2000 Proceedings Cincinnati, OH USA Captain Sean Ahrens And

2000 Proceedings Cincinnati, OH USA

Captain Sean Ahrens and Susan P. Ashdown Inclusion of Fit Preference Information and Selfmeasurement In An Ordering Model for Mass Customized Apparel

Jemi Armstrong and Nancy J. Owens Cyber-Chic: An On-Line Guide To The Best Fashion Internet Sites

Linda B. Arthur The Multi-Ethnic Origins of The Aloha Shirt

Linda B. Arthur The Web-Based Network Learning Environment: An Active Learning Strategy

Martha G. Baker and Susan O. Michelman A Senior Seminar: Bridge Between School and Work

M. Lynn Barnes and Nancy J. Rabolt Country Image: Relationship Between Perceived Garment Quality and Purchase Intent

Joni L. Beach and Doris H. Kincade A Grounded Theory Study of Systems Theory and Clothing and Textiles Theories For The Development of A Theoretical Framework

Nicole M. Bettinger and Deborah D. Young Skills and Knowledge Preferred When Hiring For Entry-Level Positions In The Fashion Industry

V. Ann Paulins The Impact of A Service-Learning Approach In A Retail Merchandising Capstone Course

Wadeeah Beyah and Shu-Hwa Lin An Analysis of African American Female Apparel Shopping Problems

Marianne C. Bickle WebCT: Innovative Use of Technology In The Classroom

Mandi Brezonick and Karen H. Hyllegard Implementation of a Two-Way Stretch Strategy: An Analysis of The Success of Gap Inc.

Vera Bruce College Students Who Purchase Used Clothing: An Exploratory Study

Nancy Bryant Strategies for Problem-Solving Long-Distance Co-Design Projects

Sandra Stansbery Buckland: Discussant A History of Sewing: Teaching, Controversy, and Survival Through The Needle And Thread

Leslie Davis Burns: Discussant Concepts Related To Brands

Elizabeth Bye and Karen Labat A Skin Cancer Intervention Program for Youth: Research Informs Teaching

Christie Caine, Lenda Jo Connell, and Pamela V. Ulrich An Evaluation of The Impact of Technology Transfer For Small Textile and Apparel Manufacturers

Lark F. Caldwell and Jane E. Workman Apparel Spatial Visualization Test and Form Board Test

Karen S. Callen and Shiretta F. Ownbey Associations Between Philosophies of Human Nature and Perceptions of Unethical Consumer Behavior

J. R. Campbell and Jean Parsons Using Digital Textile Printing Technologies to Integrate Printed Imagery With A Complex Draped Jacket Pattern

Linda Carlson and Eulanda A. Sanders Experiential Learning: Introducing Undergraduate Students to Content Analysis Through Gallery Exhibition Development

Katherine E. Carroll, Doris Kincade, and Peggy Quesenberry The Use of The World Wide Web To Access Current Industry Developments In An Undergraduate Introductory Fashion Class

Hsiou-Lien Chen Microbiological Degradation of Naturally Colored Cottons under Soil Burial Conditions

Deborah L. Christiansen and Marian L. Davis Art Style and Social Stratification: The Case for Pre-Columbian Peruvian Textiles

Sandra Forsythe and Liu Chun Exploring Gender Differences in Online Behavior

Diana Cone A Journey Through The Culture of Clothes

Sarah Cosbey and Julie Hillery Exploring Images of Women In Magazine Advertising Using The About‐Face Website

Christy A. Crutsinger, Richard Tas, Jana M. Hawley, and Jerry Dickenson Delivering Advanced Internships via A Web-Based Course

Christy Crutsinger, Dee Knight, and Lynn Brandon Service Quality In The Supply Value Chain: Retailers’ Expectations

M. Catherine Daly Afghan Women’s Textile Craft Economies: Understanding Embroidery Practice from an Interactionist Perspective

Michael L. Dancausse and Nancy L. Cassill Innovators of Consumer Direct Internet Electronic Commerce of Apparel Products

Elizabeth K. Davic Contract Grading For A Skill-Based Course

Marsha A. Dickson, Sharron J. Lennon, Catherine P. Montalto, Dong Shen, and Li Zhang, Competitiveness tf Us Apparel Products In China

Nancy H. Drennen and Kenneth R. Tremblay, Jr. Undergraduate Team Research and Poster Exhibition: Learning The Research And Problem -Solving Process

Molly Eckman, Jennifer Paff Ogle, and Catherine Amoroso Leslie Media Constructions: Dress and The Columbine Shootings

Ginny Hencken Elsasser Selected Works Analysis: Creating Conceptual Connections

Brecca R. Farr and Mary A. Littrell Mass Merchandise Or Handcrafts: Assortment Planning Considerations of Midwestern Cultural Museum Stores

Judith C. Forney and Lynn Brandon Importance of Evaluative Criteria Across Product Categories: a Comparison of Anglo And Hispanic Females

Sandra Forsythe Internet Consumers' Risk Perception and Online Behavior

Irene M. Foster Teaching Ladder and Assortment Plans Using an Adaptation of Industry Software: Academic Liteô

Elizabeth W. Freeburg and Jane E. Workman An Empirical Test of Norms Related To Appearance

Betty Fritz-Cook Costumes of Kentucky African American Women: 1900-1950

Hanna Hall and Elizabeth K. Davic Fashion In Paper

Carol Hall and Jane Farrell-Beck The Flapper: Misperceived Miss

Jean Hardy, Hazel O. Jackson, Suzanne G. Marshall, and M. Sue Stanley A Team Approach To Retail Product Development: From Industry To The Classroom

Jana M. Hawley Digging For Diamonds: An Analysis for Sorting Reclaimed Textile Products

Jane E. Hegland and Nancy J. Nelson Cross-Dressing Across Cultures: Performing and Celebrating Gender

Julie Hillery and Sarah Cosbey Strategies for Program Rejuvenation: A Grass Roots Approach

Byung-Sook Hong, Eun Young Jo, Chung-Ang, and Hye-Shin Kim Emotional Response to Apparel Ads and Brand Loyalty: A Cross-Cultural Study

Janice Huck A Model For Experiential Learning: Technology, Teams and Community Education

Choon Sup Hwang, Kyung Hee, and Nancy J. Rabolt Korean and U.S. Female Student Attitudes and Behavior toward Apparel Magazine Advertisements Related To Self-Concept

Karen H. Hyllegard Visual Presentation In A Multicultural Marketplace: An Exercise In Diversity, Creativity And Collaboration

Cynthia Istook Technological Applications Enabling Mass Customization

Reneé S. Jackson and Doris H. Kincade Comparison of Color and Fabric Presentation Options For The Design Process

Reneé S. Jackson, Doris H. Kincade, Valerie L. Giddings, and Katherine Carroll Investigation of Consumer Preference for Internet Shopping

John Jacob Apprehending Gender at The Margins: The Importance of Appearance, Visual Appraisals and Imagination To Establishing Identities

Kathryn A. Jakes Exploratory Analysis of Alpaca Fiber

Yang Jin Jeon A Study an The Value Changes For The Korean Women In 1977-1998: A Content Analysis of Print Ads

Natalie A. Johnson Towards An Introductory Course In Apparel Merchandising Education: A Jamaican Plan

Michelle R. Jones and Doris H. Kincade Restructuring of the U.S. Textile and Apparel Complex: Adjustments Made by U.S. Small Apparel Manufacturers (SAMS)

Jaehee Jung and Sharron J. Lennon The Effect of Appearance Schemas and Exposure to Attractive Media Images On Mood and Body Image

Melissa Kaan and Suzanne Loker New York City Apparel Contractors’ Use of Social Network Relationships to Improve Their Market Competencies

Sara J. Kadolph and Jane Farrell-Beck Collaboration on An Exhibit of Sports Apparel

M. Jo Kallal and Nga Nguyen Designing a Protocol For Body Scanning Based On Consumer Input

Lombuso S. Khoza Gender Symbolism: The Case of Swazi Infant Dress

Laura K. Kidd Celebrating Creativity: The Life of Teresa Zitter

Hye-Shin Kim, Byung-Sook Hong and Eun Young Jo Apparel Product Involvement and Ad Response: A Crosscultural Study Sook-Hyun Kim and Jessie Chen-Yu A Comparison of Consumers’ Store Patronage between South Korea and The United States: Suggestions for The Marketing Strategy of South Korean Discount Stores

Tammy R. Kinley Case Study with Real World Flavor

Young-Ah Kwon, Sara J. Kadolph, and Sherry Schofield-Tomschin, A Comparative Evaluation of Soil Removal

Kyoung-Nan Kwon and Ann Fairhurst Modeling Determinants of Internet Shopping

Karen Labat and Elizabeth K. Bye The Design Institute: An Experiment in Interdisciplinary Design At A Major Research University

Jane M. Lamb Supporting Student Growth In A Textiles Course

Seung-Hee Lee, Nancy A. Rudd and Sharron J. Lennon Body Image and TV Shopping Channel Exposure among Television Shoppers

Yoon-Jung Lee and Cynthia R. Jasper "Erase Your Ugly Wrinkles": An Analysis of Magazine Advertisements for Products Aimed At Controlling Aging Process

Seung-Eun Lee, Grace I. Kunz, Ann Marie Fiore, and J. R. Campbell Acceptance of Mass Customization of Apparel: Merchandising Issues Associated With Preference For Product, Process, and Place

Sookja Lim, Yoon Yang, Seung-Hee Lee, Chensoon A. Song, and Sharron Lennon Global Market Assessment For Women's Apparel: Cross-National Comparison Of American and Korean Consumers

Shu-Hwa Lin An Innovative Technique for Teaching Fashion Illustration and Apparel CAD

Shu-Hwa Lin, Doris Kincade, and Mary Ann Moore The Optimal Use of Apparel Contracting

Mary A. Littrell, Nancy J. Miller, Mary Gregoire, Mary Winter, Betsy Chew, Luann Gaskill Business Entrepreneurship in Textiles and Apparel

Mary A. Littrell, Norma J. Wolff, and Virginia Blackburn Mentoring Artisan Entrepreneurs for The Global Market Nora M. Macdonald Intensive Writing Courses: Development of Writing Guidelines

Linda L. Manikowske and Holly E. Bastow-Shoop Rural Consumer Attitudes and Practices toward Use of The Internet To Buy Goods And Services

Melissa Manuel, Lenda Jo Connell, and Ann Beth Presley Understanding the Fit Preferences of Black Professional Women

Suzanne G. Marshall Field-Based Learning for Teaching Fashion Promotion

Suzanne G. Marshall The Language of Apparel From A Multi-Cultural Perspective

Kathi Martin, Abby Goodrum, and Dave Gehosky Virtual Costume Collections for the New Millennium: Creating A Methodology For Developing Image Surrogates for Historic Costume

Traci May-Plumlee Consumer Purchase Data as A Strategic Product Development Tool

Lashawnda Mckinnon and Cynthia Istook Relative Accuracy and Precision of 3D Body Scan Data

Harriet Mcleod and J. R. Campbell To Demonstrate Or Not to Demonstrate, Is There Another Way?: A Creative Approach to Learning Computer-Aided Design Programs

Katalin Medevev and Annette Lynch The Cultural Construction of Womanhood through Dress In Socialist Hungary

Deborah J. C. Meyer Developing an International Perspective In International Trade

Deborah J. C. Meyer Learning through Frustration: A Quality Assurance Activity

Phyllis Bell Miller Enhancing Creativity in Apparel Design Courses Through Cultural Diversity and CAD

Nancy J. Miller, Hyun-Mee Joung, Annette Van Aardt, and Elizabeth M. Visser Measuring Differences between South African and U.S. Consumer Perceptions of Apparel Store Image

Marguerite Moore Determinants of Innovation Adoption Among Apparel Retailing Organizations: A Conceptual Framework

Marcia A. Morgado From Kitsch to Chic: The Transformation of Aloha Shirt Aesthetics

Yoonja Nam and Seung-Hee Lee Is There A Universal Standard of Beauty? A Comparison of Selfdiscrepancy and Apparel Selection Behavior among Korean and American Women

Grace Wasike Namwamba Environmental Attitudes and Practices Related To Textile Products

Michelle Nathan and Margaret Rucker Effects of Violation of Clothing Norms on Legal Opinions

Nancy J. Nelson and Gloria M. Williams Exploring Dress in Everyday Life Through Interpretive Inquiry

Amanda G. Nicholson, Janith S. Wright, and Linda M. Cushman Q-Methodology as a Tool For Curriculum Development

Elizabeth K. O’connell and Susan P. Ashdown Comparison of Test Protocols to Assess the Fit of Mature Women’s Apparel

Jennifer Paff Ogle and Mary Lynn Damhorst Body Satisfaction among Mothers and Their Adolescent Daughters: Qualitative Validation of Quantitative Data

Hyunjoo Oh and Cynthia Jasper A Test of the Elaboration Likelihood Model (Elm) For Apparel Advertisements

Belinda T. Orzada Effects of A Multicultural Costume History Course on Attitudes toward Ethnic And Ethnic-Inspired Apparel

Shiretta F. Ownbey and Donna Branson Development of an Apparel and Textilesvirtual Career Fair for Experiential Learning

Shiretta F. Ownbey and Diane Morton Apparel and Textile Content-Based Service Learning Projects for Undergraduate Students

Rosalind C. Paige and Mary A. Littrell Craft Retailers’ Perceptions of Success and Factors Affecting Success

Lisa Parrillo-Chapman and Cynthia L. Istook Designing for Mass Customization

Jean L. Parsons "For Homemaking and a Trade": Paradox and Problems in The Early Development of Systemized Sewing Instruction

V. Ann Paulins The Impact of a Service-Learning Approach in a Retail Merchandising Capstone Course

V. Ann Paulins Service-Learning in Strategic Retail Policy: New Implications for a Simulation Experience

Charles Perry and Diana Cone Real World Quality Assurance Education for the Needle Trades

Traci May-Plumlee Consumer Purchase Data as a Strategic Product Development Tool

Vincent Gil Vargas Quevedo Visual Literacy Program: an Interdisciplinary Approach to Teaching the Basic Elements And Principles of Design through Lecture

Vincent Gil Vargas Quevedo Computer Application for Product Development, Marketing, and Promotion

Nancy J. Rabolt and Choon Sup Hwang Korean and U.S. College Female Students’ Clothing Buying Patterns Relative to Self- Concept

Judith Rasband Educational "Sorts": A Strategy for Teaching and Learning

Elizabeth A. Rhodes Kleibacker: A Web‐Based Historical Review of the Master of Bias

Jane Ruth and Eulanda A. Sanders Functional Design Applied to Women’s Climbing Apparel

Eulanda A. Sanders Creating Wearable and Fiber Art Using A Theory-Based Structure and Technology Applications

Eulanda A. Sanders Product Development for Apparel Design Students: Infusing the Curriculum From Freshman to Senior Levels

Nancy A. Schofield and Karen L. Labat Examination of the Relationship of Sizing Measurements to Grade Rules for U.S. Women's Clothing for the Upper Torso

Sherry Schofield-Tomschin, Eric Wiedegreen, and Bradley Whitney Design Collaborations: An Educational Exhibit

Heesun Seo, Marguerite Moore, and Ann Fairhurst Consumer Behavior Research: Trends In Topics, Nature of Inquiry, and Methodology

Dong Shen Do Internet Shoppers, Internet Browsers, and Internet Nonusers Differ In Need For Cognition, Fashion Leadership, and Impulsive Buying?

Sohie Shim and Kathryn A. Jakes Infrared Spectroscopy of Alpaca Fibers

Karla P. Simmons and Cynthia Istook Comparison of 3-Dimensional Body Scanning Technologies

Eleonora Skibinsky and Karen Robinette Students’ Perceptions of School Uniforms

Cheunsoon Ahn Song, Sookja Lim, Seung-Hee Lee, Yoon Yang, Sharron J. Lennon, and Sue M. Parker A Comparative Analysis between the Kawabata Instrumental Evaluation and The Subjective Evaluation of Korean and American Consumers: On the Suitability Of Selected 1999 Spring/Summer Fabrics for Women’s Formal Wear Material

Nancy Stanforth and Jung Im Shin Differential Effects of Promotion Type on Price Perceptions

Nancy Stanforth and Darin Sriphanya Source Preferences of Fashion Opinion Leaders and Nonleaders: Investigation of College Students in Bangkok, Thailand

Sandra Stansbery Buckland: Discussant A History of Sewing: Teaching, Controversy, and Survival through The Needle And Thread

Nancy J. Staples, Christine W. Jarvis, and Jill M. Forrester Development of an Automated System For Handling Made-To-Measure Clothing Pre- Production Processes

Cathy Starr and Grace Krenzer Design Process: Prototype Sports Bra

Joyce Starr Johnson and Laurel E. Wilson The Fontbonne Frock: Uniforms as Facilitators of Change

Karen Steen and Anita Fitzgerald A Collaborative Project: Team-Based Class Assignment to Digitally Print Fabric

Ann Stemm A Question of Assumptions In Development of The Bodice Front Sloper

Mitchell D. Strauss The Meaning of Dress In Civil War Reenacting: Pattern Categorization of Male Reenactor Images

Tana Stufflebean Fashion Marketing Communication Through Newsletters and Web Sites

Bernadette Tatarka Application of Bricolage

Jane Boyd Thomas, Richard Morris, and Doris Kincade Profiling The Shopping Behaviors of Young Adult Consumers

Amanda Thompson Replication of a Dyeing Process Used In Prehistoric Eastern North America

Julianne Trautmann and Catherine R. Boyd Examining Social-Psychological Roles of 4-H Uniforms: Case Studies From The South

Pamela V. Ulrich and Ann Beth Presley Baby Boom Consumers' Willingness to Participate in a Research Website

Annette M. Van Aardt, H. S. Steyn, Elizabeth M. Visser and Ronel Du Preez The Role of Lifestyle, Subculture, Personal Characteristics, Store Choice and Shopping Time in Clothing Marketing in South Africa

Elizabeth M. Visser, Ronel Du Preez, Annette Van Aardt, and Nancy J. Miller, Shopping Orientation and Lifestyle of Female Apparel Shoppers: A South African Perspective

Jane Walker Linking Leadership and Experiential Learning: Research Opportunities

Kittichai Watchravesringkan and Soyeon Shim Predicting E-Apparel Shoppers: Demographic, Attitudinal, and Behavioral Characteristics

Laurel E. Wilson Niche Marketing to the Cowboy Trade

Virginia Wimberley and Lydia L. Roper Colorfastness Comparisons of Naturally Pigmented Cottons With Dyed 100% Cotton Fabrics

Jane E. Workman Perceptual Modality Preferences of Clothing and Textiles Students

Janith Wright and Amanda Nicholson Perceptions of Successful Attributes for Fashion Designers: Industry Vs. Academy

Seulhee Yoo, Denise Bean, Joann Shroyer, Shelley Harp, and Peter Westfall Business Jacket Design Preferences of Working Women

Deborah D. Young Updated Methods of Writing and Transmitting Resumes

Jessie Chen-Yu and Keum-Hee Hong Consequences of Consumer Satisfaction/ Dissatisfaction with The Performance Of Apparel Products at Purchase and After Consumption: a Comparison of U.S. and South Korean Consumers

Haekyung Yu, Susan Kaiser, Joan Chandler, Chanju Kim, Joohyeon Lee, Nayoung Hong,and Zhiming Zhang The Globalization of Ethnic Style(S): A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Perceptions, Preferences, and Purchase Intentions

Yujun Zhao Apparel Consumption Patterns of Chinese and American Consumers

Susan L. Zutty and Hye-Shin Kim Examination of Brand Personality and Brand Attributes of Apparel Products

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

INCLUSION OF FIT PREFERENCE INFORMATION AND SELF- MEASUREMENT IN AN ORDERING MODELFOR MASS CUSTOMIZED APPAREL

Captain Sean Ahrens United States Army, Fort Lee, VA 23801

Susan P. Ashdown Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853

Strategies for producing mass customized apparel can help to revitalize apparel manufacturing in this country by providing well-fitting clothing that meets individual needs of consumers (Pine, 1993). New production processes such as flexible manufacturing, Computer Assisted Design (CAD), and single-ply cutting have made customized, single garment production runs feasible. However, if apparel firms are to successfully implement mass customization, ordering procedures must be established that provide customized garments with acceptable fit for the consumer. One important issue is whether information on an individual's preferences concerning the fit of his/her clothing will improve the ordering process. This study was designed to investigate the effectiveness of fit preference queries in an apparel-ordering model in improving the accuracy of size predictions. Men’s casual shorts were used as the test garment style. The study included a pilot test to develop an expanded size range, to assess a test website, and to design a final fit test. A standard size range for shorts was expanded by providing 1/2" waist size increments in place of the usual 1" increments and by providing a choice of four crotch lengths for each waist size. Hagale Industries manufactured a set of 44 test shorts for the study. Thirty- five male college students with waist sizes ranging from 30" to 36" participated in the fit test. Subjects first reported self-measurements and fit preferences on a mock Internet website. These subjects then participated in a fit testing session where they were measured by experts and they tried on a series of test shorts. The first three sizes presented were predicted using a size prediction model and data from self-measurement, expert measurement, and self-measurement plus reported fit preferences. In order to determine their optimum size, test subjects then assessed up to a total of six pairs of shorts to select the pair with the perceived best fit.

Results were analyzed by calculating an error rate for each pair of shorts based on a comparison with the shorts of optimum size identified by each subject. Comparison of the error rates using a paired t-test provided support for the hypothesis that inclusion of fit preference information with self-measurement improved selection of the optimum garment size at a .05 level of significance. However expert measurement alone was a better predictor of optimum size than self- measurement plus fit preference. Wide variations in reported self-measurements hampered the effectiveness of fit preference adjustments, and variations in garment positioning at the waist limited the effectiveness of the size prediction model generally.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Additional variables besides fit preferences may improve the accuracy of optimized size predictions. Variables such as garment positioning, the relationship between the fit at waist and crotch, and the interplay of garment style with individual fit preferences may contribute to this process. Also, though it may be possible to obtain "acceptable" fit using some combination of variables, actually trying on a garment may be the only effective means of obtaining "optimum" fit. Collaborative interaction between the manufacturer and the consumer is essential for ordering customized goods. Further investigations of these variables can contribute much to this process.

Reference

Pine, B. J. (1993). Mass customization: The new frontier in business competition. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

CYBER-CHIC: AN ON-LINE GUIDE TO THE BEST FASHION INTERNET SITES

Jemi Armstrong and Nancy J. Owens California State University Northridge, Northridge, CA 91330

Technology, art, commerce, and fashion are now converging at a digital intersection known as the World Wide Web. While this change heralds a brilliant future for modern culture in general and the fashion industry specifically, things are off to an unsteady start. The World Wide Web has taken hold quickly; things are changing on a daily basis. The fashion world, which traditionally likes to keep itself on the cutting edge, is trying with very mixed results to join this computer revolution. Like most forms of art and commerce, the emergence of fashion on the Internet has been fractious, uncontrolled, unfiltered, disorganized, and misunderstood, even by those who would profit from it.

The fashion industry has access to a technology that can deliver its message to one billion people instantaneously yet has little idea what to do with it. This project sought to both qualify and quantify the best fashion Internet sites to the extent that it is possible in this ever-changing environment of the World Wide Web. Because there is no existing road map to fashion on the Web, the researcher ascertained the major areas of study through hundreds of hours of "travel" over the World Wide Web. First, the study provided information on how to access and navigate the World Wide Web.

After research, standards for evaluating general fashion web sites were established as follows:

1. Graphics: Short time lag for initial log-on. Fast re-loading images. Balanced and proportioned layouts. Graphics not overlapping or covering text. High resolution images for printing. VMR technology for more comprehensive image viewing. Video and sound technology used.

2. Text: Full text available to viewer. Full text available to print. Large and clearly legible. Does not overlap.

3. Links: Relevant to the topic. Gateway location with multiple documents has custom search engine. Well-defined buttons to explain consumers' options.

4. Content: Well-organized. Relevant to topic or subject matter. Arranged in descending order by importance or currency. Documents grouped or linked together.

5. Longevity: Sites available in summer 1997 and remaining until spring 1999.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

6. Maintenance and Management: Date created given. Site updated frequently. E-mail address for responses. Hit number posted. Current plug-ins and graphics applications used.

Those sites evaluated as the best using the criteria listed above were discussed in three categories. "Cyber-salons" included 19 digital magazines or E-zines. "Art on the Edge of Fashion" considered nine vintage collectible and on-line auction sites and six digital fashion photography sites. "Costume Resources" provided seven top sites in costume design, theatrical wardrobe preparation, and costume history research.

Twenty "Cyber-shopping" consumer sites were rated as exemplary using the general criteria listed above as well as additional criteria. Were items received the same as those advertised? Were items offered in different sizes, colors, or fabrics? Were second choice options posted? Was the item brokered through a middle-man site? Was credit card security encryption available? Did the company offer a money-back guarantee? Was proprietary information posted? Did the company make any customer services available? Was the merchant's return E-mail address posted? Was the refund policy clearly stated? Did the site have easy-to-understand purchasing steps? Was the shipping reasonably priced? Items were ordered from each site, then returned.

Recommendations were made for future directories and the future of fashion web sites was prophesied.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

THE MULTI-ETHNIC ORIGINS OF THE ALOHA SHIRT

Linda B. Arthur University of Hawai’i, Honolulu, HI 96822

The aloha shirt, with its bold patterns and designs depicting tropical flora and fauna, has become a symbol of the state of Hawai’i. Many would believe that this garment was produced and worn as a symbol of Hawaiian ethnicity. However the topic of ethnicity is problematic in Hawai’i, and the origin of the aloha shirt is actually complex.

As a form of material culture, clothing can provide clues to the cultural world, and the aloha shirt does exactly that when it is examined in light of its actual history. However, because the aloha shirt is a pop-cultural phenomenon and the early rayon shirts are so valuable (up to $5,000 each), it is hard to find accurate information about the origin and evolution of the aloha shirt. Three books on this topic have been published (Steele, 1984; Schiffer, 1997; World Photo Press, 1997). The authors, from the US Mainland and Japan, did very little research in Hawai’i. While they examined the secondary literature (primarily newspaper articles that relied on the first book that was published), these collectors/authors did not examine primary source materials and relied on information from other aloha shirt collectors. In essence then, the information published on aloha shirts is skewed.

In order to redress this situation, I began a long-term research project into the history of aloha attire in 1993. This ongoing study has led to the publication of several articles and one book. The research involves triangulated methods; in addition to an examination of the few books, articles, and monographs published about the Hawaiian textiles, clothing, and garment industry, I focus on primary source material including an examination of over 2,000 photos and 1,000 actual garments from 1820-1999. I have been examining materials in the manufacturer's archives and have also been conducting interviews with manufacturers, designers, and consumers from the early days of the Hawaiian garment industry (1930s to 1950s). The history that has emerged from research into the primary sources has clarified some of the misinformation in print about the aloha shirt and its ethnic origins.

Hawai’i is characterized by ethnic diversity, due to the decimation of a high proportion of the indigenous population after the introduction of western diseases in the early nineteenth century, followed by the importation of plantation laborers in the mid to late nineteenth century. Chinese immigration began in the 1850s, followed by Portuguese in the late 1870s, Japanese in the late 1880s, and Koreans and Filipinos after 1900. Intermarriage between the indigenous Hawaiians and the immigrants led to the extraordinary ethnic diversity seen in Hawai’i today.

In addition to Hawaiian influence, the aloha shirt developed as a result of contributions from four other ethnic groups. Caucasian influence began in the early 1800s with the introduction of the Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

frock shirts of European sailors on the trading ships of the early 1800s, followed by the importation of a sturdy European plaid that was used for shirts. This plaid was called "palaka" by Hawaiians, who rapidly adopted this fabric for work shirts. When the Filipino immigrants arrived, they brought the barong tagalog, a loose sheer shirt. None of these shirts was worn tucked in, in deference to the weather. The Japanese immigrants introduced indigo-dyed cotton fabrics (yukata and kasuri) that were made into kimono and shirts both in homes and in custom tailoring shops, where they also made shirts of kabe crepe in Japanese prints designed for kimono. Similarly, Chinese tailors also opened businesses catering to made-to-order clothing in the early twentieth century. The early-twentieth-century shirts were generally pullover shirts, with a three-button placket opening, and were worn outside the pants. These shirts were made of printed cottons imported from Asia. By the 1930s block printing had begun in Hawai’i, and simple tropical prints began to be designed for drapery and upholstery fabrics. Sales of brightly printed shirts took off and a Chinese merchant, Elery Chun, coined the phrase "Aloha Shirt" in 1936. Aloha shirts soon were made with drapery remnants, and when the scale of the motifs and the weight of the fabrics were reduced, these designs became what we now know of as Hawaiian prints. In essence then, a confluence of several ethnic groups and their design influence led to the development of the aloha shirt.

References

Schiffer, N. (1997). Hawaiian shirt designs. Atglen, PA.: Schiffer.

Steele, T. (1984). The Hawaiian shirt. New York: Abbeville Press.

World Photo Press. (1997). Master book of Hawaiian shirt. Tokyo: World Photo Press.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

THE WEB-BASED NETWORK LEARNING ENVIRONMENT: AN ACTIVE LEARNING STRATEGY

Linda B. Arthur University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822

The complex workings of the social world are difficult to convey in large lecture classes. As my general education course (Culture, Gender and Appearance) quadrupled in size, I noticed a decrease in student understanding and retention of the major socio-cultural concepts. In order to examine this problem, I designed an experiment to assess the strengths and weaknesses of two pedagogical approaches, the traditional (but passive) lecture format and a web-based active learning strategy. A growing body of research today points to active learning strategies as a better way to cultivate critical thinking skills, engage students, and improve the quality of higher education, and, in addition, internet technologies have shown promise in relation to active learning (Lamb, 1992; Meyers & Jones, 1993; Woodall, 2000).

The class as a whole met twice weekly for lectures based on power-point presentations, slides, and videos. Pre-tests were administered at the beginning of the semester, followed by post-tests at the end, to assess understanding and retention of the key concepts in the course. A research project was assigned. Course materials, assignments, and grades were posted on a class website, available to all class members. The website was linked to WebCT, a form of educational technology that is an easy-to- use, web-based, network learning environment. I obtained a grant for this project, bought computers, scanners, and software, and arranged for the students to use our college's mini-computer lab, supervised by a graduate assistant hired to teach students how to build the web pages.

The class was divided into two groups to test the efficacy of using Web-based strategies in order to increase active learning. The traditional group had face-to-face discussions while the web group met "online" for discussions of the same topics using WebCT's bulletin board. Traditional Group members were encouraged to communicate with the professor in person, while the Web Group was encouraged to communicate through e-mail. Similarly, the two groups used different presentation methods for their research projects. The Traditional Group submitted their research project (with figures and plates) in hard-copy format backed up with slides and video while the Web Group presented their illustrated research projects on the web pages they developed for this purpose.

In comparing the results of pre- and post-tests, this experiment showed that there are significant advantages to both pedagogical approaches. The web-based curriculum did increase active learning although the retention of socio-cultural concepts was significantly improved by traditional discussion methods. Students found many advantages and disadvantages in both formats. However when it comes to understanding socio-cultural concepts, even the active

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

learning advantages of the web-based learning could not measure up to the importance of social interaction. The president of Lehigh University summed it up when he said: "so much of the essence of learning is best done with real people interacting with real ideas" (Woodall, 2000, p. 3). This experiment will continue and be refined. I will continue to use WebCT but will replace the bulletin board with synchronous discussion, similar to those found in chat rooms, to see if that improves understanding of the core concepts.

References

Lamb, A. (1992). Multimedia and the teaching-learning process in higher education. In Albright, M., & Graf, D. (eds.). Teaching in the Information Age: The role of educational technology (pp. 33-43). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Myers, C., & Jones, T. (1993). Promoting active learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Woodall, M. (2000). Hi-Tech: Online technology reshaping , expanding education. Knight Ridder News Service. (3/24).

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

A SENIOR SEMINAR: BRIDGE BETWEEN SCHOOL AND WORK

Martha G. Baker and Susan O. Michelman University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003

As college seniors prepare to graduate, they are faced with many uncertainties regarding their future. They are concerned about starting their careers or perhaps are contemplating graduate school. They are often worried about leaving their college friends, dealing with finances, fitting in at work, and balancing a career and family obligations. Understanding that seniors experience anxiety, a seminar was developed by the faculty in the Apparel Marketing program at the University of Massachusetts. The one credit, pass/fail seminar, which meets once a week, is limited to graduating seniors. The content of the seminar has evolved over the six years it has been offered to the point that both faculty and students are now pleased with its content. Rather than a format of having faculty lecture, speakers are invited to visit the class throughout the semester. Some topics include "Things Your Mother Never Told You," in which two faculty members share their views on what makes a successful student and therefore a successful professional; "Show Me the Money," where a financial planner advises students on strategies for saving money and dealing with credit issues; "It Was Just a Friendly Pat," where a representative from the Women’s Center informs students of workplace issues including sexual harassment; and "Help! Balancing Work and Family," in which a family specialist provides insight on the relationship of work and family. Recent alumnae also return to campus to tell students about their current work and how they made the transition from school to the workplace.

Another important component of the class is that students are required to participate in a minimum of 20 hours of volunteer/community service. This experience has broadened their understanding of the needs of communities as well as providing an opportunity to engage with a broader spectrum of people than they may have encountered in their social and work experience, including the aged, young children, and the handicapped. Students have also discovered that community service adds another component to their resume. A volunteer coordinator from Extension discusses the benefits of volunteerism with students at both the beginning and end of the semester.

For students, the seminar provides the opportunity for reflection on what the future holds. It helps them to begin making the transition from academia to their professions. For faculty, the seminar helps to engage students on a variety of topics not typically addressed in the curriculum and yet important for student to contemplate prior to graduation.

Page 1 of 1

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

COUNTRY IMAGE: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERCEIVED GARMENT QUALITY AND PURCHASE INTENT

M. Lynn Barnes Bluffton College, Bluffton, OH 45817

Nancy J. Rabolt San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94132

The four countries that were selected in the data collection process for this research study were the USA, France, Japan, and Mexico. Two focus groups were conducted to identify products most often associated with a country in order to measure country image. Four identical shirts were displayed, one labeled from each country along with the representative country product. A six-item questionnaire was developed to measure transference of country image and perception of quality. The questionnaire consisted of four identical pages, asking the same questions for each country as the participant moved through a Latin Square design. Demographic questions were used to describe the participants. The sample population was 147 university students from two east coast universities. The results were statistically analyzed by frequencies, percentages, cross-tabulations, Chi-squares and a measure of association called the Somer’s d.

Findings show that there was a significant relationship between country image and perceived garment quality. High country image equates to a high-perceived quality of apparel. Mexico had the lowest country image and France had the highest. The USA had the lowest perceived country image based on the country product, followed by Mexico, Japan, and France. Evaluation of perceived quality of the garment showed that Mexico had the lowest perceptions of apparel quality, followed by the USA, Japan, and France. The relationship between country image and quality indicates that, when a country has a low country image, then the perception of apparel quality is also low. On the other hand, statistical analyses show that there were mixed results for associations between country image and purchase intent. For the U.S. (p=.05) and for France (p=.07), there were positive relationships (high image and intent to purchase) but there were none for Japan and Mexico. Mexico had a perceived country image that was mixed and about half stated that they would not purchase the garment. Country image does not necessarily transfer to positive purchase intent.

Depending on a consumer’s status of prior knowledge, consumers generally have a pre- conceived idea of accepted quality standards and the appropriate price for a particular item (Rao & Sieben, 1992). This study looked at only perceived image in relation to purchase intent. Analysis showing mixed images may be problematic for U.S. companies manufacturing in that specific country. This study showed no significance between pre-conceived ideas of Mexican- made apparel and quality evaluation. Every test performed on the country image of Mexico and Mexican-made products indicate that the country image rating is from neutral to low quality. The

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

majority of the respondents indicated that they would not purchase the garment. Apparel manufacturers need to fully understand American consumers and their pre-conceived ideas of respective countries in order for inventories to better represent purchase intent. This study may be used as a framework for future research in regards to country image studies and their effect on perceived garment quality.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

A GROUNDED THEORY STUDY OF SYSTEMS THEORY AND CLOTHING AND TEXTILES THEORIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Joni L. Beach and Doris H. Kincade Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060

Humans are not simple, mechanistic beings but dynamic, complex systems. Each individual possesses biological, psychological, social, and behavioral systems functioning in a sociocultural context (Magnusson & Stattin, 1998). Given the dynamic complexity of human problems, the researchers sought to develop a theoretical framework that reflects an individual’s interaction with multiple systems of the environment.

A qualitative research design was used for this study. Grounded theory methods were used to examine documents on systems theory found outside the field of Clothing and Textiles (CT) and the social psychological theories used within CT. Grounded theory is an emergent design that uses an inductive mode of thinking to build a new theory (Creswell, 1994, 1998; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990).

In a library search, the researcher collected data from documentary materials pertaining to systems theory and CT theories. Multiple sources of literature in the form of journals, books, dissertations, conference proceedings, and other documents were explored. A constant comparative method was used for data analysis. The four domains identified from the data were Relationship, Process, Organization, and Outcomes. The final steps of data analysis were integration and reconceptualization. From this process the theoretical framework emerged. The holistic, systemic, theoretical framework provides statements of the relationships of the concepts of a dynamic, complex, human-environment unit. Recommendations were made for future studies. Methodological recommendations included interviews, participant observation, and surveys to test the concepts of the developed theoretical framework. This framework could be applied to research questions in all areas of CT, expanding the themes regarding humans and the natural environment and further validating and revising this framework through application to specific questions within CT.

References

Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. London: Sage.

Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design. London: Sage.

Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Chicago: Aldine.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Magnusson, D., & Stattin, H. (1998). Person-context interaction theories. In Damon (Series Ed.) & R. M. Lerner (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (5th ed., pp. 713-759). New York: John Wiley.

Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE PREFERRED WHEN HIRING FORENTRY-LEVEL POSITIONS IN THE FASHION INDUSTRY

Nicole M. Bettinger Pier 1 Imports, Fort Worth, TX 76161

Deborah D. Young Texas Woman's University, Denton, TX 76204

Retailing, production, quality analysis, and technology are changing significantly. Jobs require a higher level of competency in new technologies and other types of skills. Research about these changes and the implications for the educated workforce and university curricula is critical for preparing students. Thus, the purpose of this exploratory study was to determine the job skills, industry knowledge, and interpersonal skills preferred by employers for candidates seeking entry-level positions in apparel design and production, textile quality analysis, and retail management and merchandising.

Methodology

Interviews were conducted with individuals responsible for hiring entry-level employees at six apparel design/production companies, one textile quality analysis facility, and six retail organizations. According to qualitative research procedures, companies were selected purposefully because of career opportunities within the companies and their locations in a metroplex near the researcher. The interview guide contained an inquiry section used to obtain general information and a skills/knowledge identification section used to gather information regarding the top five job skills, areas of industry knowledge, and interpersonal skills preferred by the employers for entry-level employees. Through content analysis, the researcher categorized, reduced, interpreted, and analyzed the data for results.

Results

When asked about the top five job skills preferred, apparel design and production (ADP) participants most often indicated computer, communication, and organizational skills and the ability to prioritize and be accurate; the textile quality analysis (TQA) participant indicated communication, testing technique, and math skills; and retail participants indicated computer, communication, analytical, and organizational skills and multi-tasking ability. When asked about the top five areas of industry knowledge preferred, ADP participants most often indicated pattern making, textile/fabrics, sketching, design, construction, and color knowledge; the TQA participant indicated textiles, testing, dyeing and finishing, garment processing, and business knowledge; and the retail participants most often indicated design, fashion, home furnishings, retail management, and retail industry knowledge. When asked about the top five interpersonal

Page 1 of 3

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

skills preferred, ADP participants most often indicated teamwork, multi-tasking and organizing ability, and enthusiasm and flexibility; the TQA participant indicated be responsive to supervision, interact well with others, teamwork and leadership ability, and communication skills; and the retail participants most often indicated initiative, teamwork ability, communication skills, enthusiasm, energy, sense of urgency, and flexibility.

