exploited tutions, the reforms that are needed in or- for one group or one individual. Democracy der for the country to move towards a more in the form of competitive elections alone is competitive economy will not be attained. not enough; Africa needs democracy with More often than not it is political disputes improved governance, horizontal account- and divisions within the political elite that ability to control corruption, effective par- hinder the establishment of the conditions liaments, and the rule of law. These are the needed for economic reforms. institutional conditions for the continent to escape from the predicament of persistent deep poverty. MODERATOR: JAVEED ALAM
PART 2
ROOM FOR POLITICS – DEMOCRATIZING NATIONAL OWNERSHIP OF DEVELOPMENT
There are two issues in particular under the communities have their own moral psychol- 44 topic of democratizing national ownership ogy and carry their own values and norma- of development to recognize before we pro- tive culture, which are quite different from ceed. First, people around the world are find- the norms deriving from liberal democracy. ing that there is something fundamentally wrong with the manner in which democracy These communities are not self-created, has been working. In turn, popular demand which is why their demands for develop- for a more uncontaminated democracy is ment go beyond economic demands; their rising across the globe – from uprisings in claims rather focus on dignity, and on the Pakistan, Nepal, Burma and Bangladesh, to communities’ right to stand up and for the broadly-based movements (mainly of previ- first time be listened to. Similarly, the ques- ously excluded groups such as indigenous tion of unmet daily needs is raised in terms peoples) in Latin America expressing their of the community. It is therefore important collective claims. Democracy is as a conse- to disabuse ourselves of certain inherited quence expanding, but the time has come norms of liberalism and to concentrate more to abandon efforts to understand it solely on the values of democracy, which are ana- in terms of norms inherited from the liberal lytically separable. baggage; the processes themselves through Several of these processes are taking place in which democracy is evolving must be inves- a context of a globalization where power is tigated and understood if we are to guaran- concentrated on unaccountable elites, and tee the survival of democracy as a system. in which criteria to measure development Second, this traditionally exclusive concern are completely bereft of an ethical dimen- with norms from liberal democracy becomes sion. It is therefore important that we ap- problematic when applied to other contexts proach the question of development not in than Western societies: Indian democracy is terms of the criteria set by globalization but for example populated not by individuated in terms of what people actually need and re- persons like in Europe but rather by individ- quest. Studying the democratic processes in uals acting through the communities. These which these requests are expressed is there- fore vital. INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
WINDOWS OF OPPORTUNITY – THE GHANA EXPERIENCE out strong, vigilant, transparent and highly of poverty, underdevelopment and resource 46 resourceful civil society organizations, Africa leakages from Africa. One report prepared cannot attain development; nor can it sus- for the AU in 2002 estimated that corrup- Akwasi Osei Adjei tain and strengthen democracy. However, tion costs the continent about 148 billion (Delivered by William Brandful) this crucial role of civil society must be but- USD annually. tressed by a strong, independent and highly professional judiciary, with a pronounced It is against this backdrop that the NEPAD sense of honesty and integrity, which gives vision was launched as an African-owned de- hope for the enhancement and protection of velopment strategy that seeks to make Afri- democratic values in Africa. can governments more accountable to their citizenry. Ghana has embraced the flagship As we all know, the ‘democracy–develop- of the NEPAD initiative, namely the African ment’ nexus presents a complex range of is- Peer Review Mechanism (APRM), which sues for discussion. Ghana’s first president, aims at enhancing all aspects of governance Kwame Nkrumah, noted almost 50 years in Africa. As the first Sub-Saharan country to gain po- largely as a result of frequent political inter- 45 ago on this regard: ‘We shall measure our On the whole, the Peer Review of Ghana litical freedom, Ghana became independent ruptions in its democratic process. The good progress by the improvement in the health brought out a number of best practices to in 1957. In 2007, as part of the celebra- news, however, is that since the early 1990s of our people; by the number of children in inspire other nations, such as the Annual tion of 50 years of political independence, the country has embarked on a renewed, school, and by the quality of their education; People’s Assembly concept, which provides the country embarked on a year-long pro- sustained process of democracy. After four by the availability of water and electricity in a forum where the president engages in di- gramme of activities of commemoration. successful elections, including one which our towns and villages and by the happi- rect interaction with ordinary Ghanaians; Ghana’s illustrious son, Kofi Annan, former saw the exit of the ruling party and its re- ness which our people take in being able to the Meet-the-Press Series by which govern- UN Secretary-General, addressed Ghana’s placement by the party then in opposition, manage their own affairs. The welfare of our ment appointees routinely face media scru- parliament as part of the celebrations: in December 2008 Ghana will once again go people is our chief pride, and it is by this that tiny about government performance; and to the polls to elect the next president and a we ask to be judged’. the National Governance Forum, organized Ghana and Malaysia started out on a new crop of 230 members of parliament. similar path fifty years ago. Both coun- In achieving these targets, what have been annually as a platform for civil society orga- tries looked to the future with excite- In the meantime, greater economic stability the contributing roles of Ghana’s political nizations, the private sector, constitutional ment […] We had a lot in common: has been achieved, with many of the macro- society in ensuring sustainable development bodies and other stakeholders to discuss and natural resources, significant gold and economic indices recording acceptable lev- and good governance, and of the interna- find solutions to problems. In addition, in- foreign reserves, strong legal system, es- els, and with growth rates of around 6 per tional community, and what has been the stitutions such as the National Commission tablished political institutions, similar cent a year, in a virtuous cycle that has re- impact of globalization on democracy? for Civic Education and the Commission educational standards. The per capita duced the incidence of poverty from 52 per for Human Rights and Administrative Jus- Posing such questions allows us to assign roles income was roughly the same. Now cent in 1992 to 35 per cent in 2003. At this tice have been founded to improve Ghana- to each of these stakeholders. Ultimately the let’s fast forward to the turn of the cen- rate, Ghana is set to surpass the Millennium ian society. far bigger role devolves on African govern- tury. We could not be more surprised Development Goal of halving poverty by ments which are expected to champion both Civil society participation has been par- at the difference between the two, with 2015. the pace and the quality of the democratiza- ticularly pronounced in the preparation Malaysia attaining a per capita income tion process. and implementation of the Ghana Poverty 13 times greater than Ghana, and dis- In offering the following thoughts about Reduction Strategy (GPRS), which focuses tancing itself from us in every single the interdependence between democracy THE ROLE OF POLITICAL SOCIETY on private-sector development, good gov- social and economic indicator. Today, and development in Ghana and elsewhere ernance and civic responsibility, as well as Malaysia is a highly industrialized coun- in Africa, I make two fundamental assump- Indeed, the Constitutive Act of the African human resource development, anchored by try with state of the art infra-structure. tions. The first is that Africa cannot develop Union (AU) (2001) and the framework of without democracy, and that democracy in macroeconomic stability and the develop- NEPAD both underscore the centrality of ment of infrastructure. The process involves So what went wrong? To put it bluntly, Africa cannot be sustained without develop- good governance to addressing the crises Ghana’s development process has suffered ment. Second, it is my position that with- cross-sectoral planning groups which meet INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
with stakeholders such as parliament, govern- Other analysts view this phenomenon 47 mental organizations and even some NGOs South cooperation. Developing countries 48 ment ministries, departments and agencies, as constituting the principal threat to have acquired such influence in relation to have no choice but to apply the rules of lib- donor partners and civil society groups. democracy, freedom and economic well- African governments that some countries eralization, to enhance the capabilities and being. Arguably, globalization strengthens have become mere implementers of policies capacities of their economies, which have to THE ROLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL the state and global governance as it extends dictated from outside. Moreover, among the compete on the global market. Globaliza- COMMUNITY its influence via the international system unintended consequences of globalization is tion, colonialism, imperialism and slavery and interstate cooperation. Because of the exclusion and disempowerment of cer- have one thing in common: they exploit the The international community – notably the the twin processes of globalization and tain segments of the population, with far- weak and vulnerable states and/or the disad- Bretton Woods institutions – has a signifi- mutual interdependence, states undertake reaching consequences for newly emergent vantaged segments of populations. cant contributory role to play in the open- to preserve the oceans, eradicate disease, states. Indeed, globalization, accompanied ing up of broader spaces for the effective subdue the contagion effects of financial by the neoliberal ideology of the market CONCLUSION participation of political society in Africa’s shocks, and counter global warming. Viewed economy, has transformed not only the sys- development. Donors should, however, give from that perspective, globalization presents tem of governance but also the social, eco- This presentation offers some perspectives on more policy space to African countries in three major benefits – in the areas of the nomic, political, cultural and ethical lives of democracy and development starting from the shaping of their development priorities promotion of national interests, equity and people worldwide. the Ghanaian context, and my tentative and strategies. Encouraged by the commit- good governance. conclusion is that three possible trajectories ment of African leaders to good governance, CONTROLLING THE ADVERSE EFFECTS OF could be the way forward for African coun- development partners in 2005 cancelled the Moreover, with regard to the real purposes GLOBALIZATION ON DEMOCRACY tries. First, for countries in which economic foreign debts of some 18 African countries, of governance – securing peace; alleviating and political reforms prove compatible, there including Ghana, which pursued the path of poverty; creating equitable social harmony; Since globalization is a trend that cannot be could be consolidation of democratic values sustained democratic and accountable gov- and protecting the environment – globaliza- wished away, the way forward appears to be and freedoms, resulting in economic prog- ernance. tion has endowed states with new capacities active engagement with the international ress and increased welfare. The second pos- and legitimacy for action beyond national community to mitigate its harmful effects. sibility is the development of populism in However, mindful of the adverse impact on borders. Perhaps the most tangible evidence Such new doctrines as the concept of ‘hu- which the political costs of economic reform the local populations of the conditionalities of democratic ideals trickling across borders man rights and humanitarian intervention’ lead governments to retreat from adjustment of its donor partners, Africa now seeks to into authoritarian states has been the infu- must not be used as pretexts to subvert weak and rather resort to an increase in state inter- own its own development processes and to sion of democratic norms and the principles states. Moreover, liberalization and deregula- vention, as was the case with the centralized set out its development agenda in collabo- of human rights into the operations of many tion should not lead to the collapse of infant governments of the past. The third alterna- ration with its development partners. Thus international and regional institutions. To industries in Africa. Globalization should tive is to exploit new windows of opportu- the concept of good governance espoused forestall further conflicts in Africa, for in- also not result in the dumping of goods in nity offered by globalization in order to meet by Africa’s development partners has be- stance, the AU and sub-regional organiza- Africa or the burying of hazardous chemicals the challenges of economic restructuring and come complementary to the NEPAD vision, tions such as the Economic Community and waste in African countries, as some me- accelerated development. thereby reinforcing the inextricable link be- of West African States (ECOWAS) have dia reports have recently suggested. tween good democratic governance and ho- adopted protocols on democracy and good I welcome your honest and frank thoughts listic development. governance to complement mechanisms for The need to help fragile countries develop on the way forward; there is too much pov- conflict prevention, resolution and manage- their national capacities through human erty and too much suffering which require THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON ment on the continent. Most member states training and investment in research and de- our urgent action, and our people cannot DEMOCRACY of the AU and ECOWAS have incorporated velopment, together with pragmatic actions wait to be lifted out of poverty. Moreover, the provisions of these protocols into na- towards attaining global competitiveness, we cannot have a globalized world in which In the process, the impact of globalization on tional laws. cannot be overemphasized. This calls for one part develops at the expense of another. democracy has resulted in a further blurring fruitful partnerships, including effective re- That is a veritable recipe for chaos, conflict of the line between the international and In spite of its many benefits, however, glo- gional integration programmes and South– and threats to global peace. domestic affairs of states. The promoters and balization presents some serious challenges defenders of human rights have hailed this to democratization and development. For- development in relation to the promotion of eign governments, especially donors, inter- world peace, human rights and prosperity. national financial institutions, intergovern- INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
MAKING DEVELOPMENT EFFICIENT – NATIONAL OWNERSHIP AND Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) gathered • as a result of increased transparency 50 in Cape Town where a unanimous vote was of government policies and budgetary STRENGTHENED PARLIAMENTS cast in favour of a resolution on parliamen- processes, induce donor countries to tary oversight of state policies on foreign aid, offer a larger share of their aid in the stressing the important role parliaments play form of central budget support. This François-Xavier de Donnea in enhancing ownership of development in turn is a more efficient way than the processes and thus improving governance. traditional approach of focusing on in- The resolution states: ‘[We are] convinced dividual projects. that the effectiveness of financing for devel- opment will only increase if the beneficiary HOW TO STRENGTHEN PARLIAMENT? countries promote democracy, rule of law, good governance and fight corruption’. The 42 IPU recommendations provide prac- tical suggestions on how to move beyond the Central to the IPU philosophy is that stron- general prerequisite of free and fair elections ger parliamentary oversight and participa- in order to strengthen parliaments. The fol- lowing seven points from the list of recom- Half-way through the time frame for the that, although not a sufficient condition, 49 tion concerning development strategies and mendations reflect the IPU’s main message achievement of the Millennium Develop- better-functioning democratic institutions foreign aid allocation automatically yields directed towards both donor and beneficiary ment Goal (MDG) it is clear that a number are fundamental to improving governance, better governance. This principle is the foun- actors. of countries, particularly in the Sub-Saharan fighting corruption and increasing national dation of the IPU’s 42 recommendations on how to strengthen the role of both donor region, will fail to achieve the poverty reduc- ownership of development strategies. Only The first recommendation advocates encour- tion goal. Part of the explanation is reasons when these components have been put in and beneficiary countries’ parliaments on their way to aid efficiency, and to the align- aging the financing by donor and beneficiary that are beyond the reach of individual gov- place to a certain level will the prospect of countries of capacity building of national ernments, such as natural catastrophes, cli- reaching the MDG come into sight. There is ment and oversight of governance policies in general. parliaments and parliamentarians; regardless mate change and distortions in world trade, a growing international awareness that par- of the fairness and transparency of elections, but several voices within the donor commu- liaments in developing countries are – and WHY STRENGTHEN PARLIAMENT? parliamentarians who lack the ability or the nity are also ready to argue that not enough should be – the prime cornerstones for cre- means to control the government efficiently foreign aid is available to support these coun- ating the incentives for such a process. Fur- In order to enable an increased ownership or to participate effectively in development tries in their battle against poverty. thermore, discussions on the problems that of development strategies and better gov- strategy discussions are unable to carry out mount up on the receiving end as donor ernance within the beneficiary nation, a their tasks in a satisfactory way. Donor coun- Several nations which committed themselves countries impose conditions when donating strengthened parliament is needed as it will: try parliaments are therefore recommended to increase their official development aid aid are beginning to change the panorama. to ensure that part of their contribution goes budget at the Monterrey summit in 2002 The European Union has to some extent rec- • increase the need for transparency and towards improving the working conditions have not yet fulfilled their promise. In addi- ognized the less positive implications of such accountability within the government; of beneficiary country parliamentarians, in tion, and perhaps representing a greater part conditionality and has accordingly untied a order to build their capacity in handling of the explanation of why the MDG has not • pressure the government not to neglect large part of its aid. public finances and budgets, as well as to de- been achieved, the foreign aid bestowed to any population group; velopment programmes. Moreover it will be date has often been ineffectively managed by Parliaments should unquestionably play a essential here to develop bilateral coopera- both donating and beneficiary governments. more active role in planning, implementing • influence the government to promote tion between the parliaments of donor and This inefficiency, as we will discuss, is inti- and assessing national development policies fairer distribution of incomes and beneficiary countries. mately linked with lack of effective demo- as well as in overseeing the activities of their wealth; cratic institutions in the receiver countries. government. This point has been increasing- • help to reduce political tensions by of- The second key recommendation is that, ly emphasized during international confer- in order to be efficient, a parliament must Poor governance and a deficit of democratic fering opposing groups the chance to ences and was, for example, the reason for be able to rely upon an independent court ownership of national strategies are two fea- bring discussions off the streets and gathering the international community at of audit (or corresponding institution). tures that tend to reinforce each other. This into the parliament; and the 2005 summit, resulting in the Paris Dec- The importance of such an institution – presentation starts from the assumption laration on Aid Effectiveness. Recently, the INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
appointed by and only answerable to the allowed to play their roles accordingly: 51 respect the Universal Declaration of Human of the state and its administration. Naturally, 52 parliament – cannot be overestimated. In opposition members must, for example, Rights; and appealing to partners to develop these are not sufficient conditions to resolve other words, it is necessary to strengthen receive a share of seats in the bureaux and with the aid of the international community the many tensions surrounding aid and the oversight capacity of parliaments, in committees of the parliament in proportion in the way they themselves consider most development, but they are fundamental particular by creating or reinforcing the to their representation in parliament suitable. In this process they should be to meeting the challenges that present existing national audit office and maintaining and must not, as they have been in many encouraged to reinforce their democratic themselves during such processes. a close relationship between the parliament instances, be excluded from the official institutions and to secure the core functions and the audit office in order to facilitate parliamentary arena. the monitoring of public finances and the implementation of that monitoring. Finally, the seventh recommendation high- lights the importance of enhancing coop- The third recommendation suggests that eration between parliaments – not only be- parliament officials must receive adequate tween donor and beneficiary countries but and sufficient information. It is not unusual also South–South inter-parliamentary rela- for parliamentarians attending international tionships. Such relations are critical when conferences to receive new information on- developing tools like the peer review system site from donor countries or diplomats about which has proved successful in the African their own government’s plans. This under- region. In order to assist such relations, re- scores the importance of including parlia- gional parliaments or similar forums where ments in the programming, following up parliaments of a particular region meet are and evaluation of the impact of aid. Foreign fundamental. aid and loans should obviously be included in the budget documents discussed by par- CONCLUSION liamentarians when voting on the budget. All the core functions of beneficiary govern- The fourth is that parliament should con- ments should be reinforced; support must sult civil society. Parliamentarians must keep not be limited to parliament only. However, their independence of mind but in order for the parliament plays a special role in regard them to be well informed and recognize peo- to putting pressure on a country’s govern- ples’ genuine needs, consultations with civil ment, which in turn is the guarantee we society when evaluating and overseeing aid have that our governments will fulfil their programmes are indispensable. obligations and invest in their core functions accordingly. Hence in my view it is essen- The fifth recommendation holds that a sub- tial for the donor community – whether it stantial representation of both genders in be multilateral or bilateral donors – to per- parliament is very important. Both men and suade their partners to invest a minimum women have a specific and original percep- amount of the aid received in strengthen- tion of problems and of the relevance of dif- ing their democratic institutions, the work- ferent development strategies. They should ing capacities of their parliament, and their work together in parliaments to promote and audit mechanisms reporting to parliament, implement balanced and effective legislation as well as, alongside fighting corruption, to and better control of governments leading to strengthen an independent judiciary. more effective and equitable development. I advocate keeping aid conditionality as The sixth emphasizes the need for parliament limited as possible. However, two principles to ensure that the different functions are should be guiding – requesting partners to INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
RECLAIMING INDIAN DEMOCRACY THROUGH POOR PEOPLE’S PROTEST the institutions of democracy. It is a time- which in reality did not exist – had been laid 54 consuming experience but, as the following four times. This phenomenon repeated itself cases illustrate, the investment has already several times in different shapes and revealed Aruna Roy proved – and will hopefully continue – to the level of corruption among the council pay off. members and the administration. This and other similar experiences became vivid proof THE RIGHT TO INFORMATION CAMPAIGN of the close link between democracy and the right to development. The seeds of the movement behind the Right to Information Campaign were planted over Who decides the social and economic agen- three decades ago as we moved between ru- da in the remote parliament is important be- ral villages in the state of Rajasthan. Inspired cause those sets of decisions also affect the by the fundamental principle of democracy, future of the village pond, fishing rights, and our aim was to listen to people who rarely whether an individual is going to be displaced are listened to and who, despite their great because of a dam project. Acting upon this common sense, tend to be dismissed as un- We as social movements believe in democ- inequality have existed long and continuous- 53 realization during election periods, we de- intelligent. The villagers expressed their need racy, but our politics is not limited to the ly in spite of India being a working democ- manded that the political parties approach- for development based on their own reality – narrow paradigm of electoral politics. This racy. While we boast of 8.5 per cent annual ing us should ensure that policy was framed employment, health and schooling – and the tradition in India, inherited from Gandhi, growth, other indicators reveal a situation in the way we wanted in the State Assembly debates distilled the peasants’ main concern Jaiprakash Narayan and many others, is the that is worse than that in the Sub-Saharan and hence open up for accountability. As the – to receive the promised but so far absent politics of conscience, of reflecting and tak- region. How do I as an Indian react to the politicians failed to fulfil their assurances on minimum wage for the work they had been ing peoples’ voices to people in power. Along fact that millions of my own people live on several occasions, we responded with protests employed by the government to perform. the way, the concept of power has been rede- less than a dollar a day, with no access to and hunger strikes in line with non-violent fined. In today’s India it is no longer obvious literacy, education, health or employment? ‘satyagraha’ – the Gandhian method of civil Repeated protests, agitation and hunger disobedience. After many years of struggle who holds more power – the person in an Not only is this a personal dilemma, it is a strikes resulted in minimum wages being official position of authority or the people dilemma for democracy. and advocacy, a creative dialectic evolved paid for that particular contract, but the sit- and the government eventually accepted our who topple that person. uation reverted to non-payment of wages at Regardless of the socio-economic situation, request for minimal transparency, which en- the next hiring. To illustrate, some workers The history of social movements has a long the poor in India understand democracy. abled us to review payment rolls. A large part received less than one rupee a day, while the tradition in India and, having been invited We also understand that without democra- of Indian civil society along with judges and official minimum wage was 22. The situa- to represent several of the current ones, I cy, and without that vote that empowers us ex-members of the Supreme Court appreci- tion became unsustainable for obvious rea- would like to share my experience of mak- for at least one month prior to elections, we ated the efforts and joined the movement sons, and we demanded to look into the re- ing a ‘different kind’ of politics within the would be reduced to a digit on a computer to support the cause and frame the entitle- cords of the local village council responsible world’s largest democracy. The two major screen. But because that one vote matters, ment. for the payments. Our request was denied and successful movements – the Right to for that one month, politicians are willing to on the grounds that the documents (under Information Campaign and the Right to an approach us to ask for our support. This ex- The Right to Information Act is moreover the Colonial – and now Indian – Official Employment Guarantee – will serve to illus- perience has taught us that democracy does an example of how the people have been Secrets Act) belonged to the state. A ground- trate the scenario. matter, but not the way it is exercised today. successful in enhancing transparency swell of indignant peasants and workers, de- To put it succinctly, what we want is not within democratic political institutions. nied their basic rights of life and livelihood, Before looking at concrete examples we only representative democracy; we want par- Parliamentarians were themselves limited advanced the struggle bolstered by the con- should start by asking what we mean by ticipatory democracy. We want a democracy in their access to information until the act stitutional right to demand transparency of politics: is politics limited to political parties that is transparent and accountable and with became national law, and it has increased records and continued to approach the vil- or does anyone who votes – or refrains from institutions that are able to deliver. the voters’ ability to demand accountability. voting – in a democracy become part of the lage council, asking for a public audit of ac- In addition, the struggle and the law that political process? The concept becomes par- Due to the state’s failure to deliver, we have counts. According to the documents which followed have brought home the realization ticularly urgent in India where poverty and ourselves taken on the role of monitoring were finally released, the main village road – that we, the voters, are not limited to INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
demanding accountability at election time; CONCLUSION 55 DEMOCRACY AND PRO-POOR DEVELOPMENT we can question the elected representatives and demand answers throughout their term. Participating in the movements has taught This implies a transfer of power from the us that dialogue can come out of campaigns Ravi Srivastava elected individual to the community he or and political pressure can be used to realize she represents. To us, this is a vital change. our objectives, without the use of violence. Due to tensions in some Indian states, this A campaign member summarized the rea- approach may be more difficult to adopt son for our movement’s demands with the there than in others, but our argument lies following reflection. ‘We wonder, that if we within the dialectic between people and don’t get the right to information, wheth- elected representatives; we have been able to er we can survive or not. You wonder – as establish a form of equality that may inspire people running the government – that if you others to follow. give us the right to information, will you be able to retain your power or not. But what By organizing ourselves into movements with a common agenda and interacting we all need to wonder is whether the nation Democracy may derive from one single prin- tal that the debate be based upon a working 56 with parliamentarians and local politicians, will survive or not without the right to in- ciple, but actual voting in parliamentary, definition of the two concepts when explor- we have succeeded in linking peasants and formation.’ state or local elections gives rise to individual ing how to democratize national ownership workers – people to whom the sphere of elec- and varying perceptions of what democracy of development. This presentation will refer THE NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT toral politics always has been utterly remote implies. When discussing democracy-related to democracy in terms of representational GUARANTEE ACT – to people with voices and power within issues it is therefore important to realize the democracy (which in itself does not neces- governments. In doing so we have been able multifaceted ground upon which they rest. sarily advance the cause of development in In an environment of increasing distress to shape modes of interaction that have real a linear way) and define development as an among the poor, where the state evaded its political impact and opened up channels for A point of departure for discussing room for extension of basic rights and freedoms. responsibilities and the population was sys- future dialogue with India’s elected decision politics, democratization, national ownership tematically being disempowered by economic makers. and development is to define where the locus Representational democracy may work in policies, the growing demands for basic em- of development may be found today. How a number of ways – through the so-called We are ware that we are unlikely to win an ployment resonated across India. Numerous much of it resides in the national terrain and ‘money and muscle’ well known to Indian election or form a political party, but we campaigns and workers’ organizations joined how much has shifted to other actors? citizens; or by appealing to cultural, social, know we can influence people so that certain the Right to Work Movement. The Indian sectarian and communal identities. These political forces are prevented from coming parliament was eventually pressured to pass The problematique surrounding this question identities – although at times they play an to power; we have the power to influence the the National Rural Employment Guarantee has been poignantly reflected in the Indian important role in pluralizing democracy – negative vote, and with it comes the respon- Act (2005). This was without doubt a great case by the thousands of suicides among are often used in the name of representation- sibility to exercise our influence in an ethical victory for the people: rural workers were farmers over the past few years. The reasons al democracy in order to limit the process of way. It is now up to us as people from social for the first time guaranteed employment for these may be traced to the negative effects development. for 100 days a year per household. As we movements to treasure the lessons learned of both national and international policies. speak, millions of Indians are working, earn- and sustain our energy. The Indian con- Discussions on ownership can therefore no From a poor person’s perspective, represen- ing their minimum wage in the country. It is stitution was the result of a long collective longer be limited to national contexts but tational democracy is for obvious reasons of- indeed a phenomenal achievement for work- struggle for independence. This spirit must must take a broadened perspective into ten a lesser priority than accessing the basic ers’ struggles and movements in India. be sustained if its promise is to be realized. account. needs for survival. However, claiming that democracy is irrelevant to underprivileged DEFINING CONCEPTS people means throwing the baby out with the bath water since democracy brings the Discussing democracy and development as notion of accountability – which is a funda- separate issues is an outdated approach, and, mental component on which development although views on the semantics vary, it is vi- rests – into the political system. INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
HOW TO EXPAND ECONOMIC lence, leading to their weakening or disap- 57 ferent beliefs live and strive for their own around issues of development. The processes 58 DEMOCRACY? pearance. In such scenarios the state has of- political strategies, a basic compact between behind the agreements are different depend- ten in turn adopted some of the movements’ the differing identities has been established ing on the context and are well worth study- When looking at development in terms main issues, particularly in cases related to on a common agreement over development ing in order to enable politicians and civil of both political and economic rights it land reform. Currently almost 100 districts issues. This has created a broadened national society actors to create situations where the is important to recognize that the process throughout the country are affected by ownership in the sense that almost all Ker- pressure from these movements leads not of deepening political democracy must go high-intensity mass movements but they are alans, despite their diversities, have become only to a response from the state, but also to hand in hand with the process of deepening seldom able to influence development out- stakeholders in the development plan and an internalization of the development agen- economic democracy. In order for political comes. process within their state. da. Only then will the economically and po- democracy to be effective the space of eco- litically disempowered citizens be able to de- nomic rights has to be expanded, which is The second, more dialogue-focused, trajec- CONCLUSION velop a permanent stake in the system which where the core problem lies: if political de- tory – commonly present throughout Indian has so profoundly failed to offer them their mocracy does not by itself serve to expand history – has been adopted by the horizon- Several states in India have similarly moved due share. the process of economic rights, then how do tal movements which through their interac- towards the model of sharing a compact we expand the terrain of economic democ- tion with the state have proved influential racy? Two pathways suggest solutions to this on the development discourse. The main challenge. issue in such cases is how to sustain the Indian states in imbibing the core aims of The first is the broad process which we refer these movements; both in the past and cur- to as growth: growth slowly expands the ter- rently, the state has dealt and is dealing with rain of economic democracy and hence cre- movements’ demands in wave-like motions, ates both political and economic aspirations. taking one step forward and two steps back This in turn causes a churning up of society (or vice versa). A complex issue of political which is key in enabling those low down on economy is played out between the states the social scale and disadvantaged groups and the movements which depends on the to express their aspirations and claim their movements’ intensity, their breadth and due share of the cake. This phenomenon their methods, and when they threaten the has been concretized in India, where it has status quo too radically they are met with deepened the democratic processes which state violence. are clearly occurring as a consequence (albeit often unintended) of the process of growth, In the third example, broadly-based social, rather than evolving as isolated events. political and economic movements have demonstrated a capacity to in some sense The second way in which economic rights capture the state, and hence seize political may advance is through horizontal and power. In the Indian state of Kerala, the left- largely secular movements that focus on ele- ist movement obtained such political power ments within the domain of economic and that it forced the state to be responsive on political rights. Throughout Indian history, development issues. The state developed a these movements have taken different trajec- broad social security and human develop- tories, and the three main ones may serve to ment agenda and is presently carrying it for- give a brief overview. ward. Once the agenda wins broadly-based political support, the ground is prepared to First, the approach chosen by radical redis- build a development compact between the tributive movements has commonly been political parties and the different sectarian too drastic in the eyes of the state and has at identities in the state. In the case of Kerala, times been responded to with excessive vio- a multi-religious state where people of dif- INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS political parties in emerging democracies of tional to its number of deputies. Such mea- 60 the benefits of having a functioning opposi- sures enable both opposition and majority to tion. In order to carry out its tasks, the op- run a fair election on an equal footing as far 1. Democracy’s four pillars – the legislature, the executive, the judiciary and the media – are rarely position must be offered the same physical as party financing is concerned. given equal attention in discussions on democracy and development; we tend to concentrate on the and intellectual facilities as members of the legislature and omit the fact that the other pillars greatly affect the functionality of the political majority. Inter-parlamentary relationships, William Brandful. It is indeed important executive. In what way is the executive pillar important to the process of a democracy that generates South–South as well as North–South, are to strengthen parliaments and encourage the development for the people? crucial for dialogues through which such inclusion and welfare of opposition within matters may be discussed. the official quarters. However, when the Ravi Srivastava. As suggested, more focus tion. With respect to the first we have a set 59 parliamentary majority perceives donors as should be given to other institutions of de- of suggestions which should be developed; One way to strengthen an opposition is for focusing too much on members of the op- mocracy in order to balance the discussion. with regard to the second we still need to the state to finance political campaigns. In position, counter-effects are commonly trig- Furthermore, the two most important issues analyse how to control the more centralized countries such as Belgium, the parliament of- gered, and too often violence against minori- as far as India is concerned are electoral re- forms of corruption since it has devastating fers each party an allowance that is propor- ties has been the unfortunate result. form and combating the mafia and corrup- effects on the political machinery.