Conclusions and Implications

Overall, communication, computer, organizational, teamwork, and multi-tasking skills were the most preferred skills by participants when hiring for entry-level positions, while the most preferred areas of industry knowledge were textiles/fabrics and overall fashion industry. The individual with a four-year degree having good communication, computer, and organizational skills, the ability to work in a team, enthusiasm, and initiative combined with a strong overall knowledge of the industry and textiles/fabrics will be successful at being hired for an entry-level position in the fashion industry. Instructors can utilize these results to develop curricular programs to prepare students for successful careers. Instructors should provide opportunities to further develop interpersonal skills. THE IMPACT OF A SERVICE-LEARNING APPROACH IN A RETAIL MERCHANDISING CAPSTONE COURSE

V. Ann Paulins Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701

Exley, Johnson, and Johnson (1996) have stated that, "for service-learning to take its place as the legitimate purposeful teaching strategy we all know it is, practitioners must do a better job at demonstrating its effectiveness (p. 62)." Studies have shown that students’ service-learning experiences increase their commitment to service in the future (Giles & Eyler, 1994; Paulins, 1999), and Kolb’s (1984) Experiential Learning Model indicates that learning is a process grounded in experience. Little empirical evidence, however, has been presented that indicates the effect or impact of service-learning on student’s attainment of the content-based learning objectives of courses. The goals of this study were to (1) determine whether students’ achievement of course objectives is affected by the introduction of a service-learning component, (2) determine whether students’ involvement in their communities is affected by the service- learning experience in a retail merchandising capstone course, and (3) determine whether students’ perceptions of the value of community involvement are affected by their service- learning experience.

Two different sections of a retail merchandising senior-level capstone course were selected for use in this study. Course syllabi were identical for the two class sections, and both classes were assigned the same instructor. The quarter-long class project for both classes was an exercise in which students developed and participated as essential members of a vertically integrated retail organization. The control group developed a hypothetical retail organization while the service-

Page 2 of 3

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

learning group acted as consultants for a newly established local subsidized second-hand retailer, Community Thrift Store.

Following his or her completion of the course, each student was mailed a 25-item Likert-scale survey. Students were asked to respond to questions about their perceptions of learning the course content and their interest and intents with respect to community involvement and retail policy. Enrollment was 14 students in each of the course sections. The response rate for the survey was 50% (for each class). T-test results did not support the notion that service-learning projects created an atmosphere where learning is significantly enhanced. In fact, only two objectives identified for the course were rated significantly differently in terms of competency between the groups (=.05). These were oral presentation skills and writing skills. In both cases, the control group rated their competency as a result of the course higher than the experimental group. There were no significant differences between the two groups with respect to expected future involvement with their communities nor appreciation for community involvement.

These results indicate that service-learning courses do not significantly increase the learning opportunities for students in courses. The service-learning opportunity does, however, enable the instructor to meet the objectives of the course with the students and to introduce variety into the instructional technique. Service-learning supporters can rationalize that the societal contribution—which is in keeping with many educational institutions’ missions and stated values—and personal development of students are reasons enough to engage their students in service-learning. However, more information is needed to more clearly define the potential role of service-learning in curricula.

References

Exley, R. J., Johnson, S., & Johnson, D. (1996). Assessing the effectiveness of service-learning. In B. Taylor (Ed.), Expanding boundaries: Serving and learning (pp. 62-63). New York: Corporation for National Service.

Giles, D. E., & Eyler, J. (1994). The impact of a college community service laboratory on student’s personal, social, and cognitive outcomes. Journal of Adolescence, 17, 327-339.

Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Paulins, V. A. (1999). Service-learning and civic responsibility: The consumer in American society. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 92(2), 66-72.

Page 3 of 3

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

AN ANALYSIS OF AFRICAN AMERICAN FEMALE APPAREL SHOPPING PROBLEMS

Wadeeah Beyah and Shu-Hwa Lin North Carolina Central University, Durham NC 27707

The spending power of African Americans is significant and the women represent a large and viable market. Researchers found that the purchasing power of African Americans could reach nearly $880 billion by the year 2000. The amount of money the women spend on apparel is important to the apparel industry and the overall economy. Yet, little research was found regarding African American female apparel shopping habits.

The purpose of this study was to explore whether or not African American women are satisfied with ready-to-wear apparel selections. Shopping problems included the inability to find flattering styles, colors, and texture. Fitting problems involved dissatisfaction with the apparel fullness, length, lines, and proportion. The specific objectives were to explore their apparel shopping problems and identify fitting problems with ready-to-wear apparel.

Eight African Americans were invited to participate in a focus group. Seven participants were the primary apparel shopper for themselves and at least three other family members; six participants had garment construction skills; three ordered apparel for a retail business; and three had a textile and apparel-related undergraduate degree. The participants shared their personal experiences, opinions, and answers to a list of ten prepared questions concerning apparel shopping experiences, problems and selection decisions, favorite brands and places to shop, and suggestions for the apparel industry. Context analysis was used in this study.

Six of eight participants enjoyed apparel shopping and listed finding a favorite style, a good sale, and a garment that fits as a satisfying shopping experience. Lack of time and needing alteration were reasons for dissatisfaction. Short crotch, sleeves, and pants; improper waist/hip proportion; and not enough fullness in hip and thigh area were common fitting problems.

Sears, Belk, JC Penney, Gap, and Talbots were favored retailers because fewer alterations were necessary to apparel purchased at these establishments. Because of the consistent perfect fit and tailored look, several favorite designer brands were found. Fit and comfort were the most influential factors when purchasing apparel; style, color and cost were also considered. Seven participants were willing to pay the original ticket price for an excellent fitting garment—the remaining participant never paid full price. Yokes were added to lengthen skirts, waists were taken in or extended to correct improper waist/hip proportion, and crotch depths were shortened to correct improper fitting apparel. Participants listed fuller hip curvature and larger thighs of African American females and longer waist and straighter bodies of Caucasian females as visible differences that might affect the fit of apparel for each group. To expand the variety of sizes to

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

accommodate different body structures would be the most popular suggestion to apparel designers and manufacturers.

The study revealed that the primary apparel shopping problem of African American females is finding apparel that fits properly in flattering styles and affordable prices. There are fitting problems with ready-to-wear apparel but alteration techniques have been developed to correct them. It is recommended that more research involving a larger number of focus groups over a wider geographic area is necessary to determine more accurately whether shopping, fitting, and sizing problems with ready-to-wear apparel is a local or more universal issue involving other ethnic groups. More research in this area could be beneficial to designers, manufacturers, and retailers of apparel and to the overall economy of this country and abroad.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

WebCT: Innovative Use of Technology in the Classroom

Marianne C. Bickle Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80526

WebCT technology is an interactive program whereby multi-faceted aspects of the class are conducted online. Four WebCT features incorporated into merchandising classes included (1) Bulletin Board, (2) Online Quizzes (3) My Record, and (4) Calendar of Events.

The Bulletin Board acts as a central receiving area for information. Class notes were placed on the Bulletin Board. By doing so, in-class activities and more advanced forms of learning activities were conducted during class. Instructor- and student-generated information and comments regarding upcoming exams and quizzes were posted on the Bulletin Board. For example, after each quiz and exam, questions were posted: "Was the quiz fair?" "Were the questions representative?" Students provided their perceptions regarding the fairness of the quiz and exam questions. Items posted on the Bulletin Board were visible to everyone in the class.

In a traditional class setting, quizzes were taken in the classroom. Using WebCT technology, students took quizzes via the Online Quiz file. Upon completion of the quiz, students received their score and answers online. Students were able to print a copy of the quiz for study purposes during exam week.

My Record served as an electronic grade book. Students accessed their grades throughout the semester, keeping track of their progress. The Calendar of Events acted as a supplement to the syllabus, displaying due dates of assignments, in-class activities, and guest lecturers.

WebCT technology was incorporated into two undergraduate classes during Fall ’99 and one undergraduate and one graduate class during Spring ’00. The use of WebCT significantly enhanced communication among class members. Students commented they were more prepared for class by reviewing lecture material in advance. A greater emphasis was placed on interacting during class discussions as opposed to focusing on writing down the lecture notes.

At the end of the semester, student evaluations revealed enhanced learning and enjoyment of the class. An analysis of the final grade was made between final semester grades for a sophomore level class during Fall 1998 and Fall 1999. Lecture material and exams remained relatively constant between semesters. Results revealed students’ grade increased one letter grade. Clearly the method of communication significantly improved the learning environment.

Approximately 75% of the students enrolled in an upper division Retailing class during the Fall 2000 (in which WebCT was used) enrolled in an upper division Sales class during Spring 2000. During the first day of the semester, students discussed their preference for WebCT technology

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

in the classroom. Despite the fact the Sales course was taught at 8:00 a.m. and that students had access to the notes via the web (both incentives to skip class), attendance averaged 82%. Based on these results, it was concluded that the multi-faceted and interactive attributes of WebCT technology were instrumental toward an enhanced learning environment in higher education.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

IMPLEMENTATION OF A TWO-WAY STRETCH STRATEGY: AN ANALYSIS OF THE SUCCESS OF GAP INC.

Mandi Brezonick and Karen H. Hyllegard Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523

Over the past 25 years, Gap Incorporated, parent company of Banana Republic, Gap, and Old Navy, has established itself as a world leader in apparel specialty retailing by re-defining its original brand concept and expanding its retail operations to include both higher and lower end private label brands. Implemented correctly, this type of expansion, or two-way stretch strategy, can be very profitable for a specialty retailer. At the same time, failure to clearly differentiate brand offerings or to communicate these differences to desired target markets can lead to brand cannibalization—the shifting of sales from one brand to another with little overall gain in company profit. The purpose of this study was to gain insight into Gap Inc.’s successful implementation of a two-way stretch strategy by examining the marketing mix employed by each of the company’s three private label retailers and investigating consumers’ perceptions of differences in product, price, distribution, and promotion among the brands.

The marketing mix of each retailer was examined through observations of product and service offerings, retail environments, promotion activities, advertising messages, and media use. Data on consumers’ perceptions of the retailers were gathered through an intercept survey. One hundred and fifty-five subjects, ages 18 to 40, responded to measures of shopping behavior, attitudes toward shopping at each retailer, and perceptions of the marketing strategies used by each retailer. Responses were measured on 7-point semantic differential and Likert-type scales. Analysis of variance was used to identify differences in respondents’ perceptions among brands.

In-store observations revealed differences in merchandise assortments, price-points, customer service, and store environments among brands. Banana Republic offered the widest merchandise assortment and the greatest range of fibers and fabrics at the highest price-point whereas Old Navy offered the narrowest assortment at the lowest price-point. Banana Republic offered the most lenient merchandise-return policy as well as some customer services not offered by Gap or Old Navy, including a store credit card and alteration service. Observations of non-store retail formats and advertising materials revealed differences in distribution and promotion methods. Banana Republic was the only brand to offer three methods of distribution—store, catalog, and on-line computer sales. Both Gap and Old Navy use television advertising to communicate brand image and print media to communicate product information whereas Banana Republic uses print media for the primary purpose of communicating brand image.

Findings from the survey revealed differences in respondents’ perceptions or evaluations of product assortments, prices, quality, store environments, promotion methods, and advertising messages among retailers. A lack of awareness of individual retail stores’ product and service Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

offerings among respondents, however, suggests that Gap, Inc. needs to better communicate product store offerings. Findings suggest that Gap Inc. has successfully implemented a two-way stretch strategy through differentiation in all components of the marketing mix, which may serve as a model for other specialty retailers. Effective communication of brand differentiation is most clearly demonstrated by consumers’ perceptions of differences in product assortment, price, and quality among Banana Republic, Gap, and Old Navy retail brands.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

COLLEGE STUDENTS WHO PURCHASE USED CLOTHING: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY

Vera Bruce American Intercontinental University, Los Angeles, CA 90066

The wearing of clothing previously worn by another person probably dates back to when clothing was first worn. Current used clothing resources in the U.S. include friends, family, thrift stores, resale boutiques, vintage boutiques, flea markets, and garage sales. The purchasing of used clothing is no longer a negative status symbol (as it once was) but a very accepted way of building or adding to one's wardrobe.

Vintage clothing stores are opening everywhere and wearing vintage clothing is considered by many to be a status symbol. The purpose of this research was to explore the purchasing behavior of college students who purchased used clothing. The subjects of this study were university and community college students (N=49) enrolled in fashion design or merchandising classes on the West Coast of the U.S. They were surveyed by questionnaire about their behavior in purchasing used clothing. This study involved qualitative and qualitative inquiry. Instructors in students' respective classes distributed the questionnaire to their students. These students were asked on the questionnaire if they had ever purchased a used garment for themselves. A large majority (71%) said that they had done so. The 29% that had not purchased used clothing responded to the questions that were applicable to them. The survey included inquiry about topics such as what percentage of their wardrobe was used garments, where they purchased used clothing, their definition of "vintage," reasons why they purchased used clothing, and how they determined the quality level of the used clothing they purchased.

The findings showed that 69% of those who had purchased a used garment purchased used clothing only for themselves. Forty-five percent of the students purchased their used clothing from thrift stores and about half (51%) had purchased a vintage garment. Forty-nine percent of the students reported that the most important reason why they purchased used clothing was for unique styling, second was to save money. The students' definitions of vintage were diverse. Some defined "vintage" as simply old clothes while others were more specific about what decade they felt depicted vintage clothing.

This study provided information from the actual consumer of the used clothing market and has implications for educators and used clothing store managers. This study also explored how students assessed quality in the used garments they purchased. Information in this study could be a valuable tool to spark discussion, create class projects, and provide learning experiences about factors in purchasing garments and assessing quality characteristics. Used clothing store managers could work in a synergistic manner with fashion students (possibly part of an Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

internship program), which could benefit the student by giving him or her hands-on experience with the clothing and interaction with the customers who purchase the clothing. The used clothing store could benefit by having the student work in such areas as store layout, display, and product selection.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

STRATEGIES FOR PROBLEM-SOLVING LONG-DISTANCE CO-DESIGN PROJECTS

Nancy Bryant Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331

Bernadette Tatarka Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717

Kue-Nam Shim Mokpo National University, Chonnam, Korea

The purpose of this paper is to discuss strategies for problem solving apparel design projects for geographically separated co-designers. A case study approach has been used to discuss problem- solving strategies of two co-designed international apparel design projects and two cross-country apparel design projects. Each of the design projects involved two designers. The four projects were produced during the lass three years.

Creating apparel as a co-design team can provide a great stimulus for design growth and a learning experience for emerging as well as seasoned designers. When co-designers are geographically separated, many aspects of the co-design process are influenced by this constraint. Constraints include very limited time to enjoy the synergy of working together physically on the project. However, geographic separation does provide an opportunity to develop creative solutions for co-designers. ITAA conferences have served as a meeting ground for co-designers' creative discussions and idea generation. In addition to very limited in-person meetings, electronic media including email and digital imaging have provided an exciting means to collaborate across geographic boundaries.

The design process was divided differently for cases #1 and #2 than for cases #3 and #4, in part due to the geographic distance and language differences. For cases #1 and #2, the Korean and American designers, email was a valuable aid for process discussions. For projects #1 and #2, one designer was responsible for hand-dyeing fabrics and garment construction; the other designer provided the garment design, prototype, and pattern. Postal mail was used for all four projects to share fabric swatches and design sketches, to send prototype garments back and forth, and to share partially completed garments. For cases #3 and #4, the co-designers met for collaborative fabric and trim purchases and prototype fitting sessions while attending other conferences. For case #3, color photocopies of the fabrics being used were shared between the two designers so that each had a visual representation of the fabrics the other designer was using. For cases #3 and #4, the garment designs were ensembles consisting of separate pieces. Thus, one designer worked on one piece while the other designer constructed another piece of the

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

ensemble. During the construction process, digital images of the partially completed garment were transmitted electronically to the co-designer.

Collaborative research is encouraged at many universities. Future collaboration by co-designers geographically separated may be enhanced by technological developments in electronic communication, including graphic software programs used to electronically transmit color garment design sketches and fabric design images.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

A HISTORY OF SEWING: TEACHING, CONTROVERSY, AND SURVIVAL THROUGH THE NEEDLE AND THREAD

Sandra Stansbery Buckland: Discussant The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325

"A woman who does not know how to sew is as deficient in her education as a man who cannot write" (Farrar, as cited in Osaki, 1988, p. 226). In previous centuries, a woman demonstrated her worth, and often her eligibility for marriage, in part through her skills with a needle and thread. Osaki (1988) documented how the women of the E. I. duPont family used their sewing skills in the home and in support of the family business. Mary, Queen of Scots, spent years under house arrest but earned respect as she used her needlework to stitch embroidered works containing symbols of protest against the monarchy in power. More recently, Elizabeth Firestone (Mrs. Harvey S. Firestone, Jr.) used her knowledge of sewing in evaluating, selecting, and sometimes restyling her custom wardrobe.

These three examples illustrate the fact that sewing has enjoyed a respected place in women’s history even among upper-class women. Why, then, has sewing become so controversial? In the teaching academy, sewing ignites debates around questions such as should we teach sewing in apparel programs, how do we juggle teaching loads and space allocations, and how do we justify the cost of equipment?

Each of the papers in this session illustrated some aspect of this debate. Jean L. Parsons provided a well-researched presentation on the 19th and early 20th-century debate about teaching sewing in schools. These arguments strike a familiar ring around whether or not sewing carries the connotation of a trade school preparing women to work in a factory. Laura K. Kidd documented Teresa Zitter’s history of surviving childhood difficulties and wartime atrocities to successfully use her sewing knowledge in the New York fashion industry. Finally, Elizabeth Rhodes demonstrated the Kent State University web site dedicated to the work of designer Charles Kleibacker. This site not only records his fascinating career; it also presents an on-line sewing course highlighting some of Kleibacker’s couture techniques.

When did needlework acquire such a stigma? Could the negative connotation be tied to the use of the sewing machine? Historically, women who survived through their needlework skills were rarely adequately paid. However, the women sewing in couture ateliers, where the work is done primarily by hand, garner more respect than the women sewing piecework in a RTW factory. Is the difference due to the women’s respective skill levels, due to the status of couture, or due to the use of machines? While the stigma prevails, the apparel industry is looking for recruits with product knowledge. Can students who have never used a needle and thread truly understand their products?

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Reference

Farrar, E. W. R. (1837). The young lady’s friend. Boston: American Stationers’ Co. 122. In Osaki, A. B. (Winter, 1988) A "truly feminine employment": Sewing and the early nineteenth- century woman. Winterthur Portfolio, 225-241.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

CONCEPTS RELATED TO BRANDS

Leslie Davis Burns: Discussant Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331

Several concepts related to "brand" were identified and addressed in the three papers. These included brand personality, brand loyalty, brand attributes, brand image, and brand differentiation. These concepts were discussed in their relation to consumers’ perceptions of brands, consumers’ preferences, consumers’ responses to advertisements, advertising effectiveness, product attributes, and a store’s merchandising mix. To study these relationships consumer surveys were conducted as well as observations made of products, services offered by stores, and the store environment.

One might ask "what is a brand?" One way to think of "brand" is simply as product identification. As such, apparel brands have been part of the ready-to-wear industry from its inception (e.g., Levi Strauss work pants/jeans, Arrow collars). Creating a national brand image has been an important marketing strategy for apparel companies. The strategy has been based on the belief that consumers will seek out particular brands and because of positive experiences with the brand will purchase the brand repeatedly. Indeed, a great deal of research has been conducted on just this notion of brand loyalty.

As national brands saturated the markets, retailers strove to differentiate themselves from one another through the offering of private label merchandise. When all of the merchandise in a store is private label, then the store becomes the brand. In fact, all of the brands studied in the three papers, except for Calvin Klein, utilize a "store is brand" retailing/merchandising strategy: The Gap, Abercrombie and Fitch, Bennetton, Express, and Guess (which distributes through their own stores as well as through other stores). Advantages of this retailing/merchandising strategy include store and brand image consistency, potential of cost savings in vertical integration, and expansion opportunities. The Gap has expanded through a "two-way stretch" of adding stores at either end of the price scale; The Limited has expanded into new markets through differentiated stores; Eddie Bauer has expanded by adding new lines in their existing stores (e.g., Eddie Bauer Home).

Questions that emerge from these studies include With a "store is brand" strategy, what is the difference, if any, between store loyalty and brand loyalty? If brands have human attributes such as "brand personality," then what is the difference between brand differentiation and consumer target market differentiation? What is the future of national and designer brands? How are the various concepts related to brand defined and measured? To truly understand the concept of brand, studies such as these will need to continue to be conducted.

Page 1 of 1

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

A SKIN CANCER INTERVENTION PROGRAM FOR YOUTH: RESEARCH INFORMS TEACHING

Elizabeth Bye and Karen LaBat University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108

Design students are encouraged to research all facets of a design problem before proposing a design solution and university faculty conduct multi-faceted, in-depth research projects as part of their scholarship. However, the two worlds of student work and faculty research do not often directly overlap.

In 1994 researchers initiated an educational and research project with the purpose of educating 5th and 6th graders about the hazards of sun exposure and also providing strategies for remaining "Sun Smart," including use of sun screen and protective clothing. An educational intervention was developed and a pre-test and post-test were designed to assess success of the intervention (LaBat, DeLong, Gahring, Getting, Amir-Fazli, & Lee, 1996). While students apparently grasped the concepts and stated that they were willing to wear protective clothing, little was known about the types of clothing they were willing to wear. A later phase of the research project investigated 5th and 6th graders' specific preferences for hats they might wear in the sun (DeLong, LaBat, Gahring, Nelson, & Leung, 1999). The standard baseball cap was preferred by boys and girls in the study with a camp hat as another favorite style.

Research provided the knowledge base for a clothing design project to design, manufacture, and assess performance of a sun hat for 5th graders. The project was introduced to a senior studio. Students read the background information on the "sun smart" research including grant reports and journal articles. After human subjects' committee approval, students conducted focus groups with 5th graders. Five design teams developed focus group response techniques to understand this age group's aesthetic and performance preferences for hats. Teams collected anthropometric data to develop a sizing system. Each team developed a prototype incorporating 5th graders' preferences in a sun protective design. Prototypes were presented to the 5th graders for a vote. They selected a camp-style hat with a small pocket on the crown and design students selected Solarweave* fabric in khaki for the final design. A quality assurance class developed test methods to assess performance characteristics of hat fabric and design. A production class refined the design and developed patterns, a marker, and production methods for the hats. Hats were produced in quantity and clothing design students delivered them to the 5th graders, seeing the results of their work come full circle. The assignments resulted in university students' appreciating the value of research and how it can affect their design process and solutions. By using three courses to design, assess, and produce the product, students understood that designing and producing a successful product involves many people and many functions.

References Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

DeLong, M., LaBat, K., Gahring, S., Nelson, N., & Leung, L. (1999). Implications of an educational intervention program designed to increase young adolescents' awareness of hats for sun protection. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 17(2), 73-83.

LaBat, K., DeLong, M., Gahring, S., Getting, J., Amir-Fazli, H., & Lee, M. (1996, summer). Evaluation of a skin cancer intervention program for youth. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 3-10.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

AN EVALUATION OF THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER FOR SMALL TEXTILE AND APPAREL MANUFACTURERS

Christie Caine, Lenda Jo Connell, and Pamela V. Ulrich Auburn University, AL 36849

Few U.S. industries have felt the dual impact of expanding globalization and rapid technological change as much as small to medium-sized textile and apparel manufacturers. In 1994, a personal computer-based database was developed to enhance the competitiveness of small apparel and textile manufacturers in the researchers’ state through facilitating the business-to-business match marketing of their capabilities. In 1997, a regional agency funded conversion of the database into an interactive website available on the Internet. Additional funding enabled a sample of ten small to medium-sized firms to be provided with notebook computers, development of a web page, and training to use the new technology as a business strategy.

After each of the companies had its computer for at least 11 months, this study investigated the outcomes of disseminating equipment and knowledge to this sample of small to medium-sized textile and apparel manufacturers. Research questions included (1) Did computer use change after the new technology was introduced; (2) how was Internet access used as a business strategy; (3) what was the overall impact of the new technology; and (4) how will it be used in the future? Case study methodology was used to answer these questions through an interview approach. The person who received and was trained on the equipment (typically the CEO) was queried (in person) by the primary researcher, using an interview schedule which elicited information about pre-status and post-use. Audio taping and transcription enabled data analysis.

The ten companies ranged in size from $50 thousand to $30 million sales volumes and from 6 to 300 employees. Only one did not have a computer prior to the study; the other nine had old systems for payroll and accounting functions. Computer use changed following provision of the laptops and training. Nine firms used the computers for additional tasks. Half sought training for more applications, and seven bought more computers. The companies came to use Internet access for varied purposes including competitive business analysis, sourcing, and on-line ordering. Anecdotal accounts included finding new customers, keeping better links with customers, growing efficiency through e-mail communication saving time, and increasing in contracts.

All companies indicated that they wanted to increase their Internet capability with enhanced and expanded web page functions and related training. Comparison of cases showed that one of the smallest companies went from having no computer to having two and from no computer use to regular use, including e-mail communication and plans to expand applications. The largest participant was stimulated by the program to implement what it could have already done; because of it, the company was able to hold and increase a $10 million contract. Although the

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

sample was small, this study has implications for future research and academic or governmental outreach efforts in the area of technology transfer. The findings suggest that a relatively small investment can significantly impact small to medium-sized firms. They just may need a nudge to foster or accelerate their own learning and application curves.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

APPAREL SPATIAL VISUALIZATION TEST AND FORM BOARD TEST

Lark F. Caldwell Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX 76129

Jane E. Workman Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901

Purpose

Spatial skills include (a) 2-dimensional (2-D) to 3-dimensional (3-D) transformations, i.e., visualizing quantity and 2-D shapes of pattern pieces necessary to execute a 3-D style and (b)3-D to 2-D transformations, i.e., visualizing a 3-D style from 2-D shapes of pattern pieces. The Apparel Spatial Visualization Test (ASVT) measures spatial skills related to apparel design and product development (Workman, Caldwell, & Kallal, 1999). The ASVT correlated positively with the Surface Development Test (SDT) (Workman & Zhang, 1999) and Paper Folding Test (PFT)(Workman, 1999). Spatial visualization ability is measured by tests such as SDT, PFT, and Form Board (FBT). The SDT and PFT require 2-D to 3-D transformations while the FBT requires 2-D to 2-D transformations. The purpose of the study was to correlate the ASVT and FBT.

Procedure

Students (n=43) completed the ASVT and FBT. The FBT contains four geometric figures, each paired with six sets of five shapes which participants mentally move and rotate to decide which will fit together to form the figure (range=0-120; r=.81) (Ekstrom, et al., 1976). The ASVT contains 20 sets of pattern pieces, each shown with 5 front-view sketches of a style. The task is to decide which style corresponds to the set of pattern pieces (range=0-20; r=.89).

Results

Participants ranged in age from 18-30 (M=22.33; 39 females, 4 males). Majors were 4—fashion merchandising (32), FCS (2), fashion design (5), other (4). Descriptive statistics include ASVT (M=9.93, median=9.0, mode=8, range=1-18, sd=4.44); FBT (M=60.47, median=63.0, mode=31, range=15-110; sd=23.44). The ASVT and FBT were not significantly correlated.

Implications

A nonsignificant correlation between ASVT and FBT suggests that the tests do not measure the same spatial skills. The FBT requires 2-D to 2-D while ASVT requires 2-D to 3-D transformations. The FBT displays five shapes that the participant mentally moves and rotates to Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

decide which are needed to make a geometric figure. The ASVT displays all integral pattern shapes that the participant mentally folds and pieces together to decide which one of five styles the pattern pieces will make. In doing so, the back and side views of a style must be visualized from the front view only, a 2-D to 3-D transformation. Although the tests require different spatial skills, they seem to be related and both are important to apparel design and product development.

References

Ekstrom, R., French, J., Harman, H., & Dermen, D. (1976). Kit of factor-referenced cognitive tests. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Services.

Workman, J. E. (1999). Apparel spatial visualization test and paper folding test. Abstracts of research presented at ITAA annual meeting, Santa Fe, NM, November 10- 13, 1999.

Workman, J. E., Caldwell, L. F., & Kallal, M. J. (1999). Development of a test to measure spatial abilities associated with apparel design and product development. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 17(3), 128-133.

Workman, J. E., & Zhang, L. (1999). Relationship of general and apparel spatial visualization ability. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 17(4), 169-175.

**Thanks to Dr. Sue Stanley and faculty at CSU-Long Beach for collecting data for the study.**

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN PHILOSOPHIES OF HUMAN NATURE AND PERCEPTIONS OF UNETHICAL CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Karen S. Callen State University of New York at Oneonta, Oneonta, NY 13820

Shiretta F. Ownbey Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078

Much research has focused on ethical decision making of marketers but not on consumer ethics. For this study, a component of one model of marketing ethical decision making (Ferrell & Gresham, 1985) was applied to consumer decision making. Ferrell and Gresham (1985) suggested that "individual factors," which includes attitudes, is associated with ethical decision making. This study focused on social attitudes (philosophies of human nature) which are "assumptions about how people in general behave" (Wrightsman, 1992, p. 55).

The purpose of the study was to investigate undergraduate students’ evaluations of consumer behavior scenarios as ethical or unethical in relation to philosophies of human nature. A convenience sample of 1,117 students enrolled in classes on two university campuses completed a questionnaire containing three sections: Philosophies of Human Nature (PHN) (Wrightsman, 1964), consumer behavior scenarios, and demographic items. The consumer behavior scenarios addressed (1) not reporting receipt of excess change, (2) not paying for accidental apparel damage, and (3) buying apparel with intent to return it for a refund after use. Factor analysis was conducted on PHN Scale responses. To test reliability of PHN factors and consumer behavior scenarios, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were calculated. One-way ANOVA was used to identify relationships between ethical response scores and PHN scale responses.

The factor analysis resulted in six factors. Moderate to high levels of reliability ( =.42 to .76) were calculated for five PHN factors. High levels of reliability ( =.83 to .91) were calculated for the consumer scenarios. Three PHN factors (beliefs that people behave dishonestly for personal gain, internal locus of control, and pessimism about others’ behavior) were significantly associated with ethical response scores. Subjects with more positive PHN scores were less accepting of unethical consumer behavior than subjects with less positive PHN scores.

One scenario (buying apparel with intent to return it for a refund) was statistically associated with all five PHN factors. The behavior depicted in the identified scenario is premeditated and deliberate while the other two scenarios describe actions taken in response to accidents. Respondents’ evaluation of the scenarios appears to be dependent upon different circumstances, which infers that the subjects may be inclined to use "situational ethics."

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

The results of this study are useful to professionals such as retail managers. Additional research should focus on refining the PHN scale and consumer scenarios for use to screen job applicants when employment decisions are made. Employees who have positive philosophies of human nature and are less accepting of unethical consumer behavior of others may be more inclined to make ethical decisions themselves, helping the retailer to prevent profit loss.

References

Ferrell, O. C., & Gresham, L. G. (1985, Summer). A contingency framework for understanding ethical decision making in marketing. Journal of Marketing, 49, 87-96.

Wrightsman, L. S. (1964). Measurement of philosophies of human nature. Psychological Reports, 14(3), 743-751.

Wrightsman, L. S. (1992). Assumptions about human nature (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

USING DIGITAL TEXTILE PRINTING TECHNOLOGIES TO INTEGRATE PRINTED IMAGERY WITH A COMPLEX DRAPED JACKET PATTERN

J. R. Campbell and Jean Parsons Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011

The goal of this project was to create a one-of-a-kind garment, using the draping process for pattern making and engineering the surface design to match the garment shapes by using digital textile printing technologies. The integration of digital textile printing with a garment of this complexity has not been previously documented, due to the relative newness of this technology.

In assessing the potentials and limitations of digital textile printing technology for this project, the following issues were evaluated according to how they affect design approach: (1) the use of repeat designs versus non-repeating image creation, (2) the use of photo realistic imagery, (3) variations in size/scale that are possible with digital printing, (4) garment style pattern and print design integration, and (5) limits of file size with contemporary software and hardware.

Several considerations figured into the design of the garment: its potential relationship to surface design, the type of fitting and shaping lines desired, and the actual fit of the garment. The first step was to begin draping a jacket shape using geometric pieces where any contouring or fit would be achieved through seaming rather than darts. The surface design could then focus on, and flow from, seam intersections. Another consideration was to develop a style that would fit a variety of body shapes and yet still have areas of fit and connection to the body.

The first pattern was draped, tested, and adjusted. As the shapes evolved, triangular intersections and extensions began creating the visual effect of radiating lines. This structural formation lent itself to the application of a print that could begin at a small scale at the focal points and then radiate out and expand in size as it progressed towards the opposite sides of the shapes. The chosen print designs were inspired by the construction lines used in the garment. Original digital photographs taken of an early 1900's wooden plank and iron beam bridge were manipulated on the computer using Adobe Photoshop. The strong visual lines of the bridge beams integrated well with the radiating arrangement of garment pieces.

Once the garment design was completed, the final pattern was digitized into the computer using PAD pattern making software. The final patterns were then exported from PAD in an Adobe Illustrator format, then opened in Illustrator and copied and pasted into an Adobe Photoshop file, where the surface design could be applied to the garment pieces. In order to keep the file sizes within limits of memory requirements of a Macintosh G3 computer with 384 Megabytes of RAM, the pattern pieces all had to be scaled down to one-third scale of their original size (working with a 300dpi file). When sent as a print file to the Encad 1500TX wide format digital textile printer, the files were re-enlarged to full-scale for printing to fabric. The pattern pieces

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

with imagery attached were then printed directly to a lightweight quality wool fabric. The shapes were then cut and sewn together to create the final garment.

The execution of this project showed that the largest constraints to the process of integrating engineered surface design imagery to match garment pieces occur in the problems with file sizes on the computer, causing temporary halts to the design process. The solution of changing the scale of the garment downward for working with the imagery and then re-sizing back to original size proved to be an effective one, as the printing software did very well in re-sampling the digital information to print out the imagery at a larger scale.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING: INTRODUCING UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS TO CONTENT ANALYSIS THROUGH GALLERY EXHIBITION DEVELOPMENT

Linda Carlson and Eulanda A. Sanders Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523

Educators are challenged to create hands-on experience for students that remove them from the realm of the typical classroom environment, introducing them to modes of seeking knowledge. These types of experiences are often termed "experiential learning." One method of creating experiential learning methods within a curriculum is offering group studies on specified topics. The purpose of this group study was to involve students in the process of developing a scholarly exhibit. The exhibit was based on the life of Mary Seacole, a woman of Jamaican and Scottish descent who was a battlefield nurse in the Crimean War, 1854-1856.

A group study was conducted fall and spring semesters to facilitate the development and installation of the gallery exhibit. The first semester activities involved reading the narrative, participating in the coding process, conducting background research, and special projects. The second semester included garment development and gallery installation.

Students in the fall group study were required to participate in the research as a coder to develop an understanding of Mary Seacole and the research process. Each student read the narrative independently and coded 445 verbatim appearance (dress and the body) references extracted from the narrative. After the coding process was completed, the principle investigator analyzed the data to determine the themes and sub-themes that emerged.

To support the content analysis of the project, each student was assigned an aspect of the narrative to research. These areas included additional research on Mary Seacole, Florence Nightingale, the Crimean War, nursing in the 19th century, the status of free Blacks in the 1800s, the geographical locations of Mary’s travels, and costume of the 19th century. The information gained from the background research was used to develop the garments and to catalog and design the exhibition.

During the last six weeks of the semester, students were required to complete a special project, such as mannequin, map, and catalog development, that would facilitate the installation of the exhibit. For example, based on descriptions of Mary in her narrative, period mannequins of paper machè were constructed, padded with quilt batting, and covered with a spandex cover. A significant project was the development of reconstructed garments for the gallery exhibit. The students used the department’s Historic Costume and Textiles Collection and primary references to identify the silhouette and design details typical of the mid-19th century. Fabrics and prints

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

were also researched. In addition, the students worked with the exhibit designer to establish an effective physical presentation of the research results.

The significance of experiential learning opportunities given to the students participating in these group studies was immeasurable. The students were introduced to a combination of interpretative science, diversity, history, and social psychology, which resulted in a visual and tangible output, the gallery exhibition of reconstructed garments used to tell the story of a black woman. By participating, students learned about the research process and application of the results.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

THE USE OF THE WORLD WIDE WEB TO ACCESS CURRENT INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENTS IN AN UNDERGRADUATE INTRODUCTORY FASHION CLASS

Katherine E. Carroll, Doris Kincade, and Peggy Quesenberry Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060

In an introductory fashion industry class taken by clothing and textile majors, the lecturer must communicate current accurate information as directly and quickly as possible. Fashion is a fast- moving, non-stop global business, and time, both in and out of class, is precious for both the instructor and student. In addition, the lecturer must be prepared to accommodate a wide variety of learning styles. Multiple information formats are useful in teaching multiple learning styles (Bartz & Miller, 1991).

An online course environment such as Blackboard CourseInfo, a portal for customized learning and teaching, functions well as an organizational and communication tool for both lecturer and students. The class leader, in advance of the approaching class topic, can set up links via CourseInfo to websites pertaining to the topic of interest. All students in the class are automatically registered on the website and can acquaint themselves with industry issues in advance of class by accessing the information sent by the lecturer. During lectures, Power Point slides have hyperlinks to industry websites. The lecturer can browse the World Wide Web throughout class time, using a laptop computer, a projector, and an Internet connection. A "virtual" industry trip highlights important lecture points and the students. Students are aware of the content of a particular website and its usefulness to their studies.

The applied uses of the websites are varied. Students may wish to find out information about a company in order to apply for internships or more permanent position. Websites can contain extensive information about companies’ products and marketing philosophies. The instructor can use the websites as visual aids or descriptive tools to back up lecture notes in class. Materials that are provided on some sites can help to explain complex concepts, such as global economic issues or fiber science concepts. Trade associations provide excellent websites that provide students with comprehensive information. Forecasting services often allow students to browse through some fashion update web pages free of charge. Some sites are useful as complete teaching tools in themselves, containing clear, precise information in visual form, so that a student wishing to expand the knowledge base outside of class can conduct self-paced in-depth work using the site as a guide. These are some of the benefits of using these sites in class.

Website searches can be assigned as homework and extra credit work. Specific questions might be asked, such as ‘find the top accessory item for teens in London this spring’ or ‘assess the content/design/ease of use of a particular site.’ Benefits for the lecturer include a new list of fashion-related websites every semester and synopses of sites that the students find useful. Evaluation is incorporated during regularly scheduled tests in class. In summary, both students

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

and instructor have a comprehensive list of websites, categorized into each industry segment. This strategy can be used in any class with the right equipment, and enthusiastic students.

References

Bartz, D. E., & Miller, L. K. (1991). Twelve teaching methods to enhance student learning. Washington, DC: NEA Professional Library.

Blackboard CourseInfo. (No date). Blackboard.com. [Online]. Available at: http:// www.blackboard.com

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

MICROBIOLOGICAL DEGRADATION OF NATURALLY COLORED COTTONS UNDER SOIL BURIAL CONDITIONS

Hsiou-Lien Chen Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331

Naturally colored variants differ from the normal white form in numerous ways. Among these are the presence of natural pigments and high concentration of a wax called suberin, which has been suggested as a defense against soil-borne pathogens.

Naturally brown and green cotton (0, 9, 18 washes) and traditional white and dyed cotton fabric samples (6" x 4') were buried in commercial farm fields in Oregon for two months by the Department of Soil Science at Oregon State University. Strips of cotton fabrics were buried in the soil at a depth between 25 and 50 mm with soil pH in the range of 4-6. Five strips were buried over an area of 200 m^2. Upon retrieval, the strips were gently washed, air dried, and stored. Tensile strength of the burial and non-burial fabrics was measured by using an Instron.