4. Please comment on the statement that it is important to link the ownership of development 2. After 60 years of independence we have still not been able to ensure a basic economic minimum programmes to the ownership of the means of production, specifically in Africa. In addition, what in terms of food, clothing, shelter, education, sanitation and health facilities for the people. If these is the European Union’s position on untying the assistance from specific conditions? rights fail to be met in the next 20–25 years, will democracy itself survive? François-Xavier de Donnea. In a global- of conditions requires recipients to spend Ravi Srivastava. The immense economic Aruna Roy. In order to achieve politi- ized world, national ownership of all means enormous amounts of time on producing growth that India has experienced has not cal equality we must also ensure economic of production of an individual country is reports and receiving inspection missions. trickled down to the poorer population, and social equality. I think we need to ask – regretfully or otherwise – not possible. A Fewer conditions would free qualified civil and inequalities have rather increased. The ourselves why we, as civil society and move- strong government and a strong parliament servants on the receiving end to focus on current situation indicates that much more ments, have not contributed more on en- which are able to promote free competition their original assignments. Focusing on the than democracy is at stake if we fail to value hancing social equality. Focus must be put and fight excessive concentration and abuse constant process of improving the institu- and act upon the aspirations of marginalized on broader spectra of issues, and further so- of powers – whether on behalf of national tions of governance – such as strengthen- groups. cial movements should be created to do so. or of foreign actors – is the most important ing parliament, the judiciary and customs thing. systems, and the police – enables virtuous circles. Over time this in turn will yield im- Donors must realize that imposing hundreds proved and more effective governance.
3. Experience shows that a parliament that includes a variety of parties is more dynamic and ef- ficient than one that excludes the opposition. When we advocate strengthening parliaments we tend in practice to refer to a strengthening of the opposition. How may we realize this ambition in reality? 5. The democratic system as we know it derives from principles of representation that emerged several centuries ago. Considering that within a foreseeable future technology will enable practi- On a related note, donors are inclined to focus on relations with countries’ executive branches and cally every person on the planet to communicate and access information, what is your view on omit NGOs and other parties in the process. How should donors change this habit? democracy becoming more innovative as a system in which each person is able to participate and represent her/him-self? François-Xavier de Donnea. A parliament tion or to exercise credible oversight of the without an opposition is unable to exercise government; it is simply not a parliament. Aruna Roy. Technology can certainly change political system ‘thick’ is its peculiar anom- its critical role concerning proposed legisla- Donor countries must therefore convince communication patterns, but it is less likely aly between the centralization of economic to change political systems. What makes the power and the inability to communicate the INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
real value of democracy to people. Commu- the plurality of the situation are needed. 61 nications technology has brought changes to rural areas where services such as banking are Ravi Srivastava. Inequalities are pervasive concerned, and text messaging has proved a and in India the process of growth has powerful tool in mobilizing people for many bypassed an estimated 37 million people. positive causes worldwide. On a negative Policies at the central level need to adapt note, the genocide in Gujarat, India, took to facilitate the inclusion of poor people in place largely through people texting and mo- the processes of development, and the main bilizing to kill. Naturally, we must be open issue is to take a stand when policy making to the use and possibilities of technology, but requires trade-offs to ensure that they are more debate and a greater understanding of made in favour of those who are normally excluded from the fruits of development.
MODERATOR: JAVEED ALAM In order to manage the failure of foreign aid in combating poverty, François-Xavier de Donnea The key question extracted from the panel is: presents a set of prescriptions suggesting that fo- how do we – by looking at this particular rela- cus must be put on better governance; this can tionship between democracy and development only be done through consolidating democracy and giving it a national dimension – make the by strengthening parliament and obtaining na- democratic process more inclusive? In their dif- tional oversight and ownership in regard to aid. ferent ways, the panellists have reflected on the answer. The question posed by Aruna Roy is important. What, after all, is politics? It is neither simply The pan-African cooperation is a crucial electoral nor procedural; it is participatory, and element in enabling a national dimension to it is participatory in the way in which it deliv- development. The impact of globalization in ers in the face of abysmal poverty. Only by es- this process is important to recognize since it tablishing equality between the people and the involves two contradictory elements: on one representatives can democracy be turned into an level, opportunities for political reforms are effective institution. opened, while on the other hand national economic processes are tending to slip out of Finally, Ravi Srivastava’s reflection on the ques- the hands of national decision makers. William tion of representative democracy as something Brandful’s reference to Ghana establishes a that does not necessarily lead to national devel- positive relationship between democracy and opment is particularly relevant to today’s Indian development, and reflects a people-oriented society where representative democracy in real- process of development taking place in the ity has appealed to and strengthened narrow, African region. The struggles for democracy congealed identities. The process of democracy and the establishment of democratic regimes – with its many different components – has also have prepared the ground for that development led to the empowerment of the poor. The ex- to flourish, and the case of Ghana contrasts pansion of democracy is therefore systematically somewhat with the first session’s questioning of related to the deepening of democracy’s capabil- the relationship between the two. ity to deliver on people’s economic rights. TOWARDS A MULTIPLICATION OF SPECIALIZED ASSEMBLAGES OF TERRITORY,
AUTHORITY AND RIGHTS28 PART 3
Saskia Sassen
DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT – THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION
This is a time of epochal, even if partial, range private, often very narrow, frameworks 64 transformations. Some use the notion of glo- such as the lex constructionis – a private ‘law’ balization to capture the change – a ‘national developed by the major engineering com- versus global contest’ view. Others focus on panies in the world to establish a common the ‘war on terror’ and its aftermath, em- mode of dealing with the strengthening of phasizing the ‘state of exception’ that gives environmental standards in a growing num- governments legal authority to abuse their ber of countries, in most of which these powers. There are several other interpreta- firms are building. At the other end of the tions and namings of the character of today’s range they include far more complex (and major transformation. But this suffices to experimental) entities, such as the first-ever make the point that much of the commen- global public court, the International Crimi- tary on the major changes of our time pivots nal Court, which is not part of the estab- on the notion that the national state is under lished supranational system and has univer- attack, or at the minimum that it is suffering sal jurisdiction among signatory countries. the erosion of its territorial protections. Beyond the fact of the diversity of these as- semblages, there is the increasingly weighty But the major change is not fully captured fact of their numbers – over 125 according in these types of understandings. A key, yet to the best recent count.30 The proliferation much overlooked, feature of the current pe- of these systems does not represent the end riod is the multiplication of a broad range of national states, but it does begin to dis- of partial, often highly specialized, global as- assemble bits and pieces of the national. If semblages of bits of territory, authority and you see through the eye of the national state, rights once firmly ensconced in national in- these assemblages look like inchoate geogra- stitutional frames.29 These assemblages cut phies. But they are actually the bits of a new across the binary of national versus global. reality in the making. They inhabit national institutional and ter- ritorial settings, and they span the globe in BITS OF A NEW REALITY what are largely trans-local geographies con- necting multiple sub-national spaces. Using this lens to look at some current, often minor and barely visible, developments opens These assemblages include at one end of the up some interesting vistas. For instance, INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
Hizbollah in Lebanon can be seen as having government, is somehow enabled (through 65 are partial and often highly specialized, they executive, since the legislature gives citizens 66 shaped a very specific assemblage of terri- the state-owned oil enterprise) to bring oil tend to be centred in particular utilities and stronger standing in these matters than the tory, authority and rights that cannot be eas- to the poor in a few major cities in the USA. purposes.33 The normative character of this executive does. Further, the privatizing of ily reduced to any of the familiar containers All of these are minor acts, but they were not landscape is, in my reading, multivalent; it the executive has partly brought with it an – nation state, internal minority-controlled somehow acceptable or customary even a ranges from some very good utilities and eroding of the privacy rights of citizens – a region, such as the Kurdish region in Iraq, or short time ago. They can be seen as produc- purposes to some very bad ones, depending historic shift of the private–public division separatist area such as the Basque region in ing novel types of mostly informal jurisdic- on one’s normative stance. Their emergence at the heart of the liberal state, even if it was Spain. Similarly, the emerging roles of major tions that are neither global nor national. and proliferation bring several significant always an imperfect division.36 gangs in cities such as São Paulo contribute consequences even though this is a partial, to produce and/or strengthen types of ter- Emphasizing this multiplication of partial not an all-encompassing, development. They A second critical divergence is between the ritorial fractures that the project of building assemblages contrasts with much of the glo- are potentially profoundly unsettling of what increasing alignment of the executive with a nation state sought to eliminate or dilute. balization literature. It has tended to assume are still the prevalent institutional arrange- global logics and the confining of the leg- Besides their local criminal activities, they the binary of the national vs the global, and ments (nation states and the supranational islature to domestic matters.37 This results now often run segments of global drug- and to focus on the powerful global institutions system) for governing questions of war and from three major trends. One is the growing arms-dealing networks; and, importantly, that have played a critical role in imple- peace, for establishing what are and what are importance of particular components of the they are also increasingly taking over ‘gov- menting the global corporate economy and not legitimate claims, and for enforcing the administration, such as ministries of finance ernment’ functions – ‘policing’, providing induced states to implement the associated rule of law. Whether these established ar- and central banks (respectively, the Trea- social services and welfare assistance, jobs, policies. My focus here opens up the analysis rangements are effective at these functions, sury and the Federal Reserve in the USA), and a new element of rights and authority in to a far broader range of components (in- and whether justice is secured, is a different for the implementing of a global corporate the areas they control. cluding powerless actors) in what we de- matter. The point here is that their decom- economy; these components actually gain scribe as globalization. And it repositions the position would partly undo established ways power because of globalization. Second, the We also see these novel mixes of territory, powerful global regulators, such as the (rein- of handling complex national and interna- global regulators (the IMF, the WTO and authority and rights in far less visible or no- vented) International Monetary Fund (IMF) tional matters. The emergent landscape I others) only deal with the executive branch; ticed settings. For instance, when Mexico’s and World Trade Organization (WTO), as am describing promotes a multiplication they do not deal with the legislature. This (former) President Vicente Fox met with bridging events for an epochal transforma- of diverse spatio-temporal framings and di- can strengthen the adoption of global logics undocumented Mexican immigrants dur- tion, rather than as the transformation itself. verse normative (mini-)orders where once by the executive. A third becomes evident in ing his visit to the USA this past May, his The actual dynamics getting shaped are far the dominant logic was towards producing such cases as the Bush–Cheney administra- actions amounted to the making of a new deeper and more radical than such entities (grand) unitary national spatial, temporal tion’s support for the Dubai Ports’ attempted informal jurisdiction. His actions did not as the WTO or the IMF, no matter how and normative framings.34 acquisition of several major port operations fit into existing legal forms that give sover- powerful these entities are as foot soldiers. in the USA. In contrast to these trends, the eign states specific types of extraterritorial They should rather be conceived of as pow- This proliferation of specialized orders legislature has long been a domestic part of authority. Nonetheless, his actions were not erful capabilities for the making of a new extends even inside the state apparatus. I the state, something which began to weaken seen as particularly objectionable; indeed, order; they are instruments, not the new or- argue that we can no longer speak of ‘the’ its effectiveness as globalization expanded they were hardly noticed. Yet these were, af- der itself. Similarly, I argue that the Bretton state, and hence of ‘the’ national state versus over the last two decades. This then also ter all, unauthorized immigrants subject to Woods system was a powerful capability that ‘the’ global order. There is a novel type of weakens the political capacity of citizens in deportation if detected, in a country that is facilitated some of the new global forma- segmentation inside the state apparatus, an increasingly globalized world. now spending almost 2 billion USD a year tions that emerged in the 1980s but was not with a growing and increasingly privatized to secure border control. But no INS (Immi- itself the beginning of the new order, as is executive branch of government aligned AVOIDING MASTER CATEGORIES gration and Naturalization Service) or other often asserted.31 with specific global actors, notwithstanding police came to arrest the undocumented per- nationalist speeches, and a hollowing out of A major methodological, theoretical and po- sons who were thus exposed, and the media I see in this proliferation of partial assem- the legislature whose effectiveness is at risk litical implication of the type of analysis I am barely reacted, even though it was taking blages a tendency towards a disaggregating of becoming confined to fewer and more proposing is that it is not sufficient to focus place at a time when Congress was debating and, in some cases, global redeployment of domestic matters.35 A weak and domesticated on the nation state and the global system as whether to criminalize illegal immigrants. constitutive rules once solidly lodged in the legislature weakens the political capacity two distinct entities. The transformations that Similarly, President Hugo Chávez of Ven- nation-state project with its strong unitary of citizens to demand accountability from are afoot criss-cross this binary, and enter the ezuela, seen as an ‘enemy’ of sorts by the US tendencies.32 Since these novel assemblages an increasingly powerful and privatized national and even the state apparatus itself. INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
To historicize both the national and the each into these three foundational compo- 67 regulators authority is more critical than institutionalizing of the international human 68 global as constructed conditions, I have tak- nents (TAR). They are my starting point. I territory. rights regime). This points to a possibly sharp en three trans-historical components that are dislodge them from their particular histori- divergence between the organizing logics of present in almost all societies and examined cally constructed encasements – in this case Globalization can be seen as destabiliz- the earlier international and current global how they became assembled into different the national and the global – and examine ing this particular scalar assemblage. What phases; these are often seen as analogous to historical formations.38 These three com- their constitution and institutional location scholars have noticed is the fact that the na- the current global phase, but I argue that this ponents are territory, authority and rights in these different historical formations, and tion state has lost some of its exclusive ter- understanding may be based on a confusion (TAR). Each can assume specific contents, their possible shifting across institutional ritorial authority to new global institutions. of analytical levels. In earlier periods, in- shapes and interdependencies across diverse domains. I develop some of this empirically What they have failed to examine in depth is cluding Bretton Woods, that imperial logic historical formations. The choice of these in the next section of this paper, but a quick the specific, often specialized rearrangements was geared towards building national states, three rests partly on their foundational char- example would be the shift of what were inside the highly formalized and institution- typically through imperial geographies; in acter and partly on the contingency of my once components of public authority into alized national state apparatus aimed at in- today’s phase, it is geared towards setting up fields of knowledge. One could, and I hope a growing array of forms of private author- stituting the authority of global institutions. global systems inside national states and na- someone will, choose additional components ity. One thesis that arises out of this type of This shift that is not simply a question of tional economies, and in that sense at least or replace one or another of these. analysis is that particular national capabili- policy making – it is about making a novel partly denationalizing what had historically ties are dislodged from their national institu- type of institutional space inside the state. been constructed as national. This denation- Territory, authority and rights are complex tional encasement and become constitutive In overlooking such rearrangements it is also alizing can take multiple concrete forms – to institutionalizations arising from specific of, rather than being destroyed or sidelined easy to overlook the extent to which criti- mention two critical ones, global cities, and processes, struggles and competing interests. by, globalization.40 cal components of the global are structured specific policies and institutions within the They are not simply attributes. They are in- inside the national, producing what I refer state itself. terdependent, even as they maintain their This type of approach produces an analytics to as a partial, and often highly specialized, specificity. Each can, therefore, be identi- that can be used by others to examine different denationalizing of what historically was con- SPECIALIZED ASSEMBLAGES AS NEW fied. Specificity is partly conditioned by lev- countries today in the context of globalization structed as national. TYPES OF TERRITORIALITY els of formalization and institutionalization. or different types of assemblages across time Across time and space, territory, authority and space.41 In the modern state, territory, Thus today particular elements of TAR are Next I develop some of these issues empiri- and rights have been assembled into distinct authority and rights evolve into what we now becoming reassembled into novel global cally by focusing on emergent articulations formations within which they have had vari- can recognize as a centripetal scaling where configurations. Therewith, their mutual in- of territory, authority and rights that un- able levels of performance. Further, the types one scale, the national, aggregates most of teractions and interdependencies are altered, settle what has been the dominant articula- of instruments and capabilities through what there is to be had in terms of TAR. as are their institutional encasements. These tion, that characterizing the modern state. I which each is constituted vary, as do the sites Although never absolutely, each of the three shifts take place both within the nation state, will use the concept of territoriality, usually where each is in turn embedded – private or components is constituted overwhelmingly for example, shifts from public to private, used to designate the particular articulation public, law or custom, metropolitan or colo- as a national domain and, further, exclusively and through shifts to the inter- and suprana- of TAR in the modern state. Here I denat- nial, national or supranational, and so on. so. Where in the past most territories were tional and global levels. What was bundled uralize the term and use it to capture a far subject to multiple systems of rule, the up and experienced as a unitary condition broader range of such articulations. But the Using these three foundational components national sovereign gains exclusive authority (the national assemblage of TAR) now in- national state is the standard against which I as analytical pathways into the two distinct over a given territory and at the same time creasingly reveals itself to be a set of distinct identify these following four types of territo- formations that concern me in the research this territory is constructed as coterminous elements, with variable capacities for becom- riality assembled out of ‘national’ and ‘global’ project on which this paper draws – the na- with that authority, in principle ensuring a ing denationalized. For instance, we might elements, with each individual or aggregate tional and the global – helps avoid the endo- similar dynamic in other nation states. This say that particular components of authority instance evincing distinct spatio-temporal geneity trap that so affects the globalization in turn gives the sovereign the possibility and of rights are evincing a greater capacity features. These four types of instances unset- literature.39 Scholars have generally looked of functioning as the exclusive granter of for partial denationalization than territory: tle national state territoriality – the territory at these two complex formations in toto, rights. Territory is perhaps the most critical geographical boundaries have changed far of the national is a critical dimension in play and compared them to establish their differ- capability for the formation of the nation less (except in cases such as the disintegra- in all four. (There are other emergent assem- ences. This is not where I start. Rather than state, while today we see the ascent of a tion of the Soviet Union) than authority (i.e. blages which I examine as part of the larger comparing what are posited as two wholes – variety of assemblages for which it is not the the greater power of global regulators over research project.)42 the national and the global – I disaggregate most critical capability; thus for the global national economies) and rights (the further INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
A first type of territoriality can be found commercial arbitration.43 69 government that is becoming aligned with a type of horizontal globality centred on 70 in the development of new jurisdictional global corporate capital and ensuring that diverse localities. When supplied with the geographies. Among the more formalized A second type of specialized assemblage that this work gets done. key capabilities of the new technologies – instances are a variety of national legal actions is contributing to a novel type of territoriality decentralized access, interconnectivity, and which notwithstanding their transnational is the work of national states across the globe A third type of specialized assemblage can simultaneity of transactions – localized, im- geographies can today be launched from to construct a standardized global space for be detected in the formation of a global net- mobilized individuals and organizations can national courts. The critical articulation is the operations of firms and markets. What work of financial centres. We can conceive of be part of a global public space, one that is between the national (as in national court, this means is that components of legal frame- financial centres that are part of global finan- partly a subjective condition, but only partly national law) and a global geography, outside works for rights and guarantees, and more cial markets as constituting a distinct kind of because it is rooted in the concrete struggles the terms of traditional international law or generally the rule of law, largely developed territoriality, simultaneously pulled in by the of localities. treaty law. A good example is the lawsuits in the process of national state formation, larger electronic networks and functioning launched by the Washington-based Center can now strengthen non-national organizing as localized micro-infrastructures for those In principle we can posit that those who are for Constitutional Rights in a US court logics. As these components become part of networks. These financial centres inhabit na- immobile might be more likely to experience against nine multinational corporations, new types of transnational systems they al- tional territories, but they cannot be seen as their globality through this (abstract) space both US and foreign, for abuses of workers’ ter the valence of (rather than destroy, as is simply national in the historical sense of the than individuals and organizations that rights in their offshore industrial operations, often argued) older nation-state capabilities. term, nor can they be reduced to the admin- have the resources and the options to travel using as the national legal instrument the Where the rule of law once built the strength istrative unit encompassing an actual terrain across the globe. Sometimes these globalities Alien Torts Claims Act. In other words, of the national state and national corpora- (e.g. a city), one that is part of a nation state. can assume complex forms, as is the case this is a global three-sited jurisdiction, with tions, key components of that rule of law are In their aggregate they house significant with first-nation people demanding direct several locations in at least two of those sites now contributing to the partial, often highly components of the global, partly electronic, representation in international forums, – the locations of the headquarters (both the specialized, denationalizing of particular na- market for capital. As localities they are de- bypassing national state authority – a long- USA and other countries), the locations of tional state orders. For instance, corporate nationalized in specific and partial ways. In standing cause that has been significantly the offshore factories (several countries), and actors operating globally have pushed hard this sense they can be seen as constituting enabled by global electronic networking. the court in Washington, DC. Even if these for the development of new types of formal the elements of a new type of multi-sited ter- other times they are more elementary, as is lawsuits do not quite achieve their full goal, instruments, notably intellectual property ritoriality, one that diverges sharply from the the case with various Forest Watch activists they signal that it is possible to use the national rights and standardized accounting prin- territoriality of the historical nation state. in rain forests around the world. We can see judiciary for suing US and foreign firms for ciples. But they need not only the support here at work a particular type of interaction A fourth type of assemblage can be found questionable practices in their operations but also the actual work of each individu- between placeless digital networks and deeply in the global networks of local activists and, outside their home countries. Thus, besides al state where they operate to develop and localized actors/users. One common pattern more generally, in the concrete and often the much-noted new courts and instruments implement such instruments in the specific is the formation of triangular cross-border place-specific social infrastructure of global (e.g. the new International Criminal Court), context of each country. In their aggregate jurisdictions for political action which once civil society. Global civil society is enabled this example shows that components of this and other emergent orderings contrib- would have been confined to the national. by global digital networks and the associated the national rule of law that once served ute to produce an operational space that is Local activists often use global campaigns and imaginaries. But this does not preclude that to build the strength of the national state partly embedded in particular components international organizations to secure rights localized actors, organizations and causes are are today contributing to the formation of national legal systems which have been and guarantees from their national states; 44 key building blocks of global civil society as of transnational jurisdictions. Another subjected to specialized denationalizations; they now have the option to incorporate a it is shaping up today. The localized involve- instance is the US practice of ‘exporting’ thereby these orderings become capabilities non-national or global site in their national ments of activists are critical no matter how prisoners to third countries (rendition), of an organizing logic that is not quite part struggles. These instances point to the universal and planetary the aims of the vari- de facto to facilitate their torture. This is of the national state even as that logic in- emergence of a particular type of territoriality ous struggles: in their aggregate these local- yet another instance of a territoriality that stalls itself in that state. Further, in so doing, in the context of the imbrications of digital ized involvements are constitutive. Global is both national and non-national. Finally, they often go against the interests of national and non-digital conditions. This territoriality electronic networks actually push the pos- diverse jurisdictional geographies can also capital. This way of representing economic partly inhabits specific sub-national spaces sibility of this local–global dynamic further. be used to manipulate temporal dimensions. globalization is very different from the com- and partly becomes constituted as a variety Elsewhere45 I have examined the possibility Reinserting a conflict in the national legal mon notion of the withdrawal of the state of somewhat specialized or partial global for even resource-poor and immobile indi- system may ensure a slower progression than at the hands of the global system. Indeed, publics. viduals or organizations to become part of in the private jurisdiction of international to a large extent it is the executive branch of INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
While the third and fourth types of territo- emergent assemblages begin to unbundle 71 The ascendance of religion is but one out- numbers are growing even as they are rarely 72 riality might seem similar, they are actually the traditional territoriality of the national, come, albeit a highly visible one that arouses as visible as religion. not. The sub-national spaces of these local- historically constructed overwhelmingly as a deep passions. But there are others, and their ized actors have not been denationalized as national unitary spatio-temporal domain. the financial centres discussed earlier have. The global publics that get constituted are CONCLUSION barely institutionalized and mostly informal, unlike the global capital market, which is a Both self-evidently global and denationaliz- highly institutionalized space both through ing dynamics destabilize existing meanings national and international law, and through and systems. This raises questions about the private governance systems. In their infor- future of crucial frameworks through which mality, however, these global publics can modern societies, economies and polities be seen as spaces for empowerment of the (under the rule of law) have operated: the so- resource-poor or of not very powerful actors. cial contract of liberal states, social democra- Notes In this sense the subjectivities that are emerg- cy as we have come to understand it, modern citizenship, and the formal mechanisms that 28. This paper is based on a larger research project the results of which were ing through these global publics constitute published as Territory, Authority, Rights: From Medieval to Global Assemblages capabilities for new organizing logics. render certain claims legitimate and others illegitimate in liberal democracies. The fu- (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008 (pbk)). A Swedish transla- tion, Territorium, makt, rättigheter: sammansättningar från medeltiden till den Although these four types of emergent as- ture of these and other familiar frameworks globala tidsåldern, was recently issued by Atlas (2008). All references in this semblage that function as territorialities are is rendered dubious by the unbundling, even essay are to this source; readers can also find full bibliographic elaboration of diverse, they all share certain features. First, if very partial, of the basic organizational and the issues raised here. normative architectures through which we they are not exclusively national or global 29. This is clearly an analysis that emerges from European history, with all the but are assemblages of elements of each. Sec- have operated, especially over the last cen- limitations that entails. Critical here is Gayatri Spivak’s thinking about ond, in this assembling they bring together tury. These architectures have held together the diverse positions that can structure an ‘author’s’ stance. Spivak, Gaya- what are often different spatio-temporal or- complex interdependencies between rights tri Chakravorty, ‘Can the Subaltern Speak?’, in Patrick Williams and Laura ders, that is, different velocities and different and obligations, power and the law, wealth Chrisman (eds), Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory (New York: Co- lumbia University Press, 1994). scopes. Third, this can produce an eventful and poverty, allegiance and exit. engagement, including contestations and 30. Project on International Courts and Tribunals, ‘The International Judiciary what we might think of as a ‘frontier zone’ The multiplication of partial, specialized and in Context’, version 2.0 (August 2001),
articulated with modernity; this makes room for the coexistence of global- 73 GLOBALIZATION, DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT – RETHINKING THE LINKAGES ization and nationalization. See Calhoun, Craig, Nationalism (Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota Press, 1997).
38. This is fully developed in Sassen,Territory, Authority, Rights. Nivedita Menon
39. For instance, this endogeneity is present in ‘explanations’ of globalization that list the features of global processes and institutions. This, I would argue, is not an explanation of globalization, but a description.
40. In the larger project (Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights, chapters 1, 8 and 9) there are lengthy discussions of questions of method and interpretation. I propose a distinction between capabilities (for example, the rule of law) and the organizing logics (the national, the global) within which they are located. Thus capabilities are multivalent: they can switch organizing logics, with the latter shaping their valence.