After two months of burial, the traditional white cotton fabrics were essentially completely disintegrated; fabrics could only be located and identified by means of their plastic tags left in the field. The dyed cotton fabrics suffered somewhat much less degradation though some samples failed to remain intact. By contrast, both green and brown naturally colored cotton samples (0, 9, 18 washes) were found intact except for a few small holes developed in some fabrics, but they did suffer significant loss of tensile strength. The explanation for the microbiological resistance of colored cottons is still a matter of debate though it is probably due to either the many-layer wax walls or to the bioactive substances generated through the same biochemical pathways as the pigments or to both. This unique microorganism resistance characteristic enables the colored cotton products to be used in conditions where the growth of microorganisms is a major concern.

Page 1 of 1

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

ART STYLE AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: THE CASE FOR PRE-COLUMBIAN PERUVIAN TEXTILES Deborah L. Christiansen

Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405

Marian L. Davis Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306

The purpose of this research was to strengthen the John and Mary Carter Pre-Columbian Peruvian Textiles Collection database. This was done through stylistic labeling concerning the possible cultural affiliation of specimens. An analysis of references with comparable design characteristics, from primary and secondary sources, was completed, and 113 of the 143 specimens were stylistically labeled.

This was followed by the exploration of whether a theory developed in 1961 by J. L. Fischer, about the representation of sociocultural conditions through formal art variables, could be supported or refuted using the motifs and artistic variables in the Carter Collection textiles. More specifically, could the existence of certain art variables be used to discuss differences between pre-Columbian Andean cultural horizons and the intervening periods and would that contribute to temporal knowledge?

The theoretical study, executed through a three-person panel analysis of selected Carter textile specimen photos and subsequent statistical tests, generated data that both supported and refuted Fischer’s hypotheses. He hypothesized relationships between social structure and five art variables: repetition, complexity, use of space, symmetry, and enclosures. It is thought that, in times of greater social stratification, art will be characterized by more complexity, less repetition, more asymmetry, more crowded space, and less use of enclosures.

Through this study the variables of repetition, complexity, and enclosures were found to reflect the hypothesized relationships. Further visual analysis also helped support the idea that some variables of art style, as represented in Peruvian textiles, could supply supporting information on social stratification. During the Middle and Late Horizons the social structures were more hierarchical than in the Early Intermediate and Late Intermediate Periods. Certain art variables more frequently found during these stratified periods suggest a partial, consistent relationship. These findings contribute to sociocultural information which suggests a linkage of social structure to selected formal art variables used by some pre-Columbian Peruvian textile artists.

References

Fischer, J. L. (1961). Art styles as cultural cognitive maps. American Anthropologist, 63, 79-93.

Page 1 of 1

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Exploring Gender Differences in Online Behavior

Sandra Forsythe Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849

Liu Chun Beijing Institute of Clothing Technology, China

Understanding the differences in online behavior of men and women is critically important as more apparel marketers are focusing on the Internet as a medium for sales and marketing. However, consumer behavior literature focusing on the diffusion of innovations and consumer adoption of new technology-based products and media for product acquisition has paid little attention to the role of gender differences in the adoption of new technology. Therefore, we lack systematic research on gender difference online. The purpose of this study was to focus on gender differences with respect to online purchasing attitudes and behaviors of Internet users.

Gender is an important variable in explaining differential outcomes in consumer behavior. Many products are associated with one or the other gender, and behaviors inherent in acquiring goods can be gendered as well. Within Western industrialized cultures there is belief that, compared with women, men are more involved with technology and feel more confident and comfortable with technology. Men have been found to have more favorable attitudes toward certain product classes (often more expensive, masculine products) and less favorable attitudes toward certain production acquisition activities (e.g., in-store shopping). Thus, we hypothesize the following differences between men and women regarding online purchase attitudes and behaviors: Men feel more comfortable about purchasing online than women; men are more likely than women to use the web skillfully; men are more likely than women to purchase online; men are likely than women to use the web as a source of product information; men look for different kinds of information than women when shopping the Internet; men search online for different items than women; men purchase different items online than women; men are more likely than women to purchase online vs. traditional retail channels; and men spend more money online than women.

To test the hypotheses, we used the database of the 10th GVU's WWW User Surveys, merging the Finding Product Information and Purchasing database with the General Demographic database according to the users' ID. This resulted in a sample of 535 (190 women and 345 men). Dependent variables measured by dichotomous method were cross-tabulated with gender and examined by using chi-square tests of significance. Dependent variables measured by Likert scales were analyzed using ANOVA to test for significance, followed by post hoc comparisons. Results indicated that men were more comfortable purchasing online (F=93.34, p<.001), had a higher Internet use skill level (p<.001 for 11 of 12 Internet activities), were more likely to purchase online (2=l 1.32, p< .05), but were no more likely to use the web as their information source (2=7.05, p <.316). Men were more likely to search for price information (2=8.3 7, p < Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

.0 1) whereas women were more likely to search for location of stores (2=6.45, p < .05); men purchased different items online than women [e.g., computer hardware ( 2=24.87, p <.001), software (2=l6.35, p < .001), investment choices (2=l 0.36, p < .001), stock market quotes (2=8.82, p < .01)]; were more likely to purchase online as compared to in-store shopping for six of eight product categories(2=10.74 to 26.80, p <.001), and spent more online in the last six months than did women (2=11.69, p <.05). Although some gender dichotomization is currently breaking down (new Internet users are gender balanced with women representing just over half of new users.), many gender-based attitudes and behaviors remain surprisingly resilient to change. Implications for marketers are discussed.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

A Journey Through The Culture of Clothes

Diana Cone Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA 30460

Since physical barriers which have previously divided global cultures are disappearing, today’s students will increasingly face challenges in living and working in a diverse society. Educators must learn to integrate multicultural education into the curriculum and to enhance the communication skills among people from different ethnic groups. A student-centered project offered in a social/psychology of clothing course enabled students from diverse backgrounds to compare the universalities and differences among their cultures. An international student organization on campus assisted with the project.

Each student in the course selected an international student from the list provided and e-mailed him or her to initiate conversation concerning traditional dress styles worn in their native lands, as well as lifestyles, customs, symbolic meanings associated with dress, and cultural expectations and taboos. Over a period of several weeks, the students had an opportunity to conduct several interviews; some were performed in person, others via telephone or e-mail.

Based on the information gathered, the students completed a written analysis of clothing from the selected cultural group, presented the information to the class and included visuals of the clothing item. The final component of the project required that the class put on a cultural clothing fashion show in the Family and Consumer Sciences restaurant during a fall luncheon with about 40 guests attending. Some members of the class modeled informally while others set up table-top displays featuring their cultural group.

The fashion students were enthusiastic about working with international students to gather information and they indicated that it was more stimulating than searching the library for the information. Many even noted that they had made a "new friend." The class benefited from the variety of cultures represented and by sharing this information with the community. The students agreed that they had learned about many other cultures as well as their own and the use of e-mail added a technological component to the project. In the future, increasing emphasis on technology utilization, specifically the internet, will be required. On-line chats, with several students interacting contemporaneously, would also be educational.

Page 1 of 1

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

EXPLORING IMAGES OF WOMEN IN MAGAZINE ADVERTISING USING THE ABOUT‐FACE WEBSITE

Sarah Cosbey and Julie Hillery

Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115

Purpose

This assignment was developed for a unit on body image and body satisfaction in a social psychology of dress class. The purpose of the assignment was to encourage students to critically examine images of women in magazine advertising and to better understand how the media might contribute to societal views regarding physical beauty in women and women’s social roles. Images and ideas found on the About‐Face website were used as a stimulus for discussion and activity. The About‐Face website serves to raise awareness of messages about women conveyed through media imagery and provides resources relating to this subject.

Implementation

In preparation for the in‐class activity, students were directed to go to the About‐Face website at http://www.about‐face.org/index.html and visit the "New Top Ten Offenders" at the "Gallery of Offenders" link. Ten current magazine ads were presented that were identified by About‐ Face as being offensive in their portrayal of women; some of these ads were for fashion apparel and related products. Students ranked the 10 ads in terms of their potential for offensiveness. They were also encouraged to identify themes in what was negative or offensive in the ads’ portrayals of women using the website’s "Offending Campaigns" link for guidance. Finally, each student was instructed to find an advertisement that he or she considered to be offensive in its portrayal of women and to type a paragraph summarizing what about the ad was negative or offensive.

In class, students formed discussion groups in which they talked about the negative themes they identified in the website ads while the instructor tabulated the students’ ad rankings on an overhead transparency. Copies of the ads were provided to stimulate discussion. The class reconvened and discussed the negative themes identified by the groups. Identified themes included (1) woman in a suggestive pose, (2) extremely underweight woman, (3) woman made up to appear drugged or sickly, (4) woman portrayed as object or less‐than‐human being, (5) suggestive play on words used in conjunction with the female body, and (6) gratuitous female nudity. The ad rankings stimulated discussion on differing perceptions of what was considered offensive or negative. Each student then presented his or her ad to the class and attempted to identify the theme his or her ad illustrated. Finally, the students created their own "Gallery of

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Offenders" bulletin board in a high traffic area of the building using the ads they found along with the typed explanations of the negative messages conveyed.

Learning Outcomes and Future Plans

Students found the exercise stimulating. It required them to take a critical look at images of women in magazine advertising and to consider how these images might promote negative or unhealthy beliefs about women. It also encouraged them to examine what factors shaped their own body image and body satisfaction. This assignment will continue to be used in the class. Magazine ads provided by the instructor may be used to replace those presented on the website, if necessary. The assignment may be modified to examine the portrayal of other consumer groups, such as various age and ethnic groups.

Reference

About‐Face @ http://www.about‐face.org/index.html

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Delivering advanced internships via a web-based course

Christy A. Crutsinger, Richard Tas, Jana M. Hawley, and Jerry Dickenson University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203

Background

Internships provide an important link between education and industry as they give students a more realistic view of the work world and a broader perspective of job opportunities. Merchandising students are expected to complete internships for credit at an approved internship site that may include locations outside the immediate university community. These distant locations make it difficult and sometimes impossible for students to regularly attend an on- campus internship class. Students may opt not to accept a challenging internship because of the complex logistics in completing course requirements away from campus. This project sought to reengineer an internship course for delivery in a distributed learning context.

Purpose

The major goal of this project was to deliver an advanced internship class to students using a university-supported software program, WebCT. The internship class prepares students to pose questions in the workplace and then use appropriate techniques to find the answers. Specific objectives of the web-based course were to (1) facilitate a climate conductive to the free exchange of ideas between students and faculty through the use of software communication systems such as chat rooms, bulletin boards, and e-logs; (2) develop student competencies important for professional success in the merchandising field using web-based instructional modules and internship/work experiences; and (3) encourage students to explore a variety of internship opportunities away from the university community that provide model learning experiences.

Implementation

Students enrolled in the advanced internship class have traditionally attended a weekly class meeting. During these class sessions lectures focused on merchandising principles and workplace issues and/or problems. In the new web-based format, students were still required to meet on campus for an orientation meeting, a mid-semester review, and a final evaluation. However, the remainder of the class was conducted utilizing WebCT. Modules were developed based upon a list of core competencies and assignments. These modules included topics such as job objectives, corporate culture, performance reviews, establishing networking relationships, time and stress management, and business etiquette. The modules included video-streamed faculty introductions, structured exercises, situation vignettes, hyper-linked web sites, self-tests, and interactive communication. The course also included administrative materials (e.g., syllabus, assignments, Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

weekly time logs, administrative logs, and employee evaluation forms) for easy student access. As a collaborative effort among school divisions, core competencies were consistent while specific examples relevant to a students' major were addressed in each module. Each division delivered and monitored its own course.

Effectiveness

This format offers time and scheduling flexibility so that students can consider internship opportunities beyond the immediate university community. Though some students experienced technology frustrations, student feedback was positive and they revealed that WebCT allowed them to focus on the internship work-experience and course requirements rather than spending time in weekly travel to campus. The on-campus sessions allowed students to "connect" with their peers, share internship highlights, and make formal oral presentations. Employers expressed appreciation at the flexibility that the web-based format allowed.

Future Plans

The web-based internship course requires on-going updates and refinement. Changes to the course can be made and are, based upon input from students, faculty, and distributed learning consultants.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

SERVICE QUALITY IN THE SUPPLY VALUE CHAIN: RETAILERS’ EXPECTATIONS

Christy Crutsinger, Dee Knight, and Lynn Brandon University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203

Increasingly, retailers are demanding in terms of competitive pricing, reliable service, and quality merchandise. Consequently, vendors have had to find innovative ways to differentiate themselves in a competitive market. One strategy may be to meet or exceed retailers’ service expectations. The purpose of this study was to determine retailers’ expectations of service provided by vendors in the value supply chain.

A cover letter, questionnaire, and self-addressed, stamped envelope were mailed to 1000 apparel and home furnishings retailers resulting in a return of 162 usable questionnaires. Retailers’ service expectations were measured using a 20-item modified version of the SERVQUAL scale (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1991). Retailers indicated the level of importance of various services when working with vendors, including manufacturers and wholesalers. Subjects were asked to indicate their levels of agreement to each item on a 5-point Likert scale. A 7-item modified version of Narver and Slater’s (1990) scale was used to measure retailers’ customer orientations. On a 5-point Likert scale, retailers indicated the extent to which their stores engage in customer-oriented activities (i.e., focus groups, customer service satisfaction surveys, and in- store mystery shoppers). One-way ANOVAs determined differences between retailers’ expectations of vendor services, customer orientations, and demographic variables.

The majority of participants were owners (63%) of independent stores (86%) who attended market one to five times a year (80%). Parallel tests on the 20 items revealed five dimensions consistent with Parasuraman et al.’s (1991) earlier work. Scale reliabilities were measured using Cronbach’s alpha. The first dimension, assurance, ( = .79) included items such as "sales reps are knowledgeable." The second dimension, empathy, ( = .80) included items such as "sales reps understand your needs." The third dimension, reliability, ( = .93) included items such as "sales reps provide dependable service." The fourth dimension, responsiveness, ( =.83) included items such as "readiness to respond to buyers’ requests." The last dimension, tangibles, ( = .76) included items such as "support materials available."

Results revealed that retailers have high service expectations on all dimensions: reliability (M = 4.62), responsiveness (M = 4.51), assurance (M =4.48), empathy (M = 4.34), and tangibles (M = 3.96). Results revealed a low level of involvement in customer-oriented activities. Retailers (n = 77) below the SD were identified as having low customer orientation (M = 1.79), and retailers (n = 61) above the SD were identified as having moderate customer orientation (M = 2.92). One-

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

way ANOVAs revealed no significant differences between retailers’ service expectations and the variables tested.

Results from this study reveal that retailers have high service expectations for vendor services. Findings may provide insight to vendors for cost effective allocations of financial and human resources. Regardless of customer orientation, merchandise category, price point, or store type, vendors must consistently offer services deemed important by retailers.

References

Parasuraman, A., Berry, L. L, & Zeithaml, V. A. (1991). Refinement and assessment of the SERVQUAL scale. Journal of Retailing, 67(4), 420-450.

Narver, J. C., & Slater, S. F. (1990). The effect of market orientation on business profitability. Journal of Marketing, 54, 20-35.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

AFGHAN WOMEN’S TEXTILE CRAFT ECONOMIES: UNDERSTANDING EMBROIDERY PRACTICE FROM AN INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE

M. Catherine Daly Independent Scholar and Consultant, St. Paul, MN 55108

Historically as engendered work, Afghan embroidery or Afghan dozee holds significance in the Afghan household and culture primarily for its aesthetic and social value. However, since the 1978 Afghan Coup the embroidery of women and girls has taken on a broader importance in Afghan diaspora communities. Embroidery validates the Muslim jihad experience of Afghan refugees. It is a skill politically and economically exploited and negotiated by women’s advocacy groups and development workers for educational development and economic sustainability of females.

The research evolved from an earlier analysis and status report of Afghan women’s textile craft economies, a description of indigenous embroidery terminology and techniques and relevant socio-cultural variables. However, this presentation, Afghan Women’s Textile Craft Economies, extends the analysis of embroidery practice using an interactionist’s perspective. Rather it focuses on the concept of women’s role/status and set, role enactment, and the specific social context of textile craft production and use.

Afghan embroideries produced prior to and following the Afghan Coup differ. The aesthetic change parallels social change in Afghan women’s lives. Before the coup, first as young girls and adolescents, then as engaged or married women, and finally as mothers and grandmothers, items of social significance were embroidered for the extended family within the context of integrated activities associated with the private domain of the domestic environment. In contrast, after the coup Afghan females now in roles as laborers and pieceworkers continue to embroider but embroider unfamiliar items of unknown social significance for non-family members available for purchase in the public domain of the consumer environment.

Verbal and visual data were collected during informal interviews among Afghan refugees living in two different urban cities and geographic regions; the United States mid-west and the North West Frontier Province of Pakistan. Four groups were interviewed: eldest Afghan women in a non-Muslim community of the United States, Afghan refugee women living in both camp and non-camp settings, male Afghan shopkeepers, and Afghan female educators.

In summary, select key concepts from an interactionist’s perspective, the identification of two politically differentiated time periods in history and the visual documentation and analysis of a textile art practice provides additional insights about the aesthetic and social change among women that has implications for comparable studies elsewhere. In addition, the research results

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

are also of value to textile and clothing educators, political advocacy groups, development workers, and textile retailers with varied interests in textile products, processes, and producers.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

INNOVATORS OF CONSUMER DIRECT INTERNET ELECTRONIC COMMERCE OF APPAREL PRODUCTS Michael L. Dancausse University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402

Nancy L. Cassill North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695

The purpose of this study was to investigate innovators of consumer direct Internet electronic commerce for apparel products. Internet electronic commerce involves a two-way interaction where products and/or services are sold, purchased, or exchanged via an electronic medium such as the Internet. Consumer direct electronic commerce is well established for the sale of music CD’s, videos, books, travel packages and airline tickets, and an assortment of other products and services, but it is just beginning to prove itself for the sale of apparel.

The conceptual framework for the study was Rogers’ (1995) Model of the Innovation-Decision Process. Apparel companies implementing consumer direct Internet electronic commerce were labeled as innovators, the early stage of Rogers’ adopter categorization (1995). Apparel companies in this study were grouped according to their traditional main business objectives: apparel manufacturers, apparel retailers, apparel catalogue-based companies, and Internet-based apparel companies. It is important to have an understanding of how a site is impacting current and prospect customers, its ability to convey the necessary information quickly, with ease of use, and allowing proper communication. The site’s ability to meet business goals, as well as its overall design, are key aspects for successful Web sites.

The case study consisted of three areas: (1) determine what constitutes an effective e-commerce Web site, according to an online objective evaluation of the companies’ e-commerce Web site with the use of online software diagnostic tools; (2) determine what constitutes an effective e- commerce Web site according to a subjective evaluation of the companies’ Web sites by recommended industry standards; and (3) determine the historical development, the objectives, and the future direction of the companies’ electronic commerce business plans through interviews with corporate executives and/or trade literature review.

The results confirm a variety of Web site effectiveness. Results show that not all Web sites’ programming and features are fully adequate. Nevertheless, results from BizRate.com’s customer ratings show that consumers who have purchased goods from these Web stores are generally satisfied. This may provide some insight into how the objective analysis tools, which have been developed by software and Internet consulting firms, may not be in line with consumers’ desires when shopping for apparel on the Internet. There is clear disagreement between the researcher’s evaluations along with the objective evaluations and consumers’ ratings of the Web stores. Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

One emerging theme of e-commerce and the Internet that was observable involves the addition of a new distribution channel not only on a domestic scale but also on the global scale. E- commerce Web sites have begun to explore and offer their products internationally. Some have gone as far as to offer a variety of languages to be able to reach out to new consumers. It is clear that all businesses involved in this study still fall into the broad characteristic of innovators, which is that they tend to be risk takers and venturesome (Rogers, 1995).

Reference

Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th ed.). New York: The Free Press.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

CONTRACT GRADING FOR A SKILL-BASED COURSE

Elizabeth K. Davic Kent State University, Kent, OH 44242

Several years ago, I developed a skill-based course that was taught as an elective and graded on a pass/fail basis. Enrollment was limited and students were highly motivated to achieve. Interest grew and the course was brought into the fashion design curriculum as a requirement earning a letter grade. Many students were still highly motivated but often anxious about their ability to earn the grade they wanted with a new skill they often did not perceive as being their strength.

Space availability caught up with demand and the class was opened to all fashion majors. With some students enrolled in the class as a requirement and others as an elective, differences in the level of motivation and performance became obvious. Course evaluations included comments such as "course is too demanding for an elective" and "grading standards are too high for non- majors." It became a challenge to maintain the previously established content level and performance expectations, yet also be responsive to student concerns.

Following considerable reflection and open dialogue with students, I introduced a contract method of grading that details assignments required to earn each letter grade. A grade of "C" can be earned by satisfactorily completing all basic skill assignments. Completing all basic skill assignments plus additional application level assignments is required to earn a grade of "B." Earning an "A" grade requires completing all basic skill and application level assignments plus additional assignments at the integration level. Any assignment falling short of satisfactory can be redone without penalty. Rather than the student declaring the grade they are working for, the contract is my assurance that they will earn a specific grade by satisfactorily completing the required assignments.

The contract method of grading has been very successful for this class. Almost all students complete the class with at least average basic skills. Fueled with the confidence of completing the "C" assignments, most students attempt to earn a "B." Over the past two terms, 20-25% have earned "A" grades. There are no surprises other than that the students who never thought they could develop the level of skill to complete the assignments necessary to earn an "A" sometimes actually do so. Students seem to focus on learning the skills and completing assignments rather than the grade they expect to receive. There is little if any difference in the quality of work submitted by those required to take the class as compared to those enrolled for elective credit.

It was very challenging to rethink the assignments and grading and organize them logically to fit the contract format, but my goal of being responsive to student concerns while maintaining the content and performance level expected was accomplished. While standards have not been compromised, elective enrollment is strong. Based on the many desirable results achieved, I

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

intend to continue using contract grading for this course and may experiment with modifying it for use in other courses as well.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

COMPETITIVENESS OF US APPAREL PRODUCTS IN CHINA

Marsha A. Dickson, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506 Sharron J. Lennon and Catherine P. Montalto, Ohio State Univ., Columbus, OH 43210 Dong Shen, California State University, Sacramento, CA 95819 Li Zhang, Asian Information Resources Ltd., Beijing, China

China is coming closer to entry into the World Trade Organization; when negotiations are complete, restrictions on China’s imports will greatly decrease, leaving the door open for foreign firms who wish to tap the 1.2 billion person market ("The impact of WTO…," 2000). According to officials from China’s National Clothing Design and Research Center, the US lags behind other foreign countries in entering China (personal communication, X. Wang, October 1998). To determine whether US manufacturers and retailers can benefit from China’s market, better understanding of Chinese apparel purchasing is required.

The purpose of this study was to determine the competitive status of US-made apparel products in China. The specific objectives were to (1) compare perceptions of US-made and PRC-made apparel and (2) profile market segments to which US-made apparel might be targeted. The Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) provided the basic framework for studying how Chinese purchasing intentions are influenced by an assessment of the product. We purposely focused on the structure of the attitude toward apparel in order to learn which apparel attributes would encourage purchase of US-made products.

A multi-phase sampling process utilizing the public school system allowed us access to a random sample of male and female adult consumers in Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou. A questionnaire developed for the study in English was translated to Mandarin and back-translated. A pre-test was conducted in Beijing.

Of 3,000 questionnaires distributed, 1,628 (682 men, 818 women, mean age = 38.9) were usable for the analysis reported here (54.3% usable response rate). Perceptions of US-made apparel (pants) were compared with perceptions of PRC-made pants using repeated measures MANOVA (F=95.06, p=.000) and paired sample t-tests (p<.05). Overall, Chinese consumers rated US-made pants as having more famous brand names; more fashionable styles and colors; better quality, fabric hand, and workmanship; and being better fitting and more comfortable. On the other hand, PRC-made pants were perceived as more reasonably priced and easy to care for than US-made pants.

Through conjoint analysis, cluster analysis, multiple regression, and a variety of descriptive statistics we identified six segments of consumers with varying priorities for apparel purchasing. Of the six clusters, two looked most promising for US apparel marketers to pursue. Purchasing decisions of US-Made Cotton Classic consumers (n=217) were significantly influenced by lower

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

price points, good quality, conservative styling, US-made, and 100% cotton (F=97.64, p=.000, R^2 =.28). In contrast, US-Made Brand Name Fashion consumers (n=206) prioritized lower price points, fashionable styles and colors, good quality, US brand, and US-made apparel (F=152.41, p=.000, R^2=.39). Analysis of demographic characteristics was reported and implications to US apparel marketers were discussed.

References

Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

The impact of WTO accession in China. (2000). China Business Review, 27(1), p. 40+.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

UNDERGRADUATE TEAM RESEARCH AND POSTER EXHIBITION: LEARNING THE RESEARCH AND PROBLEM -SOLVING PROCESS

Nancy H. Drennen and Kenneth R. Tremblay, Jr. Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523

By participating as a team in the development, implementation, and presentation of a group research project, undergraduates learned the challenges and rewards of team work and research process. Students gained confidence and enhanced appreciation for quality research and presentation. Each year a capstone course of approximately 20 students was given a project to meet the needs of a "real" group on campus or in the region. Students developed objectives, research questions, and methods together as a team. For the past four years projects were customer/client satisfaction with an Alzheimer’s office; college student, staff and faculty satisfaction with technology resources; participant views about improving a statewide consumer knowledge contest; and a statewide environmental scan/research and policy needs evaluation.

Once project directions were identified, students developed appropriate data collection instruments. For some projects this involved up to four related but different consumer surveys. For example, the technology project required separate surveys for staff, undergraduates, graduates, and faculty. Students spent many hours developing, evaluating, piloting, and refining questions and overall instruments. For each project students divided data collection, tabulation, and analysis efforts.

Results, conclusions, and recommendations were presented through a final report and research poster exhibition. Students and instructor divided the final report into parts with each student responsible for writing his/her portion. A poster exhibition presented the total project. Each student created one poster for exhibition. Posters focused on project background, purpose, objectives, research questions, methods, results (divided into logical groupings), conclusions, and recommendations. Students presented their posters during class before posters were placed in exhibition. The exhibit (including program with poster titles and authors) was presented jointly with students from a graduate-level research methods class.

Each year’s exhibition was one-week long with an opening reception attended by all students, faculty, administrators, advisory board members, and invited guests. Approximately 300 guests viewed each year’s exhibition. Ballots encouraged voting on awards for clearest presentation, visual attractiveness, most attention-getting poster, most informative handout, and best overall poster. The instructor tallied ballots and gave award and participation certificates.

Although students felt the project required a great deal of effort, they were very positive in their evaluations. Many commented about their new awareness of the difficulty of formulating clear research objectives and the many revisions required to create useful research questions. The team Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

process created challenges that were discussed as a group. Learning related to team roles and solving responsibility issues were reflected in student evaluations. For most students, there was enhanced sense of accomplishment when the poster was completed, presented, and exhibited. Students thought that the project increased confidence and understanding of their skills. Several students later reported that this research experience influenced employers who hired them. The joint exhibition facilitated consideration of future graduate study. The department benefited from enhanced visibility of both its scholarship and instructional efforts as well.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

MEDIA CONSTRUCTIONS: DRESS AND THE COLUMBINE SHOOTINGS

Molly Eckman and Jennifer Paff Ogle Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523

Catherine Amoroso Leslie The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210

Social constructionism suggests that perceptions of societal problems are collectively negotiated. Mass media contribute to the social construction of reality by reflecting and shaping interpretations of events. To date, however, scholars have not explored media interpretations of the role of dress in school shootings, such as that at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado. This work draws from the social constructionist framework and focuses upon the role of claims-making in the construction of knowledge about the Columbine shooting. Primary claims-makers include authority figures with expertise about a given topic. Secondary claims- makers comprise mass media writers who "translate and transform" knowledge (Best, 1989, p. 259); this knowledge necessarily reflects the "logic" of the media, or the motives and values that shape media format and content (Altheide, 1985).

This study builds upon O’Neal’s (1997) work by applying the social constructionist framework to another issue linking youth violence with dress. This inductive content analysis explored claims-making evidenced in print media representations of the role of dress in the shooting at Columbine. The research focused upon and compared primary (e.g., student witnesses) and secondary claims-makers’ (e.g., media writers) interpretations of the event and implications. Articles and editorials published in The Denver Post and The Rocky Mountain News and related to the Columbine shooting were identified (n = 1262). Of these articles and editorials, 155 (12%) focused upon dress and were extracted for analysis. Articles and editorials included in the sample dated from 4/20/99 (the day of the shooting) to 7/1/99 (dress-related coverage of the incident subsided). The sample also included items published in August 1999, December 1999, March 2000, April 2000, and May 2000, when Columbine-related events spurred additional dress- related media coverage. A grounded theory approach and constant comparison processes were used to analyze data. Inter-rater reliability for data coding was 94.8%.

Emergent themes and subthemes reflected perspectives of multiple claims-makers and pertained to the role of appearance in (1) reconstructing the crime, (2) locating the cause, (3) staging a backlash, (4) proposing solutions, and (5) clarifying and revising issues. While claims made by both primary and secondary claims-makers drew linkages between the shootings and appearance, the content and nature of these claims varied by stage in the construction of the problem and the time of publication. Further, although both primary and secondary claims were made concerning

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

conceptualization of the problem, an explanation for it, and solutions to it, roles of primary and secondary claims-makers in constructing the problem varied.

The present findings contribute to knowledge concerning socially constructed linkages between dress and youth violence and point to the complexity of the process by which social problems are constructed in the media. Findings also have implications for examining the role of media in the shaping of social reality and public policy concerning such issues as date rape.

References

Altheide, D. L. (1985). Media power. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Best, J. (1989). Secondary claims-making: Claims about threats to children on the network news. Social Problems, 1, 259-282.

O’Neal, G. (1997). Clothes to kill for: An analysis of primary and secondary claims-making in print media. Sociological Inquiry, 67(3), 336-349.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Selected Works Analysis: Creating Conceptual Connections

Ginny Hencken Elsasser Centenary College, Hackettstown, NJ 07840

The Selected Works Analysis (SWA) is a creative and innovative strategy for improving the teaching and learning process. The objective of SWA is to encourage students to become actively engaged in the analysis, integration, and appreciation of course content through the study of a selected work or body of work for an entire semester. This assignment was first conducted with a senior level class in the Social and Psychological Aspects of Clothing during the Spring 1999 semester and repeated in Spring 2000. The assigned text was The Social Psychology of Clothing by Susan Kaiser. As the content of each section of the book is covered, the students relate a relevant passage or concept from each chapter to their selected work. A written paper and an oral presentation about the material are required.

Active engagement is an important component of successful learning. This strategy encourages development of metacognitive skills and increases student involvement in the learning process. Metacognition is a term that refers to one’s capability of governing and being aware of one’s own learning activities (Royer, et al., 1993). Research has also indicated that allowing students to direct their learning contributes to improvement in student learning (Cullen & Johnston, 1997).

Each student selects a work or body of work at the beginning of the semester. Students are advised to select a work very carefully to ensure that it can be used for the entire semester. Since each chapter in the Kaiser book begins with a short synopsis of the content, it is fairly easy to be certain that the work will be appropriate. Student selections have included the Bible, "The Golden Girls," "Pretty Woman," Madonna, Versace, Valentino, "The Indiana Jones Trilogy," "Clueless," and "The Last Emperor."

Students prepare oral reports and written papers that document how their selected work relates to the content of the chapter. The Kaiser text has six sections so each student prepares six oral presentations and written papers to correspond to each section. Specific citations from the chapter and from the selected work are required. Citations from the work may be visual (video clips, slides, photographs, images from the Internet, or books.)

Interviews with students indicate that they like the assignment and think they are learning more than if they were being tested in a traditional format. Student comments include:

"with the SWA I have to really read the chapter and think about what it says,"

"I never really read a textbook before this assignment," Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

" I have to understand it and relate it to my selected work instead of just studying the chapter and then forgetting it after the test,"

"I am learning as much from the other presentations as I am from analyzing my own selected work."

References

Cullen, J. A., & Johnston, L. W. (1997). Quality circles: A classroom assessment tool for improving teaching and learning. Paper presented at the Annual South Carolina Higher Education Conference (10th).

Royer, J. M., Ciser, C. A., & Carlo, M. S. (1993). Techniques and procedures for assessing cognitive skills. Review of Educational Research, 63(2), 201-243.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

MASS MERCHANDISE OR HANDCRAFTS: ASSORTMENT PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS OF MIDWESTERN CULTURAL MUSEUM STORES

Brecca R. Farr University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487

Mary A. Littrell Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011

Funding for museums from the public sector and private foundations has declined for over 15 years ("Hard Money…," 1995). As a result, many museums established or expanded retail operations. By 1992, between 2% and 10% of museums’ annual budgets were derived from their museum stores’ revenue (Geddes, 1992). As funding concerns continue to press museums, revenue generated from their stores becomes increasingly important. Establishing the right product mix is one way to increase revenue generated from museum store merchandise sales.

Literature concerning museum stores is found primarily in publications from the Museum Store Association (MSA), trade or business press, or mass media periodicals. These sources recommend that museum stores be multi-functional, including offering a merchandise mix that offers unique products that incorporate an educational dimension (MSA, 1992; Theobald, 1991). Merchandise associated with museum stores also is perceived to be of higher quality than similar items found at for-profit stores; this perception is fundamental to a museum store’s continued success (Nellett, 1992). The few scholarly studies published have focused primarily on interior design or offered consumer behavior profiles. The one exception was a study that analyzed four museum stores associated with large fine art museums in New York City and Europe (Costa & Bamossy, 1995). The authors from that study proposed a model that identified the key decision makers, goals, and audience for the museums and their stores. Within that model, the researchers identified two potentially conflicting goals: (1) Economic, including revenue expectations, and (2) Sanctity of the Object, concerning issues of authenticity and identity.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss a recently completed study that examined how merchandise was selected and acquired for cultural museum stores. The study used Costa and Bamossy’s (1995) model as the foundation for its conceptual framework. A conceptual model was generated that included five parts: Decision Makers, Museum Store Goals, Product Selection and Acquisition, Retail Environment, and Purchase by Consumers. As non-quantifiable data and subjective measures were sought in conjunction with detailed descriptions, the methods employed followed a qualitative research approach. The sample for the study consisted of twelve (N=12) museum stores located in five Midwestern U.S. states. Size of museums, as measured by annual attendance, varied; attendance ranged from 6,000 to 250,000. Annual gross sales from museum stores ranged from $10,000 to $850,000. Cultural groups represented in the sample included Native American (n=3), African American (n=2), European American (n=6), and Latin American (n=1). Half of the European American museums focused on Scandinavian cultures; the Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

remaining European American museums concentrated on other European cultures and their emigration to America. Data were collected using unstructured interviews with an open response format and were analyzed using the constant comparative method. Eight initial themes emerged and were cross-coded as being either product-oriented or store-oriented. Deductive reasoning was employed to refine the conceptual model.

Among the key findings was the challenge for museum store managers to successfully negotiate a balance between the product-oriented goals of uniqueness and revenue. The product-oriented goal of uniqueness incorporates the need for museum store merchandise to be different from merchandise found at local for-profit specialty stores as well as discount stores. The revenue goal with a product-oriented focus concerns the desire by the store manager to maximize the gross margin through retail sales. To meet the goal for unique merchandise, museum store managers often turned to low volume producers, such as area artisans or handcraft cooperatives, to acquire original handcrafted products. However, vendor consistency for quality and quantity became a concern. Additionally, store managers needed to be sensitive to the cost for the store as well as for the ultimate consumer. To maximize the revenue generated, store managers usually turned to high volume producers. All stores within the study developed a balance between handcrafted products and mass merchandise; however, vendor availability proved to be a limiting factor for both goals. An option that most stores employed was use of consignment merchandise. Store managers were constantly re-evaluating their product mix to ensure the store did not compete with local for-profit retailers. Implications include the need to consider goals beyond maximization of financial return when planning merchandise assortments. Of particular relevance would be destination retailers where consumers travel specifically to shop a specific store.

References

Costa, J. A., & Bamossy, G. J. (1995). Culture and the marketing of culture: The museum retail context. In J. A. Costa & G. J. Bamossy (Eds.), Marketing in a multicultural world: Ethnicity, nationalism, and cultural identity (pp. 299-328). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Geddes, A. L. (1992, October 26). Museum shops sell souvenirs, education. Business First— Columbus, 9, 15.

Hard money: Funders talk about funding for museums. (1995). Museum News, 74, 32-35; 51-52.

Museum Store Association. (1992). Manager’s guide: Basic guidelines for the new manager. Denver: Author.

Theobald, M. M. (1991). Museum store management. Nashville: American Association for State and Local History.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

IMPORTANCE OF EVALUATIVE CRITERIA ACROSS PRODUCT CATEGORIES: A COMPARISON OF ANGLO AND HISPANIC FEMALES

Judith C. Forney and Lynn Brandon University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203

Purpose

Evaluative criteria reflect underlying consumer values, attitudes, knowledge, and experiences (Jenkins & Dickey, 1976). This study examined the importance assigned to evaluative criteria when purchasing casual apparel and home furnishings by ethnicity. Hispanics are projected to be the largest ethnic group in the U.S. within 10 years (Radice, 1997), and it is important to understand their purchase behaviors. The casual lifestyle trend in the U.S. suggested the situational context for this study.

Method

Mailed self-administered surveys were completed by Anglo (n=120) and Hispanic (n=56) females in three Texas urban areas. Respondents were married (70.4%), with children (56.3%), worked as professionals (85.9%), were ages 31 to 50 (70%), college educated (73.2%), and had annual household incomes over $50,000 (75%). Cross-tabs revealed no significant differences by personal characteristics.

Subjects used a two-column format (casual apparel; casual home furnishings) with a 7-point Likert-type scale (range: 1=low importance to 7=high importance) and responded to "When purchasing, I look for…" for 24 evaluative criteria. A principle components factor analysis with varimax rotation identified four factors: physical (durability, care, fiber, fabric, construction, trim /notions, product quality), image (brand label, store image, prestigious image, private label), core (color, style, price, comfort), and aesthetic (appropriateness, beauty, design). Six attributes were eliminated because they did not load at .50 or above for both casual apparel and home furnishings and on the same factor. Reliability for physical was .88 and .89, for image was .81 and .84, for core was .79 and .72, and for aesthetic was .71 and .69 for casual apparel and casual home furnishings, respectively. MANOVAs tested ethnic differences on the four factors.

Findings

Mean scores rated the overall importance of evaluative criteria factors for casual apparel from core (M=3.70), physical (M=3.54), aesthetic (M=3.28), to image (M=2.22). Evaluative factors for casual home furnishings rated from physical (M=4.38), core (M=4.00), aesthetic (M=3.90), to image (M=2.67). Wilks' Lambda Criterion indicated a significant MANOVA for ethnic differences for casual apparel (p=.028) but not for home furnishings (p=.153). The F test

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

(F=5.37, df=1, 174, p<.05) revealed Hispanics (M=9.542) gave significantly higher importance to image than Anglos (M=8.21).

Conclusions and Implications

For this sample, core and physical evaluative criteria seem to be most important across casual apparel and home furnishings while image is least important. Ethnicity may make a difference in the importance of some evaluative criteria for apparel purchases as was evident for Hispanic women for the image that is conveyed through labels and prestige. Evaluative criteria seem to have higher importance for casual home furnishings than apparel. This may be due to higher initial costs or expected length of use. Because home furnishings vary widely in price and use, this suggests further study. Since the rank order of importance was similar across product categories, retailers might emphasize color, style, price and comfort associated with a particular brand. Retailers could build "themes" describe core criteria.

References

Jenkins, M. C., & Dickey, L. E. (1976). Consumer types based on evaluative criteria underlying clothing decisions. Home Economics Research Journal, 4(3), 150-162.