41. I use the concept of assemblage in its most descriptive sense. However, sev- eral scholars have developed theoretical constructs around this term. Most This brief presentation will discuss the re- tion requires the expropriation of peasants 74 significant for the purposes of this book is the work of Deleuze and Guattari (Deleuze, Gilles and Guattari, Félix, A Thousand Plateaux: Capitalism and lationship between globalization, democ- from common lands and the creation of a Schizofrenia (Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minessota Press, 1987), pp. racy and development by placing it within a vast proletariat with nothing to sell but their 504–5), for whom ‘assemblage’ is a contingent ensemble of practices and theoretical framework offered by the work of labour power. In Europe it was possible for things that can be differentiated (that is, they are not collections of similar political theorist Sudipta Kaviraj.46 the initial stages of this process to be carried practices and things) and that can be aligned along the axes of territoriality out without hindrance, as democracy was and deterritorialization. More specifically, they posit that particular mixes Kaviraj suggests that modernity should be of technical and administrative practices ‘extract and give intelligibility to non-existent. Indian industrialization, on new spaces by decoding and encoding milieux’ (pp. 504–5). There are many perceived not as a single process but rather the other hand, has been exposed from the more elaborations around the concept assemblage, including. not surpris- as a conjunction of several processes of so- beginning to popular resistance to these pro- ingly, among architects and urbanists (v. the journal Assemblages). While I cial transformation – such as the rise of the cesses, whether in Nandigram (West Bengal) find many of these elaborations extremely important and illuminating, and nation state, individuation, mass democracy or in Chengara (Kerala). while some of the assemblages I identify may evince some of these features, and capitalist industrialization. The sequence my usage is profoundly untheoretical compared to that of the authors cited above. I simply want the dictionary term. I locate my theorization elsewhere, in which these processes occur differs from The second point is that the definition of not on this term. society to society, and these specific histories development tends to be too narrow, being determine the particular form that moder- virtually always referred to in terms of 42. Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights. nity takes. capitalist industrialization. Notions of human 43. Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights, chapter 5. development and in particular sustainability The sequentiality argument enables us to are left out in the development debate. A 44. Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights, chapters 4 and 5. understand why the relationship between recent Indian Supreme Court judgement democracy and development differs across defines sustainable development as ‘a policy 45. Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights, chapter 7. the globe. The processes of capitalist indus- and strategies for continued economic trialization in the Western societies had al- development without the detriment to ready been stabilized when popular demands the environment and natural resources on for democracy arose. The order of the same the quality of which further development two processes in India, however, has been the depends’. According to this definition, reverse: democracy had already taken root development reduces nature to an input by the time industrialization began to take to be strategically deployed according to off after independence. Because of this par- consumer needs. The unsustainability of this ticular sequentiality, democratic resistance type of development is a fact that tragically to capitalist industrialization is at present a few seem ready to recognize. challenge to the Indian state. Industrializa- INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
THE AMBIGUITY OF GLOBALIZATION the process, communities with a long tra- 75 CONCLUSION pressures should force us to reconceptualize 76 dition of identifying themselves with their production and ways of living. ‘Sustainable’ Globalization as a phenomenon dates back habitat and who have lived in and protected Thus, the processes of globalization can development is not enough; development it- to the pre-nation-state era when it existed in the forests for generations are displaced. In both hinder and further democracy, while self needs to be recognized as a 20th-century the shape of cultural, economic and social such cases, the environment triumphs over development is a process that requires radi- high-modernist fantasy, the achievement of exchanges without hierarchies between the the people, but when it comes to the con- cal rethinking. Ecological and democratic which requires the end of life on this planet. engaging societies. Moving into a second struction of shopping malls and big dams, phase with the emergence of the nation states then the environment becomes a far lower in the West, globalization was reshaped due priority. to the impact of imperialism. The following phase, of post-imperialist movements for Globalization is an ambiguous phenomenon. independence in the former colonial world, At the economic level it simultaneously offers halted globalization and replaced it with the and eliminates spaces; globalization produc- move towards national development and es new forms of employment which in turn Notes self-reliance. disrupt traditional ways of life (to the benefit of some groups, such as the traditionally un- 46. Kaviraj, Sudipta, ‘An Outline of a Revisionist Theory of Modernity’, Euro- Since the 20th century, the third phase of touchable castes). Similarly, the spaces pro- pean Journal of Sociology, XLVI/3 (2005), pp. 497–526. globalization has accelerated the pace of duced at the cultural level have freed groups corporate capitalist industrialization. De- such as the Dalits from entrenched hierarchies territorialized capital and the nation state and given them opportunity to gain social sta- are both retreating from the social sector and tus. In other words, we need to understand from development responsibilities while si- globalization as a set of disaggregated process- multaneously being reconstituted as agents es which produce both kinds of spaces. of global capital. Laws adopted to favour multinational corporations are perhaps the The Narmada Bachao Aandolan movement clearest proof of how the nation states repre- presents another example of globalization sent the dominant voices of entrenched and strengthening democracy, as it has been newly emerging power elites rather than the immensely strengthened by European eco- needs of more marginalized groups. logical movements pressuring the Indian government to halt projects for big dams. The notion of the environment has come to These solidarity movements are not neces- underpin ‘the will to rule’ in the sense that sarily limited to the national borders but states overrule democracy, using the envi- often transcend them, finding nation states ronment as justification. When interests are irrelevant. In a similar way, religious and in conflict, the trend of court verdicts is for ethnic identities which consider themselves the environment to trump people, and for as having existed before the nation state are development to trump the environment. In often resistant to the history of the nation India, for example, national parks are ex- and opposed to being incorporated into the panded with the argument that this is for nation. the protection of diversity and forests. In INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
GLOBALIZATION AND DEMOCRACY: HOW WELL DO THEY MESH? in which billions and billions of dollars are Yet it is also true that we are also seeing now, 78 traded daily – is that the ‘hot money’ that and have seen for the past five years or so, a drives much of the dynamics of these mar- decline in the particular form this globaliza- Jorge Heine kets is ready to leave any given country at tion took in the first 20 years of its existence, the touch of a button, at the slightest hint that is of liberal globalization or ‘globalism’ of ‘trouble’ – meaning political or economic as it has been referred to by Canadian au- uncertainty of any kind. Mexico in 1994–5, thor John Ralston Saul.li The conventional Thailand in 1997 and Argentina in 2001 wisdom about liberal globalization was that were all victims of this, as were, in different we would soon see the end of the nation ways and on different occasions in the past state, that it was transnational companies decade, Russia, Brazil, Indonesia and Malay- that would build up the new empires of the sia. future, that entrepreneurs would be the dip- lomats of the 21st century, that ideology had It is for this reason that, perhaps paradoxi- come to an end, and that politicians and bu- cally in an age where the ‘waning of the na- reaucrats had better close shop and go home I define globalization as the rise in the trans- the technological ability to process informa- 77 tion state’ has been repeatedly prophesied, since there would be nothing for them to do border flow of goods, services, capital, sym- tion and to generate knowledge’.48 IT is to the strength of national institutions has be- in a world ruled exclusively by market forces bols and cultural products that we have seen the information society what electricity is to come especially significant. Strong institu- and the laws of supply and demand. over the past three decades or so, springing the industrial society. The information so- tions, as opposed to personalized political directly from the Third Industrial Revolution ciety, in turn, is based on networks, a new, power, allow countries to weather crises and Well, something funny happened on the way that started in 1980 – the year both the first less hierarchical way of structuring organiza- overcome difficulties in a predictable, steady to the market, and we are not quite there yet. 49 personal computer (PC) and CNN came on tions, and one in which the new currency manner. This puts a premium on democ- Nationalism asserts itself everywhere; the the market, thus starting the information of the realm is knowledge and the ability to racy and all it entails, whatever its other fail- forceful presence of the state is very much technology (IT) and telecommunications handle it, which is one reason why India is ings. With democracy, what you see is what behind the rise of these new giants, China revolution that has swept the world since.47 doing so well today: this is a society in which you get. With autocracy, on the other hand, and India; the collapse of the Doha Round This has radically altered the way we live and knowledge (as opposed to brute force) has you never know what’s in store. is proof positive that key actors are not nec- the way we interact with each other, going always had pride of place. essarily willing and able to move towards a From 1980 onwards, therefore, globalization through different phases and product cycles, more liberalized and non-subsidized trade has taken the world by storm, and we have each of which has opened the doors for the Computer literacy and the capacity to man- regime; the Free Trade Area of the Ameri- seen an exponential increase not only in for- next – the PC first, the email revolution age and analyse symbols, then, are key to cas (FTAA), heralded to come into being in eign trade in goods and services but also in second, and finally the Internet. The fall of success in the information society. One con- 2005, is nowhere in sight; and one of the capital and financial flows, to a degree that the Berlin Wall can be traced partly to this: sequence has been the de-territorialization most exciting things on the financial scene was unimaginable 30 or 40 years ago. you could not, in the age of the electronic of international politics and the recasting is sovereign wealth funds, owned and run by of physical space, in which geographic dis- governments. revolution, run a country in which private This has brought a high degree of prosperity tance becomes less important. Another has ownership of a photocopying machine or a to many parts of the world – including In- been the radical contraction of time. Thanks Instead of globalization per se, that is the fax machine – at the time key tools, today dia, which for a number of reasons (includ- to the IT and telecoms revolution, we have increase in the flow of goods, services and already somewhat anachronistic – was not ing the laying of tens of thousands of miles simultaneity, that is, the situation in which capital across borders, what we have had is a allowed; it would be the equivalent of not al- of fibre optic submarine cables by companies billions of people scattered around the globe switch to another driver of the international lowing private ownership of the horse-drawn like Global Crossing, which went bankrupt are able to enjoy the same experience ‘at agenda – energy. And, as we can see from carriage 150 years ago. in so doing, and left that digital infrastruc- one go’, as happened with the 2008 Beijing the international price of oil, this has radi- ture there) was well placed to make the most We live today, as Manuel Castells has so bril- Olympics. cally changed the international playing field, of this opportunity, which is why making liantly put it, in the information society, by with some winners – mostly in the South – an international phone call from India to- which he refers to one in which ‘productiv- The ‘flip side’ of this simultaneity and one of and some losers – quite broadly distributed day is so cheap – perhaps the cheapest in the ity, competitiveness, efficiency, communica- the most pervasive dimensions of globaliza- around the world. It is the struggle for new world.50 tion and power … depend considerably on tion – the integration of financial markets, sources of energy that is at the root of many INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
of the tensions and conflicts that are emerg- A DEMOCRATIC REGRESSION? 79 I disagree. Far from going through a regres- gration, though now with an ‘open region- 80 ing around the world, and it is no coinci- sion, I would posit to you that not only is alism’ approach, much more akin to the dence that some of the leading oil producers Larry Diamond, one of the distinguished democracy alive and well in almost all of Asian model than to the old ‘closed region- around the world are also identified as an- speakers at this Round Table and a good Latin America and in much of Asia, which alism’ variety of the 1960s. A number of tagonists by the last remaining superpower. friend, has just published a book entitled are the two continents I have been asked to sub-regional schemes have thus taken off, The Spirit of Democracy: The Struggle to Build refer to, but that it has changed and adapted from the Southern Common Market (Mer- But the effects of this reach well beyond oil. Free Societies Throughout the World.52 In it to these new circumstances, which call for a cado Común del Sur, MERCOSUR) to the By definition, energy sources are to be found he argues that, after a long 35 years of the greater and more assertive role of the state – more recent Bolivarian Alternative for Latin in a particular territory, and therefore under so-called Third Wave of democratization, in which does not necessarily make them less America and the Caribbean (ALBA), with the control of a sovereign state. This very fact which some 90 countries made the transi- democratic, though it may do so. In fact in the Andean Community, the Central Amer- gives governments much greater control over tion from authoritarianism to democracy, some cases it may make them more demo- ican Common Market and the Caribbean energy than over other productive activities. leading to the current situation in which cratic. Let us now turn to Latin America. Community (CARICOM) in between. An This has radically altered the power equation some 60 per cent of the 220 countries that upsurge in trade with Asia has been another between the state and transnational business. exist in the world today have a democracy in GLOBALIZATION AND DEMOCRACY IN consequence. To give only one example, last The emergence of so-called ‘resource nation- one form or another, we have now entered a LATIN AMERICA year China displaced the United States as alism’ is therefore not simply the result of the ‘democratic rollback’ in which more coun- Chile’s number 1 export market, and India political vagaries existing in any given nation tries are reverting to authoritarianism than The good news is that, for the first time in its displaced Germany as Chile’s tenth most or across the global South, but is a response the other way around. history, democracy has become fully estab- significant export market in 2007. Accord- to this radical shift in the sources of power lished in the region. The right to universal ing to the latest figures, in July 2008, 43 per on the international scene. Diamond relies quite heavily on the exam- suffrage is now amply recognized. There are cent of Chile’s exports went to Asia. ples of countries like Russia, Venezuela and free and fair elections from the Rio Bravo to There are a number of reasons for this, but Nigeria, albeit also bringing in Thailand and Fire Island. There is a free press and alterna- This has been the good side, the positive one of them is simply classic imperial over- Bangladesh. Quite apart from indicating tion in power; and, as a rule, civil and politi- side, of globalization, and the region’s ex- reach. It is one thing to promote greater that, of the breakdowns of democracy that cal rights are recognized and respected. This ports and balance of trade have soared as a openness of economies; it is quite another he lists, two-thirds have occurred in the last is by no means an inconsiderable achieve- result. But there has been another side. This to get into other people’s countries and start eight years, Diamond also argues on the ba- ment. In 1979, there were only three func- has been the application of a certain type of dictating to them how they should run their sis of the significance and size of these states tioning democracies, in the full sense of the economic programme, often known as struc- competition policy or intellectual property that these breakdowns of democracy do in- term, in Latin America. Today, democracy is tural adjustment, the so-called ‘Washington rights or what have you. The list of things dicate a democratic regression. Not surpris- the norm. We have come a long way. Consensus’. The notion became widespread countries had to comply with, for example, ingly, the subtitle of the article he published that there was only one economic model and to be able to sign a free trade agreement with as an extract of his book in the March 2008 This has largely been true ever since 1990, one type of economic policy, that many key the United States was just incredible. One issue of Foreign Affairs includes the phrase that is, over the past 18 years or so. Now: policy decisions were ultimately technical wonders how any country managed to com- ‘the predatory state’, the notion being that how has globalization manifested itself in ones and had to be removed from the po- ply with them, and one is not surprised that somehow, because these states are taking Latin America? litical sphere (i.e. from democratic controls), the South American Union of Nations (UN- charge of their natural resources – mostly oil, and that in the end the discipline of markets It has done so in a variety of ways. One of ASUR), a long-standing initiative of Brazil, but this obviously applies to other commod- was more significant than the discipline of them is that it has become apparent to the launched in 2008 under the pro tempore ities as well – they are predatory, whereas if democracy. For 15 years we went through region that the inward-oriented import- presidency of Chilean President Michelle they were to leave them at the disposal of the a veritable catharsis of economic reforms, substitution industrialization (ISI) model Bachelet, has come into being. oil majors they would be ‘philanthropic’ or which followed each other in various cycles, 53 followed from the 1940s to the 1980s was some such adjective. and which almost no government felt free If globalization has morphed into something no longer applicable to today’s world. The from engaging in.54 different, and is no longer the driving force As liberal globalization, with all it entails, vast majority of Latin American countries behind the international agenda, what has comes to an end, so would the democratic have therefore switched to export-led de- These reforms had a number of beneficial ef- happened to democracy? wave that started in 1974 with the Portu- velopment, and are doing very well in that fects, including the establishment of macro- guese Carnation Revolution. endeavour. Another has been to rediscover economic equilibrium and the stabilization the benefits of some form of regional inte- of economies that had often reeled under INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
three-digit inflation rates, but, by focusing leave them in the hands either of appointed 81 it. One negative aspect is the desire of great by putting them in the hands of supposedly 82 almost exclusively on cutting back on the technocrats or of market forces. powers to impose all sorts of conditions all-knowing technocrats. size of the state (as opposed to enhancing its that go way beyond what is reasonable effectiveness) they also often weakened state If you look at South America today, eight on the smaller powers, and especially on On the other hand, globalization has opened capacity. This made it more difficult for the of the ten South American countries proper developing countries – in which case there new doors to the developing nations of Africa, state to perform its essential functions. The (let us leave aside for the moment Guyana may be a strong negative reaction, which is Asia and Latin America by exposing them notion of a ‘lean and mean’ state became and Suriname, which are part of CARI- what we have had in Latin America today to new trading and foreign policy partners, only too true for many Latin Americans, COM) are ruled by left or left-oriented gov- in reaction to the efforts to impose the enhancing their growth and development with a state apparatus reduced not only to ernments. Let me illustrate this with an ex- Washington Consensus. I am not saying opportunities. The rise of China and India, a bare-bones structure but also quite unable ample. On 20 August 2008, Fernando Lugo that this was an entirely unilateral effort on in particular, has been an important force and unwilling to provide the security and es- was inaugurated as president of Paraguay, the part of Washington; there were plenty of behind the commodity boom that has sential services citizens expect. bringing to an end 61 years of Colorado local officials and private players willing to undergirded economic growth in Africa and Party rule (which had come to power two make the case for these policies (and some Latin America over the past five years, thus What have these reforms brought to the peo- years before the Communist Party of China are still around). But the net effect was the providing the material infrastructure that ple of the region, after the closing of whole did) and opened a new chapter in one of the same – to withdraw some of the most critical democracy needs to respond to the demands sectors of industry, the firing of hundreds poorest countries in South America. As The government choices from democratic control of its citizens.57 of thousands of public employees, in some Economist put it, ‘The Colorado party … cases the privatization of the post office, and, has ruled so long that Paraguay sometimes famously, in one case, the elimination of bus feels like a run-down country club that exists stops as they would interfere with the right purely for the benefit of party members’.56 of the bus driver to stop where he saw fit Curiously, the result of the Paraguayan elec- to pick or drop passengers? Not very much. tions went largely unnoticed by the interna- According to one study, in 1980, when the tional media, although the winner was a for- index of economic reforms was 0.55, per mer clergyman, known as ‘the bishop of the capita income in the region was 3,739 USD poor’, whose coalition, the Patriotic Alliance (in constant dollars); 20 years later, with the for Change, represented an enormous upset Notes index of economic reforms at 0.83, per cap- for the status quo. Only a decade ago, in the 47. On globalization, see Held, David et al., Global Transformations: Politics, Eco- ita income stood at 3,952 USD, almost the late 1990s, the notion that the left would nomics and Culture (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999). same.55 reach power in Paraguay would have been considered somewhere between ludicrous 48. On the information society, see Manuel Castells’ trilogy, The Information Age: Not surprisingly given these meagre results, and preposterous. In the Latin America of Economy, Society and Culture: Vol. I, The Rise of the Network Society; Vol. II, and once economists, in their own inimita- the first decade of this century it is taken as The Power of Identity; and Vol. III, End of Millennium (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996, 1997 and 1998, respectively). ble way, started to talk about the ‘third gen- a humdrum event – the expected outcome eration’ of reforms as the ones that would whenever presidential elections are held. 49. This draws on my article ‘From the Southern Cone to South Asia: Grow- really work, people started to get a bit tired ing Links between Chile and India’, Indian Journal of Foreign Affairs, 2/1 and started to look for alternatives. Politics Does this mean that Paraguay is less demo- (January–March 2007), pp. 27–43, as well as on Castells, Manuel, Global- is about choice, yet the main message of this cratic than it was under the 61-year Colo- izacion, desarrollo y democracia: Chile en el context mundial (Santiago: Fondo kind of programme was that there was no rado Party rule? Should we add Paraguay to de Cultura Economica, 2005). choice: everybody had to do the same things, Larry Diamond’s list of countries allegedly 50. Thomas Friedman’s international bestseller,The World is Flat: A Short History and had to do them now – to open up, to part of the ‘democratic rollback’? Of course of Globalization in the Twenty First Century (New Delhi: Penguin-Allen Lane, privatize and to deregulate. And many of the not: quite the contrary. 2005) is largely inspired by these developments in India. government reforms that have been under- taken in the name of modernizing the state My point is the following: the relationship 51. Saul, John Ralston, The Collapse of Globalism and the Reinvention of the World (New Delhi: Penguin, 2006). have had as their main purpose to remove between globalization and democracy is by all possibility of discretion and choice from no means a simple and straightforward one. 52. New York: Times Books, 2008. elected representatives of the people, and There are positive and negative aspects to INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
53. Diamond, Larry, ‘The Democratic Rollback: The Resurgence of the Preda- 83 GLOBALIZATION, PAKISTAN AND TERRORISM tory State’, Foreign Affairs, March–April 2008.