Radice, C. (1997, February). Hispanic consumers: Understanding a changing market. Progressive Grocer 76(2), 109-114.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

INTERNET CONSUMERS' RISK PERCEPTION AND ONLINE BEHAVIOR

Sandra Forsythe Auburn University Auburn, AL 36849

Bo Shi Research Data Analysis Group, MI

Shopping has become the fastest growing use of the Internet; however, most online shoppers are still "window shoppers" using information gathered online to make purchase decisions off-line. Several authors have attributed consumers' reluctance to purchase online to concerns about credit card security issues, privacy issues, and other barriers to online purchase. The concept of perceived risk has been used extensively to explain the amount and nature of risks associated with traditional shopping media. As Internet shopping is perceived as a risky purchase situation, perceived risk provides a useful context for examining the barriers to Internet shopping.

In the face of uncertainty or risk, consumers tend to engage in information seeking as a risk reduction strategy; thus Internet shopping may lead to increased consumer information search online to allay perceived risk and facilitate better purchase decisions. Given the rapid growth of the Internet as a new marketing tool and the lack of empirical research addressing perceived risk associated with Internet shopping, the purpose of this research was to examine the role of perceived risk on information search and purchase behavior among Internet shoppers (see Figure 1 for conceptual framework). Consumers may perceive different types of risk depending on product category or retail medium; however, no studies have examined the types of perceived risk associated with Internet shopping. This research examined three major barriers to Internet shopping that reflect three types of perceived risk—financial risk, product information risk, and time/convenience risk. Based on previous research and the conceptual framework, several hypotheses regarding the types of risks perceived by Internet shoppers, factors influencing perception of each risk, the impact of each perceived risk on online research behavior, and the impact of search on the amount spent online were generated and tested using the 10th GVU WWW User Survey data set. We merged the Finding Product Information and Purchasing database with the General Demographic database according to the users' ID resulting in a sample of 642 participants. Before running path analysis to test the Hypotheses, the variables were tested for potential multi-collinearity. There were no collinearity problems. Results of the path analysis (Figure 2) showed only age and online experience were significantly related to any of the perceived risks. All the perceived risks were negatively related to online search behavior and search behavior was strongly related to shopping behavior. Implications for online markets were provided.

Page 1 of 1

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Teaching Ladder and Assortment Plans Using An Adaptation of Industry Software: Academic LiteÔ

Irene M. Foster

Framingham State College, Framingham, MA 01778

The retail industry uses merchandising management systems: Retail Proâ , Arthurâ , STS, MMS, and in‐house developed programs. Computerized tutorials were used at the University of Nebraska in the 1970s and Kotsiopulos and Kang‐Park (1990) introduced MERCHMATH EZY at Colorado State University. Levy and Weitz (1998) use Arthurâ with their text, Retailing Management, to help students understand profit and loss. Anderson, Kotsiopulos, and Eckman (1996) developed materials for their merchandising curriculum using Retail Proâ . Merchandising students need retail technology.

After a review of literature and a survey of professors who teach retail and merchandise assortment planning was completed, a list of criteria was developed. Conclusions were that faculty wanted a software application that was easy to learn and teach, affordable, used by industry, and flexible enough to be incorporated into coursework (Barnett & Surynt, 1999; Foster, 2000; Laughlin & Kean, 1995).

The "Conceptual Model," including interrelated components identified as production/product knowledge, distribution/merchandising, and consumption, was the curriculum base (Fletcher, Flynn, Handschuch, Potter, & Taylor, 1992). The distribution/merchandising component of this curriculum included calculations and concepts in ladder planning and profit analysis. Therefore, the software needed to have the ability to plan by store, department, and classification; plan by year/season/month; analyze open‐to‐buy; stock top‐down or bottom‐up; include margins, markups, pricing, stock ratio, and turn; work in both units and dollars; analyze results; and produce reports. An adaptation of a Windows‐based software application, Buyer’s ToolboxÔ , was developed (ANT USA, Inc. & Foster, 2000).

Teaching strategy focused on the students’ abilities to use an industry software package, gain more experience with computer applications, and analyze ladder plans for profitability and assortment. Students in the course Fashion Merchandising: Planning Policies and Implementation first developed a group business plan. The goal was to help the students understand retail planning and analysis from both top‐down and bottom‐up. The instructor helped the students review assortment and ladder planning, basic retail math, competitive and market positioning, and criteria research from which they developed their business plans. Students began an individual buying plan based on a percentage of the total planned sales of the company. Each worked independently but remained consistent with the group’s corporate goals. An industry speaker explained the benefits of computer analysis in planning and its

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

application to the real world. The professor trained the students on the software. Each student received a blank database (with no past retail history) on diskettes, inserted their sales plan numbers, and analyzed their data. Students used the Buyer’s ToolboxÔ The Merchandise Planning Workbook Using Academic LiteÔ (Foster & ANT USA, Inc. 2000) in understanding the process. Each student analyzed examples and placed them in their buying portfolio. The students critiqued the manual and it was revised. Students’ acceptance of the software and the use of new technology is growing. Future classes are planned to expand the use of this technology.

References

Anderson, J., Kotsiopulos, A., & Eckman, M. (1996). Merchandising concepts using retail technology with Retail Proâ . Colorado State University, Fort Collins.

ANT USA, Inc. (2000). Academic LiteÔ and Buyer’s ToolboxÔ software applications. www.antusa.com.

Barnett, S., & Surynt, T. (February 1999). Retailing’s techno‐future: Relevant technologies for the classroom. Retail Education Today 18(3), 4‐5.

Fletcher, M., Flynn, J., Handschuch, A., Potter, M., & Taylor, R. (1992). Clothing and textiles curriculum analysis and revision. Framingham, MA: Framingham State College.

Foster, I. & ANT USA, Inc. (2000). Buyer’s ToolboxÔ The Merchandise Planning Workbook using Academic LiteÔ version 3.0. Framingham State College, Framingham, MA & ANT USA, Inc., Acton, MA.

Foster, I. (January 14, 2000). Selecting a computer program as an aid for teaching assortment planning. ACRA Meeting, NRF Conference. New York.

Kotsiopulos, A., & Kang‐Park, J. (1990). MERCHMATH.EZY Teaching basic merchandising mathematics using computerized drill and practice. Association of College Professors of Clothing and Textiles, Special Publication #2. Monument, CO: ACPTC.

Laughlin, J., & Kean, R. (1995). Assessment of textiles and clothing academic programs in the United States. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 13(3), 184‐199.

Levy, M., & Weitz, B. A. (1998). Retailing management (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Irwin McGraw‐Hill.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

AN EMPIRICAL TEST OF NORMS RELATED TO APPEARANCE

Elizabeth W. Freeburg and Jane E. Workman Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901

Significance

Norms are shared standards or rules that specify what human beings should or should not think, say, or do and how human beings should or should not look under given circumstances (Blake & Davis, 1964; Workman & Freeburg, 2000). Content analysis of daily newspapers is a qualitative method to analyze messages that infer the existence of norms. "Current research does not suggest the minimal level of agreement necessary to endorse a behavior as a norm" (Workman & Freeburg, 2000, p. 46). The purpose of the study was to identify the minimal level of agreement needed to confirm or refute as a norm an expectation about how human beings should or should not look under given circumstances.

Relevant Framework

Use of content analysis and empirical testing increases the validity of the findings. Content analysis relies on a series of judgments made under specific conditions by trained judges, who systematically determine the content of a message. Empirical testing uses statistical means to confirm or refute inferences, specifically, in this study, inferences about norms.

Method

Content analysis of newspaper advice columns identified 35 appearance-related norms (Workman & Freeburg, 1996). The questionnaire contained demographic items (e.g., age, gender), a definition of norms, and a list of the 35 norms. A two-tailed Z test was used to empirically confirm or refute each previously identified norm.

Results

Participants (63 females, 37 males) ranged in age from 18-62 (M=32.27). Analysis confirmed 16 norms and refuted 13 norms (p<.05). Participants were undecided about 6 previously identified norms. The norm "Everyone should take a daily bath or shower, change underwear daily, and use an underarm deodorant" received the highest level of agreement (84% Yes). The norm "Men should have body hair" received the minimal level of agreement for statistical significance (61% Yes). Two items receiving the maximum level of disagreement and thereby refutation as norms were "Old people should have gray hair" and "People should be tanned" (78% No). The item "Children should not be concerned about their hair" received the minimal level of disagreement for statistical significance (64% No) and refutation.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Implications

This study is a first step in identifying the minimal level of agreement to confirm norms related to appearance. Norms identified through content analysis can be empirically tested for confirmation or refutation. It is important to note that not one norm received 100% endorsement by all participants; even for norms which are widely accepted, there is still some disagreement. Evidence of the minimal level of agreement necessary to confirm a norm may be explored within subgroups of society that may have different expectations about what human beings should or should not look like under given circumstances.

References

Blake, J., & Davis, K. (1964). Norms, values, and sanctions. In R. Faris (Ed.), Handbook of modern sociology (pp. 456-484). Chicago: Rand McNally.

Workman, J. E., & Freeburg, E. W. (2000). Expanding the definition of the normative order to include dress norms. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 18(1), 46-55.

Workman, J. E., & Freeburg, E. W. (1996). The newspaper advice column as regulatory device for normative standards of dress. In C. M. Ladisch (Ed.), Proceedings of the International Textile and Apparel Association, Inc. (p. 55). Monument, CO: ITAA.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

COSTUMES OF KENTUCKY AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN: 1900-1950

Betty Fritz-Cook Kentucky State University, Frankfort, KY 40601

The basic objective of this project was to create a reference collection of prints of historic photographs of African American women who resided in Kentucky between 1900 and 1950. This collection of visual images was critically needed because there are relatively few visual images and photographs of African American women in the traditional costume history textbooks. Scholars interested in studying costumes worn by African Americans in the U.S. during the early 20th century have difficulty locating original historic photographs. The reasons for this include the following: (1) there were probably fewer photographs taken of and by black Americans than were taken of and by whites during this time period due to the expense and for other reasons; (2) fewer of these photographs are found in the collections in university libraries and archives, historic societies, museums, and other public institutions; and (3) originally, those photographs of African Americans found in such collections were possibly relegated to a secondary status, making it more difficult for interested scholars to locate and study them.

When visual images of African American women appear only sporadically in costume history textbooks, there are several important implications that are not lost on students in the increasingly diverse U.S. society. These implications suggest (1) that during the first half of the 20th century most African American women either did not have clothing that conformed to the clothing norms (fashions) of the day or were not as interested in following style trends as were most white women; and (2) that African American women played such a marginal role in early 20th century American culture that visual images of them are relatively unimportant in the history of dress (or of the U.S.).

The researcher viewed photographs of Kentucky African American women, located in the archives/collections in three state universities, a private college, and the state historical society. The researcher dated the photographs that had no identification by examining the subjects’ costume styles. The resulting collection of 124 historic photographic prints of early 20th century American black women offers evidence that the previously listed implications are inaccurate. The researcher found that, regardless of the women’s apparent socioeconomic situation, education level, or occupation, almost all of them wore garments in the prevailing styles of the day—whether in a portrait shot, a family photo, or an unplanned group photograph. These visual images are powerful.

This project was designed from a hermeneutic perspective on multiculturalism because the researcher recognized that discussions of costume history in America are simply incomplete when they fail to include and interpret the experiences of African Americans during the early 20th century. Respect for other people’s experiences is fundamental to multiculturalism. Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Conversations that challenge our traditional views about the role of black Americans and other minority groups in the American culture occur only when the participants express a willingness to change their point of view when presented with new insights (Kimball & Garrison, 1999). This research presents such insights.

Reference

Kimball, S., & Garrison, J. (1999). Hermeneutic listening in multicultural conversations. In V. Fu & A. Stremmel (Eds.), Affirming diversity through democratic conversations (pp. 15-27). Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

FASHION IN PAPER

Hanna Hall and Elizabeth K. Davic Kent State University, Kent, OH 44242

The purpose of this project was to infuse the design process with "thinking outside the box." Traditionally, paper is used as a medium to communicate sketches and designs. It is used again in the process of translating style and fit to the sample garment through pattern work. Most designers are well versed in using fabrics and findings to accomplish the intended design. For this project, junior fashion design majors were required to design and produce a garment from an unusual fabrication, paper. The intent was to challenge their creative thinking and problem solving skills.

Prior to introducing the project, students were assigned to create five different objects using paper. The remarkable ingenuity of the 120 samples yielded inspiration as well as excellent reference samples for the project. The discovery process extended to textures created by weaving, cutting, braiding, slashing, twisting, and otherwise manipulating paper so that it could respond to natural body movement and shape. Students had to stretch their imagination to develop ideas that could be fabricated. Initially they struggled with how the manipulated paper could be used to form the design rather than incorporating traditional fitting and style details such as darts and seams. The final project was to look like a garment—not paper.

Once the designs were finalized, "yardage" of selected papers was ordered from commercial print stock sample books. New methods of calculating "yardage" had to be devised to accommodate different dimensions as well as allowing for crunching, folding, braiding, and other manipulations that decreased the yield. The sample making process was set into motion by manipulating brown kraft paper to produce a paper "muslin." This posed more challenges as initial technique samples often needed revision to work in large scale. After the approval of the kraft paper muslins, the students faced yet more challenges as the paper "yardage" arrived in different sizes and weights than anticipated. Glue guns, packing tape, staples, and Velcro replaced thread, needles, and zippers. Even more challenges to be solved!

Finally, the end product. FASHION IN PAPER. Students had successfully used creative thinking and problem solving to design and produce unique fashions in paper and had fun doing it. The garments were featured in a runway show, then sent to an art gallery for static exhibition. The FASHION IN PAPER, runway show, and exhibition were well received, resulting in excellent press.

We found the project to be very successful in guiding students to "think outside the box." Beyond the overall success of the FASHION IN PAPER garments, students are applying the critical skills they learned to new assignments. They are using traditional fabrications more Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

creatively and thinking through the production aspects more thoroughly. Various aspects of this project can be modified for several different classes based on the focus intended and time availability. While we do not have the resources to produce a runway show and gallery exhibit every year, we will be incorporating the project as a regular part of the curriculum.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

THE FLAPPER: MISPERCEIVED MISS

Carol Hall and Jane Farrell-Beck Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011

In AD 2000, Americans "know" that a Flapper was a 1920s woman in her twenties who wore short, skimpy dresses, long beads, bobbed hair, and a headache band. She danced the Charleston, smoked cigarettes, and drank illicit liquor from a flask. While not completely untrue, this image fails to capture many other realities about this icon of young womanhood.

A search through dictionaries, school yearbooks, and varied publications of 1915 through 1935, including The New York Times, The Atlantic Monthly, Harper's Baza(a)r, and The Corset and Underwear Review, revealed much about the Flapper. From these sources, we sought to learn about the Flapper's period of prominence, distinctive look and behavior, supporters and detractors, and ultimate fate.

Born in the early 1900s, the Flapper appeared in print in a Bonwit Teller advertisement of April 1917. At that point she was a 12-to-16 year old, rather gangly and hard to dress. To some degree, this group continued to be counted as Flappers, but the first generation of this breed retained the label as they moved into their twenties.

Sports clothes were as much a part of her image in the 1920s as were the party clothes with which she has long been associated. G. Stanley Hall dissected her ensemble in 1924. He observed the (stereotypical) brimless hat, beads, and bob but also a long scarf, woolen stockings, open coat, unfastened galoshes, and a pleated skirt whose contrasting colors created a flicker as she moved. School yearbooks showed Euro- and African-American girls in these skirts and accessories. Some Chinese-American and Hispanic girls also embraced flapperdom in the 1920s, putting their own stamp on it.

Free and easy behavior also characterized the Flapper, a fact applauded by some observers, who saw in her a response to changing times, and deplored by others, who quailed at her departures from demure womanhood. Retailers loved her: she bought new products, notably the uplift brassieres that debuted in the mid-1920s. Indeed, the customer category of Flapper persisted in foundation departments into the 1930s.

According to 1929 articles, she was being sidelined by the Siren, an older woman with more languid style. But the Flapper did not disappear. She became harbinger of the Teenager, invoked in advertising copy by 1930. This Teenager bided her time through the Depression, to emerge as a sought-after customer from the mid-1940s to the present.

References Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Bonwit Teller & Co. (1917, April). Advertisement. Harper's Bazar, 52, 4.

Hall, G. S. (1922, June). Flapper Americana novissima. Atlantic Monthly, 129, 771-780.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

A TEAM APPROACH TO RETAIL PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT: FROM INDUSTRY TO THE CLASSROOM

Jean Hardy, Hazel O. Jackson, Suzanne G. Marshall, and M. Sue Stanley California State University Long Beach, Long Beach, CA 90840

Based on the review of current literature, the position of product developer is the fastest growing position in the apparel industry. The purpose of this project was to give students an opportunity to experience the duties of the product developer. Students in an advanced apparel design class implemented Wickett, Gaskill, and Damhorst's (1999) product development model as they worked with a local foundation to design a uniform for middle school boys and girls who would attend Ocean Camp. Representatives of the Maritime Foundation met with the class and made a brief presentation explaining the goals of the camp and the environment in which the learning would occur. They described the target market and set general parameters to guide the design students' deliberations. They identified variables to be considered as the design process evolved such as (1) the target market's age group and gender; (2) cost and care of fabrics; coordinated garment pieces; (3) and a distinctive Ocean Camp logo.

Two-member design teams were formed. The project was completed in six phases as suggested. In phase 1, Trends analysis, students analyzed popular clothing for the target, which resulted in the identification of several trends in dress including cargo pants, drawstring pants, sweat/T shirts, and wide leg jeans. In phase 2, Concept development, a collection of images, perceptions, photographs, and samples emerged, along with an identification of areas where trends were reinforcing other trends. In phase 3, Palette selection: Fabric design, silhouette, and style, students refined the palette through the identification of a dominant color (blue), as well as accent colors (gray and white).

Various shades of blue, a gray, a blue and white stripe, and white were used. The Maritime Foundation provided the fabrics the students specified. Students in an advanced quality control class evaluated the performance of the fabrics using a variety of AATCC test methods to determine colorfastness, abrasion resistance, durability, dimensional stability, comfort, and hand. In phase 4, Sketching, each design team developed flat, detail illustrations and developed a basic pattern to fit the designs. In phase 5, Constructing and analyzing the prototype, design teams produced the prototypes and live models tested them. In phase 6, Line presentation, students presented the line at the Apparel Design and Merchandising annual fashion show. Members of the Maritime's foundation management judged the line, selected winners, and presented awards to the students. Pieces from the line were selected and sent to an apparel manufacturer for mass production.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

In follow-up to this experience, the instructors realized the necessity of spending more time on team building activities. A similar project presently in progress incorporates several sessions on team building.

Reference

Wickett, J. L, Gaskill, L. R., & Damhorst, M. L. (1999). Apparel retail product development: Model testing and expansion. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 17(1), 21-35.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Digging for diamonds: an analysis for sorting reclaimed textile products

Jana M. Hawley University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203

Although the textile recycling industry annually removes 2.5 billion pounds of textile product waste from the solid waste stream, these pounds represent less than 25% of the total annual textile waste. Analysis of municipal solid waste indicates that unrecovered textile waste contributes to approximately 4.5% of the US landfills.

The textile waste material industry is a multi-faceted industry that consists primarily of small family-owned businesses. Textile waste material industries include shredders and papermaking, wiping cloths, remnants and piece goods, clothing sort facilities, and vintage collectibles. The clothing sort segment of the industry plays a unique role because it often sorts both wearable and non-wearable goods, of which the non-wearable is salvaged and fed back into the other segments of the industry. This research focused on the various categories used by textile sorting facilities and the values placed on these various categories.

Research Method

This research, which is part of a bigger study that supports the notion that textile recycling is a system, used traditional anthropological methods of field study, unstructured/extended interviews, and observation. Interview were held with 26 various business owners of the textile materials waste industry. In addition eight facilities served as sites for observations and field study. The collected textual data were coded, managed, and analyzed through a Boolean logic qualitative data software program (Atlas.ti TM). This software allows textual data to reveal theoretical insights and contributes to theoretical development.

Findings

Nearly 100% of recovered textile waste is usable. Almost one half (48%) is recycled as second- hand clothing, primarily sold to markets in developing nations. Another 31% is converted to new raw materials used primarily as stuffing and liners, and 20% becomes wiping and polishing cloths. The remaining one-percent comprises the special sorts of vintage and collectible clothing called "diamonds" in the industry. These figures do not include the second-hand clothing that is recovered and resold by consignment shops and up-scale boutiques that fulfill current fashion trends or traditional thrift and charitable outlets for used clothing such as Goodwill and the Salvation Army.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Sorting serves a critical role in the source reduction of post-consumer waste. Findings of the research revealed that this segment has created substantial world markets by carefully sorting over 2.5 billion pounds (annually) of used clothing to fulfill the many market niches that have been developed. The value of the sorted goods was inversely related to the pounds of usable materials. Although the majority of the sorted categories of used clothing is intended for markets in the developing world, specialty sorts (called "diamonds" by those in the industry) provide a lucrative and important category for the sorting industry. "Diamonds" consist of collectible clothing sold to specialty stores throughout the world. Respondents revealed that these "diamonds" consisted of approximately one percent of the total volume of sorted goods yet provided approximately 15% of the revenues. The greatest volume consisted of non-wearables used for the wiping and shoddy segments of the industry, yet provided less in terms of revenues.

For many of the sorting facilities, experts with fashion business or design backgrounds manage the "special sorts" division. These managers have a keen sense of style and knowledge of fashion trends that allow the companies to fully capitalize this lucrative market niche.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Cross-dressing Across Cultures: Performing and Celebrating Gender

Jane E. Hegland New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003

Nancy J. Nelson University of North Carolina, Greensboro, NC 27403

Cultures across the world and throughout time have sought to celebrate the ending of one season and the beginning of another. Through parades, parties, and carnival, cultures mark the passing of time while often rebelling against the social standards and expectations of everyday life. One such means commonly used is cross-dressing, or temporarily dressing the body in a manner opposite of one’s gendered identity (Tewksbury & Gagne, 1996).

The purpose of this paper is to explore cross-dressing as a global phenomenon through examination of materials found on the internet about cross-cultural celebrations that focus on cross-dressing as an integral part of the overall performance. The virtual world created and maintained by the internet is used as a venue for personal and creative expression on the part of the cross-dressed individual. A widely used tool to dialogue on the topic of appearance, the internet also helps to establish and even alter gendered identities. The seamless realm of the internet allows such identities to cross cultural boundaries instantly and without regard for real physical space. As such, it is a vehicle for research that opens up a wealth of opportunities for exploring such issues as gender, identity, and dress.

Based on websites of global celebrations that include cross-dressing, this paper looks at the ways individuals, groups, and cultures use this virtual world for purposes of cross-dressing. The focus is the visual and textual interpretation of website information of five major carnival celebrations, including New Orleans, Trinidad and Tobago, Rio de Janeiro, London, and Sydney. A total of 25 sites were selected and analyzed (5 from each country). Each site was evaluated according to selection criteria developed prior to the data gathering process. Criteria included country of celebration, description of events, visual representation, and textual reference to cross-dressing.

Themes surfaced that indicate the role of cross-dressing as both performance on the part of participants and an integral aspect of the celebratory nature of the event itself. Results underscore the practice of cross-dressing in such contexts as a form of gender inversion, displayed specifically through male-to-female cross-dressing. Themes that surfaced include issues of appearance, sexuality, gender identity, and the celebration of blurred gender distinctions within a socially sanctioned space. These themes were validated in a preliminary sense through actual observation of one event—the London Mardi Gras parade of July 2000.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Because this paper relies on the interpretation of visual and textual information found on websites, methodological and theoretical considerations are discussed with respect to using websites as primary source material (Ackermann & Hartman, 1999). In so doing, this research participates in the current scholarly discourse on the topic of the internet as a tool for the investigation of issues related to dress. Likewise, this study enriches our understanding of cross- dressing as a global phenomenon and indicates just one of a myriad of ways that cross-dressing appears on the internet.

References

Ackermann, E., & Hartman, K. (1999). The information specialist’s guide to searching and researching the internet and the world wide web. London: Fitzroy Dearborn.

Tewksbury, R., & Gagne, P. (1996). Transgenderists: Products of non-normative intersections of sex, gender, and sexuality. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 5(2), 105-130.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

STRATEGIES FOR PROGRAM REJUVENATION: A GRASS ROOTS APPROACH

Julie Hillery and Sarah Cosbey Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115

Purpose

Recently our program faced challenges that are shared by many undergraduate textile and clothing programs. In 1996 our program had 35 students and faculty were given three years to improve the program status or face its elimination. Challenges we faced included a curriculum that was outdated in both content and student demand, lack of program awareness both on and off campus, facilities that had been neglected, and high faculty turnover. The situation was further complicated by the majority of faculty being untenured and operating with minimum resources (i.e., space, materials, money).

Implementation

In order to update the curriculum we worked from both assessment data and ITAA competencies. In keeping with student and faculty interests, an overriding goal was to maintain the curriculum’s identity as a clothing and textile program of study while keeping current with industry trends. Both of us introduced new courses and reworked existing ones. We also adjusted our required versus elective courses. Both lack of awareness and the poor image of the program required us to implement effective merchandising strategies. The immediate need was to attend to matters close at hand. Bulletin boards, which were in a high-traffic area, were carefully attended to and continuously updated with program news events and achievements. Program brochures were also made available here as well as flyers promoting textile and clothing classes. Each semester we promoted entry-level courses which had popular appeal and served as effective means for recruiting students. We also promoted our program by establishing a web site and strengthening our industry contacts. Attention was also given to maintaining our classrooms by removing unsightly objects such as old mannequins and outdated or non-functioning equipment. Internal grants provided funding for instructional enhancement such as software and faculty development. Because we currently do not have a graduate program, faculty recruited undergraduate students for research support through work-study, independent studies, and apprenticeship programs. Faculty approached all of the challenges from a team perspective which required flexibility, co-operation, a positive outlook, and total commitment on the part of the faculty.

Outcomes

Our efforts have resulted in a significant increase in student enrollment, a more positive image of our program, and increased visibility both on and off campus. The program was recently

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

received a favorable review by the University Academic Planning Council and no longer faces elimination. In fact, our program enrollment has increased by 125 percent and is experiencing a steady upward trend.

Future Plans

In addition to continuing our current activities, we have identified several opportunities which will further enhance our Textiles, Apparel, and Merchandising program. These include establishing an advisory board, industry partnering, fund-writing endeavors, and strengthening our alumni network.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the strategies we used can be adapted to any textiles and clothing program regardless of the program size or resource availability. In fact, we found that some of the smallest and least expensive changes that we made were the ones that were the most effective.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

EMOTIONAL RESPONSE TO APPAREL ADS AND BRAND LOYALTY: A CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY

Byung-Sook Hong and Eun Young Jo Chung-Ang University, Kyungki-Do, 456-756, South Korea

Hye-Shin Kim University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19702

Advertisements leave embedded impressions of brands and products, creating brand awareness and influencing consumer decision-making. Visual imagery in advertisements generates impressions of brands by stimulating the emotions of consumers. Although feelings generated from these advertisements are intended to transfer to the product or brand, brand loyalty may influence the perception process. The purpose of this study is to examine emotional response to advertisements in conjunction with brand loyalty. Specifically, we assess how female consumers from Korea and the U.S. respond differently to three multinational brand advertisements. This study compares emotional response to advertisements of consumers from countries that differ in cultural norm and communication patterns.

A sample of 246 female students attending a mid-Atlantic University in the U.S. (N=171) and a metropolitan city University in South Korea (N=75) participated in the study. For both U.S. and Korean samples, over 90 percent of the respondents were undergraduate students (ages 18-24). Students were asked to observe three advertisements (Calvin Klein, Guess, and Benetton) and respond to items measuring brand loyalty, emotional response to the ad, and change in brand attitude.

For the Korean and U.S. consumer groups, differing levels of emotions are generated; however change in brand attitudes are similar. Although ad emotion dimensions affect brand attitude formation, findings show standardized global advertisements to simultaneously appeal to both consumers' market. Further research needs to probe the reasons behind this inconsistent finding. Also, there is evidence that brand loyalty reinforces positive ad emotions, supporting the transfer

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

of affect based on brand loyalty. Further research is recommended for advertising strategies for brands that do not have established presence in the global marketplace.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

A MODEL FOR EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING: TECHNOLOGY, TEAMS AND COMMUNITY EDUCATION

Janice Huck Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506

Too often undergraduate students do not have the opportunity to work on a project to meet common goals across discipline areas. Our college recently received a grant through the U.S. Department of Agriculture to work collaboratively with the American Cancer Society (ACS) to develop a model program that furthers the missions of both and, at the same time, provided opportunities for unique learning experiences for students within the College. The American Cancer Society Heartland Division has built and maintains a "mobile classroom." This 70-foot trailer, with its interactive computer stations and other technology, is designed to educate middle school students about cancer prevention and healthy lifestyles. This curriculum includes material on skin cancer prevention (including protective clothing strategies), nutritional information, tobacco usage, and other relevant topics. The original curriculum in the classroom was, however, severely inadequate and did not provide curriculum that was appropriate in either content or level for middle school students.

Through this grant funding, our college was able to provide an opportunity for students to learn about technology delivery, relevant curricula development, and working in a collaborative effort with other students, faculty, and outside organizations such as the ACS. The outcome of the project was to develop web-based curricula for use in the mobile classroom, as well as facilitating the use of the classroom across the state. Students who participated in the project were selected based on an interview conducted by the project faculty. Students were then divided into teams to develop curriculum materials to go in the high technology mobile classroom. Students were instructed in computer technology (i.e., web-based material development) and were required to conduct research on the topic area assigned to them. Working in a team environment, students developed interactive computer experiences that both challenged and maintained the interest of their target audience, middle school students. During the project, students interacted not only with other students on the team from different discipline areas but with faculty, middle school students, computer consultants, and ACS personnel. Students had access to laptop and desktop computers and state-of-the-art software provided through the grant. The primary responsibility for getting the curriculum developed was left to the students, who learned to organize their teams to accomplish a common goal. Also, students were recruited and served as extension summer interns to evaluate the curriculum as the mobile classroom moved across the state over the summer months.

This project has significantly improved the quality of educational experiences for students in apparel and textiles, education, nutrition, and family and consumer science education. These students will be more marketable in the workplace because of the computer expertise they have

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

developed, as well as their skills in working in a collaborative environment. This project provided a unique opportunity for experiential learning experiences for undergraduate students and can serve as a model for similar collaborations for other institutions.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

KOREAN AND U.S. FEMALE STUDENT ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR TOWARD APPAREL MAGAZINE ADVERTISEMENTS RELATED TO SELF-CONCEPT

Choon Sup Hwang Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea

Nancy J. Rabolt San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94132

Many consumers rely on fashion magazine advertisements to keep up to date. Demographic characteristics, lifestyle, self-concept, and other factors affect consumer behavior and attitudes towards ads.

This study attempted to compare the behavioral patterns and attitudes of American and Korean female students toward apparel ads in magazines in relation to their physical self-concept. Specific research problems were to compare the two groups on (1) preferred magazine type; (2) number of magazines read; (3) attitudes towards apparel ads; (4) perceived benefit of ads; (5) dissatisfaction with magazine ads; and (6) extent of use of apparel ad information in magazines and to investigate these factors in relation to level of self-concept.

Method

The study used a self-administered questionnaire. The sample consisted of 730 female students: 310 American students at six colleges and universities located in the west, northeast and southwest parts of the U.S. and 412 Korean students at four Seoul-based universities. Likert scales were used for most measures with 1=never or very unimportant and 5=always or very important. Physical self-concept was measured by Won-Shik Jung’s Standardized Self-Concept Test and the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. Surveys were translated from English to Korean and back to English for validity. Analyses included Factor Analysis, t-test, Contingency Tables and Chi-square, ANOCOVA, and Correspondence Analysis.

Results

(1) Korean students read more magazines than U.S. students; however, Vogue was the most popular for both groups. (2) Those with a high sense of physical self-concept read more magazines, for both countries. (3) American student attitudes toward apparel ads in magazines were similar, regardless of whether their sense of physical self-concept was high or low. For Koreans, however, those with higher sense of physical self-concept showed greater interest in magazine ads, consulted magazines for fashion trends, found ads more useful, and more often expressed satisfaction with the ads than the lower self-concept group. Korean students with a high sense of physical self-concept displayed the most favorable attitudes toward fashion ads. (4)

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

More American than Korean students used fashion magazines to enhance their design/merchandising skills. Both Koreans and Americans with lower self-concepts considered ads as a source of ideas for trends. (5) Korean students cited a lack of information in ads while American students felt body types of models were unrealistic. Both Koreans and Americans with higher self-concept expressed a greater level of dissatisfaction with apparel ads. (6) No group differences were found with regard to the extent of purchasing the advertised item. Korean students, however, showed a tendency to buy products of a company rather than a specific item seen in ads.

Conclusions and Implications

Self-concept appears to be related to several magazine readership attitudes and behaviors. Magazines should question the realism of models. Faculty might consider using fashion magazines more to enhance students’ design and merchandising skills. Apparel ads targeting Korean consumers should consider the amount of information in the advertisements and importance of company, not just specific product ads.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

VISUAL PRESENTATION IN A MULTICULTURAL MARKETPLACE: AN EXERCISE IN DIVERSITY, CREATIVITY AND COLLABORATION

Karen H. Hyllegard Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523

The purpose of this instructional project is to engage students in creating collaborative retail store window presentations that effectively communicate to consumers who are increasingly diverse in regard to age, ethnicity, lifestyle, and other consumer characteristics. The objectives of the project are to improve student understanding of the diverse needs and preferences of global consumers, to foster creativity in the visual design process, and to promote teamwork, including the ability to understand and accept diverse perspectives. The general communication model, including source, recipient, message, media, noise and feedback, guides the development and implementation of this assignment.

Prior to the window presentation assignment, students engage in classroom activities to enhance non-verbal communication and teamwork skills. For the first activity, each team is asked to create a collage to communicate a randomly selected advertising slogan without the use of written or spoken words. After completing the exercise, non-team members view the collages and state their interpretations of the message. This exercise demonstrates students’ abilities to create effective visual communication and to engage in successful teamwork. The second activity is a creativity exercise designed to foster understanding of symbolism and imagery. Students identify symbols that could be used to communicate a property found in selected objects and to give abstract or surreal interpretations of common scenarios. This exercise demonstrates students’ abilities to create powerful visual imagery to communicate basic ideas. The third activity is a "word-jumble" exercise designed to help students recognize and appreciate the needs and preferences of diverse consumer groups through the identification of demographic and psychographic factors. Students are given a mix of consumer factors and a product category and asked to create a message for their unique target market. This exercise helps students realize that they can communicate to consumers who are different from themselves.

The team window presentation project follows the classroom exercises and is designed to meet the objectives stated above. Unique communication scenarios are randomly established to guide the creation of the presentations using four separate characteristics: store type, store location (U.S. and international), target market, and reason for the communication. Previous scenarios include a jewelry store in Los Angeles, whose target market was mature consumers, engaging in a sales promotion to benefit breast cancer research; a music store in Chicago targeting African- Americans and celebrating a 10-year anniversary; and a shoe store in Hong Kong, with a strong homosexual customer base, promoting a social message. Requirements for completion of the Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

assignment include five components: (1) research of store characteristics (target market, store location, etc.), (2) conceptual sketches, (3) implementation of window presentation, (4) written report, and (5) in-class project critique. The success of the assignment is evaluated by the creativity, clarity of communication and teamwork demonstrated in the best examples of student work. Efforts and plans to improve the assignment, as well as class-instruction related to visual presentation, stem from the less effective student presentations, with the goal of improving overall quality and creativity. Visual examples of precursory work and window presentations are discussed in regard to strengths and weaknesses.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

TECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS ENABLING MASS CUSTOMIZATION

Cynthia Istook North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695

The textile and apparel complex has been scrambling in recent years to adjust to a rapidly changing business environment. Industry leaders have been forced to evaluate this business shift and the ultimate effect on the consumer to determine ways in which the industry might maintain, if not regain, market share. This evaluation ultimately led to the paradigm of mass customization. Mass customization is broadly defined as the mass production of customized goods (Davis, 1987).

Information technology and automation are a vital part of mass customization because they constitute the connection between the consumer’s wants and needs and the ability of a manufacturer to create the products accordingly. Taking advantage of technological developments in combination with proximity to the target market is the differential advantage that domestically manufactured products have over foreign produced goods. However, while technology, such as 3-D body scanning, CAD, digital printing and automatic cutting, may enable mass customization efforts, the processes involved are far from automatic. A significant amount of effort is still required in order to provide the fit of each garment that is desired by individual customers. The purpose of this research was to explore the technologies that enable the customized fit of previously created garment designs.

Alteration of garment patterns is an essential step in producing attractive and accurately fitting clothing from patterns that already exist. Most pattern makers in the industry are not required to know how to alter their patterns because they produce garments to fit their company’s sizing system and not individual customers. Certainly, current manufacturing systems could not afford to "slash and spread" their patterns for each of their customers.

Almost every CAD system used in apparel pattern making has some method that enables pattern alterations based on individual measurements although each has created an interface somewhat different from all of the others. This research provides a theoretical overview of how apparel CAD systems approach the automatic alteration of garment patterns. A discussion is included concerning the heuristics involved that affect the alteration process. Requirements for automatic integration of body scanned data with current apparel CAD processes is also outlined. This information should enable the industry to more effectively and efficiently meet the needs of its target market and assist in the quest to regain market share lost in recent years.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Reference

Davis, S. M. (1987). Future perfect. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

COMPARISON OF COLOR AND FABRIC PRESENTATION OPTIONS FOR THE DESIGN PROCESS

Reneé S. Jackson University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203

Doris H. Kincade Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061

The use of computers in the fashion industry has expanded to include selection, replication, and production of colors in the design process for apparel items. Companies have begun using 3-D imaging for presentation of fabric, color, and print options for marketing purposes. Color is an important element in apparel and accessories, as it is generally the first characteristic to which a consumer responds (Eckman, Damhorst, & Kadolph, 1990; Frings, 1999). Eye appeal is also influenced by color (Solinger, 1988). As color may be used to communicate expressive (i.e., values, roles, status) and aesthetic (i.e., human desire for beauty) classifications (Lamb & Kallal, 1992), the magnitude of its importance can not be overestimated. The development of apparel products with color and fabric characteristics desired by the consumer is imperative and dictates the use of the best possible options required to facilitate the process of their development.

The purpose of this research was to assess current and potential presentation options for color and fabric in the design process. Presentation options vary in the amount and accuracy of color and fabric information conveyed to the user. Through the exploration of viable presentation options for color and fabric in the design process, the identification of current technologies that reduce time and cost in the design process may be catalogued. Objectives of the study included identification of current and future manual and automated presentation options for color and fabric in the design process. The viability of current manual and automated presentation options were also assessed during the study.

A modified preexperimental research study was used that included a treatment, with four levels including 2-D and 3-D simulations, printed swatch card, and fabric sample. Participants assessed viability of each presentation option in regards to a provided product development scenario. Data were also collected pertaining to the participant’s position and job experience, computer experience, company information, demographics, and job satisfaction level.

All participants (n=13) selected the fabric swatch and 3-D simulation as the preferred presentation options for the manual and automated categories. Participants with an advanced level of computer experience showed a higher preference for continued use of 3-D presentation option and 53.8% rated the information level as adequate for decision making during product development.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

References

Eckman, M., Damhorst, M., & Kadolph, S. (1990). Towards a model of the in-store purchase decision process: Consumer use of criteria for evaluating women’s apparel. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 8(2), 13-22.

Frings, G. S. (1999). Fashion from concept to consumer (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Lamb, J. M., & Kallal, M. J. (1992). A conceptual framework for apparel design. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 10(2), 42-27.