54. See Grugel, Jean, Riggirozzi, Pia and Thirkell-White, Ben, ‘Beyond the Wash- ington Consensus: Asia and Latin America in Search of More Autonomous Najam Sethi Development’, International Affairs, 84/3 (spring 2008), pp. 499–517.
55. These data are drawn from the United Nations Development Programme study, La Democracia en America Latina: Hacia una democracia de ciudadanos y ciudadanas (Santiago: UNDP, 2004), especially pp. 39–41. See also Heine, Jorge, ‘Back to the Future?: The Rise of the Left in Latin America’, India Quarterly, LXII/4 (October–December 2006), pp. 1–19.
56. ‘Liberation Politics: Paraguay’s Elections’, The Economist, 17 April 2008.
57. See Heine, Jorge, ‘The Asian Giants and Latin America’,The Hindu, 30 Oc- tober 2006; and Heine, Jorge, ‘India and the New Scramble for Africa’, The Hindu, 13 July 2008. When approaching the theme of globaliza- velopment.Four general elections were held, 84 tion, democracy and development from a and the outlook for democratic practices political dimension, one of today’s most was bright. In regard to economic develop- pressing questions is the following. As ex- ment, however, the state finances did not ternal actors enforce democracy and devel- follow the same positive trend. Compar- opment on other countries – where neither ing the rates of economic growth during concept is well established – in what way is the military and democratic regimes reveals the quest for democracy and development the differences between their financial per- affected? To illustrate this discussion, I will formances. The tendency of military rule to use the case of Pakistan. produce statistically stronger rates of growth and results was suddenly obstructed as the HISTORICAL BACKGROUND attacks of 11 September of 2001 proved to dramatically transform the Pakistani socio- The decade following the death of Pakistani political landscape and put an abrupt end to President Zia-ul-Haq in 1988 was marked the economic support the United States had by efforts to implement democracy and de- been providing.
Table 1. Pakistan’s annual growth rate in relation to type of regime
Period Type of regime Annual average growth rate 1950s Civilian 3% 1960s Military 6.8% 1970s Authoritarian civilian 4.8% 1980s Military 6.5% 1990s Democracy approx. 4% 1999–2002 Military 3% INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
BECOMING PART OF A GLOBALIZED tutelage in Afghanistan and Pakistan’s 85 against fellow Muslims at the behest of the in the West a terrorist act of al-Qaeda pro- 86 SCENARIO: THE IMPACT OF MUSLIM tribal borderlands for the purposes of USA. In other words they are urging their duces fear and loathing, it produces sympa- EXTREMISM defeating the Soviet Union in Afghani- elected representatives to make peace deals thy in the Muslim world. This sympathy has stan in the 1980s; and with the Taliban (who are proxies for al- its psychological origin in the use of intimi- The attacks of 11 September 2001 repre- Qaeda). These peace deals are welcomed by dation in the face of a state with weakened sented an unprecedented form of globaliza- • the Pakistani military’s sustaining of this the Taliban as they offer them access to the territorial control. The weakened condition tion after which suddenly Islam was iden- Islamic jihad and the creation of the political and military space needed in order of the state in the case of Pakistan has been tified as a global force and al-Qaeda was Taliban in Afghanistan, which eventu- to carry out organized attacks across the bor- caused by 20 years of jihad through non- categorized as a global network. The interna- ally led to the arrival of al-Qaeda in the der into Afghanistan against North Atlantic state armed warriors who were made a part tional responses were swift, but the United region. Al-Qaeda’s attacks on the Unit- Treaty Organization (NATO), the Interna- of civil society and thus created parallel cen- States transmitted its unambiguous mes- ed States in 2001 and the subsequent tional Security Assistance Force (ISAF) and tres of power. Therefore citizens threatened sage: Pakistan had to choose sides – friends attacks by its network elsewhere in the Afghan troops. By the same token, therefore, with the divinely ordained punishments by or enemies. As tensions rose in Afghanistan, world have their roots in the same tribal the United States opposes these peace deals the Taliban warlords in the tribal areas of the military regime of President Mushar- areas of Pakistan where al-Qaeda and made by the civilian leadership. Pakistan react in two ways – under intimi- raf became the USA’s front line against al- the Afghan Taliban sought refuge after dation when they want to save their lives, Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan. The the US bombing campaign of Decem- Scholars’ research on radical Islam in gener- or under empowerment, leading them join development reawakened memories from ber 2001. These areas of Pakistan have al, and on al-Qaeda in particular, claims that in the Talibanization. The kibitzing popula- the 1960s and 1980s when Pakistan was the now become the site of the confronta- the scenario described is a spin-off of glo- tion is just one of the groups that support front line in the cold (and hot) war against tion between two global forces. balization and its free movement of capital, Talibanization and depreciates the efforts of the Soviet Union, during which US military ideas and enterprise. The jihad – inaugurated the state to retrieve its lost sovereignty, and Meanwhile, the transition from military rule and economic assistance explains Pakistan’s in Pakistan as a response to the Soviet inva- criticizes the state for using the civilian pop- to a civilian democracy is currently under peaking growth rate. Similarly, over the past sion of Afghanistan – has attracted warriors ulations as a human shield against air strikes way in Pakistan. Rather than being a planned five years the United States has donated over from an immensely broad base, and is in a as well as attacking the tribal jirgas of elders course of action, the shift has been brought 10 billion USD to the regime under General sense a globalized war: men from countries who are trying to negotiate terms of peace. by a series of blunders by President Mushar- Musharraf, which accounts for a great part throughout the wide region between Algeria raf in the last 12 months, severely increasing of the high growth rate seen under his period and Indonesia volunteer, financial support Al-Qaeda communicates a vague idea of a his unpopularity and diminishing the finan- from 2003 to 2007. is transferred from the United States and global khalifat or empire, but yet remains cial flows from the United States. Saudi Arabia, and weapons are purchased essentially an anarchist organization that Pakistan’s experiences manifest two unique on the open global market with Pakistan focuses more on destroying the unjust Consequentially, while Islamic religiosity, aspects of today’s globalization which are as the final destination. Given this context, international order presided over by the anti-Americanism and pro-democracy senti- not found either severally or together in any scholars increasingly refer to the situation as United States than on creating a new just ments sweep Pakistan, the USA is increas- other country in the world – first as the core the first Islamist International. Since 2000, order. The Taliban elements in the tribal ingly putting pressure on the fragile civilian of globalizing radical political Islam; and, the Internet has facilitated the Islamist cause areas of Pakistan pretend to have an order dispensation to join the war against terror, second, as the front line of the global capi- further; websites and programmes not only in mind, but they mostly concentrate on which is universally perceived in Pakistan as talist dispensation against it. In other words, revisit the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan the culture of punishments created by the the USA’s war against Muslims, rather than Pakistan is currently the unique site of the and Moscow’s humiliation at the hands of Taliban government in Afghanistan and Pakistan’s own war against extremism. The confrontation between globalized al-Qaeda the Mujahedeen, but also, when referring to the former Mullah Omar. A majority of the Pakistani government is confronting a diffi- and globalized capitalism, which is a direct the Palestinian tragedy, point to the United population of Pakistan believes in Sharia, cult situation: in the face of rising oil and consequence of three historical factors: States’ injustices which stir strong emotions Islamic law, and assumes that coercion and food prices, the Pakistani economy is in re- within the Muslim community. violence will cease once an Islamic utopia cession and the national politicians are being • the financial support for the military is created. But Pakistan is moving neither blamed. The USA on the other hand is link- state apparatus by successive US re- THE TALIBAN MOVEMENT AND AL-QAEDA towards an Islamic utopia nor towards a ing its continuing economic bail-out – with gimes, at the expense of democratic ci- GAINING SUPPORT vibrant democracy; just outside the big support from Pakistani civilians – to the war vilian dispensations; cities, Islamic jirgas and tribal panchayat are on al-Qaeda. Meanwhile, Pakistanis are turn- Why then, we should ask, does Talibaniza- threatening the authority of the state. • the birth of Islamic jihad under US ing against their state for pursuing this war tion succeed so well in Muslim societies? If INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
CONCLUSION onslaught of the Taliban movement and al- 87 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Qaeda – both elements of globalization – Recent statistics show that US aerial surveil- may lead to an erosion of both democracy lance of Pakistan’s tribal areas has reached and development should the civilian dispen- 1. Globalization has ushered in great prosperity within both developing and developed countries, the level of US intelligence in Laos and sation be unable to resolve these confronta- regardless of the form of government, but globalization is not an unmixed blessing; it worsens Cambodia during the height of the Vietnam tions satisfactorily. In turn, its failure will the problem of unemployment. According to estimates by the American economic historian Paul War. The United States–Pakistan conflict is have adverse consequences for the region Kennedy, technological unemployment will increase immensely; the biotechnological revolution is brewing and the net casualty may well once and for the globe. rendering millions of farmers obsolete; and the robotic revolution during the next 50 years will af- again be democracy and development. The fect the factory system developed over the past 200 years, driving millions of workers out of employ- ment. The widespread criticism of globalization in both developing and developed countries makes us feel that globalization needs a correction. What is the panel’s view on these issues?
Saskia Sassen. Regarding the growth of low- Ravi Srivastava. The economic motors rep- 88 wage jobs, we must not forget that econo- resented by India and China undoubtedly mies are to some extent shaped by the cul- affect the overall global trend, and statistics tures in which they exist. In a country like indicate that inequalities are decreasing. On Sweden, where inequalities are much less a national level, however, inequalities have marked than they are in most other nations, increased in a range of countries, and the ef- even menial tasks are valued and economi- fects of globalization are the greatest expan- cally rewarded due to the approach adopted sion as globalization tends to increase the by the Swedish government and society. returns on capital while driving down the returns to – particularly unskilled – labour. All highly developed economies are experi- encing a rapid growth and professionaliza- ‘The race to the bottom’ is a popular term tion of their intermediate economies, that is invented to refer to the labour policies, fol- the firm-to-firm economy. The explanation lowed virtually by all governments across for this growth is that all firms, regardless of the world, which basically aim at reducing sector, are increasingly purchasing products the price of labour. Post-globalization risks and services from other firms – insurance, and the vulnerability of the poor have risen accounting, legal services, software program- in all sorts of ways, but they are seldom re- ming and so on. Consequently, even a tradi- flected in data. Again, here one has to look tionally manufacturing-based (e.g. mining) at the policies, particularly in regard to ur- region will generate a demand for specialized ban development and mining, in developing business services produced in cities (which countries which have often led to large-scale may be close to the mine or far away). At displacement and increased the vulnerabil- the top of the economic system, global firms ity of the poor. The systemic contribution of generate a demand for extremely complex globalization to inequality is something we business services, for which global cities are must worry about, as well as its implications the key production place. This in turn feeds for democracy. into growing inequalities inside global cities (the new professional firms can make super- Pranab K. Bardhan. One should keep the profits, and so can their top-level employ- conceptual distinction between technologi- ees) and between cities (global cities are able cal progress like biotechnology or robotics to extract super-profits from globalization and globalization as such. Some of the tech- while old industrial cities are left behind). nological progress will happen even if we do not participate in globalization. A further INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
point worth noting is that there are many however, has indeed increased, and workers 89 purely as a Pakistani proxy with no regional soldiers into Afghanistan. In addition, a new 90 cases where globalization has expanded job are clearly more exposed to market fluctua- or global implications. dimension has been added: the United Arab opportunities. Capital moving to low-cost tions due to globalization. Therefore it is not Emirates (UAE) government has for the first labour countries does not necessarily always a coincidence that workers’ unions are op- The only person who anticipated compli- time sent an advisory warning about the work against labour; the labour-intensive posing globalization in countries with weak cations at this time was Egyptian President possibility of an al-Qaeda attack in the Gulf. industrialization in China, Indonesia and social protection such as the United States Hosni Mubarak, who in 1994 started ques- Should something happen in the UAE re- Vietnam has raised hundreds of millions of and India, but not in the Nordic countries tioning where the radical Egyptian Islamists gion, the global conflict over Talibanization people above the poverty line. The vulner- where social protection of workers is much were organizing themselves. As it turned out, and al-Qaeda in the border areas of Pakistan ability of people arising from job insecurity, stronger. a majority of them were gathering in Pesha- and Afghanistan will acquire another serious war and by the border area of Afghanistan in dimension. the form of al-Qaeda.