Solinger, J. (1988). Apparel manufacturing handbook: Analysis, principles and practices (2nd ed.). Columbia, SC.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

INVESTIGATION OF CONSUMER PREFERENCE FOR INTERNET SHOPPING

Reneé S. Jackson University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203

Doris H. Kincade, Valerie L. Giddings, and Katherine Carroll Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061

Traditional methods of product development have included long lead times, numerous reiterations, vague forecasting of consumer preference, and expensive samples (Regan, 1997). New technologies and innovative methods in the product development process are necessary to reduce the costs and save time ("State of the Industry," 1996).

Innovative changes in consumer product presentation can change apparel and home furnishings marketing approaches and strategies. Beyond cost and time savings for manufacturers, consumer acceptance of new marketing approaches is less explicit. For the apparel and home furnishings industries, computer images are typically 2-D or 3-D images generated from sample fabrics, sketches, or computer-altered photographs. Recent information from Internet and catalog shopping have shown consumers are resistant to purchase items, which must be tried on the body or in the house (MasterCard International, 1996).

The purpose of this project was to assess the effectiveness of Internet shopping experience using a simulated home page with six consumer products (four apparel items and two home furnishings items) by measuring consumer perceptions of the home page as a shopping venue versus the actual in-store shopping experience for the same products. Participants (n=25) rated risk levels for the products, completed a preview survey prior to viewing the Internet site, viewed the simulated Internet home page, and completed a post-view survey. Data collected included demographic, computer literacy and usage, and consumer's preferences for Internet shopping.

Results for the study revealed that 88% of participants had access to computers along with access to the World Wide Web either through work or home (85%). For Internet shopping perceptions and attitudes, 44% of the participants had made on-line purchases, 28% agreed that mail and phone shopping were convenient for purchase of clothing items, and 36% agreed that mail and phone shopping were convenient for purchase of furnishings. The men's shirt had less than 40% perceived risk level, followed by children's skirt (26%). The lamp product had less than 40% risk level. Thirty percent of participants indicated they would buy the men's shirt and 20% indicated they would buy the lamp based on Internet site information.

Benefits from the study include identification of concept commonalties across consumer product areas for graphic presentation of products and data for identification of acceptable consumer

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

products for Internet shopping. An additional benefit included investigation and refinement of procedures used to compare multiple product areas.

References

MasterCard International. (1996). Internet shopping. Special Research Report. Available from Author, 212-649-5063 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting 212-649- 5063 end_of_the_skype_highlighting.

Regan, C. L. (1997). A concurrent engineering framework for apparel manufacturing. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg.

State of the industry. (1996). Bobbin, 38(4), 48-51.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

APPREHENDING GENDER AT THE MARGINS: THE IMPORTANCE OF APPEARANCE, VISUAL APPRAISALS AND IMAGINATION TO ESTABLISHING IDENTITIES

John Jacob Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99163

This study considers the importance of appearance and imagination to the social construction and maintenance of gender by considering the social experience of five radical drag queens. Their social experiences at intersecting marginal positions provide a unique perspective on the social construction of gender, self/social regulation, and negotiations of meaning where the self and the social collide. Interview data were analyzed using grounded theory methodology (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). However, the analysis gained intensity and focus by engaging Stone’s (1970) theorizing in "Appearance and the Self" and Silverman’s (1992) analysis of the gaze, which focuses on the importance of imagination to constructing and performing gendered identities. The theoretical perspective constructed for this analysis is also an integration of symbolic interaction (Goffman, 1959; Stone, 1970; Stryker, 1981), feminist theory (Butler, 1990, 1993; Mulvey, 1975; Rich, 1980; Silverman, 1990) and poststructural discourses concerning self- regulation (Butler, 1990, 1993, 1998; Bové, 1998; Foucault, 1981; Silverman, 1998).

These five men found themselves at multiple intersections of marginality because society expects coherent heterosexual male-masculine social portrayals of men. Although these men sought to construct affirming gay and drag queen identities, they were also compelled to construct more mainstream male appearances and identities in everyday life. There were different pressures for conformity and varying meanings assigned to conventional and transgressive gendered appearances according to context. Whether constructing ordinary male, gay male, or drag queen appearances, the participants referred to ideal images of men and women circulated in the mass media to compose their varied appearances. Ideal images of women and men, respectively, seem to function as archetypes circulating in culture, composing a form of collective consciousness about gender. Participants noted that visual assessment of appearance coming from others involved checked for conformity ideal gender images, whether portraying themselves as drag queens or men. Anticipating these visual assessments from others (and knowing the meanings associated with varied appearances) became a means of self-regulation that guided their dressing behavior toward portraying intended identities. Hence these participants revealed how people come to see as others do, visually assessing themselves as they anticipate others would. Recognizing the importance of imagination to visual transactions extends Stone’s concepts of program and review. Moreover these visual apprehensions can also be considered in terms of the gaze (Mulvey, 1975; Silverman, 1992) to locate the importance of appearance, imagination, fantasy and desire in constructing, communicating and apprehending gendered identities.

References Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Bové, P. (1998). Mastering discourse. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. New York: Routledge.

Butler, J. (1993). Bodies that matter: The discursive limits of "sex." New York:

Routledge.

Butler, J. (1998). The psychic life of power: Theories in subjection. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Foucault, M. (1980). The history of sexuality, volume I. New York: Vintage.

Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York: Doubleday.

Mulvey, L. (`1975). Visual pleasure and narrative cinema. Screen 16(3).

Rich, A. (1980). Compulsory heterosexuality and lesbian existence. Signs 5, 631-660.

Silverman, K. (1992). Male subjectivity at the margins. New York: Routledge.

Stone, G. P. (1970). Appearance and the self. In Stone, G. P., & Farberman, H. A. (Eds.), Socialpsychology through symbolic interaction (pp. 394-414). Waltham, MA: Xerox College.

Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory

procedures and techniques. Newberry Park, CA: Sage.

Stryker, S. (1981). Symbolic interactionism: Themes and variations. In Rosenberg, M., & Turner, R. H. (Eds.), Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives. New York: Basic Books.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS OF ALPACA FIBER

Kathryn A. Jakes The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210

With 136,000 registered alpacas and llamas in North America, owners and breeders are looking beyond the animals as a livestock investment to value added fiber products. Critical to the development of a fiber and textile industry, even one on a small scale, is the assurance of fiber quality and the delivery of sufficient quantity. The work reported herein encompassed an exploration of fiber characteristics that may reflect differences in animal diets. While studies on sheep’s wool provide comparative data and models for fiber study, sheep and alpaca are different animals in many respects so the relationship between diet and fiber must be evaluated for these camelids separately. In addition, past studies report on characteristics of alpaca fiber in relationship to their environment and diet in Peru and Chile; a much different situation exists throughout North America where supplementation to grass and hay is common.

Fiber was shorn from the 10 cm square midside section of each of 16 animals in a controlled diet study containing four diet groups. The fleece was then divided in two parts with half sent to YoCom McColl Laboratories for evaluation of mean fiber diameter, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation determined by the Laserscan method (IWTO-12-95). The second half of the fleece was separated into locks, each placed on a grid to facilitate random sampling. Fibers were evaluated for fiber bundle tensile strength (ASTM 1294-95a/IWTO-30-93), scale length, and consistency of diameter along length (both methods using image analysis techniques). While fiber diameter is determined by measurement based on hundreds of fiber individuals, the latter three measurements could not be performed on such large numbers of fibers or samples, so a statistical power analysis was conducted on data determined from these to establish the numbers of samples necessary to be tested, given the variation observed and the effect size considered significant. Thus, for example, where we initially measured scale length in three locations on each of 20 fibers, power analysis showed that reducing the number of fibers from 20 to 10 resulted in a modest reduction of power from .92 to .88.

Additional exploratory work included studies of these fibers and some extremely tendered fibers by scanning electron microscopy and x-ray microanalysis and showed that tendered fibers held a surface layer of soil contamination and displayed scale lengths much shorter than those of sound fibers. The Allworden reaction on both tendered and sound fibers was normal, however. Infrared spectroscopy showed increasing cysteic acid near the tip of fibers, probably due to photo- oxidation. These exploratory findings are being used as a foundation in a two-year nutrition study which includes 18 animals in each of two diet groups which vary in protein, calories, and minerals. Fleece sampled from these animals is being evaluated quarterly. Data also will be correlated with animal health data provided by the veterinary partner to this research. These

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

studies provide the foundation for quality assurance in the delivery of fiber to the textile industry while providing information to alpaca owners and breeders for animal nutrition.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

A Study on the Value Changes for the Korean Women in 1977-1998: A Content Analysis of Print Ads

Yang Jin Jeon Myongji University, Korea

Cultural value systems are recognized as a powerful force shaping consumers' motivations, lifestyles, and product choices. Thus it is important to understand the value changes in a society. During the last 30 years, Korea has experienced rapid changes in social, political, and economic aspects, which might have affected the consumer value system. This study was to investigate the value changes in Korean women in 1977-1998 by analyzing the contents of women’s magazines. The results would help marketers make their marketing plans and help researchers understand the changing pattern of consumers’ attitudes.

Two types of value systems were used to confirm the Korean women’s values: general value system and consumption value system. The general value system, composed of inner directedness and outer directedness, might predict consumer behavior in general. The two kinds of consumption values—utilitarian and hedonic—are expected to affect the consumer purchasing attitude to a specific product. The relative importance between two types of consumption values would tell the spread of a consumer culture in Korea.

Factors affecting cultural values were the per capita income, product type (cosmetics and apparel), and consumer group (teenagers and over twenties). A total of 2969 illustrated ads with a verbal theme from 32 Korean women’s monthly magazines were used. Two coders worked for this study and the coefficient of reliability between them was 0.86. The content analysis, chi square test, and logistic regression were used for the analysis.

The results showed that inner directedness was the dominant general value in Korean women’s culture and increased over time. Younger consumers were more inner directed than older ones and the inner directed value increased with income growth. For the consumption value system, utilitarian values were higher than hedonic ones and went up over time. For the product classifications, utilitarian ads were frequent in cosmetics while hedonic ads were high for apparel. Those results imply that Korean women’s culture becomes more inner directed with increased income. Also, consumption values are likely to differ between product groups. Marketers should consider product-specific consumption values while they focus on inner directed messages in marketing.

Page 1 of 1

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Towards an Introductory Course in Apparel Merchandising Education: A Jamaican Plan

Natalie A. Johnson Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011

Strategic Approach

The envisioned strategy involves implementing merchandising education as part of the textile and clothing curriculum in Jamaica. Currently, the teaching of apparel merchandising education does not exist in the curriculum of high schools or colleges in Jamaica. Economic, political, social, and technological changes have impacted job opportunities and the preparation students need to compete effectively for job placement. The status of textiles and apparel careers has improved over the years, making merchandising education an attractive and viable option. Merchandising education can furnish students with the skills and expertise needed to fill positions such as mall managers, buyers, visual merchandisers, and store managers.

Overall Usefulness

To fill the void that exists in the curriculum, an introductory course in merchandising is designed as a two-year pilot project for final year home economics students in a rural high school in Jamaica. Successful implementation of this introductory course will lead to the development of a model program that could be adopted by other developing countries. Students, as well as educators working on curriculum development globally, can find that merchandising education offers beneficial and useful skills for career development and career advancement.

Objectives

The course objectives include (1) providing knowledge and understanding of merchandising principles related to successful lifestyles and effective management of resources, (2) promoting knowledge and skills in a student-centered and activity-driven environment, (3) increasing the student’s awareness about the importance of being an informed consumer, and (4) fostering an appreciation for merchandising in relation to other fundamental business functions. The content proposed will cover areas such as (1) principles and theory of merchandising, (2) preparing income statements, (3) consumer behavior, and (4) career development and career choice. In so doing, this introductory course will align and unify content areas including textiles and clothing, computer science, and business-related subjects.

Implementation Strategy

Merchandising education would be initially implemented as a unit infused within the textiles and clothing curriculum. Progressively, the course will be expanded to being an additional option in Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

the home economics discipline. In this pilot phase, facilitators would be chosen based on their training, knowledge, and work experience.

Desired Learning Outcomes

The desired learning outcome for students in this course entails an on-going assessment of the merchandising principles and concepts learned in the classroom with on-the-job or real life situations. With the proliferation of shopping malls being erected in Jamaica, the need for qualified professionals in this sector has intensified over the years. Therefore, students could be placed in real work situations for internships. Students' performance would be evaluated based on their work ethics and creative application of knowledge. Specifically, students would prepare projects, income statements, and work for specified hours in retail environments—in some cases as interns.

Plans for Continuation

A comprehensive evaluation of the program by facilitators and governing body of the school would be made mid-way and at the end of the pilot phase. Following this evaluation, recommendations would be made using measure of constructs such as placement of students in merchandising-related jobs and career choice for further education. Findings will be presented to school administrators, professional organizations, and curriculum developers in the Ministry of Education. The recommendations would be examined and debated to determine if merchandising education should be adopted into the general school curriculum in Jamaica.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

RESTRUCTURING OF THE U.S. TEXTILE AND APPAREL COMPLEX: ADJUSTMENTS MADE BY U.S. SMALL APPAREL MANUFACTURERS (SAMs)

Michelle R. Jones North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695

Doris H. Kincade Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061

The global textile and apparel complex has witnessed a large influx of apparel producers over the past several decades due to increasing numbers of new producers from developing countries and the formation of transnational corporations. Domestically, capital investments have yielded advanced production capabilities and increased efficiencies. As a result, global markets have become saturated and highly competitive. Industry analysts and researchers have indicated that small-size manufacturing firms can remain competitive without moving production offshore.

Small apparel manufacturers (SAMs), those with less than 50 employees, have the ability to provide smaller production runs and make quick turns for market responsiveness. SAMs’ greatest advantage is their proximity to the U.S. market, which eliminates additional costs from trade regulations, extra transportation expenses throughout the distribution channel, and excessive lead-time requirements (Christerson & Appelbaum, 1995). This competitive advantage can be exploited when larger apparel manufacturers use SAMs as contractors or when SAMs directly satisfy domestic demands for high fashion, high quality products. SAMs represented 83 percent of the total number of U.S. apparel manufacturers in 1997 yet a diminutive amount of research has focused on SAMs. Even less information is available when considering research on the adjustments that SAMs have made during the restructuring of the U.S. textile and apparel complex and in response to increased international competition.

This study examined changes SAMs have made in customer service (i.e., customer responsiveness) and operations (i.e., education/training, flexibility in organization, timing, flexibility in technology) functions for a three-year period. The 146 subjects were selected from states where apparel manufacturing (SIC 2310 to 2389) represented at least five percent of the total number of manufacturing employees. In addition to demographic data, the self-administered mail survey included customer service variables identified in Kincade's (1988) study of North Carolina apparel manufacturers and included operations variables identified in Bordogna's (1996) general manufacturing model.

Factor analysis was used to identify similarities among each set of variables. One factor, Customer Service, emerged for customer service variables, and four factors emerged for the operations variables (i.e., Education/Awareness, Flexibility in Organization, Timing, Flexibility Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

in Technology). Findings indicate subjects are making changes that are in alignment with prior research recommendations for capitalizing on competitive advantages. The changes reported indicated an increase in product quality, flexibility in production and management, and a decrease in lengths of production cycles.

References

Bordogna, J. (1996, April). Development of government manufacturing infrastructure strategy. Paper presented at the meeting of the 3rd Annual National Manufacturing Technology Conference, Washington, DC.

Christerson, B., & Appelbaum, R. P. (1995). Global and local subcontracting: Space, ethnicity, and the organization of apparel production. World Development, 23(8), 1363-1374.

Kincade, D. H. (1988). A morphology of quick response strategies for the apparel industry. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Dissertation Information Service.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

The effect of appearance schemas and exposure to attractive media images on mood and body image

Jaehee Jung Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405

Sharron J. Lennon The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210

Attractiveness is often considered one of a woman's most important qualities. Being attractive may be especially important for college women as they pursue serious romantic relationships. When a woman perceives appearance as an area or domain of importance in self-evaluation, she is more likely to process information regarding that domain (e.g., evaluation of physical appearance or assessment of ideal beauty standards) than information about other domains (e.g., sports or politics). Markus (1977) defines a self-schema as a domain of importance in the evaluation of self. This study examined the effects of women's appearance schemas and exposure to attractive media images on mood and body image. We predicted that women who place high importance on appearance would exhibit greater negative mood scores and lower body image scores than those who place low importance on appearance. Also, greater negative mood scores and lower body image scores were predicted for women who are exposed to attractive media images. Thus, women who place high importance on appearance and are exposed to attractive media images were predicted to exhibit the most negative mood and body image scores.

A convenience sample of college women (N = 168; mean age = 21) from two Midwestern universities volunteered and completed two experimental sessions over a two-week period. The data were entered into a 2 (level of appearance schema) by 2 (exposure condition) between subjects design and were analyzed using MANOVA and ANOVAs. Level of appearance schema and exposure condition were the independent variables and measures of mood (i.e., anxiety, depression, and anger) and body image (i.e., body satisfaction, overall appearance satisfaction, appearance evaluation) were the dependent variables.

Appearance self-schema (placing cognitive importance on appearance) was a significant factor in assessments of women's mood and body images, but exposure to media images was not. The expected interaction between appearance schema and exposure condition was not significant. Thus, participants did not compare themselves to media images (as they evaluated mood and body image) or, if they did, it did not significantly affect responses on the dependent variables. This suggests that these college women may be immune to effects of attractive images in the media, which are not only ubiquitous but also impossible to avoid (or control). The fact that appearance self-schema was directly related to negative mood and low body image scores suggests that body image is more "in one's head," subjective, and controllable rather than media-

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

imposed, objective, and uncontrollable. Thus, cognitive therapies may be useful to change the level of importance that one places on appearance.

Reference

Markus, H. (1977). Self-schemata and processing information about the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 63-78.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

NEW YORK CITY APPAREL CONTRACTORS’ USE OF SOCIAL NETWORK RELATIONSHIPS TO IMPROVE THEIR MARKET COMPETENCIES

Melissa Kaan and Suzanne Loker Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850

Surviving the highly competitive apparel marketplace has been difficult for many New York City (NYC) apparel contractors. Increased competition from off-shore producers, demand for increased service offerings by customers, clothing price deflation, and short turnaround time for orders are just some of the issues plaguing contractors.

According to the entrepreneurial literature, small business persons may rely on a social network structure to give and receive information used to achieve organizational objectives. Networks are linked, two-way exchanges that allow for flow of information between actors (Emerson, 1976). For apparel contractors, a network may be comprised of family, friends, other contractors, union representatives, and employees of educational institutions and be used to give and receive information about customers, competition, and industry trends that helps their businesses remain competitive.

This study adapted a social network framework, proposed by Frazier (1999), to investigate apparel contractors’ marketing competencies. Two questions focused the research: Is there a relationship between apparel contractors’ network structures and network interactions and their local (e.g., finding customers) and innovative (e.g., using new technologies) marketing competencies? Will apparel contractors with strong network structures adapt more easily to external influences affecting their businesses?

Based on initial interviews with industry experts conducted in NYC, an instrument was developed, piloted, and used for in-depth interviews with eight apparel contractors. Contractors were selected from the Garment Industry Development Corporation’s sourcing network data base which listed 54 contractors, manufacturers, and suppliers. Eight of the 29 contractors agreed to participate and represented a variety of NYC locations, number of employees, years in business, and products and services.

Interviews were transcribed and analyzed using appropriate qualitative methods. It was found that the number of people and organizations in the contractors’ network structures was a less important influence on the number of local and innovative marketing competencies than the strength of the network relationships contractors formed. Also, the more local and innovative marketing competencies the contractors possessed, the better the contractors were able to adapt to outside influences. Three types of firms were delineated based on the use of marketing competencies: traditional, transitional, and progressive. Progressive firms offered full package Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

production, formed business relationships, had middle managers, and used technology extensively. These firms were most adaptable to external influences and best positioned for successful marketing in the changing apparel industry.

References

Emerson, R. M. (1976). Social exchange theory. Annual Review of Sociology, 2, 335-362.

Frazier, B. (1999, June). Embedded network relationships as a source of competitive advantage for rural retailers. Paper presented at the Snowbird Rural Retailing Conference, Snowbird, UT.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Collaboration on an Exhibit of Sports Apparel

Sara J. Kadolph and Jane Farrell-Beck Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011

Iowa State’s graduate classes in costume/textile history and textile conservation incorporate theory, conceptual framework, basic and advanced principles, research methods, and application. The program also has a long standing working relationship with the University Museums including Farm House, a historic house on campus. The faculty for these classes had developed independent projects dealing with preparing and mounting an exhibit in the university's historic house museum and restoring worn or damaged objects in the University’s costume and textile collection. These two courses are offered the same semester in adjacent time blocks to facilitate concurrent student enrollment in both classes. Faculty further arranged class schedules and major projects so that students could coordinate and dovetail their work for each class.

For textile conservation, students are required to select one object from the historic collection that is in need of some restoration work. They are further required to conduct a careful analysis of the object, photodocument its current condition, research the materials in the object, develop a restoration plan, discuss their plan with the class, and restore the object to the best of their abilities. Students submit a paper describing the object's original condition, materials, options considered, restoration conducted, and evaluation of the effect of their work on the long term survival of the object.

For costume and textile history, students choose one or a related group of objects for dating and documentation. Their work becomes the basis of a short-term exhibit related to the history, use, or time period of Farm House. They develop educational objectives and other efforts related to the exhibit. This includes preparing text for museum labels, planning the layout of the exhibit within the historic house museum, and mounting the exhibit. Those who wish may work as tour guides for the exhibit. The faculty member who teaches conservation orients the historic costume/textiles class to appropriate conservation practices for handling fragile and historic artifacts.

Several students enroll in both classes and most elect to restore the object that they will research and mount for the exhibit. Restoration work usually focuses on repairing seams, supporting worn or damaged areas, cleaning the object, removing wrinkles by humidifying the piece, and selecting an appropriate exhibit method. These students also work as "resident experts" providing advice and making recommendations regarding exhibiting and handling the objects of anyone not enrolled in conservation. Documentation in the history class gives students a clearer understanding of why certain conservation measures are necessary.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Faculty members plan to continue to coordinate these projects between the two classes because students find the practical experience and real-world application of concepts an invaluable and beneficial experience. Students coordinate their out-of-class work between the two classes. The projects dovetail nicely, with students focusing their efforts on one object rather than separate objects for each class. Long term benefits include putting collection objects in better condition, learning more about some objects in the collection, increasing public awareness of the costume and textiles and historic house collections, and using selected pieces to educate and entertain the public.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

DESIGNING A PROTOCOL FOR BODY SCANNING BASED ON CONSUMER INPUT

M. Jo Kallal and Nga Nguyen University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716

Mass customization represents a trend in the product and service sectors that results in designing, developing, and selling products or services to consumers on a one-to-one basis. Customization of apparel may occur through personalization of features, fit, and design. Recent consumer surveys indicate that 62% of consumers cannot find apparel that fits well and that 59% would use body scanning to achieve a good fit (KSA). Although scanning technologies have been under research and development for many years, few American consumers have been scanned. Body scanning refers to the process of acquiring body dimensions using digital, non-contact measurement techniques. Researchers typically specify conventions for body scanning. In contrast, the goal of this study was to identify consumer preferences and concerns relative to the process of body scanning.

This qualitative research project used a focus group approach to gather information related to developing an acceptable, comfortable, and professional protocol for body scanning. Questions focused on scanning procedures and design of the scanning environment. A purposive sample of 28 female subjects aged 18-64 years participated in one of five focus groups conducted by the researchers. Data were transcribed prior to analysis by each researcher.

Results provided input into the design of a scanning environment, scanning process, types of acceptable scanning uniforms, and scanning preparation. Because subjects’ primary concern was to improve fit, securing accurate body scans was their primary goal. They wanted an environment conducive to achieving that goal. Once these requirements were met, they expressed their wants relative to the space design for consultation, changing, and scanning areas. Types of close-fitting garments subjects preferred to wear for scanning would be easy to don and doff and provide a slenderizing appearance. Rather than reading a pamphlet or viewing a video in preparation for scanning, subjects wanted a professional technician to lead them through the scanning process. While many subjects were willing to pay a scanning fee, others recommended that manufacturers and retailers provide incentives for consumers who adopt this method for purchasing apparel. Many subjects were interested in virtual try-on's of apparel, while others were concerned with the lack of tactile and visual stimulus in the virtual setting. Subjects specified types of garment categories that they would purchase using customized fit. Safety issues were related to floor type, as well as the cleanliness of the environment and uniforms. Although the emphasis was on body scanning protocol, subjects interjected other issues. They were concerned with data security and return policies for customized apparel.

The focus group results were used to design an environment, scanning uniforms, and protocol for scanning women in a test environment. Requirements for obtaining accurate scans were met first,

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

including the space design and scanning uniform. Subjects’ responses were then used to prioritize criteria related to (1) the preferred aesthetics of the environment and uniforms and (2) a protocol for introducing consumers to the scanning process and the scanning steps.

Manufacturers and retailers who plan to utilize body scanning technologies should consider consumer preferences and concerns as they develop and execute these in the retail sector. They need to seriously consider data security, as well as issues related to product returns.

Reference

Kurt Salmon Associates. (1999). Consumer outlook(SM) '99: KSA’s annual consumer outlook(SM) survey results. Atlanta: Author.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

GENDER SYMBOLISM: THE CASE OF SWAZI INFANT DRESS

Lombuso S. Khoza Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901

The clothing worn by infants communicates a culture's most fundamental feelings about gender and the principles on which it is organized (Kaiser, 1997). Swazi culture has traditionally preferred androgynous dress for infants. According to this tradition, the Swazi infant is dressed in a string of beads around the waist until the third year of life. Swaziland was the site of investigation for this study of cultural and historical influences of gender coding between birth and three years of age. Interviews were conducted with 32 Swazi mothers from the urban and rural areas of Mbabane, the capital of Swaziland. These mothers included eight from each of the following groups: (1) younger urban, (2) younger rural, (3) older urban, and (4) older rural. The younger mothers' mean age was 24 while the older mothers' mean age was 34.

Among the younger rural respondents, 37.5% used the string while 50% of the older rural mothers used the string for their children. Twenty-five percent of the older urban mothers' infants and 37.5% of the younger urban mothers' infants wore the string. The children stopped wearing the string by age four in both rural and urban samples. Traditionally, the string was made out of natural beads; however, the introduction of manufactured beads replaced natural beads, and ultimately yarn was used instead. The mothers gave the following reasons for dressing their children in the traditional string: (1) to measure the child's growth (i.e., weight loss or gain), (2) to give a "form" or shape to the child's waist, (3) to protect the child from illness or evil spirits, and (4) to carry on family and cultural tradition. The color of the yarn was not a gender-related issue; boys and girls could wear any color. Mothers whose children did not wear the infant string dressed them instead in clothing such as diapers and rompers. They indicated that sales assistants recommended white or yellow when the sex of the unborn child was not known. For mothers who knew the sex of their child, the "western" system of pink for girls and blue for boys was recommended. This system diffuses to Swaziland through chain stores based in South Africa.

Clothing not only mirrors social structure; it also sustains and continually recreates social structure (Kuper, 1986). One function of gender-typed clothing is its role in facilitating gender differentiation from the perspective of those who observe infants. The mothers in this study had a range of interpretations for carrying on the tradition of the androgynous string. The variability in meaning associated with the string points to the ambiguity of clothing symbols—even those that are considered traditional. Those mothers who dressed their children according to the "western" binary gender system noted the influence of media and sales assistants. The traditional structure of society is changing in Swaziland as more women have begun to assume responsibility for the economic needs of the family. Traditional and "western" fashion systems alike are dynamic; together they reflect changing concepts of infant gender in Swazi society.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

References

Kaiser, S. B. (1997). The social psychology of clothing: Symbolic appearances in context (2nd ed. Rev.). New York: Fairchild.

Khoza, L. S. (1992). Gender symbolism of Swazi infant dress. Unpublished masters thesis, University of California, Davis.

Kuper, H. (1986). The Swazi: A South African kingdom (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rhinehart and Winston.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

CELEBRATING CREATIVITY: THE LIFE OF TERESA ZITTER

Laura K. Kidd Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901

Through a series of personal interviews, the experiences of former New York fashion designer, Hungarian-born Teresa von Zircz Zitter, are documented. The interviews provide information and insight into the creative process and drive, the role of creativity and expression in a Nazi concentration camp, and the ingenuity involved in establishing a woman's apparel design company in New York City in the 1960s.

Interview data also illustrate the role a catalyst plays in the creative process. Teresa's catalyst was her mother, Ilona, at times scoffing at her capabilities but more often challenging her creativity. The most amazing example of this occurred during World War II, when Teresa and Ilona were deported to an Austrian concentration camp. They were allowed to take no possessions or clothing, but Ilona managed to take along some bread for the journey, wrapped in a tablecloth. As a posture of decency, Ilona used the tablecloth to set their meager table on Sundays. Fourteen-year-old Teresa begged her mother to let her make a dress from the tablecloth, the only available fabric. Ilona allowed Teresa to use the tablecloth to make a dress, with one stipulation: the cloth could not be cut in any way.

Undaunted, Teresa succeeded in creating what she would later call the "instant dress," a dress formed from a single rectangle of fabric draped around the body in many different ways. This versatile garment would become her trademark design.

After the war, they returned to Hungary. Ilona started a knitworks business, and Teresa continued her fashion studies. Teresa was employed in a number of jobs, including designing theatrical and folk dance costumes for the Hungarian National Theatre. However, as the influence of the Soviet Union increased, the political and business climates deteriorated. Ilona was eager to escape the Soviet regime and move to the United States, and she urged Teresa to come with her. When the Soviets invaded Hungary in 1956, Teresa and Ilona left their homeland during a daring midnight escape through the woods. Airlifted to the United States, they eventually settled in New York City. Ilona opened a dressmaking and alterations shop. Teresa attended the Fashion Institute of Technology and worked for companies such as Simplicity and Vogue. Ilona convinced Teresa to become her business partner, and Ilona Creations was formed. They cut their first collection, six blouses, on a cutting table devised by placing a board on top of the bathtub in their Greenwich Village apartment. The collection immediately sold and soon Ilona Creations expanded to a workroom with 80 employees. Their specialty was cocktail and evening dresses; subsequent designs were even featured in Women's Wear Daily.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Teresa tells of other challenges that faced women entrepreneurs in a male-dominated fashion industry: hassles and intimation by powerful unions, sexual harassment from store buyers, and design piracy. The methods that she and Ilona devised to keep their business profitable attest to their creativity, especially when driven by the pressures of the industry. Teresa left Ilona Creations on the occasion of her third marriage but continued freelancing as a professional lecturer and instructor on such topics as fashion and the "instant dress," the Holocaust, Hungarian gourmet cooking, and the language of flowers. In her seventies, Teresa continues to share her experiences with others and is involved in Steven Spielberg's Shoah project.

She believes that "there is no bad situation in life you can not put humor and beauty and some humanity in it."

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

APPAREL PRODUCT INVOLVEMENT AND AD RESPONSE: A CROSS- CULTURAL STUDY

Hye-Shin Kim, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19702

Byung-Sook Hong and Eun Young Jo

Chung-Ang University, Kyungki-Do, 456-756, South Korea

This study examines consumer interests in apparel (product involvement) and message characteristics in advertisements (ad emotions). We also examine whether the dynamics between product involvement and advertisement response differ among female consumers in two different cultures. We assess how consumers from Korea and the U.S. form attitudes for three multinational brand advertisements: Benetton, Calvin Klein, and Guess. This study observes goal- oriented behavior using product involvement and its impact on ad response using consumer groups from countries that differ in cultural norm and communication patterns.

A convenience sample of 246 female students attending a mid-Atlantic university in the U.S. (N=171) and a metropolitan city university in South Korea (N=75) participated in the study. Students were asked to observe three advertisements (Calvin Klein, Guess, and Benetton) and respond to items measuring emotional response to the ad, attitude toward the ad, and product involvement. Emotional response was measured using items from Batra and Holbrook's (1990) ad response scale. Product involvement was measured using a 16-item scale developed by Laurent and Kapferer (1985). Ad attitude was a single item bipolar statement scale, "I dislike(like) the ad." All items were measured on a 7-point scale.

SPSS 9.0 was used for statistical analysis. Principal axis factoring with oblimin rotation generated three ad emotion dimensions: positive, negative, and activation, accounting for about 50 percent of the explained variance. For each group (U.S. and Korean), items measuring ad emotion dimensions generated reliability scores (Cronbach's alpha) ranging from .66 to .93. Principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation for each group generated three common product involvement dimensions: mispurchase, symbolic, pleasure/interest. For each group, items measuring product involvement dimensions generated Cronbach's alpha ranging from .71 to .91. Items were combined and a single mean score was computed for multi-item variables. GLM (General Linear Models) Repeated Measures procedure was performed to test for advertisement and group effects. GLM procedures were used to derive parameter estimates measuring group, mispurchase, symbolic, pleasure/interest, and interaction effects (group mispurchase, etc.) on each ad emotion dimension.

Although differing levels of product involvement were found between Korean and U.S. consumer group, relationship patterns among product involvement dimensions and ad emotions Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

were similar. There is strong evidence that specific product involvement dimensions indirectly influence ad attitude via ad emotions. Results show advertising processing based on product involvement to be similar between the two cultural groups. Differing levels of product involvement provide support for customized advertisement strategies based on the type of advertisement response intended.

References

Batra, R., & Holbrook, M. B. (1990). Developing a typology of affective responses to advertising. Psychology and Marketing, 7(1), 11-25.

Laurent, G., & Kapferer, J.-N. (1985). Measuring consumer involvement profiles. Journal of Marketing Research, 22, 41-53.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

A COMPARISON OF CONSUMERS’ STORE PATRONAGE BETWEEN SOUTH KOREA AND THE UNITED STATES: SUGGESTIONS FOR THE MARKETING STRATEGY OF SOUTH KOREAN DISCOUNT STORES

Sook-Hyun Kim and Jessie Chen-Yu Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060

Since 1997 the retailing industry of South Korea has suffered a decline in sales due to the nation's financial crisis. Because of the increase of economic consciousness, discount stores have become the stores most attractive to South Korean consumers. Many foreign discount companies such as Wal-Mart have started participating in the South Korean market. However, they have experienced some difficulties in understanding South Korean consumers (Choi, 1998). The purpose of this study were to (1) compare the differences between South Korean and U.S. consumers in demographics, shopping orientation, perception of the importance of store and product attributes, store evaluation, satisfaction, and patronage and (2) examine the relationships between the six variables. In addition, South Korean consumers' preference towards the strategies used in U.S. discount stores was examined to determine whether these strategies could be adapted to South Korean discount stores.

A conceptual model was developed as the framework of the study. The proposed model suggests that consumers' shopping orientation affects their perception of the importance of store and product attributes. Consumers' perception of the importance of attributes affects how they evaluate a store. Consumers' evaluation of the store then influences their satisfaction with the store. If consumers are satisfied with the store, they choose to patronize the store.

A case study was conducted to test the model. Wal-Mart was selected as the target discount store because it has achieved significant success and has a powerful market position domestically and internationally. A total of 234 participants recruited at Wal-Mart were included in this study, 117 from South Korea and 117 from the U.S. A questionnaire was first developed in English and then translated into Korean with a back translation check. Chi-Square, t-test, ANOVA, Factor Analysis, and MANOVA were used for data analysis.

Results showed that there were significant differences between the two countries in participants' occupation, marital status, age, education, the perception of importance of attributes in discount stores, and store evaluation and satisfaction. When the relationships between variables were examined, results showed that, in both countries, shopping orientation was significantly related to the perception of importance of attributes and store evaluation was related to satisfaction. However, the perception of importance of attributes was not significantly related to store evaluation in South Korea, and store satisfaction was not related to store patronage in the U.S. Further studies are needed to examine whether other variables, for example social class or personal influences, play a more important role in determining South Koreans' store evaluation Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

and U.S. customers' store patronage. When South Korean participants' preference toward the strategies used in the U.S. was examined, they showed strong preference on some attributes, such as mailing flyers, credit card usage, and community involvement.

Reference

Choi, J.-G. (1998). The eye of the typhoon. Discount Merchandiser, 3(8), 24-26.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Case Study With Real World Flavor

Tammy R. Kinley University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203

The use of case study in academic courses has a long history with varying degrees of success. It can be a great tool for applying theory and past experience to creative problem solving in a rapidly changing business environment. Choosing appropriate cases for a particular class or particular concept can be a daunting task because there are so many retailing casebooks available today. Selecting cases for graduate level work is an added challenge; the case should be straight- forward enough to thoroughly address the relevant theory in question yet be complex enough to warrant the higher level of thought and application expected of graduate students. In my search for appropriate case studies for a graduate class, the problem I encountered was finding cases that were appropriately in-depth yet presented a situation that was of current concern. Many of the more lengthy cases I considered were out of date by the time my class began.

One answer for my class was to bring the current retail environment into my class. I started with our department’s Board of Governors. I wrote letters to several members explaining the objectives of my class and asked them to help me develop some cases that involved problems they are dealing with that lend themselves to creative solution. One such case was with a national bookseller.

The process began over coffee. In a casual setting, the regional manager for the area where my University is located shared a challenge one of her stores is facing. In this case, the marketing channels and programs that have had historical success for this company were not working with the particular store in question. The objective of the case then became creative problem solving on the part of graduate students with a myriad of business backgrounds and practical experience.

The more innovative aspect of this case is the use of technology. The case study course was taught via the World Wide Web. Students were given four days to contribute ideas and react to the thoughts of classmates through forum discussion. The regional manager who helped develop the case was also given class privileges during those four days; she had the freedom to "listen in" and contribute her own feedback during the discussion. Following the four days of forum postings, a live chat with the regional manager enabled real-time feedback and discussion between graduate students and the company facing the challenge at hand.

The great aspect of this project is that no one is time or place bound. The regional manager could contribute and participate from her office in a nearby town; she did not have to conform to the academic system of class meeting in a particular place or time. Even if this course was a resident course, the use of "live" case studies is still very practical for any university with interactive computer capability. Involving industry in higher education is a win-win situation: industry gets

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

the advantage of team input and the students get the advantage of working through the problem- solving process of a real business entity in a relatively short period of time.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

A COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF SOIL REMOVAL

Young-ah Kwon, Silla University, Pusan, Korea Sara J. Kadolph, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011 Sherry Schofield-Tomschin, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, VA 24061

The appearance of textile products is a major criteria used in evaluating the efficacy of the laundering and stain removal process. Optical measurement systems used in judging effectiveness of soil removal include visual comparison with standards (human eye assessment) and color measurement using an instrument. This project addressed the fundamental assumption that results from the instrumental assessment method will be similar to those using the trained eye.

We worked with samples of all-cotton and cotton/polyester blend fabrics soiled with nine soils and laundered under five laundering conditions. We used three replicas for each soil/fabric/laundry condition combination and unsoiled control samples. We evaluated samples using a colorimeter and visual analysis by six trained evaluators operating independently who rated white retention by comparing color difference of soiled/laundered and the unsoiled/laundered fabrics using the Gray Scale for Staining. We used the difference in strength between control and washed samples using CIE tristimulus Y values as reflectance factors. We used Kulbelka-Munk values (K/S values) to calculate the soil removal rate between unsoiled control and soiled specimens. We identified the color of each sample using CIELAB, tristimulus values (XYZ), CMC, ASTM E 313 whiteness, and ASTM E 313 yellowness formulas. We calculated color difference ( E) for each formula between the control and each laundered specimen to identify stain color remaining. We used Pearson’s correlation analysis and regression analysis to evaluate the relationship between visual rates for each sample and color values calculated, using the formulas listed above.

Although a factor in soil removal, fiber content was not significant in terms of the assessment methods. We found significant differences among the nine stains using both methods of evaluation. Gravy, spaghetti sauce, and cocoa mix showed good whiteness values after one wash, but the other stains did not. There was good correlation between the various formulas for identifying color and the visual ratings. Higher gray scale numbers (whiter fabrics) corresponded to low color difference values and low yellowness indices.  EXYZ had the highest significant correlation coefficient while Yellow Index had the lowest significant correlation coefficient. However, all correlation coefficients between all color values and visual assessment were highly significant. We also developed linear models to estimate the gray scale rates for staining according to the color values used. Results from regression analysis identified that we can estimate gray scale values in a reliable way using instrumental measurements.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Standard instrumental evaluation closely matches that of the human eye. Thus, visual assessment of soil removal is a reliable and valid method. Since consumers are the final determinant of acceptable soil removal, our results provide support for researchers’ reliance on instrumental analysis. Depending on research needs and resource availability, either human eye or instrumental analysis will produce valid and reliable results. Our results also mean that, if one has gray scale results, one can estimate instrumental results or vice versa depending on needs. Since the detergent and washing machine industries often use yellowness values and the textile industry often uses visual assessment, XYZ values, or CIELAB values, it is possible to estimate results from one constituency group to another whenever the need arises.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Modeling Determinants of Internet Shopping

Kyoung-Nan Kwon and Ann Fairhurst University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996

Although the actual proportion of retail trade through the Internet is currently considered to be relatively small, Internet shopping is growing exponentially. Low prices, convenience, efficiency of comparison shopping, and psychological pleasure are among the stated benefits of Internet shopping (Kunz, 1997). On the other hand, there are significant barriers to Internet shopping centered on consumer perception of risk such as the security of the payment transactions and privacy issues. Research attention to Internet shopping is beginning to grow along with its commercial expansion. However, to date, there is little research describing the comprehensive picture of consumer Internet shopping. The purpose of this study is to identify determinants and mediators that lead to actual consumer purchasing on the Internet.

Data for the study were provided by the Georgia Institute of Technology Graphics Visualization and Usability (GVU) Center’s 10th WWW User Survey. Of 645 participants, responses from 617 subjects who completed the survey were included in the analyses. Exploratory factor analysis identified three components as determinants of Internet shopping: Security, Transaction Ease (TE), and Shopping Attributes (SA). Security refers to the reliability of Internet retailers and protection of sensitive consumer information such as credit card numbers and personal information. TE indicates ease of ordering and payment. SA includes low price, variety of merchandise, and consumers’ satisfaction with being on the cutting edge. We examined the relationship between these three determinants and actual Internet purchases measured through purchase frequency and spending with structural equation modeling (SEM). Relationships were also considered with the introduction of two mediating variables into the model: Use of Security Aids and Information Seeking.

The SEM results indicate that all the three components have an impact on Internet Purchase. Security has negative impact on Purchase, as expected. However, interestingly, Security seems to have a positive relationship with Purchase when Security Aids are provided such as encrypts, email, and setting separate accounts off-line. The mediating relationship is only found with Security, not with TE and SA. TE, which is considered to be an inherent benefit of Internet shopping, has a positive effect on Purchase. The relationship of SA with Purchase is mediated by Information Seeking behavior. Those who consider SA important are more likely to engage in information search, which leads to final purchase. The mediating effect of Information Seeking was not found with Security or TE.

The current study reveals that different determinants of Internet shopping are related to actual purchase by different mediating factors. The results generate important implications for Internet retailers. Our results indicate that the negative effect of security concerns on Internet purchasing

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

can be countered through the provision of security aids. Further, consumers who consider low price and product variety as important shopping criteria tend to engage in more extensive information search. Internet retailers can attract and serve these consumers by providing information aids, reducing irrelevant information, and improving information organization.

Reference

Kunz, M. (1997). On-line customers: Identifying store, product and consumer attributes which influence shopping on the Internet. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, the University of Tennessee, Knoxville.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

THE DESIGN INSTITUTE: AN EXPERIMENT IN INTERDISCIPLINARY DESIGN AT A MAJOR RESEARCH UNIVERSITY

Karen LaBat and Elizabeth K. Bye University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108

The tendency for design programs and faculty at large universities is to be isolated, with very little communication or collaboration among units. Faculty at the University of Minnesota changed the usual mode of operation by forming the Design Affinity Group in 1996. The "group" of faculty from many design disciplines, including clothing design, interior design, architecture, landscape architecture, graphic design, mechanical engineering, and human factors, met to learn what they had in common and how to cooperate in improving teaching and curriculum in all design programs. Discussions fostered understanding and respect for all areas of design and led to new enthusiasm for increased interdisciplinary projects. Early successful collaborations caught the attention of the president of the university who worked with the group of faculty to develop a more formal structure called The Design Institute.

The Design Institute is an alliance of university faculty, staff, and students plus design professionals and community members interested in interdisciplinary design collaboration. It is a free-standing unit within the university, affiliated with six colleges: Human Ecology, Architecture and Landscape Architecture, Education and Human Development, the Institute of Public Affairs, the Institute of Technology, and Liberal Arts. The Institute is now funded directly from the state legislature. Faculty develop project proposals to secure funds from the institute. The projects that have had the most direct effect on teaching and curriculum are the development of a core design course and the implementation of a design minor. The core course, "Introduction to Design Thinking," was developed by faculty from each of the design areas and educates lower division students about the foundations that all of the design disciplines share. The design minor is open to all undergraduates and is intended for students not majoring in a design field. It is not a substitute for entering a professional design field. Students have a wide array of courses to chose from and are required to take the Design Thinking course and the Design Minor Seminar. The new design course and minor have increased the visibility of all of the design majors across the campus and have enlivened exchanges about teaching design.

Through the Design Institute faculty and students in the Clothing Design Program have opportunities to interact with others, modeling what is happening in industry. A university-wide student design competition attracted entries from all programs. A clothing design major won an award for a garment designed to meet the needs of a person with limited vision. Clothing Design faculty served as judges for a mechanical engineering product show. Clothing Design faculty spoke at the Design Institute Design Summit that attracted prominent figures in all areas of design. The Human Factors lab on campus is now a resource for teaching and research projects. Faculty across campus collaborated on the planning and implementation of a design camp for

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

high school students that was developed to present a broad, integrative view of the design field. The camp director is on the apparel faculty with other planning members from graphic design, architecture, housing, interior design, and mechanical engineering. This collaboration promoted design programs at the university and was a rich source for sharing ideas about teaching design.

This experiment in connecting design disciplines across a very large campus can serve as a model for other universities striving to provide excellence in design education.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

SUPPORTING STUDENT GROWTH IN A TEXTILES COURSE

Jane M. Lamb University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716

Challenge

During a teaching career spanning 30 years, I have observed undergraduates’ distress with the study of textiles. Too often, the textile course(s) required for fashion merchandising or design students appear to them as an obstacle to be avoided as long as possible in their degree programs. Since 1997, changing department resources led me to revisit textiles education after a decade of teaching other courses. This abstract presents an approach that I refined while teaching two courses with four different groups during Spring 1997, Fall 1998, and Fall 1999 semesters. Ranging in size from 18 to 50 students, each class met twice a week for 75 minutes in a lecture classroom.

Goals

Beyond specific course objectives, I set several goals to accomplish with each class: instill a sense of continuing discovery and enthusiasm for textiles, incorporate active learning strategies in every class session, give continuous feedback about students’ progress, and provide opportunities for self-reflection in the learning process.

Methods

Unlike the chemistry prerequisites, my course integrates lectures, discussions, and lab activities in each class session. We use minute papers, brainstorming, discussion, hands-on exercises, group reports, quizzes, and other class activities to foster understanding among all learners. Outside assignments, self-assessments, exams, and weekly email messages from me also keep students motivated and involved. In Fall 1999 there were three exams, seven quizzes, nine exercises, four outside assignments, and five self-assessments that contributed to students’ course grades.

Exercises that had to be completed in class stimulated regular attendance. These one-page worksheets directed students to use swatch kits and textbook to answer questions posed in tabular form. Students could work alone or in groups, and I circulated among them to provide assistance as needed.

Inclusion of reflective writing throughout the course encouraged students to monitor their own learning. An introductory questionnaire detected their interests, experience, and sense of preparation for studying textiles. In the next week, they had to take and respond to a learning Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

style inventory, telling me how their results would guide their study in my course. Periodically, reports using outside resources had to show reflection about each assignment as a learning experience. Exams provided opportunities for reflection in short essays. After each exam had been graded, students completed open-ended questionnaires about their study habits, preparation, and performance on the exam.

Results

By the end of the semester, students had not only accomplished course objectives but were ready and willing to keep learning about textiles. Several even wrote thank you messages on their final exams!

Plans

I will be teaching textiles again this fall. A campus technology grant is helping me to develop additional supports for students. I hope to reduce the amount of paperwork I handle without sacrificing the insight it yielded for students and me.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

BODY IMAGE AND TV SHOPPING CHANNEL EXPOSURE AMONG TELEVISION SHOPPERS

Seung-Hee Lee University of Ulsan, Korea

Nancy A. Rudd and Sharron J. Lennon The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationships among television shoppers with respect to body image, self-esteem, binge eating, and television shopping channel exposure. Questionnaires were sent to a national sample of 1000 female U.S. television shoppers. Descriptive statistics and regression analyses were performed. As a result, the average respondent was 56 years old, the median age was 58, and about 75% of respondents were 50 or older. The average respondent weighted 169 pounds; 89.5% of the shoppers had purchased apparel via television. About 65% of respondents wore size 14 or larger, so-called large sizes. Based on Body Mass Index (BMI), 68% of respondents were also overweight while 29% were normal weight and 4% were underweight. Out of five hypotheses, four were supported. Self- esteem was positively related to body image; television shopping channel exposure was negatively related to body image; binge-eating tendencies were negatively related to body image; and binge-eating tendencies were negatively related to self-esteem. Results of this study suggest some strategies for coping with a negative body image and strategies to strengthen aspects of self-esteem among television shoppers.

Page 1 of 1

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

"ERASE YOUR UGLY WRINKLES": AN ANALYSIS OF MAGAZINE ADVERTISEMENTS FOR PRODUCTS AIMED AT CONTROLLING AGING PROCESS

Yoon-Jung Lee and Cynthia R. Jasper University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706

As the baby boomers grow older, a number of products managing signs of aging in appearance are being produced and advertised which are targeted to this segment of consumers (Thomas, 2000). To some extent, the proliferation of products to control aging may provide hope of acquiring an "ageless look." On the other hand, it may also promote negative images of aging as well as stereotypes associated with aging (Watts, 1999). Analyzing aging control products and their ads are expected to help in understanding the social images of aging.

This study investigated the content of advertisements for products aimed at aging control in two popular women’s interest magazines, Ladies’ Home Journal and Redbook, from 1950 to 1999. This investigation aimed to understand how women’s aging appearance has been described in the ads, what types of products have been provided as remedies to aging, and how these trends have changed over the last five decades. A sample of 40 issues of the two periodicals was drawn using a stratified sampling method. From the issues selected, all the texts included in the ads for products aimed at managing appearance were typed or scanned into a word-processing program and then were examined to find any mention of "aging" or "youthfulness." The results of this search were analyzed using computerized qualitative analysis software, NUD*IST Version 4.0.

Over this 50-year span, the proportion of ads for aging control products to ads for total appearance management products shows that more aging control products were featured during the 1960s and the 1990s, the periods in which women’s fashion emphasized the value of youthfulness, than were featured during other period. For the products that referred to aging, the problem areas were identifiable. In particular, facial skin (n=113, 57.95%), hair texture and color (n=51, 26.15%), body shape or posture (n=21, 10.77%), and styles of clothes or shoes (n=10, 5.13%) were the areas of greatest concern.

The negative perception of aging was discernible in the stark contrast between the adjectives these ads use to describe young and aged appearances. The features of the aging body (i.e., gray or faded hair that lacks body and radiance, dry and wrinkled skin, fat around waist and hip, and crooked posture) are described as being dull and lifeless. In comparison, young bodies are described as being fresh, healthy, vital, shiny, and full of life. The products advertised allegedly "enliven" and "vitalize" the aging body, which is supposedly "dying."

These ads for aging control products relied on consumers’ "scientism" (Watts, 1999) and promised the consumers an effective yet quick and easy method of attaining a young look, which

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

is sometimes equated to "naturalness" and "perfection," in order to encourage them to continually use these products. Although these aging control products supposedly serve the needs of the consumers, considering the negative portrayal of the appearance of aging and the frequent association of signs of aging with fears and embarrassments in an effort to sell these products, the negative impact of these ads on consumers’ quality of life may be substantial.

References

Thomas, B. (2000, Jan 21). Do I look older?: Baby boomers are getting, um, more mature. The generation is now chasing the fountain of youth with "cosmeceuticals." The Los Angeles Times.

Watts, G. (1999, July 10). Hey, good-looking. New Scientists, 163(2194), 50-51.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

ACCEPTANCE OF MASS CUSTOMIZATION OF APPAREL: MERCHANDISING ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH PREFERENCE FOR PRODUCT, PROCESS, AND PLACE

Seung-Eun Lee, Grace I. Kunz, Ann Marie Fiore, and J. R. Campbell Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011

The purpose of this study was to examine apparel merchandising issues associated with mass customization from the perspective of college students. Discussion of review of literature by the research team resulted in identification of three factors: (1) product (product types and features that consumers preferred to customize), (2) process (consumer preferences for interaction between humans and technology for body scanning and co-design), and (3) place (preferred shopping outlets where body scanning and co-design could be possible). For this study, Glock and Kunz’s (2000) model of Behavioral Theory of the Apparel Firm (BTAF) provided the conceptual framework for understanding the role of merchandisers and their customers in the mass customization process. A questionnaire was developed related to product, place, and process. It was pre-tested, revised, and administered to a convenience sample of 131 college students. Statistical analyses included within-subject ANOVA, Bonferroni multiple comparisons, t-test, and descriptive statistics.

Results showed that the subjects have greater interests in customizing jeans than other product types. Customizing product fit to one’s body shape was a high priority. Results also indicated that subjects want to customize different product features depending on product types.

Subjects identified preferred customizing processes. They were more likely to use body scanning with trained sales persons, wearing their underwear or street clothes, and spending 6 to 10 minutes for that process. They also preferred that body measurement information be stored in a central database to be used by any company that could potentially create custom garments for them. Subjects were more likely to use co-design with specialized sales persons who are experienced with fashion design lending suggestions for appropriate selections. To enhance their ability to make decisions related to style during the co-design process, they preferred to use ready-to-wear samples to try on or computer images showing the customized product design on a photograph of their own body. For designing fabric as part of customizing the product, they preferred having a computer system that would let them create their own surface designs.

Subjects were interested in both body scanning and co-design. The willingness to use body scanning was positively correlated with the willingness to use co-design; therefore, subjects who had more willingness for body scanning also had more willingness to co-design. However, subjects had significantly more willingness to use body scanning than to use co-design.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Subjects also identified their preferred place for the customizing process. For both body scanning and co-design processes, they most preferred to go to a local specialty store and least preferred to go to a local discount store. For co-design, they also preferred to go to a regional mall.

These results suggested successful mass customization of apparel at retail is dependent on identification of appropriate dimensions of product, place, and process. The implications address merchandising issues, particularly reduction of uncertainty related to assortment and volume error.

Reference

Glock, R. E., & Kunz, G. I. (2000). Apparel manufacturing: Sewn product analysis (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

GLOBAL MARKET ASSESSMENT FOR WOMEN'S APPAREL: CROSS-NATIONAL COMPARISON OF AMERICAN AND KOREAN CONSUMERS

Sookja Lim and Yoon Yang, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, South Korea Seung-Hee Lee, University of Ulsan, Ulsan, South Korea Chensoon A. Song, University of Incheon, Inchon, South Korea Sharron Lennon, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210

The purpose of this research is to compare American Korean consumers’ perceptions or evaluations of women’s formal wear and casual wear. Two hundred American and 201 Korean college women were participated. For this study, eight women’s apparel pictures (four Korean; four U.S.), analyzed fashion trends (Spring ’99) simultaneously in U.S. and Korean apparel markets, were developed. These stimuli included formal and casual wear and were controlled not to reveal the clothing’s country-of-origin. Based on previous research, the questionnaire was modified including classifications, attitudes or evaluations, and feelings toward each picture, using 5-point unipolar scales. Subjects were shown the apparel pictures, responding to the questionnaire. For data analysis, descriptive statistics, x^2-test, t-test, Pearson’s correlation, and multiple regression were used. Results revealed that two groups classified the products differently; Americans perceived formal wear products as semi-formal wear or formal wear while all Koreans classified them as formal wear. However, there was not a statistically difference in the perception of casual wear among both groups. Also, there were statistically differences in evaluation of the products in both groups. That is, in general, compared to Korean subjects, Americans rated Korean formal wear as more fashionable, attractive, stylish and having higher quality than U.S. formal wear, indicating they were more likely to purchase it. On the other hand, compared to U.S. subjects, Koreans rated U.S. casual wear as more liked, purchased, comfortable, and appealing than Korean casual wear. Regarding clothing image of each picture, there was a statistically difference in both groups. From the regression analysis, intent to purchase was positively related to the products’ fashionability, comfort, quality, and preference.

Page 1 of 1

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

An innovative technique for teaching fashion illustration and apparel cad

Shu-Hwa Lin North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707

There are a good number of students in the Textiles and Apparel program who are afraid to draw figures and fashion styles. It is extremely important for design and merchandising students to be prepared in basic drawing fashion style concepts and skills for the apparel design, production, or merchandising workplace upon graduation. To help students overcome their fright of drawing and bring confidence back is the key to success. Fashion Illustration gives Textiles and Apparel majors the ability to translate ideas into two-dimensional graphics as communication tools. It further enhances the student's ability to comprehend the impact of textiles in the fashion industry. Fashion Illustration and Apparel Computer-Aided Design (CAD) courses were taught in the fall and spring.

The Fashion Illustration course involves the study of form, line, balance, tone, shade, value, and pattern with reference to the human figure and its costume. The objective of fashion illustration is to let students be able to recognize and document the human figure and its relationship to a variety of apparel; identify and graphically demonstrate a comprehension of specific garments and their properties; understand the process of applying watercolor to represent fiber and texture; and apply selected graphic techniques to a final series of five fashion compositions.

In the fashion illustration course, assignments of body figure included hands, feet and face; these were demonstrated and combined with methodology of Tate and Edwards (1996) with tutorials developed by the instructor. A lined grid system was introduced to draw a fashion figure. Photo/magazine pictures were used to simulate and finish all elements of drawing assignments in hands, feet, and face. The purpose of photo pictures was to give students a detailed guideline and help with reading the picture in order to draw.

Students brought photos or magazine pictures in appropriate sizes for class assignments, such as 4 x 6 inches for face projects, and 3 x 6 inches for whole figure projects. A face picture from any magazine or book was selected, and students cut the face in half and drew the other half of the face. Five pictures with figures in motion, selected from magazine or photobooks, were used to create their five basic pose croquis. Once a croquis was finished, students used layers to design clothing and render fabric and texture. Students were evaluated on the quality of the final portfolio, including about 10 individual items and overall presentation. For consistent technique, Apparel CAD was used with digital photo pictures. The Micrograph iDesigner program was used in the Apparel CAD, not only because it is affordable but because it increases students' job marketing skills to use the same knowledge to connect to the Gerber Apparel Production Data Management System (PDM) without transformation technique problems. The main objective of the Apparel CAD course was to (1) design graphics, (2) learn drawing of closed and opened

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

objects, (3) render fabric and texture, and (4) familiarize students with editing, retrieving, saving, importing, and exporting commands.

Powerpoint was used to present objectives, requirements, and evaluations. The editing process was demonstrated by using an LCD panel. The first project required that students create 10 fabric print designs. Using the layer capacity of iDesigner, it was possible to have the previous teaching framework present while creating or drawing fabric designs. In the second assignment, croquis created in the previous semester were transformed in the computer files. Ten CAD printed fabric designs, croquis, rendering clothing designs, and individual garment component designs were included in the student's portfolio for final evaluation. Courses were taught with 12 to 18 students. The response to the portfolio has been very positive.

Reference

Tate, S. L., & Edwards, M. S. (1996). The complete book of fashion illustration (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

THE OPTIMAL USE OF APPAREL CONTRACTING

Shu-Hwa Lin, North Carolina Central University, Durham NC 27707 Doris Kincade, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg VA 24061 Mary Ann Moore, Florida State University, Tallahassee FL 32306

Contracting has been defined as outsourcing for part or all of a firm’s input supplies. Planning effective contracting management for apparel manufacturing is an important means of coping with a changing business environment and may help companies achieve a competitive advantage or maintain an already prominent position. High labor cost and other challenges (i.e., global competition, market performance evaluation) have forced the US apparel industry to adjust the management of its contracting operations. For the many US firms that procure inputs by sourcing as well as by internal production, the decision of make or buy is an important part of the production plan. The purpose of this study is to analyze the problems faced by firms that contract offshore or onshore production.

The objectives of this study were (1) to explore configurations of contracting management in the US apparel industry and (2) to examine the relationship between contracting method (i.e., onshore, offshore) and the variables of contract manufacturing operations (i.e., cut/assembly, whole garment, parts), delivery systems (i.e., ground, sea, air), and reasons for contracting. This study also examined contracting problems including product quality, communication, delivery time, and transportation cost. The research database was complied from a mail questionnaire sent to production managers/engineers or operation managers of 450 apparel companies. The survey mailing list was compiled by randomly drawing from four industry groups’ membership: American Apparel Manufacturers Association, WWD Supplier’s Guide, American Big Business Directory, and American Apparel Contractors Association. The adjusted sample size was 363, because 87 firms were determined to be inappropriate or were unwilling to be involved. The database consisted of 59 firms who were using contracts among the 108 responding firms. Descriptive statistics, Spearman Correlation, and discriminant analysis were used for data analysis.

Thirty-six of the fifty-nine plants (53.6%) that reported using apparel contractors used both onshore and offshore contractors. Onshore contractors only were utilized by almost 34% (n=20) of the respondents using contractors. Three plants (5.1%) reported using only offshore contractors. Contract manufacturing operations included cutting/assembly (n=34), finish whole garment (n=41), and parts operations (n=2). Delivery systems included ground transportation (n=48), air (n=15), and sea (n=30). Problems of contracting were found, such as quality (n=20), delivery time (n=31), and communication (n=13). About 27.1% of contracting respondents (n=16) reported no problems in their contracting operation. Reasons for contracting included domestic wages too high (n=31) and shortage of operator and equipment (n=21, n=3, respectively).

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Significant correlations were found between contracting method and (1) contract operations, (2) delivery systems, (3) problems of contracting, and (4) reasons for contracting. A discriminant analysis was used to test Multivariate statistic analysis, and Pillai’s Trace was used because of the sample size. Results of Pillai’s Trace indicated that contracting methods and product delivery systems were significantly related (p<0.0001). Also, results of Pillai’s Trace indicated that contracting methods and reasons for contracting were significantly related (p<0.005). This research has provided empirical evidence that illustrates the fit between all and part contracting for contracting operation. Problems of contracting offer insight for production planning. This research contributes to the knowledge of contracting strategies and operation planning in the U.S. apparel industry.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

BUSINESS ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN TEXTILES AND APPAREL

Mary A. Littrell, Nancy J. Miller, Mary Gregoire, Mary Winter, and Betsy Chew Iowa State University; Ames, IA 50011

LuAnn Gaskill Virginia Tech University, Blacksburg, VA 24060

Background

A major in textiles and apparel can provide numerous opportunities for business entrepreneurship centered around a variety of specialized products and services, including apparel retail, custom apparel design, tourism/craft retail, bridal services, and apparel product development. Many of these businesses are family-owned, with a sub-set operating out of the home. Family and home-based businesses exhibit a unique set of characteristics and problems centered around issues related to the co-mingling of time and human resources between the business and the family. Issues of intrusion of the business into family life become important in family businesses, as does the fit between the family’s style and business demands. In addition to family ownership, many textiles and apparel entrepreneurial ventures are initiated by women. Balancing motivations related to profit and personal fulfillment and operating from a collaborative management style are unique to these businesses.

Purpose

In conjunction with faculty colleagues in the Department of Hotel, Restaurant, and Institution Management and the Department of Human Development and Family Studies, we developed a college-wide entrepreneurship course that integrated the product and service knowledge central to Family and Consumer Sciences-related businesses; the body of research on family business, home-based business, small apparel business, and rural retailing; and issues of particular concern to women-owned businesses.

Course Organization

The 3-credit course was offered one evening a week in order to attract speakers to the course as well as to encourage student enrollment from diverse majors within the college. Each class period was organized around a topic for which one of six team members led the discussion of assigned readings and guided the students through case studies related to business initiation, growth, and failure. During the second half of the class session, entrepreneurs were invited to address the evening’s topic in relation to their businesses. Lively discussions of family conflicts and trade-offs highlighted both the opportunities and stresses that business ownership places on the family. Finally, students composed weekly, 1-page reaction papers in which they integrated the class discussion and readings with what they heard from the entrepreneurs. A one-day field Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

trip took students to meet on-site with area entrepreneurial business owners. In each of the two major assignments (a profile paper and a feasibility analysis for a projected business), students were asked to consider a variety of issues of particular concern for family or home-based businesses, including the interplay between family and business demands, sharing of space, management of family conflicts, trade-offs between family and business, and family/household resources and limitations in relation to the business.

Evaluation

Students’ interest in a focused entrepreneurship course related to their majors was strong; the class filled early in the registration period. Students evaluated the guest speakers as realistically presenting both the excitement as well as the challenges of business entrepreneurship. Students found the weekly reactions to be challenging as they were asked to read research articles, despite their limited research background. Yet, many rose to the occasion in effectively integrating research with the practical business strategies offered by the speakers.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

MENTORING ARTISAN ENTREPRENEURS FOR THE GLOBAL MARKET

Mary A. Littrell, Norma J. Wolff, and Virginia Blackburn Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011

Background

Artisans in many less developed countries find initiating a textile craft business to be attractive. Start-up capital is minimal; production can be meshed with household and agricultural responsibilities; little formal education is required; and raw materials are often readily available. Despite these positive features, few artisans move beyond local clients to enter national and international markets. Yet, artisan entrepreneurs set such goals due to declining local patronage and the urgent need for generating income from their craft. The purpose of this research was to document and analyze challenges faced by Ghanaian artisan entrepreneurs who have successfully developed national and international markets for their products. The research outcomes were twofold in (1) contributing to scholarship on small business life cycles and (2) proposing guidelines for mentoring of future artisan entrepreneurs.

Method

The research was both deductive and inductive in approach. Hypotheses concerning marketing, management, and finance challenges were assessed deductively based on models of small business life cycles. However, the researchers also attended to challenges emerging from the data that could be applied inductively for revising the models as pertinent to artisan entrepreneurs. This research drew on field interviews, observations, and video documentation in Ghana with 14 purposively selected artisan entrepreneurs who had been mentored by Aid to Artisans Ghana (ATAG) toward involvement in national and international trade, the ATAG director and five field staff, and the CEO of a major exporting firm. Seven entrepreneurs worked in fiber- or apparel-related media, including textile printing and dyeing, bead production, and basketry; the remaining seven worked in other media of wood, clay, and brass. The sample allowed for comparison between textile-related and non-textile entrepreneurs.

Results

A variety of salient features emerged from the artisan entrepreneurs whose firms were in the early or later growth stages in producing for the volatile U.S. housewares and apparel markets. For all firms, growth occurred quickly; dramatic increases in sales from one year to the next led to challenges for production planning and work flow. Business goals centered on increasing sales but also encompassed "bringing others along" through between-group business mentoring. Raw material challenges were linked with seasonal availability of grasses and clay, inconsistent dyes, environmentally endangered woods, and recycling of bottles for bead production. Concerns Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

about pirating of designs led to development of new technologies such as in-house carving of foam blocks for fabric printing. Insufficient availability of skilled artisans across all media called for extensive on-site training and led to innovation of simplified machinery. Uneven production cycles across the year contributed to cash flow problems and difficulties in worker retention. Some entrepreneurs diversified product lines from apparel to corporate furnishings, jewelry to houseware decorations, and pottery to roof tiles. Few differences emerged between textile- related and non-textile entrepreneurs.

Conclusions

Findings supported hypotheses that cash flow, inventory control, and managerial organization became increasingly problematic across growth stages. The hypothesized declining importance of market analysis across stages was not supported among these artisan entrepreneurs operating in markets with rapid fashion change. Revisions to the models included addressing product diversification during early rather than later growth stages. A second revision involved the greater attention to product development and artisan training in the early growth period in order for firms to achieve sustainability toward the later growth stage.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

INTENSIVE WRITING COURSES: DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING GUIDELINES

Nora M. MacDonald West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506

All students at West Virginia University are required to take one intensive writing course beyond English 1 and 2. The primary purpose of this effort was to develop a guideline to assist students with their written assignments in an intensive writing course within the Textiles, Apparel, and Merchandising program. A Creative Problem-Solving approach is used to address a functional apparel issue. Students conduct an actual project in which they identify a topic, review pertinent literature, execute the project, and write a paper. At the end of the semester, they present their project orally.

Specific objectives of this learning tool are (1) to develop a guideline using the required format; (2) to list and describe specific sections to be included in the paper; and (3) to facilitate understanding of the written elements so students can concentrate on the Creative Problem- Solving component of their term project. A nine-page guide using the American Psychological Association (APA) format was developed. It includes title page, introduction, review of literature, procedure, findings, discussion, recommendations, references, and appendices. A narrative form is used to discuss content that is to be included in each section. It also covers the course policy on plagiarism and basic English guidelines used in a technical paper. A minimum of one draft, which is reviewed by the professor, is required for all written assignments. For some sections, two drafts are submitted. Peer review is used on selected sections at a preliminary stage and prior to final submission. Evaluation forms are disseminated in advance to inform students of the criteria and weights assigned.

The writing guideline has increased the level of understanding by students of the paper sections, what is to be covered, writing guidelines for a technical paper, and APA format. Student apprehension about writing a formal paper has decreased. The writing guide concept has been adapted to written assignments in other courses. This has helped students become familiar with APA format and basic expectations related to writing in lower level courses. The guide continues to be updated as students indicate a need for clarification of format issues or content concepts.

Page 1 of 1

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Rural Consumer Attitudes and Practices Toward Use of the Internet to Buy Goods and Services

Linda L. Manikowske and Holly E. Bastow-Shoop North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58105

Justification

The current rural marketplace includes expanded competition for local retailers due to rural location of discount giants such as Wal-Mart, outshopping in regional and outlet malls, and increasing availability of mail-order retailing and TV-shopping networks. Retail outlets in rural communities have been forced to close as rural populations have declined. Rural consumers now have fewer local options for acquiring goods and services. Electronic shopping using interactive TV or a personal computer with Internet access is currently developing and is expected to become a commonplace occurrence over the next five years to ten years.

Objectives

The objectives of this research were to (1) measure the actual availability and consumers' perceived availability of technology for electronic acquisition of goods, (2) determine technological mechanisms of acquiring goods actually being used by rural North Dakota consumers, and (3) ascertain rural consumers' attitudes and satisfaction toward current and potential use of alternative distribution modes to acquire goods.

Methods

Data were gathered in two stages. Separate focus group interviews were conducted in two rural communities. Themes and categories emerging from the focus group data were used to develop a questionnaire for a survey of a larger, more representative sample. We randomly selected 11 rural communities with a population of 2,500 or less, located outside Standard Metropolitan Areas (SMA). One thousand consumers were then selected from these communities using random phone book sampling. Data were analyzed using quantitative statistical procedures.

Findings

Useable questionnaires were returned from 404 subjects. The sample was characterized as follows: 25% were male, 75% were female; age ranged from 20 to 93 years; 28% had a high school education, 35% had some college, and 15% had a college degree. Forty-one percent of respondents had no access to the Internet. Of those who did use the Internet, 35% used it for information and research, 15% for entertainment, while only 7% used it for buying goods. Fifty- six percent considered it unlikely that they would use the Internet to buy goods in the next two Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

years. Pearson's correlations indicated that, the higher the level of education and the higher the level of income, the more likely consumers will be to search for information or purchase products on the Internet in the next two years. As age of respondents increased, the less likely they were to use the Internet for product search or purchase. Most respondents cited concern about credit card security and shipping costs to be the major barriers to use of the Internet for buying goods. Concern was expressed about the viability of retailing in their local communities.

Conclusions and Implications

Many rural consumers are on-line or have access to the Internet; however the Internet has not become a shopping mechanism for many computer users due to concern over credit card security, cost of shipping, and concern for rural retail survival in small communities. Use of the Internet for buying goods is an area where consumers need to be informed to make wise buying decisions. Assuring that consumers have satisfactory access to goods and services may improve the quality of life for rural consumers. Understanding shopping patterns and attitudes toward technology may assist rural retailers in knowing how to meet the needs of their target markets and the need to also incorporate technology into their business.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

UNDERSTANDING THE FIT PREFERENCES OF BLACK PROFESSIONAL WOMEN

Melissa Manuel, Lenda Jo Connell, and Ann Beth Presley Auburn University, AL 36849

New technologies like body scanning allow accurate measurements of the body. However, body measurements alone cannot produce apparel products that "fit" target markets. How a consumer prefers a garment to fit her body is important. The purpose of this study was to examine the fit preferences of a specific target market, Black Professional Women (BPW), using body shape, body cathexis, clothing benefits sought, and demographic variables as independent variables. The survey methodology used both traditional and on-line techniques. A questionnaire was developed using flat sketches of images representing career separates including jackets, dresses, skirts, blouses, jeans, and pants represented as fitted, semi-fitted, and loosely fitted. Respondents were asked to indicate whether they would buy each garment and the fit preference for that garment and to select the body shape which most represented their body shape from a series of line drawings defining hourglass, pear, rectangle, and inverted triangle body shapes. Questions adapted from Hwang (1996) were used to assess body cathexis and clothing benefits sought. Traditional survey methods were used to collect data from 62 BPW women at a regional conference in a Southeastern state. BPW who were subscribers to an on-line organization for Black women were administered the survey on-line with 91 responding. Though frequencies indicated that the on-line respondents were younger (52.7% vs. 24.2% of traditional respondents between 20-29), t-tests indicated no statistically significant differences between the groups. They were combined for purposes of data analysis.

UNIANOVA analysis and One-Way Anova Analysis were used to find direct associations between the dependent variables of personal profile, body cathexis, clothing benefits sought, and the interaction of fit preference and body shape. UNIANOVA revealed that fit preference and body shape as well as the interaction between the two factors were important in making decisions to choose garments represented in the questionnaire. Profiles were developed for respondents selecting each garment and fit type. A profile for BPW respondents selecting a fitted jacket included rectangular and hourglass-shaped respondents between the ages of 20-29 with an average weight of 157 pounds and an average waist measurement of 28.8 who reported that fit and body part emphasis was not an important clothing benefits sought. BPW selecting a loosely fitted jacket included rectangular-shaped respondents between the ages of 30-39, weighing an average of 197 pounds, who reported that fit and body part emphasis were important clothing benefits. Rectangular-shaped respondents selecting a more fitted jacket were more satisfied with their lower body than were hourglass-shaped respondents. Pear-shaped women reported problems with looseness at the neck and tightness at the thighs. Rectangular-shaped women reported looseness at the hips and thighs.

Reference

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Hwang, J. (1996) . Relationships between body-cathexis, clothing benefits sought, and clothing behaviors; and the effects of importance of meeting the ideal body image and clothing attitude. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

FIELD-BASED LEARNING FOR TEACHING FASHION PROMOTION

Suzanne G. Marshall California State University Long Beach, Long Beach, CA, 90840

In an undergraduate fashion promotion class, a field-based, student-as-consultant model was adopted. A key competence that students needed to master was to apply the theories of target market analysis and promotion to a real-world situation. This model benefits students by providing them with practical experience in these areas by giving them the opportunity to evaluate the current promotional status of a fashion retailer and then, by using their evaluation, to suggest original ideas to this retailer from whom they receive feedback. The retailers benefit from gaining new ideas for their stores. Thus a much sought after blend of the educational experience with practical industry experience is achieved.

This field-based learning experience is implemented in four phases:

Phase 1: Building expertise. Class lectures are supplemented with fieldtrips to retailers with unique expertise in fashion promotion and by having class presentations by speakers from the fashion promotion area. In addition, each semester students shadow a visual display director for a four-to-six-hour time period at one of the area’s major specialty stores. A written, illustrated report on their experience is required.

Phase 2: Client selection and evaluation of promotion efforts. At the beginning of the semester three-member student teams are responsible for securing a potential retail client. In interviewing the retailer, the team asks the client to sign a contract which states the objectives of the course, the retailer’s commitment, and the team’s specific requirements. During this phase students (1) interview the client regarding strategy; (2) compose a target customer profile based on their own original qualitative research using observational methodology; (3) illustrate and evaluate the retailer’s current floor plan and visual displays; and (4) evaluate a print advertisement, a television commercial, and a radio spot which are currently being used by the retailer.

Phase 3: Student-consultant generated ideas. Each team develops original ideas for their client beginning with suggestions for changing their floor plan and visual displays. They then develop a month-long theme-based advertising campaign. This is supplemented with illustrated suggestions for advertisements, press releases, and other printed promotional material and a taped original radio and television commercial. Each team develops each of these elements for presentation.

Phase 4: Feedback. Teams present their work to their client. The client provides the student both oral and written feedback. Teams also present their work to the class for additional feedback.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

The benefits of this field experience are numerous: students get hands-on experience by generating and completing ideas for a real world client, the Fashion Merchandising program gains visibility in the fashion industry, and the client receives fresh ideas from a team who are often members of his target market.

The student-as-consultant model has been used for four years in the fashion promotion and display class. Both student and retailer responses have been positive, as demonstrated by the fact that many of the retailers have implemented their team’s suggestions, asked to keep the students’ display boards which illustrate their ideas, and volunteered to be a client the next semester. Students have reported that they enjoy applying theory to the fashion field. This experiential learning enhances classroom instruction as students see their ideas work in the real world.

In evaluating this method of instruction, the strategy is to make an addition to this curriculum plan for next semester. As the promotion and display class is also responsible for producing the department’s annual fashion show, next semester the teams will be encouraged to include their client-retailers in the fashion show by either featuring their merchandise, inviting them to judge the show, or providing them free publicity in the show’s program. This effort would enhance the program’s industry relationships even more.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

THE LANGUAGE OF APPAREL FROM A MULTI-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

Suzanne G. Marshall California State University Long Beach, Long Beach, CA 90840

University students now comprise a complex population who originate from various parts of the world. In observing fashion trends, the impact of these multi-cultural influences on American fashion and fashion worldwide is apparent. In an undergraduate apparel selection class students were grouped by their cultural heritage and assigned a project. The purposes of the project were (1) to demonstrate the cultural messages shown through dress for a historical time period; (2) to demonstrate the importance of apparel in understanding culture in both historic and contemporary times; (3) to show the impact of the diffusion of a culture’s clothing symbols to contemporary fashion designs; and (4) to identify and appreciate apparel contributions from various cultures to the global fashion industry.

To research their culture’s historical dress, students used ethnohistorical research methods which combined historical library research and oral conversations with multi-cultural informants. They researched contemporary fashions through fashion periodicals, trade papers and the internet. The project consisted of three parts:

Part 1. Historical time period

Student cultural groups selected an historical time period in their culture’s history and studied the dress of that time. Students specifically looked at the socio-psychological, cultural, and physical influences on dress for this time period. Students were asked to research how clothing choices: defined status including the culture’s sumptuary laws; identified gender, marital status, aesthetic preferences, and political convictions; demonstrated the economics of the time; interpreted modesty; and was used to separate the classes. They were asked to comment on the use of quantity (numbers, size, or scale) and/or quality (workmanship/color) as a factor of dress and any technical advances or limitations that influenced this culture. They were also asked what part clothing paid in any rites of passage.