Following the 11 September attacks, the 3. The Islamists did very poorly in the most re- 2. Just as the economic sector is increasingly globalized, human rights norms are becoming standard- USA asked the Pakistani government to per- cent elections; why did the tremendous wave of ized across the world. Compared to a decade ago, we now have a much broader set of standards, suade the Mullah Omar regime in Afghani- Islamist support in the rural areas not register codified democratic conduct and rules in regard to the application of democratic constitutions. The stan to abandon al-Qaeda, promising to deal in the election returns? International Criminal Court, and a deepened commitment to and demand for corporate-sector with al-Qaeda independently. By that time, responsibility and fair trade, reflect this positive trend. The question, however, is whether our com- however, al-Qaeda had put down very deep The poor Islamist electoral result may be mon set of standards is enough to cover the deficit of democracy, or whether we must also address an roots into Afghanistan and it is the failure of explained by the following. First, the elections institutional deficit, such as reforming the UN Security Council and the World Bank. that diplomacy to separate al-Qaeda from the in the tribal areas – where the resurgence of Afghan Taliban that eventually led Pakistan political Islam is strongest – were mainly Saskia Sassen. The globalization of stan- sions on democracy to be trustworthy, it is to end its support to the Taliban, provoking boycotted by the Taliban. Second, the dards for a diversity of factors, from human high time to abandon outdated structures finally the US invasion of Afghanistan. Islamists did poorly in the rest of country rights to accounting and outsourced manu- within our global institutions. Influential fo- because the Islamist government in the facturing, is critical. I conceive of these stan- rums such as the UN Security Council and North-West Frontier Province was known for 2. Some claim that the events of 11 September dards as a kind of infrastructure on which the Group of Eight advanced economies (the being corrupt, and the constituencies wanted 2001 were really an orchestration by other ac- the political story must build. International G8) must be urgently reformed and cease to change. Third, even more importantly, the tors than Muslims. What is your view? human rights laws exist, they are an infra- exclude the many potential candidates who strong results in the 2002 elections – when Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif were structure. But the fact that they exist as in- have so far been ignored without sustainable The Muslim world in general is convinced both in exile (forced on them by President frastructure is not enough. We have to make arguments. that the 11 September attacks were orches- Musharraf) and their mainstream parties them performative in order to allow them trated, and most will say that Muslims could QUESTIONS ON PAKISTAN TO NAJAM were seriously disadvantaged – had been to actually deliver their capabilities, their not have done it. Many reasons may exist rigged effectively even before 11 September ‘goods’. At that point, a human rights norm SETHI to support this claim, but it is absolutely 2001, and the military did its best to facilitate ceases being just a global standard and be- clear that it is neither an aberration nor an comes active, able to change a condition. the victory of the mullahs as part of their 1. Why did the development of Talibanization orchestration; something very substantial is At this point also, human rights represent a historic alliance. remain unchallenged prior to 11 September taking place in Afghanistan and I dare say bridge between localities, the immobile, the 2001? that, after Iraq, Afghanistan is going to be Due to the great internal and external pres- non-cosmopolitan, the non-globalized, on the battleground embroiling the border ar- sure to hold free elections, in the last election the one hand, and the global, on the other. It is fundamental to understand the origins eas of Pakistan. in February 2008, Musharraf was forced to In the long term, this bridging can make of al-Qaeda in Pakistan and how the al- relent and abandon plans to rig the result. human rights an important source for dena- The situation is challenging both in terms Qaeda protagonists were regrouping, plan- Being free (in the sense that the mainstream tionalizing many key issues that are presently of Pakistan’s new democracy and in terms ning and developing at least five years before parties were allowed to contest them unim- still ensconced in national logics – in nation- of US demands. Al-Qaeda is clearly a threat the 11 September attacks. At that time, the peded), the elections resulted in a huge loss alisms. as far as the United States is concerned, and USA had no interest in either Afghanistan for the Islamists. Pakistan is now facing two or Pakistan, apart from initiating oil com- discussions suggest that the USA will with- Larry Diamond. In order for our discus- situations – one in which Pakistanis are not merce with the Taliban who were regarded draw troops from Iraq while sending more INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
ready to allow Islamists to rule the nation, Currently, the pro-al-Qaeda warlord 91 NGOs does not relate to political parties; the particularly the judiciary. Pakistan faced a 92 and another where religiosity and anti-Amer- Baitullah Masood (accused by the Musharraf financial resources go directly to the NGOs military regime, but the NGOs’ struggle to icanism are increasing, feeding into a poten- military government of the assassination of and much is directed to the development of restore civil society and democracy was an tial long-term revival of Islam as a political Benazir Bhutto) has been asked to make a civil society and strengthening institutions, invaluable beacon of hope. force. If this particular experiment with de- peace deal with the civilian government in mocracy fails at the latest round, both the order to resolve the tension with the Taliban. military and the civilian liberal democrats In turn, however, such peace deals create will have suffered a great defeat. In such a new space for the Taliban and al-Qaeda, as scenario, we will see the rise either of ethnic well as popular support for attacks on US or regional parties or of Islamist parties. and Afghan forces across the border. MODERATOR: PRANAB K. BARDHAN rise in inequalities correlates with globaliza- tion but need not always be caused by it; The situation is untenable; the expected US Concluding this session on globalization’s 4. What is the potential role of the military in other factors such as technological progress, economic assistance has been halted; and the impact on democracy and development, undermining democracy and development in which raises the reward of skilled as opposed USA is pressuring Pakistan’s military to take three brief remarks on globalization and in- Pakistan? to unskilled labour, will increase inequality, stronger measures to prevent the Taliban us- equality may be added. regardless of globalization. ing Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FA- In regard to the role of the military, the whole TAs) as a safe haven from which to attack First, when debating the adverse effect of thrust of my argument is that every mili- Remark number three is consistent with US and NATO forces in Afghanistan. If it globalization on inequality, it is important tary intervention has been facilitated by the the messages of Saskia Sassen and Nivedita fails, the USA is likely to proceed on its own to recognize that the situation in different United States, and in this relationship Paki- Menon, who refer to the effect of globaliza- and make direct interventions in the FATAs, countries varies. Anti-globalists have many stan’s military state has extracted whatever it tion on power shifts, and the new spaces which would fuel a popular anti-American cases to refer to, China being the most out- could from the United States, and vice versa. created for marginalized groups in the new backlash in the country and undermine the standing one as it has shifted from being one In essence, this has consisted of military as- post-national formations. Globalization is new democratic civilian government. This of the world’s most equal countries to one sistance to bolster Pakistan’s defence capacity often leading to a strengthening of forces of would pave the way for another military of the most unequal, bordering on the range and economic aid to underpin its legitimacy federalism or processes of decentralization takeover in time to come. of Latin American inequities. On the other at home. The net result has been a loss for worldwide. In areas where the nation state hand, in Brazil and Mexico inequality went civil society and democracy in Pakistan. is weakening (whether due to globalization up in the 1980s, but since then it has been 6. What has been the Pakistani experience in or not), local forces are gaining ground and declining. regard to NGOs? the bargaining power of the regional auton- 5. What is a probable future scenario in Paki- omy movement improves, which in itself is a The second point to acknowledge is that the stan? A decade ago, civil society in Pakistan was al- democratic effect. most non-existent. In the last year, however, Pakistan’s future is difficult to predict, but there has been more mention of civil society the military is presently under pressure from in Pakistan than in the past 60 years, mainly the civilians to relinquish political space. due to the presence of NGOs. Most of these Its political power has retreated and it has receive funding from European institutions conveniently handed over ‘the ownership of and focus on social work, education, health, the war on terror to the civilians’. In other the empowerment of groups that suffer dis- words, the military has passed on all the de- crimination and so on. As Pakistanis were cision making and responsibility to the civil- confronted with the long-term military re- ian government, arguing that it is tired of gime, where the activities of political parties being hated for being pro-US and for fight- were hampered, the NGOs were our only ing the United States’ war on terror. source of inspiration. Despite the fact that The ownership of the war on terror is a very the West supplies the financial support, lead- unpopular issue, which explains why the ing some to refer to an attempt to impose civilians are reluctant to engage the Taliban. democracy from the outside, the work of the INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
CONCLUDING REMARKS AND MESSAGES the importance of seeing development not regard to gender and historically dis- 94 as a technical exercise but as an immensely advantaged groups such as indigenous political process. This also relates to the need peoples. Vidar Helgesen for cooperation agencies to see development not as a technical exercise of ticking boxes, but 6. Sustainable development needs to stem as part of political processes. Understanding from below, to benefit all and to reduce the political economy in the national context levels of poverty and inequality. is therefore essential for anyone engaging in 7. Enhancing the capacity of democratic support of democracy or development. institutions to deliver on the reduction IDEA will pull together this rich discussion of poverty and inequality and on the and let it inform and improve our operation- achievement of other Millennium De- al work as well as our knowledge base. velopment Goals is key to the reclaim- ing of their credibility. Before concluding, I will try to summarize some key messages that, in my view, stem 8. Political parties and parliaments have a The impact of globalization on the pros- Illustrating this shift of understanding and 93 from our discussions at the Delhi Democ- key role to play in shaping the national pects for development and democratic con- approach, empirical evidence increasingly racy Round Table. development strategy and overseeing its solidation presents a mixed picture on both focuses both on traditional hard data – such implementation. fronts. In economic terms, evidence suggests as national economic statistics – and attitu- 1. Democracy and development are deeply that globalization can contribute both to dinal data – evidence relating to what people intertwined in spite of the difficulty of 9. The international community and do- the reduction of and to an increase in ex- expect from democracy on a global scale. In identifying a direct, causal and quanti- nors can only support such efforts; they isting inequalities. In relation to democratic this sense, the focus of democracy assistance fiable relationship between them; more cannot replace them. consolidation, globalization has on the one is increasingly on the quality of democracy, importantly, they are increasingly un- 10. Multilateral organizations, and the hand brought more power to supranational that is its deliverables. derstood today as including each other United Nations in particular, should institutions and processes while, on the oth- to a great extent and building upon This brings me to the need for an under- take full advantage of their broadly- er hand, it has enhanced opportunities for each other. citizens to make an impact on global norms standing of politics at national and local based international legitimacy in order and standards. levels. In many countries, democracy is ex- 2. Both democracy and development are to make democracy and development periencing a number of persistent problems, political processes requiring long-term, more supportive of each other and to Empirical data on the nature of the rela- including clientelism, corruption, and use of context-specific and integrated ap- help induce synergies. tionships between democracy and develop- the state as a means of promoting networks proaches. ment have for a long time been said not to of patronage. In addition, many democra- 11. Regional organizations of the global be conclusive. It is increasingly clear to me, cies continue to suffer from a tendency to 3. Both need to be owned, shaped and South are particularly well placed to however, that by empowering citizens and produce political leaders who rely on the pursued by those who demand them lead the way as they operate in dynamic endowing them with rights, democracy is participative components of the system, in and who will be their ultimate benefi- environments where democracy and able – more so than other systems – to as- particular popular or populist mobilization ciaries. development clearly add sense to each sist the process of development, and devel- around identity-based issues rather than the other and make engagement on both opment understood as something more than deliberative potential of democracy. 4. Both need institutions that are legiti- fronts an indivisible whole. economic growth alone. mate, effective and accountable to citi- At the same time, we have heard about zens and their elected representatives. Finally, I would like to express my deepest Our understanding of development needs interesting and creative experiments with gratitude to the CSDS for an excellent to be redefined and deepened by both de- ways to carry democracy forward in areas 5. The quality of both democracy and de- partnership and to the Government of India mocratizing the concept and expanding it to such as institutionalizing the right to velopment depends to a great extent on for the warm hospitality expressed by its encompass a rights-based approach, with the information, democracy at the local level, their inclusiveness, particularly with support to this event. emphasis on achieving human well-being. participatory budget processes and so on. These very phenomena and trends underscore INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