Part 2. Contemporary time period

Student groups researched the clothing worn in their culture today. They analyzed the socio- psychological, cultural, and physical influences on this culture’s current fashion statement. Students identified their culture’s key contemporary designers and their contributions to contemporary fashion. They also were asked to describe the unique style of these designers’ designs by showing examples of the deconstruction of the culture’s traditional clothing symbols and the reinterpretation of these symbols into a new form. Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Part 3. Synthesis and presentation

Student groups displayed their findings on posters and presented them to the class orally. They observed that often the traditional ideas and symbols of dress were deconstructed and reinterpreted by borrowing, sharing, mixing, blending; i.e., they were modified from their "original" form which resulted in an "international style"—the predominant form of fashion in post-modern culture.

The benefits of this project were that students observed the similarity of their culture’s dress in relation to other geographically close cultures. They realized that many contemporary designs were influenced from their own culture. They understood how the diffusion of many cultural influences creates a uniqueness to contemporary fashions that would not otherwise be possible.

In evaluating the project, students have commented that they would enjoy being assigned to a mixed cultural group so that they could research dress from a culture other than their own. This desire by students to blend cultures and learn from one another is seen as a positive step toward the elimination of cultural barriers in the classroom.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

VIRTUAL COSTUME COLLECTIONS FOR THE NEW MILLENNIUM: CREATING A METHODOLOGY FOR DEVELOPING IMAGE SURROGATES FOR HISTORIC COSTUME

Kathi Martin, Abby Goodrum, and Dave Gehosky Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104

As more and more directors of costume collections find their ability to display items in their collections and share archival information limited by lack of space and funds, many are turning to digital archiving to provide global access to images and archival data from any computer with Internet access. The College of Design Arts and the College of Information Science and Technology are partners in creating a program designed to provide electronic access to a Historic Costume Collection and to train students to work in an interdisciplinary team to create virtual museum collections for the 21st century.

This paper identifies key players needed in the collaborative development of a methodology to capture quality image surrogates for display on the world wide web. Integration of the skills learned in this process into curricula for various disciplines is delineated. Using university resources to expand a limited budget, twelve pieces from a Historic Costume Collection were digitally photographed and morphed into 3-d panorama. Issues included in this paper are: how to create mannequins for a variety of fashion periods; how to handle and mount the garments with minimum damage; how to capture optimum color and detail from the photo session; and the bare essentials needed for equipment.

The focus of this paper is a presentation of the methodology developed and the images resulting from this process.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

CONSUMER PURCHASE DATA AS A STRATEGIC PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT TOOL

Traci May-Plumlee North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695

Purpose

Research shows successful new products feature attributes that consumers want. The Engle, Blackwell, and Miniard Model (1995) clarifies that consumers rely on attributes (evaluative criteria) when selecting a product for purchase. Understanding the features of purchased products could provide insight into developing products with features that appeal to consumers. Point of sale (POS) data records purchases at the stock keeping unit (SKU) level. It is already used to forecast demand for new products based on the sales of products with similar attributes (Bonner, 1996) and to drive "attribute replenishment programs" that substitute products with similar attributes when ordered product is unavailable (Irastorza & Way, 1996). Currently, POS is not typically used to facilitate product development. The purpose of this exploratory study was to determine if analysis of product purchases would reveal patterns in aesthetic and technical design attributes that could aid in design and development of new products.

Method

A woman’s bra was selected for study due to (1) limited design variation, simplifying data collection and analysis, and (2) over 75% of the bra market is consolidated in the offerings of four manufacturers, facilitating manufacturer level analysis of the data. An attribute checklist was developed to record variation in fabrication, general structure, cup structure, strap style, and closure of purchased bras. Over a two-week period, the attributes of 268 bras purchased in the intimate apparel department of a large department store were recorded. Chi-square was used to test for significant variation in the proportion of products sold with various attributes. Attributes were analyzed as a whole and separately by manufacturer.

Results

Chi-square verified significant differences in proportions of bras purchased with each attribute analyzed. Most were significant at the .001 level. When purchases of each manufacturer’s products were analyzed independently, significant variation was still found in the proportional distribution of many, but not all, of the attributes.

Discussion

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Results confirmed that an attribute level analysis could reveal similarities in the attributes of purchased products and relationships among the aesthetic and technical design features of those products. Manufacturer level analysis suggested that much could be learned about the technical and aesthetic design attributes of purchased products by analyzing SKU level POS data. Such information could be used to guide development of products that would better meet consumers’ needs. Repeated over time, attribute level analysis could facilitate spotting trends in changing preferences for attributes. For manufacturers involved in vendor-managed inventory programs, a more comprehensive understanding of the demand for product attributes could be developed by assessing all purchases, not just those of their own products. Analyzing data from different retail outlets and geographic areas would facilitate targeting products during the development rather than marketing stage.

References

Bonner, S. (1996, March). Forecasting fashion. Apparel Industry Magazine, 57 (3), 32, 34.

Engle, J., Blackwell, R., & Miniard, P. (1995). Consumer behavior (8th ed.). Fort Worth: The Dryden Press.

Irastorza, J., & Way, D. (1996, March). VMI is for fashion, too. Apparel Industry Magazine, 57(3), 16.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

RELATIVE ACCURACY AND PRECISION OF 3D BODY SCAN DATA

Lashawnda Mckinnon and Cynthia Istook North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695

New technology has created a method of obtaining three-dimensional anthropometric data of the human body. Body scanners have opened the door to mass customization in the apparel industry, creating the ability to adjust patterns to an individual and then to cut, sew, and deliver a finished tailored garment to the consumer. This technology, however, is futile if the extracted data does not have two main components: accuracy and reliability. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of variability in subject positioning on the accuracy of body scan data. Two possible factors, respiration and foot placement, can affect critical measurements during the body scanning process and render data unreliable and inaccurate.

Procedure

A Body Measurement System developed by the Textile/Clothing Technology Corporation was used to acquire two scans from each of 75 subjects in the control group. Physical measurements were also obtained from each of the 75 subjects. The physical measurements served as a basis for comparison to the scanned measurements since physical measurements are the current accepted "true value." Three separate scans of 75 different subjects in the experimental group were taken at three different levels of respiration and three different foot positions.

Findings and Implications

This study indicates that respiration and foot placement have a significant effect on body scan data. Scan data rendered by the software does have precision but lacks accuracy when compared against physical measurements. This may be due to the inaccuracies of the physical measurement process or due to differences in measurement location between the anthropologist and the 3D measurement extraction software. Currently in the scanning process there is no standardization of respiration or foot placement. This lack of consistency allows for measurements to deviate as far as +/- 4.92 inches, depending upon whether a subject is at maximum inhalation or exhalation or the distance of the foot span. This level of error is intolerable. It is thus recommended that, to standardize the body scan process, subjects should be instructed to neither inhale nor exhale during the scanning process but to cease respiration at a mid way point and stand with feet at a 4" width to achieve valid and reliable data.

There has been a limited amount of research detailing the accuracy of scanned data since the introduction of this technology to the industry. The manipulation of anthropometric algorithms that calculate human body measurements are critical while body scanning technology is still in a period of acceptance and maturation. The results of this study indicate a need to either more Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

closely match extraction algorithms to the physical measurement process or for the industry to grasp a better understanding of the measurement algorithms themselves. Currently, there is no protocol for scanning standards. In order to achieve the desired levels of accuracy and precision, extraction algorithms need to be evaluated for efficiency and subject positioning standards needs to be established industry wide.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

TO DEMONSTRATE OR NOT TO DEMONSTRATE, IS THERE ANOTHER WAY?: A CREATIVE APPROACH TO LEARNING COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN PROGRAMS

Harriet McLeod and J. R. Campbell Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011

Students enrolled in an introductory Apparel Product Development class use two industry based, sophisticated computer programs to complete a final project. The students are predominately first-semester undergraduates and will use the computer programs in a minimum of two other classes. Four weeks of the semester, or eight hours, are devoted to learning the two programs in the 2-hour companion lab that meets once a week.

Statistics from the last four semesters indicated that 63% of students enrolled in the class have no or limited experience using Macintosh programs or a computer. A previous method of demonstrating while students watched resulted in students being bored or not remembering the steps once they began exploring the tools. Having students try the manipulations along with the instructor resulted in continuous interruptions due to "slow" responding computers or students getting "lost" along the way. The purpose of the strategy described below was to expedite the learning of these two computer programs by providing multiple resources to address the different learning styles and engage the students in a cooperative learning environment.

To learn the programs students worked through nine to ten sample projects typical of the manipulations used to create the fabric and garments for their final project— a line of apparel. They were supplied with three key resources to aid their learning process: (1) customized manual, (2) sample designs and garments created using the computer programs, and (3) a learning partner. The manual was adapted from the manufacturer's original instructions. Teams that enjoyed exploring without a "map" did not use the manual. The learning partners helped each other "tease out" the complexities of the computer programs.

During the lab periods devoted to learning the programs the instructor continuously circulated among the students assisting "teams," observing students' progress, and encouraging students to experiment with different manipulations of the tools. Students still experienced frustration and anxiety as they learned the programs. However, they felt that the learning partner's presence was reassuring, provided validation as they experienced similar feelings, was an outlet for venting, encouraged them to explore more, and helped them figure out more applications of the tools than if they were working along. More detailed instructions will be included in the manual to address students' complaints that the instructions are still not clear enough. Students that preferred to work "solo" were given that latitude and encouraged, as well as the "teams," to share their discoveries with the class during the last 15 minutes of lab.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Cooperative learning teams can be utilized in a variety of settings. By working with a learning partner, students learned to work in a team. The level of frustration and boredom that previously occurred in demonstrations was minimized. Team members helped each other to problem solve and provided dialogue that encouraged critical thinking. Additionally, the students learned to work across programs to create the sample projects and recognized that many of the skills learned in one program were transferable to the other. Students felt empowered as a result of this self-discovery strategy.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

The Cultural Construction of Womanhood through Dress in Socialist Hungary

Katalin Medevev and Annette Lynch University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, IA 50614

Hungary, an ally of Nazi Germany, came away from World War II defeated and economically devastated. It lost 600,000 lives in the war and suffered huge territorial losses. With the end of the war, the necessary preconditions for social, political, and economic reform were all manifest in Hungary. The citizens of Hungary wanted immediate reconstruction of the country, general political reconciliation, and the reestablishment of national unity, as well as full economic revival. The population was eager to put the devastating consequences of the war behind itself and there was an immense popular desire for change.

A small, but very well organized group of Communist leaders trained in exile was aware both of the potential for change in Hungary and their precarious position in relation to popular attitudes in Hungary. The directive given to them by Stalin was to get popular support through direct involvement in popular and timely causes and to keep a low profile. During this time period the Communist launched a woman’s magazine called Asszonyok, which was used as a propaganda tool to gain support for their cause among women and to move women toward adopting a gender identity congruent with the role of a communist worker.

The purpose of our research was (1) to examine the reconstruction of the feminine ideal to a communist standard as captured in this magazine and (2) to examine the role of fashion in the transmission of communist ideas to women. Methodology consisted of content analysis of Assozonyok from 1945 to 1948. The periodicals were analyzed by a native speaker of Hungarian, and thus translation was not required. The periodicals were located in archives in Budapest.

Our results indicated that one of the goals of Assozonyok was to create a unified image and define the social function of the new socialist woman/worker. Women depicted in the periodical, coupled with text, clearly indicate that women were defined by their roles as workers and mothers, with sexuality and individuality linked to self-indulgence and capitalism. Secondly, the periodical promoted sartorial socialism, urging women to don a uniform style of dress and reject the temptations of fashion. The plain clothes of sartorial socialism were meant to provide visual proof of the wearer’s antipathy toward the individualism and materialism of capitalistic societies. Uniforms with drab colors and simple boxy designs were promoted as the proper and practical choice for the useful Hungarian woman, loyal to her family and her party.

We also detected a buried but significant theme of fashion being used as a reaction against the Party’s attempt to control women. The continued influence of fashion in Hungary is paid testimony to by articles critical of fashionably attired women who are accused of being overly concerned with appearance to the detriment of the higher goals of the government. Thus fashion, Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

more typically thought to be an agent of conformity, becomes a radical means of protesting the intrusion of the Communist Party into individual lives in Hungary during this period.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

DEVELOPING AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE

Deborah J. C. Meyer Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506

A course on the textile and apparel industry requires students to examine the global interdependency of the industry. This may involve students studying the history of trade for each country as well as current information concerning current trade partners and products of each country. It is often hard, however, to capture the true global nature of the industry when, for the most part, students are still ethnocentric in their thinking.

So how do you put the "international" perspective in an international textile and apparel trade course? Borrowing the framework of a project used in a course designed to teach social, psychological, and cultural aspects of dress (Damhorst, 1999), the culture-sharing project described below was redesigned to be used in an international trade course. The purpose of the project was three-fold: (1) to expose students to a culture different than their own; (2) to have students investigate the textile and apparel industry of a country according to a consumer from that country; (3) to develop skills in cross-cultural communication.

The project required students to become acquainted with someone from a country other than their own and meet at least three times with these "partners," exchanging information about cultural traditions, family structures, living standards, and perceptions on the textile and apparel industry in their country. Students were required to submit short narrative papers after every meeting, as well as to prepare a final paper, presentation, and storyboard to be presented to the class.

Set in the context of an international trade course, students were assigned a five-part project. For the first step of the project, students were required to pair up with a person whose culture was not their own. Students could not pair with a student from the class nor with someone they knew previously. Students were suggested to find partners through other classes, the international student organization located on campus, approaching students in the Union or library, or posting notices in international student dorms. For the next few steps of the project, students were required to meet with their partner and were given a list of questions designed to facilitate the first meeting. Students were told that they needed to go beyond the questions to develop a deeper understanding of the person and the culture.

A second meeting was required to continue the relationship and ask questions that pertained to cultural ideals and characteristics and to exchange pictures. The next step of the project continued the question format, but students were encouraged to hold this meeting at the local mall or at a store where students could discuss their country's textile and apparel industry and Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

types of clothing worn in their country. After each meeting students were required to submit a short (1-2 page) paper in narrative format about the meeting and what they learned.

The final step required students to research the textile and apparel industry of their partner's country. Using this information, as well as the information obtained during the three meetings, students developed a storyboard for a product that could be exported or imported between the two countries. It was recommended that students consult with their partners during this final phase of their project to gain approval and/or suggestions concerning the proposed product. Students reported, in presentation format, the findings of all meetings and research, as well as the proposed product.

Overall the project was successful as students rated it as very effective in their final course evaluations. Students were also given short questionnaires pertaining to the project to determine where improvements could be made. Student comments were very supportive and most commented that, although they were at first uncomfortable with the idea of meeting someone from a different country, it was a very rewarding and successful experience. These evaluations and the projects generated supported the value of the project and its continued use.

Reference

Damhorst, M. L. (1999). The meanings of dress: Instructor's guide. New York: Fairchild.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

LEARNING THROUGH FRUSTRATION: A QUALITY ASSURANCE ACTIVITY

Deborah J. C. Meyer Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506

Sara J. Kadolph Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50010

To expand faculty knowledge of quality assurance concepts and practices, a USDA Challenge Grant entitled "Enhancing Faculty Knowledge of Apparel Industry Quality Assurance Practices" was obtained to learn more about quality assurance (QA) and apply that information to fill gaps in undergraduate and graduate higher education programs. In order to meet one objective of this grant, a workshop entitled "Quality Assurance for Textile and Apparel Educators" was given during the summer hiatus for educators at all levels of learning to come together and learn about new developments in QA and to share common experiences in the classroom. This presentation shared a QA learning activity that can be performed in a number of textiles or apparel quality courses.

This simple and inexpensive classroom activity helps students understand the role that management has in product quality and demonstrates the concept of quality being "inspected in" rather than being "built in." By the end of the activity students will (1) understand the difference between first quality and second quality or substandard goods, (2) calculate percentages of first and second quality goods in a production run, (3) understand the difference between continuous quality improvement (quality assurance) and inspection to separate first quality from second quality at the end of production (quality control), and (4) understand the role that management plays in product quality.

Using approximately 1,000 beads (pony or seed beads) in a mixture of 90% colored (red, blue or other single color) beads and 10% clear beads, combine all beads in an opaque container and stir until they are uniformly mixed. Colored beads represent first quality products and clear beads represent seconds. Based on the ratio of beads combined in the container, the educator has established the expected standard of performance: 90% first quality and 10% second quality. To begin the experiment, have each student scoop out one level scoop to represent one hour worth of production. Write the information on the board as each student reports (1) the total number of beads, (2) the percentage of clear beads, and (3) the percentage of colored beads.

After each student reports his/her results, the instructor may choose to role play a production manager or a Quality Assurance engineer. To take on the perspective of the "production manager" you must praise high production totals and not express concern over the number of seconds, using your standard of performance as the higher the number of beads, the better. When Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

totals are low, express concern about the student "not meeting quota" and the possibility of repercussions if production does not improve. If you choose to role-play the "Quality Assurance engineer" — you praise a high percentage of first quality goods (colored beads) regardless of the total production and express the need for repeating training if the number of seconds (clear beads) is high.

Have students take a second scoop of beads from the beaker and place these on a second dish or plate and report the same information as before. Record the information for the second scoop beside the information from the first scoop for each student. With the second scoop, individual performance will work toward a class average. Some students will improve their performance while others will decrease performance, regardless of the comments made by the "production manager" or "QA engineer." This reporting can be repeated a number of times until the instructor senses the students' frustration over their inability to control their production numbers (there is nothing they can do to control their numbers or their quality!). At this point, an excellent discussion usually ensues about definitions of product quality and quality assurance (standards and specifications), the impact of a quality assurance perspective at all levels of management, training of employees as a vital component to improving product quality, and how quality can be improved if the materials and the production processes are monitored and improved upon at every step—as opposed to quality being inspected in at the end of the process. This lesson also can be used in a variety of educational settings illustrating a number of products or services.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

ENHANCING CREATIVITY IN APPAREL DESIGN COURSES THROUGH CULTURAL DIVERSITY and CAD

Phyllis Bell Miller Mississippi State University, MSU, MS 39762

A quick glance at any fashion publication reveals that folk influences are stronger than ever in dress and other decorative arts. According to forecasting services, this trend is gaining momentum. In the design studio, folk influences stimulate creativity and add an exotic, cosmopolitan flavor to fashion. They also make garments appeal to a broader consumer base and become more marketable throughout the world. For these reasons, folk influences seemed the ideal source of inspiration for a fashion design project. Using CAD to carry out the project held the promise of generating an array of designs quickly and easily.

In a fashion-oriented AutoCAD course, students selected among 12 countries, including China, Arabia, Nigeria, Mexico, Japan, Egypt, and India, as an inspiration for their projects. Using books and Internet sources, students studied the country's textiles, jewelry, and other decorative arts. They also used reference charts developed by the professor, which contained detailed information about the country's use of color, fabrics, accessories, garments, and symbolism. After learning basic and intermediate AutoCAD techniques, each student designed a 48" (121.9 cm) square scarf that reflected the chosen country. Each student also created a palette of four or more colors and representative color schemes with which to render the scarves, either by hand or computer.

Students studied both men's and women's folk costumes from the selected country and used the information to design a five-piece wardrobe consisting of an outer garment, two tops, two bottoms, and accessories. To assist with garment design and illustration, students used Instant Designer International, a computerized library of folk, historic, and contemporary costume components developed by the professor.

Components included front and back views of complete costumes as well as their separate parts, such as sleeves, collars, and skirts. They created original designs by combining and modifying components as well as creating new ones. Students then took motifs from the scarves and used them as decorative elements on the garments. They also employed the same colorways used in the scarf.

Students reported that having a cultural inspiration made the design process simpler and more logical and enjoyable. The computer enabled them to experiment more freely and to be more creative. Students said that the costume library allowed them to generate designs faster and to produce nicer illustrations, regardless of their drawing ability. The program made it easier to

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

understand folk costumes as it showed how the costumes related to the body and contained both front and back garment views.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

MEASURING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOUTH AFRICAN AND U.S. CONSUMER PERCEPTIONS OF APPAREL STORE IMAGE

Nancy J. Miller and Hyun-Mee Joung, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011

Annette Van Aardt, Potchefstroom University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Elizabeth M. Visser, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Purpose

In addition to product, shoppers also examine the physical environment of the retail store that can include dressing rooms, aisle widths, in-store and window displays, as well as attitudes of the sales personnel and provision of service. Consumers shop in stores with images that are perceived to be the most congruent with their self-image. The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the perceived similarities and differences in national preferences for three store image attributes—store service, physical facilities, and promotion.

Research Question

Targeted consumer groups in South Africa and the U.S. were purposely selected as participants. Increasingly, global companies have focused on standardization of consumer products/services forsaking customization— thus selling the same thing in the same way in every location. Little consideration of consumer preferences has extended beyond the product to consider differences in perceived attributes of a positive store image. The current economic situation in South Africa is strongly favorable in terms of globalization. At present, multinational and domestic corporations dominate the apparel retail market, offering products based on local preferences. The research question addressed in this study asks, "Do South African consumers perceive aspects of store image in a manner similar to U.S. consumers?" If no significant differences are discovered, then globalization of apparel markets seems plausible; however, if significant national differences are identified, then future investigations should include examination of cultural preferences and national tastes.

Procedures

Participants included a convenience sample of 102 South African and 112 U.S. college students majoring in Textiles, Clothing, and Business. Identical questionnaires were distributed composed of Likert-type items measured on a five-point scale. Reliabilities of scales were determined independently for respondents from each country and again on the combined sample to assess inter-item correlations. Five scales were developed from modified existing scales or were newly developed to measure consumer perceptions regarding the following variables: dressing rooms (5 Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

items, =.75); aisle design (3 items, =.65); in-store and window displays (5 items, =.70); sales personnel (8 items, =.73); and customer service (3 items, =.77). Independent t-tests were conducted to determine the equality of the mean scores across country grouping using a .05 level of significance. No significant differences were found regarding demographic characteristics of the sample groups; however, South African consumers rated dressing rooms, aisles, and sales personnel as significantly more important than U.S. consumers. Perceptions of displays and customer services were not significantly different.

Conclusions

Trained sales persons and aspects of physical merchandising, such as store design of dressing rooms and aisles, comprise a significant proportion of retailers' financial and managerial resources. Understanding national and cultural differences in consumer preferences for activities associated with shopping may suggest profitable ways for retailers to differentiate themselves. Findings suggest that multinational companies considering South African markets should consider both national and cultural differences that may affect consumer behavior, and that additional research on aspects of store image including design, reputation, and post-transaction satisfaction is warranted.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

DETERMINANTS OF INNOVATION ADOPTION AMONG APPAREL RETAILING ORGANIZATIONS: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Marguerite Moore University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996

The rapid adoption of technology into apparel retailing operations has experienced unprecedented growth over the last 20 years. Retailing initiatives toward managing supply- chains and connecting to end-users through Internet channels are expected to continue fueling this trend. In order to compete in this dynamic and uncertain environment, apparel retailers are increasingly adopting technologies to partner with channel members and reach end consumers in a manner that maximizes value for all parties. From an academic standpoint, little is known about the influences that affect technology adoption within apparel retailing firms. Further, we know even less about the long-term effects of technology adoption at the firm level.

The purpose of this examination is to identify the determinants of innovation adoption among apparel retailing organizations and establish a framework for future research. Over 30 years of organizational diffusion of innovations research was reviewed to identify the variables that can impact technology adoption among retail firms. A framework is presented which divides determinants from the extant literature into two broad categories: External and Internal. External determinants refer to variables outside of the adopter firm, including supplier-industry level variables, supplier-organization level variables and adopter industry level variables. Internal determinants refers to variables inside the adopter firm, including adopter organization level variables, innovation-attribute level variables, decision-group level variables, and individual decision maker level variables. Between the external and internal categories, nine empirically tested determinants of adoption behavior for organizations are identified. Four external determinants are identified, including vertical coordination, supplier incentives, industry concentration, and industry price competition. Five internal determinants are identified for apparel retailers, including organization size, presence of an innovation champion, task scope, compatibility, and complexity.

The proposed framework presents a number of research directions that can contribute to the understanding of technology adoption among apparel retailers. Primarily, it explicates the difference in external and internal determinants of these behaviors. Further, it begins to address important questions for future research. Do apparel retailers adopt technologies due to external influences or internal influences? What are the influential variables specific to apparel retailing that determine adoption decisions? The framework also suggests consideration of innovation implementation and consequences to gain fuller understanding of the long-term effects of technology adoption (Rogers, 1995). Future research using the proposed framework can result in implications for retail/apparel practitioners and academics. Through understanding the determinants of adoption behavior, practitioners can examine both internal and external sources Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

of influence when making critical technology investment decisions. By identifying the specific variables that impact adoption decisions, practitioners may be in a better position to choose technologies with good strategic fit. Academics can benefit from applying over 30 years of theoretical organizational diffusion research within the apparel retailing context.

Reference

Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th ed.). New York: The Free Press.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

FROM KITSCH TO CHIC: THE TRANSFORMATION OF ALOHA SHIRT AESTHETICS

Marcia A. Morgado University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822

In this study I suggest that rubbish theory (Thompson, 1979) offers a useful framework for examining the process of change in popular judgments of the aesthetic value of the Hawaiian aloha shirt and that it provides a cogent rationale and a plausible set of circumstances to explain the transformation of the shirt from tourist kitsch to highly valued collectible and from collectible to global fashion.

Thompson proposed that the relative value of cultural objects is based on their arbitrary assignment to one of two overt cultural categories: the transient and the durable. Transient objects have finite life spans and lose value over time while durables have infinite lives and, over time, increase in value. Between the two overt categories lies a covert category which Thompson calls "rubbish." Transient objects gradually slide into rubbish. Here they "exist in a timeless and valueless limbo" (p. 10) where they have a chance to be rediscovered and reassigned as durables.

To support his thesis Thompson described the transformation of the Stevengraph, a Victorian era woven silk picture, tracing its origins as a cheap souvenir item, its rise in popularity, and its eventual decline into obscurity (i.e., rubbish). Certain circumstances marked the object's assent from the rubbish to the durable category: a catastrophic event that rendered production of additional pictures impossible; the sudden appearance of histories and other forms of scholarship on the topic; the discovery of subtle variations and details that rendered some forms rarer, and thus more valuable, than others; the development of a high priced collectors' market; and the concurrent reevaluation of the aesthetic value of the pictures. My analysis of popular and scholarly works on the aloha shirt indicates that parallel circumstances accompanied comparable transformations in judgments of its aesthetic value.

The aloha shirt originated in the mid-1930s as a commodity for the tourist market. Unique elements in its design, including tropical print motifs in cartoon-like renditions, brilliant colors, silky rayon fabrics, and one-piece collars, boxy shapes, and square-cut hems, made the shirt instantly recognizable and contributed to its status as both an essential souvenir purchase and the quintessential element in the stereotype of the tourist as sartorial nerd. Over time, the styling characteristics changed; cleaner prints, fashion colors, standard shirt collars, and a closer fit prevailed, and shirttails were added for tucking in. Newer, easy care fabrics replaced the rayon which, in any event, was no longer available, production having ceased when a fire reportedly destroyed both the production facility and the formula. Then, years following its demise, the original shirt became an object of intense interest, around which was generated a profusion of scholarly works, an assortment of myths, the discovery of hitherto unnoticed nuance and artistry in designs, and the development of a substantial collectors' market. I suggest this signaled the Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

reassignment of the shirt from rubbish to durable, reconstituted it as an indigenous art form, and established a new aesthetic. Celebrity collectors and high status designers validated the aesthetic, thus providing conditions for reproductions of vintage shirts and newer designs based on "authentic" models to trickle down as global fashion. Finally, I suggest that attention to the kitsch factor may provide insights on transformations of aesthetic values which accompany fashion change.

Reference

Thompson, M. (1979). Rubbish theory: The creation and destruction of value. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

IS THERE A UNIVERSAL STANDARD OF BEAUTY? A COMPARISON OF SELF- DISCREPANCY AND APPAREL SELECTION BEHAVIOR AMONG KOREAN AND AMERICAN WOMEN

Yoonja Nam Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea

Seung-Hee Lee University of Ulsan, Ulsan, South Korea

The purpose of this study is to examine and understand the differences in self-discrepancy, self- esteem, and apparel selection behavior among American and Korean women based on cultural ideal beauty. Respondents were college women including 101 Koreans in Korea and 98 Americans. For data analysis descriptive statistics, ANOVA, Pearson’s correlations, and Duncan-test were used. As a result, Western beauty features such as thinness and tallness were preferred the most in the two groups. Both groups generally were most dissatisfied with lower body parts such as the stomach. Koreans’ self-esteem was much lower than Americans’. Regarding body measurements, although Americans were heavier or bigger on 38 body areas than Koreans, Koreans perceived themselves as heavier or larger on 39 body areas than Americans. That is, Koreans had a much larger self-discrepancy between actual body size and perceived body size than Americans. In addition, Koreans were more dissatisfied with all their body areas than Americans and preferred more fitted clothing styles than Americans, having a bigger discrepancy between ideal clothing behavior and actual clothing behavior.

Page 1 of 1

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES RELATED TO TEXTILE PRODUCTS

Grace Wasike Namwamba Southern University and A&M College, Baton Rouge, LA 70813

Environmentalism is a concept that has gained wide attention in recent years. Many consumers are concerned about the impact of their consumption practices on the environment. Consumers are encouraged to purchase environmentally friendly products and to recycle. With the proliferation of new synthetic fibers and other textile materials, there is concern that textile products may have an impact on the environment. There is limited research on environmentalism as it relates to textile products. It is important to determine practices and attitudes of consumers in relation to textile products. The objective of this study, therefore, was to determine textile- related environmental practices and attitudes of consumers. It was hypothesized that there would be significant correlation between general environmental practices and attitudes and textile- related environmental attitudes and practices.

The researcher developed the instrument used in the study. The variables were based on a model developed from extensive literature in environmental studies and textiles and clothing. The instrument was pilot tested on 100 subjects and refined for final use and consisted of several scales including an environmental practices scale and the attitude scale. Reliability was determined by Cronbach's Alpha measure of internal consistency which were  = 0.78 and  =0.70 respectively. Random Digit Dialing was used to collect data from 1,000 subjects nationwide. The sample size was stratified according to State population. The sample consisted of 667 females (66.7%) and 333 males (33.3%). Data were analyzed using SPSS Version 10.0.

Findings indicated that respondents had positive environmental attitudes in general although textile-related attitudes were less positive. They did not feel that textiles contributed significantly to environmental pollution. They had slightly negative environment behaviors. They indicated that they sometimes recycled. Many indicated that they donated clothing to reduce solid waste but rarely purchased used clothing to reduce solid waste. They seldom considered the environmental effects of fibers when purchasing clothing. Gender, age, education, and occupation were significant on various environmental attitudes and practices variables. There was significant positive correlation between textile-related environmental practices and attitudes and general environmental practices and attitudes.

Generally, respondents were concerned about the environment but did not perceive textiles as an important environmental concern. To promote positive textile- related environmental attitudes and practices, it is necessary that consumers are generally environmentally conscious in their daily lives. It is important, however, to also educate consumers on pro-environmental behaviors and attitudes as related to textile products. Page 1 of 1

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

EFFECTS OF VIOLATION OF CLOTHING NORMS ON LEGAL OPINIONS

Michelle Nathan and Margaret Rucker University of California, Davis, CA 95616

In both research journals and legal documents, there is evidence that women may be victimized, then blamed for their own victimization, because of their "provocative" dress. However, there has been no quantitative or consistent definition of provocative dress. The first phase of this study was designed to establish quantitative norms regarding the provocativeness or lack of appropriateness of two clothing details, necklines and hemlines. The purpose of the second phase was to explore the effects of violating the norms. The theory of shifting erogenous zones, as developed by Flugel and Laver (see Laver, 1969), provided a framework for the project. (It was understood that clothing norms vary across time and across cultures; the intent of this study was to establish norms for a particular time and place and then investigate the effects of deviating from those norms.)

To obtain the normative data, 37 student volunteers manipulated simulated skirt and sweater material on a female image to reflect their perceptions of fashionable dress and provocative dress. These data were used in creating sketches for the next part of the study showing a model in either a high or low neckline paired with either a high or low hemline. These pictures were inserted in a sexual harassment case and distributed to 69 law students. Each student saw only one of the pictures. The students were asked to indicate who would win the case and why, as well as who should win the case and why. They were also asked to complete a page of demographic items. Stepwise logistic regression was used to test for effects of hemline, neckline, and sex of respondent on judgments for the plaintiff versus defendant. A repeated measures t test was used to test for a significant difference between the fashionable and appropriate measures to provide evidence regarding the validity of the shifting erogenous zones theory. Content analysis was used to extract themes from the qualitative data.

The regression analysis for hemline, neckline, and sex of respondent demonstrated that the effect of sex of respondent was significant (p=.02) and the effect of hemline approached significance (p=.07). Mean values for the short and long skirt conditions indicated that more people favored the defendant than the plaintiff when the plaintiff was pictured in a short skirt. Mean values for male and female respondents indicated that females were more likely than males to think the female plaintiff would win. For the "should win" question, none of the effects were found to be significant. A comparison of t test and regression analysis results offered some support for the shifting erogenous zones theory. The average value for a fashionable neckline was quite close to that for an appropriate neckline whereas the average value for a fashionable skirt was appreciably longer than that for an appropriate skirt. Therefore, short skirts should have more shock value than low necklines and, in fact, the effect of hemline did appear to be stronger than the effect of neckline. When themes were sorted by decision for the plaintiff versus defendant, Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

the main reason for finding for the defendant was "no hostile work environment" with clothing as a major issue. In contrast, the respondents who found for the plaintiff most often cited quid pro quo.

Reference

Laver, J. (1969). Modesty in dress. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Exploring Dress in Everyday Life through Interpretive Inquiry

Nancy J. Nelson University of North Carolina, Greensboro, NC 27403

Gloria M. Williams University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108

Interpretive inquiry is being used more and more frequently within different academic disciplines to explore, understand, and reveal lived experience (Hultgren, 1989). This study is a critical analysis of the state of interpretive inquiry within the discipline of Clothing and Textiles and is an examination of both process and outcomes of interpretive modes of research. This examination consists of three parts: (1) investigation of the origins of interpretive inquiry, (2) exploration of methods used in the practice of interpretive inquiry, and (3) discussion of the theoretical and practical implications of interpretive inquiry.

The first part of this critical analysis is an exploration of the philosophical origins of interpretive inquiry, specifically, the development of phenomenology and hermeneutics as interpretive methodologies. Central to this discussion are the writings of Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, and Hans-Georg Gadamer, three western philosophers responsible for laying the foundation of interpretive inquiry and for articulating the concept of lived experience. Included in the discussion are the ways that lived experience has since been incorporated into various facets of social science research.

The primary goal of interpretive inquiry within the context of research is to understand the meaning of lived experience through multi-dimensional interpretation (van Manen, 1990). Methods that are frequently used to achieve this goal include interviews, close observation, and thematic analysis. Each of these methods has been used to explore the ways that dress is fundamental to the experience of everyday life. The second part of this critical analysis is an examination of how the outcomes of such methods fall at different points along a spectrum that reflects levels of interpretation, from content analysis of the experiences of social groups to the personal narratives and life histories of specific individuals.

The study of dress can be approached from perspectives that lie on all points of the spectrum in that, although people across societies and cultures may interact with dress differently, everyone experiences dressing the body in some way, shape, or form. As such, interpretive inquiry is critical to furthering our understanding of the relationship between dress and human experience. As the third part of this critical analysis will illustrate, achieving a deeper understanding of the nature of this relationship has implications for alternative modes of theory development as well as practical application of research.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

References

Hultgren, F. H. (1989). Introduction to interpretive inquiry. In F. Hultgren & D. L. Coomer (Eds.), Alternative modes of inquiry in Home Economics research (pp. 37- 59). Peoria, IL: Glencoe.

van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human Science for an action sensitive pedagogy. New York: The State University of New York.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Q-METHODOLOGY AS A TOOL FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Amanda G. Nicholson, Janith S. Wright, and Linda M. Cushman Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244

Many studies have been conducted to investigate the academic competencies that should be offered in a four-year degree program. Universities and colleges in the United States are the recruiting grounds for numerous industries in search of the future leaders of tomorrow. Employers often develop long-term relationships with those particular educational establishments where they have had consistent success at recruiting young executives with the right combinations of personal attributes and skills to contribute to their organizations. It is important for institutions of higher learning to be aware of what such factors might be for any given industry. With such knowledge, educators can develop their students, improving their likelihood of securing desirable positions.

The purpose of this presentation is to discuss the usefulness of Q-methodology as a research tool for comparing and contrasting the views of industry and academicians. In this way, information can be gathered aimed at bringing the two groups closer together with the unified goal of improving student preparation for their future roles.

First introduced by William Stephenson in 1935, Q methodology is a research technique which provides a systematic and quantitative method of examining human subjectivity utilizing psychometric principles combined with the statistical applications of correlational and factor- analysis. The fact that this method provides both qualitative and quantitative information is a significant strength. The process involves the researcher designing a Q-sample of a sufficient number of statements or opinions about a subject (generally from 40-60) to ensure that the design reflects the relevant issues under study. The researcher selects a group of respondents who best represent the academic field and the selected industry under investigation. Both groups are then asked to rank order the statements individually based solely on their internal frames of reference. The rankings are then correlated and factor analyzed to discover the groupings of opinions. The outcome actually groups respondents who answered in a similar fashion rather than the traditional factor analysis outcome that would load the statements onto factors. In a second sorting, the respondents are then asked to rank order the statements based on their perceptions of how the other group would respond.

Previous research has shown that academicians and industry professionals in the retail and design professions do not tend to rank an appropriate list of competencies in a similar order of importance (Nicholson & Cushman, 2000). In fact, the academicians tend to rank the cognitive skills more highly than the affective skills while the industry personnel place more emphasis on the affective competencies. The use of such methodology and findings will allow academic programs to gather data that can positively impact their educational preparation by arming the

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

faculty with the information necessary to finely tune their curriculum offerings in accordance with the industry requirements.

Reference

Nicholson, A., & Cushman, L. M. (In press). Developing successful employees: Perceptions of industry leaders and academicians. Education and Training.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

COMPARISON OF TEST PROTOCOLS TO ASSESS THE FIT OF MATURE WOMEN’S APPAREL

Elizabeth K. O’Connell Gerber Technology, Inc., Tolland, CT 06084

Susan P. Ashdown Cornell University, Ithaca NY 14843

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between trained paraprofessional judges’ responses and expert judges’ responses in a garment fit test for reliability and validity. The study, which used mature women as subjects in the fit test, addressed the relationship between subjects’ body measurements and garment measurements, perception of garment fit from test subjects, and fit assessment by trained judges and expert judges. The 17 female subjects recruited for the fit test ranged in age from 52 to 63 years. The trained judges were from an apparel class. The expert judges were university professors and professionals from the apparel industry. The garment used in the fit test was a ready-to-wear unlined, collarless jacket. A tutorial training tape, a fit training handout, and a tutorial fit checklist were developed to train the paraprofessional judges. All judges assessed the quality of garment fit from a videotape made of the 17 subjects wearing the test jackets. Information from the 17 test subjects’ perception of fit was collected in a questionnaire format.

The trained and expert fit judges evaluated 14 aspects of the fit of the jacket for each subject. The procedure was repeated two weeks later for reliability. T-tests for paired samples were run for reliability between the judges’ first and second evaluations as a group. A comparison of the mean difference (trained M = .023, p = .446, expert M = .030, p = .341) showed that there was no significant difference between the first and second fit evaluations for both the trained and expert judges. F-statistics showed no clear pattern of smaller variances for the trained judges, which suggested that the variation among the trained judges was similar to the variation among the expert judges. Validity was measured by comparing the differences between subjects’ body measurements and the test jacket measurements to the judges’ and subjects’ fit assessments of the test jacket. Correlation analysis showed that the subjects, trained judges, expert judges, and measurements generally did not correlate. This lack of correlation among measurements, subjects’ perceptions of fit, and expert assessment of fit is frequently seen and can be attributed to variation in subject fit preferences. (DeLong et al, 1993; Frost, 1988).