APPENDIX A Cultural Liberty and Diversity and contrib- PANEL 1. DEVELOPMENT – AN IDEAL, AN 96 utes regularly to Open Democracy. ELECTORAL SLOGAN OR A SINE QUA NON ABOUT THE SPEAKERS, PANELLISTS AND MODERATORS OF DEMOCRACY? Jairam Ramesh is the Indian Minister of State for Commerce and Industry and Peter deSouza (panel moderator) is the Power, and Congress member of parliament Director of the Indian Institute of Advanced representing the state of Andhra Pradesh in Study. Prior his current assignment he was the Rajya Sabha. He is also a member of the senior fellow at the CSDS where he was National Advisory Council. Ramesh helped co-director of the Lokniti programme on put together the National Common Mini- comparative democracy. Professor deSouza mum Programme of the United Progressive taught for 16 years in the Political Science Alliance (UPA) that came to power in May Department at Goa University, where he 2004. Formerly, he was part of the Congress also was head between 1996 and 2002. He election strategy team for the 2004 Lok has been engaged with unpacking puzzles of Sabha elections, and he has been secretary in democracy and has written on panchayati the All India Congress Committee (AICC), OPENING STATEMENTS CSDS in Delhi, Leverhulme fellow at the 95 raj and the ‘second wind’ of democracy in University of Bristol, senior fellow at the In- deputy chairman of the Karnataka Planning India; party-hopping and the party system Vidar Helgesen is the Secretary-General of stitute of Advanced Studies, Jerusalem, and Board (2000–02), a member of the Rajas- in India; electoral violence and its sources; International IDEA. A Norwegian national, visiting fellow of the British Academy, and than Development Council (1999–2003) dalits and discrimination; trust and political he was appointed Norway’s Deputy Minister was the Asia chair at Sciences Po, Paris, in and economic adviser to the government institutions; and freedom from fear and hu- for Foreign Affairs in October 2001 and re- the summer of 2006. He was the first distin- of Chattisgarh (2001–03). He was adviser man security. As a political theorist, his abid- mained in this position until October 2005. guished resident scholar at the Institute of to the finance minister during 1996–8, ad- ing interest is in threats to freedom of ex- During this period he led Norway’s efforts Religion, Public Life and Culture, Columbia viser to the deputy chairman of the Planning pression in democratic polities and in issues in peace talks between the government of Sri University, and visiting professor at Queen’s Commission (1992–4) and adviser to the of righting historical wrong. In addition to Lanka and the Tamil Tigers. Born in 1968, University, Belfast, in 2008. His publications Prime Minister in 1991. He has served in numerous articles he has edited two books, Vidar Helgesen studied and trained as a law- include Individualism in Social Science (Clar- the Planning Commission, the Ministry of Contemporary India: Transitions (Sage, 2000) yer. Politically active from his youth, he has endon Press, 1992); Secularism and Its Critics Industry and other economic departments and India’s Political Parties (with E. Sridha- long been involved in Norway’s Conservative (ed., Oxford University Press, 1998); Mul- of the central government, and been en- ran, Sage, 2006). He was recently one of the Party. From 1998 to 2001 he acted as special ticulturalism, Liberalism and Democracy (ed. trusted with numerous special assignments. three principal investigators of a five-nation adviser to the president of the International with A. Bagchi and R. Sudarshan, Oxford He has authored a number of key govern- study published by Oxford University Press Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent University Press, 1999); Transforming India ment reports in areas such as energy, tech- on the State of Democracy in South Asia. Societies in Geneva. In 2007 he was nomi- (ed. with Francine Frankel et al., Oxford nology, capital goods, industrial policy and nated as member of the UN Peacebuilding University Press, 2000); Civil Society, Public telecommunications. He was a key player in Pranab K. Bardhan is a professor of eco- Fund Advisory Group. Sphere and Citizenship (ed. with H. Reifeld, the team that formulated and implemented nomics at the University of California, Sage, 2005); Politics and Ethics of the Indian India’s economic reforms in 1991 and 1997. Berkeley. He has a PhD from the University Rajeev Bhargava is the Director of the Cen- Constitution (ed., Oxford University Press, He studied public management at Carnegie of Cambridge and has been on the faculty tre for the Study of Developing Societies 2008); Social Justice (ed. with M. Dusche Mellon University during 1975–7 and there- of MIT, the Delhi School of Economics and (CSDS) and has been a professor of politi- and H. Reifeld, Sage, 2008); and Politi- after spent a year at the Massachusetts In- the Indian Statistical Institute. He was the cal science at Jawaharlal Nehru University, cal Theory: An Introduction (ed. with Ashok stitute of Technology (MIT) studying tech- editor of the Journal of Development Econom- New Delhi, and head of the Department of Acharya, Pearson, 2008). He has contributed nology policy, economics, engineering and ics between 1985 and 2003, and his research Political Science, University of Delhi. He to several international books and journals management as part of the interdisciplinary is in the general areas of the political econo- obtained his BA degree in economics from including the Routledge Encyclopedia of Phi- technology policy programme. my of development, institutional economics, the University of Delhi and his MPhil and losophy and the Oxford Handbook of Political DPhil from the University of Oxford. He Theory, and is currently working on a book has been a faculty fellow in ethics at Har- on secularism. Professor Bhargava has also vard University, C. R. Parekh Fellow at the been a consultant to the UNDP report on INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
poverty, and globalization. He is the author published works are Squandered Victory: The 97 Institute of Southern Africa (EISA). She has François-Xavier de Donnea is a Minister 98 of 11 books and numerous journal articles, American Occupation and the Bungled Effort been a director on the Botswana Diamond of State (member of the Crown Council) of and co-editor of 12 books. His most recent to Bring Democracy to Iraq (Times Books, Valuing Company (BDVC) Board of Di- Belgium. He is also member of the Belgian books include Scarcity, Conflicts, and Coop- 2005); Developing Democracy: Toward Con- rectors and she has completed government- House of Representatives, chairman of the eration (MIT Press, 2005) and Globalization solidation (Johns Hopkins University Press, appointed commissions, including being Committee on Finance and Budget, and a and Egalitarian Redistribution (Princeton 1999); Promoting Democracy in the 1990s chair of Botswana’s Long Term Vision 2016. member of the Committee on Foreign Af- University Press, 2006). (1995); and Class, Ethnicity, and Democracy Currently Somolekae works as a programme fairs. He also heads the Belgian delegation in Nigeria (Syracuse University Press, 1989). director for the W. K. Kellogg Foundation, to the Organization for Security and Co- Maria Amparo Casar has been a researcher He is the editor of Islam and Democracy in based in the Africa office in Pretoria, where operation in Europe (OSCE) Parliamen- and a faculty teacher at the Political Studies the Middle East (with Marc F. Plattner and she oversees the Kellogg Program in Malawi, tary Assembly and is the vice-president and Department of the Centro de Investigación Daniel Brumberg, Johns Hopkins Univer- Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. former president of the Belgian delegation y Docencia Económicas, A. C. (CIDE, Eco- sity Press, 2003); Assessing the Quality of to the IPU. de Donnea is also chairman nomics Research and Teaching Centre), Democracy (with Leonardo Morlino, Johns PANEL 2. ROOM FOR POLITICS – of MEDEA (Research Institute on Euro- since 1979. She has served as Director of the Hopkins University Press, 2005); The State DEMOCRATIZING NATIONAL OWNERSHIP OF Mediterranean Dialogue), a member of the Political Studies Division of CIDE, as an ex- of India’s Democracy (with Marc Plattner and DEVELOPMENT Board of the Royal Institute for Interna- ternal adviser on political affairs to the Advi- Sumit Ganguly, Johns Hopkins University tional Relations (Belgium) and a member sors’ Committee of the City Hall of Mexico Press, 2007); and Democracy in Developing Javeed Alam (panel moderator) is the chair- of the Strategic Council of the Université City and has been a member of the Linking Countries (with Juan J. Linz and Seymour man of the Indian Council of Social Science Saint Joseph, Beirut, Lebanon. He is profes- Committee of the Congress. She has been a Martin Lipset, Lynne Rienner and Adaman- Research. Formerly, he was a visiting senior sor emeritus of the University of Louvain first class researcher of the Sistema Nacional tine Press, 1988). fellow at the Centre for the Study of Devel- and has been chairman of the Committee de Investigadores researchers’ catalogue since oping Societies from Himachal Pradesh Uni- on Foreign Affairs and minister of defence 1998, and was the advisers’ coordinator to Gloria Somolekae is a citizen of Botswana versity. Among his best-known publications in Belgium. He has been a member of the the Mexican Secretary of State (2001–05). and a career academic who has taught de- are Domination and Dissent: Peasants and European Parliament and was president of She has a master’s degree and a PhD from velopment management and policy analysis Politics (Mandira, 1985); India: Living with the European Union Council of Ministers the University of Cambridge. at the University of Botswana for almost Modernity (Oxford University Press, 1999); on Research during the Belgian Presidency 18 years. She has published a number of ar- and Who Wants Democracy? (Orient Long- of July–December 2001. He has a bachelor’s Larry Diamond is a professor by courtesy ticles on a wide range of subjects including man, 2004). He has also taught at Osmania degree in economics and applied econom- of political science and sociology at Stanford governance, democracy, election manage- University in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. ics from the University of Louvain, an MBA University and a senior fellow at the Hoover ment and foreign aid management, and has from the University of California, Berkeley, Institution and at the Freeman Spogli Insti- co-edited two books and contributed chap- Akwasi Osei Adjei is the Minister for Foreign and a PhD in economics from the Erasmus tute for International Studies at Stanford. He ters in several. She has also served as a con- Affairs, Regional Integration and NEPAD of University, Rotterdam. is founding co-editor of the Journal of Democ- sultant for the Botswana government and for Ghana. Prior to his current appointment he racy and co-director of the International Fo- a number of international agencies, focusing served as Deputy Minister for Trade and In- Aruna Roy is a recipient of the Magsaysay rum for Democratic Studies of the National on the way performance is managed in the dustry. He began his active political career in award – valued as the Asian Nobel prize – Endowment for Democracy. He has also ad- public service. She has been an activist in the 1992 when he was chosen as a parliamentary for community leadership and international vised the US Agency for International Devel- women’s movement and in the democracy candidate of the New Patriotic Party (NPP). understanding. She was an Indian Adminis- opment (USAID, whose 2002 report, Foreign area. Somolekae led the democracy project He has been a member of the NPP Young trative Services (IAS) officer until 1974 when Aid in the National Interest, he co-authored), at the University of Botswana for ten years, Executives’ Forum and is currently a mem- she joined the Social Work and Research the World Bank, the United Nations, the US conducting research and opinion polls, and ber of the NPP National Council. Before his Center (SWRC) in Tilonia, Rajasthan, set State Department, and other governmental has been an election observer in Botswana current political career, Akwasi Osei Adjei up by her husband Sanjit Roy. She worked and non-governmental organizations. His and other countries in Southern Africa. Her served in various private-sector capacities. at the SWRC until 1983. In 1990 she set book The Spirit of Democracy: The Struggle involvement in these areas has also included He trained as an accountant and holds the up the Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan, a to Build Free Societies Throughout the World serving on boards both within her country Party IV certification of the Chartered Insti- peasants’ and workers’ organization which (Times Books, 2008) explores the sources of and in the region, such as the Board of the Af- tute of Management Accountants. He also has built a grass-roots movement, trigger- global democratic progress and stress future rica Capacity Building Foundation (ACBF) holds an MSc degree in accounting from de ing broad debate and a nationwide demand prospects of democracy. Among his other and (currently) the Board of the Election Montfort University, Leicester. for the public’s right to scrutinize official INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD INTERNATIONAL IDEA DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
records: they succeeded in getting the Raj- PANEL 3. DEMOCRACY AND 99 International, OpenDemocracy.net, La Van- Laurier University, Waterloo. He was pre- 100 asthani Right to Information Act passed in DEVELOPMENT – THE IMPACT OF guardia, Clarin and the Financial Times, viously ambassador of Chile to India, Ban- 2000. Aruna Roy was awarded the Ramon GLOBALIZATION among others. gladesh and Sri Lanka (2003–07). During Magsaysay award along with Arputham, the his tenure in India, the first presidential president of the National Slumdwellers’ Fed- Pranab K. Bardhan (panel moderator) Nivedita Menon is associate professor at the visit from Chile took place, resulting in a eration. Department of Political Science, University bilateral trade agreement after which Chil- See above. of Delhi. She writes with a feminist perspec- ean exports increased tenfold, to 2.2 billion Ravi Srivastava obtained his doctoral degree tive on political theory and Indian politics, USD. He has also served as ambassador to Saskia Sassen is the Lynd professor of so- from the University of Cambridge and has and her recent books are an edited volume, South Africa (1994–9) and as Cabinet min- ciology, and a member of the Committee since 1999 has been professor of econom- Sexualities (Women Unlimited Delhi and ister in the Chilean government. A lawyer on Global Thought at Columbia Univer- ics in the Centre for the Study of Regional Zed Books, 2007); Power and Contestation: and political scientist, Heine holds a PhD in sity and LSE Centennial Professor at the Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University. India After 1989 (co-authored with Aditya political science from Stanford University. London School of Economics. Among her His main areas of research and publication Nigam, Zed Books, 2007); and Recovering He has been a visiting fellow at St Antony’s publications are Territory, Authority, Rights: include human development, rural poverty Subversion: Feminist Politics beyond the Law College, Oxford, a research associate at the From Medieval to Global Assemblages (Princ- and rural development, decentralization, (Permanent Black and University of Illinois Wilson Center in Washington, DC, and a eton University Press, 2008); A Sociology of labour markets, educational finance, health Press, 2004). Among her recent papers are consultant to the United Nations, the Ford Globalization (W. W. Norton, 2007); the issues and migration. He has written over ‘Living with Secularism’ in The Crisis of Sec- Foundation and Oxford Analytica. He is the third fully updated Cities in a World Econo- 50 papers in Indian and foreign journals. ularism in India (eds Anuradha Dingwaney author, co-author or editor of eights books my (Sage, 2006); the edited Deciphering the Professor Srivastava is the principal author Needham and Rajeswari Sunder Rajan, Duke and some 60 articles in journals and sym- Global: Its Spaces, Scales, and Subjects (Rout- of the first State Human Development Re- University Press, 2007); ‘Nation, Identity, posium volumes. He writes regularly for the ledge, 2007); and the co-edited Digital For- port of Uttar Pradesh (forthcoming) and has Citizenship: Feminist Critique in Contem- international press and his articles have been mations: New Architectures for Global Order completed more than 20 research studies to porary India’ in V. R. Mehta and Thomas published in the New York Times, the Wash- (Princeton University Press, 2005). She has date. In 2001, he was given the University Pantham (eds), Political Ideas in Modern ington Post and the International Herald Tri- just completed a five-year project for the Grants Commission’s award in economics India: Thematic Explorations (Sage, 2006); bune. He was the first ambassador to present United Nations Educational, Scientific and for innovative research on poverty. He has ‘Between the Burqa and the Beauty Parlour? credentials to President Nelson Mandela, Cultural Organization (UNESCO) on sus- held advisory positions and has worked in Globalization, Cultural Nationalism and and for two successive years Johannesburg’s tainable human settlements with a network consultative positions with the Indian Plan- Feminist Politics’ in Antoinette Burton et al. leading newspaper, The Star, selected him as of researchers and activists in over 30 coun- ning Commission, the Uttar Pradesh State (eds), Postcolonial Studies and Beyond (Duke one of the 100 most influential personalities tries; it is published as one of the volumes Planning Commission, the State Institute University Press, 2005); and ‘Universalism in South Africa. of Public Administration (SIEMAT), the of the Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems without Foundations?’, Economy and Soci- UNDP, the United Nations Children’s Fund (EOLSS Publishers) (
APPENDIX B Social Science Research (India) Democracy and development – the impact 102 of globalization THE DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT ROUND TABLE PROGRAMME 17:00–18:30 Reception and entertainment Saskia Sassen, Columbia University and London School of Economics and Political INTERNATIONAL IDEA AND THE CENTRE FOR THE STUDY OF DEVELOPING SOCIETIES 18:30 Dinner hosted by Govern- Science (USA) ment of India, with welcom- 17–18 JUNE 2008 ing speech by Shivshankar Nivedita Menon, University of Delhi (In- NEW DELHI, TAJ MAHAL HOTEL Menon, Foreign Secretary dia) (India) and closing speech by Marco Hausiku, Minister Jorge Heine, Wilfrid Laurier University and for Foreign Affairs (Namibia) Centre for International Governance Inno- vation (Canada/Chile)
WEDNESDAY, 18 JUNE Najam Sethi, Friday Times and Daily Times (Pakistan) TUESDAY, 17 JUNE tion (South Africa/Botswana) 101 09:00–11:30 Panel 3 presentation and dis- cussion Moderator: Pranab K. Bardhan, University 08:30–09:30 Registration Moderator: Peter deSouza, Indian Institute of California, Berkeley (USA/India) of Advanced Study (India) 09:30–10:30 Opening addresses by 11:30–12:00 Round Table conclusions and closing speech by Vidar Hel- Vidar Helgesen, Secretary-General of Inter- gesen, Secretary-General of national IDEA 13:00–14:30 Lunch International IDEA
Rajeev Bhargava, Director of the Centre for 14:30–17:00 Panel 2 presentation and dis- the Study of Developing Societies cussion
Jairam Ramesh, Minister of State for Com- Room for politics – democratizing national merce and Industry and Power, Government ownership of development of India William Brandful, Ministry for Foreign Af- fairs (Ghana) on behalf of 10:30–13:00 Panel 1 presentation and dis- cussion Akwasi Osei Adjei, Ghana’s Minister for Foreign Affairs, Regional Integration and Development – an ideal, an electoral slo- NEPAD gan, or a sine qua non of democracy? François-Xavier de Donnea, Member of Pranab K. Bardhan, University of Califor- Parliament (Belgium) nia, Berkeley (USA/India) Aruna Roy, Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangath- Maria Amparo Casar, Centro de Investi- ana (India) gación y Docencia Económicas (Mexico) Ravi Srivastava, Centre for the Study of Re- Larry Diamond, Stanford University gional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru Uni- (USA) versity (India)
Gloria Somolekae, W. K. Kellogg Founda- Moderator: Javeed Alam, Indian Council of