The results have practical implications for the apparel industry with reference to prototype development on fit models. New employees who complete a fit training program may achieve equal reliability and validity in fit assessment as experienced employees. Concepts of appropriate fit can be identified and incorporated into company training programs, resulting in more consistent fit for the consumer.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

References

Frost, K. (1988). Consumer’s perception of fit and comfort of pants. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Minnesota, St. Paul.

DeLong, M. R., Ashdown, S. P., Butterfield, L., & Turnbladh, K. F. (1993). Data specification needed for apparel production using computers. Clothing and Textile Research Journal, 11(3), 1- 7.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

BODY SATISFACTION AMONG MOTHERS AND THEIR ADOLESCENT DAUGHTERS: QUALITATIVE VALIDATION OF QUANTITATIVE DATA

Jennifer Paff Ogle, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523 Mary Lynn Damhorst, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, 50011

Body satisfaction is the degree of satisfaction with the appearance of the body and/or its parts. Most previous body satisfaction work has incorporated quantitative measures. However, evidence suggests that these measures may not accurately reflect the varied attitudes that individuals hold about their bodies (Paxton, et al., 1991). With this study, we used triangulation of methods to validate an existing quantitative body satisfaction measure using qualitative data.

Participants were selected via purposive and snowball sampling and included 20 mothers (mean age, 43.3 years) and their adolescent daughters (mean age, 16.1 years). Participants were Caucasian, resided in the suburban midwest US, and shared a middle-class lifestyle. Qualitative data were collected via in-depth interviews and were analyzed using a grounded theory approach. Inter-rater reliability for data coding was 98%. Quantitative data were collected via the Body Areas Satisfaction Scale (BASS) (Cash, 1990), which uses five-point Likert-type scales to assess satisfaction with overall appearance (one item) and with most parts of the body (the mean of 12 items related to specific body parts). Higher BASS scores reflect a higher degree of satisfaction.

Analysis of qualitative data revealed three patterns of feelings about the body: general satisfaction (n = 25), general dissatisfaction (n = 8), and mixed or neutral feelings (n = 7). In contrast to the qualitative findings, quantitative findings indicated that the average participant had somewhat neutral feelings about the body. Mean scores for the overall appearance item and the 12 summative items were 3.28 (SD = .92) and 2.97 (SD = .63), respectively.

Correspondence between transformed(1) qualitative and quantitative assessments of satisfaction was moderate but was stronger for the overall appearance item than for the 12 summative items. Spearman’s rank correlations with qualitative data were .60 (p < .01) and .51 (p < .01) for the overall appearance and summative items, respectively. The Wilcoxon signed ranks test indicated no significant difference between qualitative scores and the overall appearance item (z=-1.43), but a significant difference was discovered in comparing the qualitative scores to the summative items (z = -3.40, p < .01). One to one agreement(2) between qualitative and quantitative scores occurred in 64.1% of cases for the overall appearance item and in 43.6% of cases for the 12 summative items. Thus, correspondence was not as strong as one might expect for measures of concurrent validity, raising concern about the usefulness of the BASS. Possible reasons for the discrepancy between qualitative and quantitative findings are considered, and the researchers’ efforts to construct a new measure of body satisfaction are discussed.

References

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Cash, T. F. (1990). The Multidimensional Body Self Relations Questionnaire. Unpublished test manual, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA.

Paxton, S. J., Wertheim, E. H., Gibbons, K., Szmukler, G. I., Hillier, L., & Ptervich, J. L. (1991). Body image satisfaction, dieting beliefs and weight-loss behaviors in adolescent boys and girls. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 361-379.

______

1. To perform these tests, qualitative and quantitative data were transformed into ordinal rankings of "1" (generally dissatisfied or a BASS score of 1 or 2, "2" (mixed/neutral or a BASS score of 4 or 5), or "3" (generally dissatisfied or a BASS score of 4 or 5). Summative scores were rounded to the nearest whole number prior to transformation.

2. Agreement was defined as an "exact match," or a transformed qualitative and quantitative score of the same value.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

A Test of the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) for Apparel Advertisements

Hyunjoo Oh University of North Carolina, Greensboro, NC 27402

Cynthia Jasper University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706

The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) has been the most popular model for explaining how consumers process an advertisement. The present study was designed to test the adequacy of adopting the ELM to account for the ways that consumers process advertisements for both utilitarian and expressive types of apparel. According to the ELM, when consumers are strongly motivated to process an ad’s messages, they base their evaluations of the product on how strong the messages are. This is called central processing. When consumers are at a low level of involvement, they base their evaluations on the executional elements in the ad, such as attractive models or beautiful pictures. This is called peripheral processing (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). We employed the operationalizations used in previous ELM studies: (1) involvement level as a subject’s level of motivation to process information about an advertised product, (2) claim strength as a recipient’s perception of verbal claims made in the advertisement’s copy (i.e., text) of the ad as strong or weak, and (3) cue attractiveness as the attractiveness of a scenic background picture that provides no relevant information about the merits of the product. Our general hypothesis was as follows. Because verbal claims are more relevant as central argument for product judgments for utilitarian apparel than for expressive apparel, there should be more evidence of claim-based central processing and its effect on attitudinal judgments in responses to utilitarian apparel.

A total of 258 students at a Midwestern university participated in the experimental study that utilized a 2 (involvement) x 2 (strength of verbal claims) x 2 (attractiveness of background picture) x 2 (apparel type) mixed design, with apparel type serving as a within-subject factor. Subjects listed the thoughts, images, and feelings they had had while looking at the advertisements. Later, their responses were coded for claim-related responses by three judges. Subjects rated their attitudes toward the advertised products on seven 7-point scales and responded to manipulation check items. The manipulations were successful. The four-way mixed ANOVA of claim-related responses supported the hypothesis; the interaction between claim strength and involvement level was replicated only for the utilitarian apparel (F = 4.11, p = .044). That is, only for the utilitarian apparel, claim strength exerted a more prominent impact in the high involvement condition than in the low involvement condition. The four-way mixed ANOVA of the sum of product attitude measures ( = .90) yielded a marginally four-way interaction effect (F = 3.73, p = .055). For utilitarian apparel, the attractive background increased the claim effect in the low involvement condition but decreased the claim effect in the high involvement condition. Such an effect was not found for expressive apparel. Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

This study suggests that product type, which can determine viewers’ attention to specific elements of an advertisement, influences whether or not consumers form product attitudes via claim-based central processing at heightened levels of involvement. This study demonstrates the limited applicability of the ELM for understanding attitudes toward expressive products, for which hedonic, aesthetic, symbolic aspects are emphasized.

Reference

Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

EFFECTS OF A MULTICULTURAL COSTUME HISTORY COURSE ON ATTITUDES TOWARD ETHNIC AND ETHNIC-INSPIRED APPAREL

Belinda T. Orzada University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19702

The goal of a university multicultural course requirement is to provide awareness and sensitivity to cultural pluralism. Does this awareness translate into changes in attitudes and behaviors? The purpose of this study was (1) to assess changes in students’ innovativeness, involvement with a product category, and consumer ethnocentrism due to the course content in a particular multicultural course and (2) to examine relationships between these variables.

Methods

Twentieth Century Design: Ethnic Influences, a costume history course, focuses on the influence of various ethnic groups, their cultures and clothing practices on Western apparel fashion during the 20th century. Eighty students voluntarily participated. A pre-test/post-test format was utilized. Three validated consumer behavior scales [Goldsmith & Hofacker’s (1991) innovativeness scale, Shimp & Sharma’s (1987) CETSCALE, and Higie & Feick’s (1988) enduring involvement scale], plus several attitude items developed by the researcher, were used.

Results

The domain specific category, fashionable apparel, was the response category for the 6-item Innovativeness Scale. Mean scores and standard deviations for the pre- and post-tests are M(1)=21.76, SD(1)=4.15; M(2)=21.93, SD(2)=3.6. The Enduring Involvement Scale uses 10 semantic differential pairs to evaluate the selected product. Ethnic dress [M(1)=62.81, SD(1)=16.7; M(2)=61.5, SD(2)=6.9] and ethnic-inspired dress [M(1)=61.75, SD(1)=17.3; M(2)=54.6, SD(2)=6.8] were the involvement product categories examined. A 10-item reduced version of the CETSCALE was used [M(1)=21.55, SD(1)=6.18; M(2)=21.55, SD(2)=6.49]. Reliability (coefficient alpha) for the 3 scales was high (between .75 and .92)

Significant differences (p<.01) were found in paired sample T-tests between pre-and post-tests for self-reported knowledge of multicultural issues. However, no significant differences were found in paired sample T-tests between pre-and post-test measures of innovation, involvement, or ethnocentrism. No significant differences were discovered between any of the scales due to course section, involvement, innovativeness, or ethnocentrism. Involvement was significantly negatively correlated (r=-.257, p<.05) with the CETSCALE in the pre-test but not the post-test. Involvement also was significantly correlated with several of the ethnic/ethnic-inspired dress attitudinal items developed by the researcher (p<.05), including seeking group approval in clothing worn and appreciation of ethnic/ethnic-inspired dress. Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Conclusions

Results have important implications for multicultural course requirements. Self-reported knowledge of multicultural issues increased; however, enduring involvement did not. Further, there was no change in ethnocentrism. Therefore, exposure to one multicultural course may not be enough to significantly influence students’ attitudes and behaviors.

References

Goldsmith, R., & Hofacker, C. F. (1991). Measuring consumer innovativeness. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 19, 209-221.

Higie, R. A., & Feick, L. F. (1988). Enduring involvement: Conceptual and methodological issues. In T. Srull (Ed.), Advances in Consumer Research, 16, pp. 690-696.

Shimp, T. A., & Sharma, S. (1987). Consumer ethnocentrism: Construction and validation of the CETSCALE. Journal of Marketing Research, 24, 280-289.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

DEVELOPMENT OF AN APPAREL AND TEXTILESVIRTUAL CAREER FAIR FOR EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

Shiretta F. Ownbey and Donna Branson Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078

Internships have become an integral part of higher education curriculum, offering benefits to students, employers, and universities. Internships allow exposure to techniques, opportunities, and equipment not available in the classroom. David Kolb’s (1976) experiential learning cycle was used as the theoretical basis for development and enhancement of an internship program in which learning occurs in four stages: concrete experiences, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. While many schools require or encourage internships, many do not actively require student reflection and many do not facilitate the job search process prior to choosing an internship. Consequently, interns often select, accept, or are placed in internships passively and with limited knowledge of career options. Sometimes the internship is a poor fit between the intern and the type of position or company. The need to provide concrete experiences that expand career choices and encourage students to critically think prior to the internship is vital.

This project was designed to enhance experiential learning by linking interns with professionals representing unique and varying aspects of industry. The overall project purpose was to develop a Virtual Career Fair website to facilitate experiential learning in an apparel internship program. The project was funded by a grant from the USDA Challenge Grant Program. The objectives of the project were to (1) interview professionals representing careers in various segments of the apparel and textile industries, (2) create a Virtual Career Fair website, and (3) use the Virtual Career Fair within the context of an existing Pre-Internship Seminar.

Team members conducted videotaped interviews with professionals in various career areas and in various geographic locations throughout the U.S. Interviews focused on each professional’s career path, current job responsibilities, past internship experience(s), and career recommendations. Content of each videotaped interview was logged and evaluated using a checklist developed for the project. Interviews with high ratings were identified as those from which excerpts were selected for incorporation into the website.

A storyboarding process was used to develop website content. Each storyboard included plans for graphics, organization of text, format, and interactive features. Microsoft FrontPage and Adobe PhotoShop were used in development of the website. Excerpts of videotaped interviews were incorporated using video streaming to facilitate a user-friendly site. The website will be linked with a Pre-Internship Seminar course, which is offered to students via the Internet.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

The pre-internship experience allows students to "meet" real professionals representing different career paths and industry segments, offering concrete experiences to initiate the experiential learning process. Students and faculty at other institutions will benefit from this experiential learning tool by incorporating the website into their courses and internship programs. The project enhances industry and higher education linkages, increases students’ technological competence, and strengthens graduates’ competitiveness in the workforce.

Reference

Kolb, D. (1985). Learning-style inventory: Self-scoring inventory and interpretation booklet. Boston, MA: McBer.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

APPAREL AND TEXTILE CONTENT-BASED SERVICE LEARNINGPROJECTS FOR UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS

Shiretta F. Ownbey and Diane Morton Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078

Some people believe that the individualism of the 1970s and 80s undermined basic community and social values. Others believe that advances in technology may be adding to the isolation of individuals. Leaders are calling for a renewed emphasis on community service in order to develop responsible citizens. In 1994 President Clinton wrote a letter to college and university presidents requesting their help in "inspiring an ethic of service across the nation" (Jacoby, 1996, p. 17).

Community Service Learning (CSL) evolved from early American political and educational theories and is now being considered with renewed interest. John Dewey (1916) believed that one of the objectives of education should be to prepare young people to assume responsibilities within a democracy. Earnest Boyer (1983) recommended that schools institute a "new Carnegie unit," a service requirement for all students. While all service-learning projects have merits, the notion of linking these projects with the subject content of students’ field of study is innovative. This project focused on apparel and textile-related service learning projects for undergraduate apparel majors.

The primary objective was to provide service-learning opportunities (1) that were directly related to the subject content of students’ majors and (2) that would engage students in experiential learning. The project was implemented in two phases. A student organization was enlisted to provide leadership to both phases. In addition, an undergraduate Intermediate Apparel Assembly (manufacturing) course was involved in one phase of the project.

For phase one, students partnered with a community organization, Suited for Success, which helps women on assistance as they work toward economic self-sufficiency by collecting clothing and accessories and distributing them to those who are job ready and interviewing for employment. Students developed promotional materials; established drop-off sites; collected 358 suits, 76 pairs of shoes, and various accessories; conducted a quality assurance check of all items; and packaged items for transport and delivery.

For phase two, students partnered with the Bears Care organization, a support group of the Chicago Bears football team. Students, using a team process within the manufacturing course, cut and assembled teddy bears made from polar fleece (with a football motif and Chicago Bears colors). The student organization stuffed and finished the bears. The teddy bears were delivered to terminally ill children at hospitals by Chicago Bears football team members.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

The project incorporates experiential learning used to enrich the classroom experience. The two project phases demonstrate that service-learning projects can be personally meaningful to students by engaging them with society while also providing learning within the subject area.

References

Boyer, E. (1983). High school: A report on secondary education in America by the Carnegie Foundation for Advancement of Teaching. New York: Harper Row.

Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York: The Free Press.

Jacoby, B. (1966). Service learning in higher education: Concepts and practices. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

CRAFT RETAILERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF SUCCESS AND FACTORS AFFECTING SUCCESS

Rosalind C. Paige University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996

Mary A. Littrell Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011

Traditional crafts, including those that are textile-related, offer significant economic contributions to a region’s economy through the revenue generated from small craft retail firms. Prior to this study little was known about small craft retail firms in terms of how they define success and the factors that contribute to their success. The purpose of this research was to identify groups of small craft retail entrepreneurs based on their definitions of success and to compare and contrast each other in relation to competitive strategies, product, pricing, distribution strategies, and networking.

Initially, personal interviews were conducted with 12 craft retailers for the purpose of gathering information from the retailers’ point of view and for strengthening the questionnaire. A mailed survey to 1000 small craft retail businesses followed. From two mailings, 278 questionnaires were returned, resulting in a total response rate of 38%. The two separate survey mailings produced two different groups of respondents; therefore a wave analysis tested for non-response bias.

To determine how success was defined, factor analysis was used. Success was described in both personal and economic terms. Three factors were generated: Satisfaction of Goals, Craft and Cultural Orientation, and Personal Expression. Groups of small craft retailers based on their definitions of success were formed using cluster analysis on the three factor groupings. Four groups of craft retailers were identified: Personal Expressers, Personally Expressive Goal Seekers, Culture Broker Goal Seekers, and Indifferents.

Personal Expressers placed the greatest importance on defining success in terms of personal expression criteria. They defined success more intrinsically in that success entailed being able to have personal expression of their talents in their retail business and/or receive personal gratification from working with crafts. Personally Expressive Goal Seekers placed the greatest emphasis on satisfying their goals, such as achieving sales growth or a level of profit. This group also stressed personal expression criteria in their success definition, such as achieving personal happiness and fulfillment or having the ability to express themselves in their craft business. Culture Broker Goal Seekers also placed great importance on satisfaction of their goals, but they differed in that they had a stronger emphasis on having a craft or cultural orientation in their business. Their success, although goal oriented, was more derived from reinforcing the region’s Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

cultural identity, from preserving and elevating the craft tradition, and from gaining a positive reputation in the community with consumers and within the craft industry. The final group of craft retailers, Indifferents, did not indicate importance on any of the success criteria provided when defining success. The achievement or satisfaction of goals was the least important to them in terms of defining success.

To compare and contrast the groups of craft retailers, MANOVA, ANOVA, and chi square were used to examine the variables affecting craft retail success. The groups of craft retailers differed in their competitive strategies, product assortment strategies, and networking activities, each relative to how the group defined success.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

DESIGNING FOR MASS CUSTOMIZATION

Lisa Parrillo-Chapman and Cynthia L. Istook North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606

Clothing has many functions including protection from the environment, protection from the elements, and adornment of our bodies. However, when we make a decision to purchase clothing, the function of the latter usually drives our choice. We choose to buy one article of clothing over another, not for any practical function but because we like the color, style, or how it fits us. The choice of consumers to wear what they like versus what is merely functional propels fashion. What we wear portrays to the viewer who we are and clothing becomes a visual portrayal of our personalities. Consumers, wanting to express this individuality, are demanding a broader array of choices in garment style and pattern design pulled from a multitude cultures and ages. This array has become so large as to almost be individual.

Producing clothing on a more individual basis, such as in mass customization, is challenging in many aspects: design concepts, sizing, production, and marketing, for example. Utilizing current equipment developed to assist in mass customization, such as CAD for apparel and textile design, 3-D body scanning, and digital printing, should enable us to meet these challenges.

A team composed of experts in these technologies has been studying techniques to mass-produce customized clothing. In a summer research study, a sample of 15 male and female subjects, aged 16 to 18, were chosen to design a custom garment taking advantage of these technologies. This age group was chosen because market surveys identified them as receptive to new ideas and skilled in computer usage. The subjects were body scanned for the measurements and allowed to choose garment styles and textile patterns from a library. A garment, fit to size, was then created based on the choices.

Contrary to our original belief, the subjects were not completely satisfied with their garments. The clothing fit well and was the style, pattern, and color of their choice, but it was not what they envisioned or expected. From this we concluded that (1) guidance needed to be provided as to the best choice of garment style for body shape and correct measurements were not enough; (2) a larger library of textile patterns and apparel styles needed to be provided to even include the consumer’s own designs; (3) choices as to apparel style and textile pattern need to be organized in a library so as to allow for a narrow search (i.e. a Spring dress for a 30-year-old professional); and (4) a garment with the chosen attributes should be virtually modeled on the customer. Although consumers have become very sophisticated in their knowledge of apparel, they are not fully capable of designing their own clothing. We can better assist them in getting what they want by providing more targeted choices.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

"FOR HOMEMAKING AND A TRADE": PARADOX AND PROBLEMS IN THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF SYSTEMIZED SEWING INSTRUCTION

Jean L. Parsons Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50010

Sewing has been an integral part of women’s education for centuries. Young women who could afford it received formal sewing instruction in ladies academies by the late 18th century. Other forms of sewing instruction appeared at mid 19th century targeted toward a completely different young woman, one forced to earn a living. The fact that sewing represented both a part of the traditional feminine role in the home and one of the few acceptable ways to earn a living led to ambiguity on the part of both educators and students almost from the beginning.

Some of the earliest formal sewing instruction was offered by charity organizations. These programs intended to help a growing class of poor, urban women with little means of self- support in a world with few job opportunities. A few public schools also began to offer sewing by the 1860s. The start was slow because parents feared that sewing in the public school would take attention away from other studies. Initially, courses were offered to girls who were not doing well academically. By the 1890s, sewing instruction was increasingly offered in public schools, through charity organizations and by groups such as the Federation of Women’s Clubs.

As the vocational education movement grew at the turn of the century, educators confronted two primary questions: was industrial employment the proper place for young women and should women be trained for jobs they would probably leave at marriage? To counter these arguments, vocational schools focused almost exclusively on dressmaking, millinery, and factory sewing, aimed at young woman who left school as soon as legally possible. Public schools continued to offer sewing in home economics classes, but the terms and often the content of courses for industrial, trade, and vocational home economics sewing were frequently the same.

Teaching sewing for trade work met with limited success. Daughters of immigrants saw dressmaking as a trade that would lift them out of undesirable work as servants. However, the rise of ready-made clothing and decline of custom production meant limited opportunities. Factory sewing was deemed less desirable and could usually be learned on the job. Schools suffered a high dropout rate. Some girls took the course only to get help in making their own clothes. Elective high school home economics courses failed to attract students for various reasons. An overemphasis on hand sewing skills and not enough on style were two, although in one survey, over 20% of those interviewed did not enroll because the teacher lacked style. Finally, the idea that sewing was now linked to the factory and considered to be work for girls of "inferior intellect" was a deterrent to some middle-class girls (Quilling, 1926).

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

The dual purposes of instruction for both trade and home use meant educators had to continually justify the importance of sewing and clothing construction courses. Women, of course, continued to sew and make clothing, but sewing education in public schools began to shift in content as women turned to ready-to-wear. With declining demand for custom-made clothing, trade dressmaking courses all but disappeared, but fashion design began to enter the programs of design schools and represented a new opportunity to connect sewing skills with creativity.

Reference

Quilling, F. (1926) Why high school girls do not elect clothing courses. Journal of Home Economics, 18, 642-643.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

THE IMPACT OF A SERVICE-LEARNING APPROACH IN A RETAIL MERCHANDISING CAPSTONE COURSE

V. Ann Paulins Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

References

Giles, D. E., & Eyler, J. (1994). The impact of a college community service laboratory on student’s personal, social, and cognitive outcomes. Journal of Adolescence, 17, 327-339.

Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Paulins, V. A. (1999). Service-learning and civic responsibility: The consumer in American society. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 92(2), 66-72.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

SERVICE-LEARNING IN STRATEGIC RETAIL POLICY: NEW IMPLICATIONS FOR A SIMULATION EXPERIENCE

V. Ann Paulins Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701

In a senior level retail merchandising capstone course, service-learning was defined as an academic project that addresses a societal need within the context of a hands-on, learning- centered approach toward a solution. Service-learning has been identified by a number of teachers and researchers as a meaningful pedagogical method by which students learn course competencies, explore personal values, develop professional orientations, and improve the quality of life for the community (Batchelder & Root, 1994; Giles & Eyler, 1994; Mettetal & Bryant, 1996; Paulins, 1999). Through service-learning students both (1) engage in active learning, which has been shown to enhance the learning process (Stalheim-Smith, 1998), and (2) provide service to the community, which fulfills School and University missions while reinforcing a holistic and practical approach to problem solving.

Mettetal and Bryant (1996) have suggested that effective service-learning projects contain the following considerations: (1) The service provided through the course must related to learning goals for the course; (2) the project must provide a necessary service, and (3) students should carry out the project so that the theory relevant to the course is applied in a field situation. These criteria were followed as the course project was developed. The selected course, Strategic Retail Policy, requires senior retail merchandising majors to collaborate in an effort to create a viable retail company. Class members competitively apply for positions in the company such as director of marketing, product development specialist, buyer, and designer. Historically, the class has required students to develop hypothetical retail companies. This new initiative, to incorporate service-learning into the course, required that a real fledgling retail business be used.

Several considerations were identified during the project planning phase. It was determined that the cooperating business needed to (1) be willing to share sales figures and strategies planned for the future, (2) be a relatively new business in order for the students to establish a business plan from the "ground up," and (3) recognize the value of and need for assistance from the students in the course. A nonprofit agency specializing in recycling consumer products recently opened a second-hand retail shop. The shop’s operation was funded by a grant, and the CEO of the agency did not expect the store to realize a profit. This presented a challenge to the students and a situation in which open records about the financial operations of the store were accessible. The goal to improve merchandising, publicity, inventory management, pricing, and customer service offered by the store would result in a win-win situation for the store and the students in the class.

Throughout the duration of the course students accomplished identification of a target market and the demographics of customers, created an appropriate mission statement for the business,

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

defined positions and wrote positions descriptions for necessary jobs related to the business, and developed a training manual that will be used by the managers and employees of the store. Students reported high levels of satisfaction with the course.

References

Batchelder, T. H., & Root, S. (1994). Effects of an undergraduate program to integrate academic learning and service: Cognitive, prosocial cognitive, and identity outcomes. Journal of Adolescence, 17, 341-355.

Giles, D. E., & Eyler, J. (1994). The impact of a college community service laboratory on students’ personal, social, and cognitive outcomes. Journal of Adolescence, 17, 327-339.

Mettetal, G., & Bryant, D. (1996). Service learning research projects: Empowerment in students, faculty, and communities. College Teaching, 44(1), 24-28.

Paulins, V. A. (1999). Service-learning and civic responsibility: The consumer in American society. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 91(2), 66-72.

Stalheim-Smith, A. (1998, February). Focusing on active, meaningful learning. Idea Paper #34, Exchange, published by Kansas State University.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Real World Quality Assurance Education for the Needle Trades

Charles Perry and Diana Cone Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA 30460

As the apparel industry prepares for the new millennium, the ability to produce a quality product at a competitive price may be the key for business to provide the ultimate competitive advantage. Quality assurance is an integral part of apparel product development from design through shipping of the completed garment. As the apparel industry becomes more competitive, manufacturers are seeking ways to establish effective quality control programs that meet the needs of the rapidly changing global environment.

Students at a regional university in the southeast had an opportunity to receive real world experience with quality control by establishing a simulated apparel company called Eagle Enterprises. Initially, the instructor introduced the students to quality assurance systems, materials and product specifications and evaluations, statistical process control/acceptance sampling, and textile/apparel laboratory performance test. The objectives of the course were to

1. organize a quality assurance system 2. write specifications for raw materials 3. write process specifications 4. write product specifications 5. perform specific textile/apparel performance tests 6. use statistical techniques to evaluate the ability of the process to meet manufacturing specifications 7. plan both in-progress and final audits

The students elected officers, developed a product, and manufactured samples of the product using industrial equipment. Recommendations for needle size, thread, and stitch length were developed using Taguchi’s Design of Experiments. One division of the simulated company was quality assurance. One student was elected the team leader and various teams were formed to complete the project. Statistical quality analyses were developed using Quattro Pro spreadsheet data analysis. Students played the role of contractor, verified the pattern specs, and tested the components of the garment using ASTM and AATCC procedures.

The students enjoyed establishing their own company and testing their product for quality. They were motivated to work as a group to achieve results and found that working with others was just as important as the actual testing of the product. Actively engaging students in a hands-on quality testing project appeared to be effective in satisfying the objectives of the course and students commented that they preferred this to learning about the concepts via lectures.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Establishing a simulated company and conducting quality assurance tests on an actual product were beneficial in providing a real-world model to the students. Modifications to the statistical processes will be made by utilizing Excel instead of Quattro Pro to facilitate ease of use.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

CONSUMER PURCHASE DATA AS A STRATEGIC PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT TOOL

Traci May-Plumlee North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695

Purpose

Method

Results

Discussion

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

References

Bonner, S. (1996, March). Forecasting fashion. Apparel Industry Magazine, 57 (3), 32, 34.

Engle, J., Blackwell, R., & Miniard, P. (1995). Consumer behavior (8th ed.). Fort Worth: The Dryden Press.

Irastorza, J., & Way, D. (1996, March). VMI is for fashion, too. Apparel Industry Magazine, 57(3), 16.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Visual literacy program: an interdisciplinary approach to teaching the basic elements and principles of design through lecture

Vincent Gil Vargas Quevedo University of Nebraska Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583

The Visual Literacy Program was the result of a two-year feasibility study involving four disciplines to team teach a freshman level course on the basic elements and principles of design. This program is one of the first in the country to take this unique approach in delivering a subject matter common to Art, Clothing and Textiles, Architecture, and Interior Design. The estimated 200 students were lectured by all of the faculty (present in all of the lectures) on a rotating schedule to include one faculty teaching his/her area of expertise to all of the eight sections with approximately 25 students in each class. This program refers to a collection of courses cooperatively designed, taught, and administered by the College of Architecture, College of Fine and Performing Arts, and College of Human Resources and Family Sciences. This course is required of all freshman students interested in the design profession and fine arts.

Description of the Course

Introductory lecture to critical and analytical skills in a variety of visual contexts. Focus is on understanding modes of visual language, descriptive processes, and knowledge of contemporary and historical works and issues. This focus is applied to design issues including two-dimensional compositions, two-dimensional symbols and use, and three-dimensional spatial systems. The course utilized a lecture format which delivered information, techniques, and precedents for the students to process and critique. Guest artisans, designers, historians, and academicians were invited to lecture on a topic relevant to the subject matter being discussed.

Objectives

Students in the Visual Literacy Lecture will become aware of critical, analytical, and expressive skills in a variety of visual contexts. This awareness will assist the student in the following:

•The student applies critical thinking and creative processes. Demonstrates an ability to perform formal analysis of objects. Comprehends cultural issues in form and historical and contemporary contexts.

•The student understands influences in design. Understands physical forces that act on form. Understands the basics of order and the impact on form. Knows contemporary art and design and the issues surrounding this work.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

•The student demonstrates professional practices. Verbally describes and discusses specific projects. Responds to deadlines with required products in a timely manner.

Implications

By drawing together faculty from across campus, this course constructs a dynamic foundation program that integrates a broader base of studio and conceptual skills than is currently offered through the individual efforts of the colleges and departments.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Computer application for product development, marketing, and promotion

Vincent Gil Vargas Quevedo University of Nebraska Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583

Purpose

The purpose of this project was to improve the quality of workmanship needed in visual presentations required by the Textiles, Clothing and Design Program. Results from a program evaluation by the faculty have concluded with a recommendation to integrate a greater use of technology in the classroom and to improve the quality of visual presentations made by the students. This course was designed to improve the quality of student portfolios, oral presentations, written projects, visual displays, marketing skills, product promotion, and overall presentation skills.

Project Description

Each student was required to create a new business in the local area. Surveys were created and analyzed to determine their target market, location, product offerings, and business promotional materials. Afterwards, groups were created for a product development project replicating the same requirements from the first project with the introduction of a product they must use to market, manufacture, and merchandise. Lastly, their final project was a portfolio that marketed their personal skills.

Market research projects included the following requirements: press release; review of literature, survey questionnaire, survey results, conclusions and recommendations; product development, stationery, and business cards. Each group was given a dress design for product development. They chose the fabrics, sent the design out for production, and created a costing sheet and marketing plan. Self-promotional packets included the following requirements: resume, cover letter, stationery, business cards, employment references, and portfolio.

Students created documents that met project requirements. Local surveys were used to gather demographic information for a feasibility study endorsing the need for a new fashion business. Results from the study were used to support the students' proposed business. Self-promotional packets were also produced to prepare the student for the workforce for internships and/or possible employment.

Implications

Students who took this class had limited and/or no computer skills. It was important that they learned to use the computer as a tool that could assist them with other courses offered within the Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

department. Overall, the results of this project were overwhelmingly positive and will be used in other courses requiring the production of two-dimensional projects. It was evident that students were also applying their newfound skills in other areas of their studies as other faculty reported an increase of higher quality projects resulting from the use of a computer program they learned in this class. Additionally, the portfolios they created were vastly improved and have been used for interviews, internships, jobs, and departmental presentations.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

KOREAN AND U.S. COLLEGE FEMALE STUDENTS’ CLOTHING BUYING PATTERNS RELATIVE TO SELF-CONCEPT

Nancy J. Rabolt San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94132

Choon Sup Hwang Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea

In an era of globalization, the competitiveness of a fashion industry depends on the understanding of its targeted consumers and their purchasing behavior. Self-concept is an integral component of consumer behavior.

This study compared the buying patterns of American and Korean female college students in relation to their self-concept for (1) criteria for clothing selection; (2) store preferences; (3) criteria for store selection; (4) fashion information sources used; (5) expressions of customer dissatisfaction; (6) perceived image of products by country of origin; (7) purchasing frequency; and (8) motivations for purchasing clothes.

Method

The study was implemented through self-administered questionnaires which were back translated for validity. The samples consisted of 730 female students majoring in fields related to clothing and textiles: 310 U.S. students located in the northeast, west, and southwest part of the U.S. and 412 Korean students at four universities located in Seoul. Likert scales were used for most measures with 1=never or very unimportant and 5=always or very important. Physical self- concept was measured on the basis of Won-Shik Jung’s Standardized Self-Concept Test and the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. Data were analyzed by factor analysis, analysis of covariance, Duncan’s multiple comparison, and correspondence analysis.

Results

(1) The design factor was the most important criteria in clothing selection for both country groups. There were significant differences for three factors: the U.S. group was more practical and economic while psychological exhibition was of more importance to Koreans. (2) Both groups preferred specialty and department stores with department stores more popular in Korea. No differences were found relative to self-concept for Korean students; however U.S. students with a high sense of personal self-concept preferred outlet stores. (3) Four factors were generated for store selection criteria. Merchandise was most important for both groups. The U.S. group viewed service and merchandise more important while the Korean group found shopping convenience more important than the U.S. group. (4) Fashion magazines and self-experience Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

were rated as the most important information sources. No group differences were found for many sources; however, Korean more than U.S. students found store displays important and U.S. students found salespersons, friends, and movie personalities more important. (5) The Korean group expressed their dissatisfaction with a problem with a product before purchase more often than the U.S. group, but the U.S. group was more vocal about color loss or shrinkage after care procedures. (6) Both groups perceived clothing made in Italy of the highest quality. (7) American students purchased clothing more often than the Korean group. Those with a high self-concept had a tendency to make either very frequent purchases (once or twice a week) or very few (1-6 times a year). (8) Change of season was the most common reason for buying new clothes in Korea while U.S. students bought new clothes most when they had extra money.

Correspondence analysis showed no other relationships with variables and self-concept.

Conclusions and Implications

Some differences between the two countries emerged. Korean marketers targeting American consumers might consider more of the economic and practical aspects of the merchandise, in addition to the service and salesperson’s role at the store. Self-concept was somewhat related to purchasing behavior but more study is needed before applying to marketing concepts.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

EDUCATIONAL "SORTS": A STRATEGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

Judith Rasband Conselle Institute of Image Management, Provo, UT 84602

The new and innovative Educational "Sorts" are a stimulating, effective, and economical strategy for teaching and learning. The purpose of Educational "Sorts" is to provide a medium or tool for self-expression, comparative understanding, assessment, and application. Educational "Sorts" are useful to all ITAA members with unlimited application and modification as needed or desired.

An Educational "Sort" utilizes a set of pre-selected apparel-related words, symbols, or images, each appearing on one side of a laminated card. Instructions and key are included in the master set. Multiple sets may be prepared for use in class and stored in small, clear, zip-lock type plastic bags for easy identification.

In a teaching situation, the Educational "Sorts" are given to a (pair or group of students if intended to be a cooperative effort). A student lays the cards at random out on the desk or table top and proceeds to sort, arrange, or rank cards into a meaningful sequence, continuum, or scale between opposite characteristics according to instructions. For example, sort the cards from authoritative to approachable, dressy to casual, professional to play, dominant to subordinate, yang to yin, appropriate to inappropriate, classic to fad, figure type to geometrical symbol, and so on with unlimited variety. Instructor response or key card discloses correct, recommended, or stereotypical arrangement or ranking according to theory previously taught or read. Discussion and comparison follows. Differences in cultural, educational, or familial background may cause differences in perception and interpretation. Students are invited to respond with their own first impressions, immediate perceptions, or instincts. Complexity varies from single words, symbols, or simple line drawings to complete definitions and clothing catalog pictures. Individual cards may be removed from a particular sort to simplify it for younger or less advanced students.

Student interest and attention are extremely high when working with these Educational "Sorts." Attention to detail is stimulated. Students report they have never had such simple, yet effective, tools for learning. Students report Educational "Sorts" to be their favorite interactive exercise experience and ask for more. They instantly see and understand the relationship between theory and application. They quickly move to developing their own sorts, using pictures from clothing catalogs in both men's wear and women's wear.

Plans are ongoing to create more Educational "Sorts" related to impression management, consumer behavior, and visual design in dress. All sorts are tested with focus groups before

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

releasing to student or conference groups. Selected sorts are available in formal research projects.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

KLEIBACKER: A WEB‐BASED HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE MASTER OF BIAS

Elizabeth A. Rhodes

Kent State University, Kent, OH 44242

The researcher has worked with American designer, Charles Kleibacker, to document his life as a designer, educator, and curator of 20th‐century fashion. Extensive oral history research has been compiled to document Kleibacker’s various careers and techniques. This information is advantageous for scholars and fashion enthusiasts to study and use as inspiration.

The researcher has brought together a variety of segments of Kleibacker’s careers to include a collection of

• Audio‐ and video‐taped oral history interviews with Charles Kleibacker which have been compiled to present biographical information. This project continues as the researcher is collecting additional oral histories with Kleibacker clients, staff, and family members.

• Photographs of Kleibacker designs of the 60s, 70s, and 80s. These photos were made at the time the garment was designed and were used originally for publicity.

• Slides from Kleibacker slide shows on 20th‐century historic fashion.

• Slides of Kleibacker museum exhibitions from the 80s and 90s that focus on 20th‐ century costume.

• Sketches and written documentation of Kleibacker bias design techniques.

After completing the oral history interviews and collecting the related documents, the researcher has compiled this information into a web site on Kleibacker. The web‐site is designed in segments and can be expanded as additional research is completed. Currently on the site are the following segments:

• A biographical segment giving dates and career focuses throughout the 78 years of Kleibacker’s life.

• Photographs of Kleibacker designs where the viewer can see Kleibacker’s work of the 60s, 70s, and 80s. Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

• A tutorial of Kleibacker bias techniques compiled by the researcher and based upon observation of Kleibacker at work (Kleibacker has shared many techniques orally but has never documented these on paper).

• Slides of Kleibacker costume history presentations.

• Slides of Kleibacker museum exhibitions on costume history.

• Reference to a video featuring Kleibacker demonstrations of bias techniques and runway models in Kleibacker‐designed garments (video produced by the researcher).

The value of the web‐based site and video on Charles Kleibacker is that they bring information together on Kleibacker as a 20th‐century designer, educator, and curator and organize this information in an accessible way. The site is available to any scholar or viewer who has access to the Internet. With the Internet in most schools and libraries and many homes throughout the world, this medium places the Kleibacker research in the hands of nearly everyone with an interest. The viewer may also e‐mail the researcher for further discussion or information related to the site. Added value is that Charles Kleibacker, himself, has reviewed all the information and has edited it for accuracy. http://www.kent.edu/fashion/kleibacker

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

FUNCTIONAL DESIGN APPLIED TO WOMEN’S CLIMBING APPAREL

Jane Ruth and Eulanda A. Sanders Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523

Mountain climbing began in the mid-1700s in Europe when men began climbing out of a desire to reach the summit (Long, 1994). Women now comprise one-third of all rock climbers (Hansen, 1997). The literature lacks information on design trends of current women’s climbing apparel. The goal of this study was to design women’s climbing apparel that addressed functional and aesthetic aspects of women climbers while focusing on function, fit, and style.

Procedures were based on a functional design model [developed by Orlando (1979) and refined by Tan, Crown, & Capjack (1998)] that included pilot study, design analysis, design specification, prototype development, and prototype evaluation. Pilot study entailed a focus group discussion with four women and a content analysis of climbing catalogs to gather information for instrument development for proceeding stages. Design analysis stage involved a new focus group for a written background questionnaire and discussion to gather data for the design specification and prototype development stages. Design specification stage involved a focus group meeting for garment design presentation, interaction matrix, fabric discussions, and body measurements. Prototype development involved creation of a climbing jacket and pant. Prototype evaluation required a final focus group meeting for movement analysis, evaluation of the prototype garments, and completion of an evaluation questionnaire on the garments.

Qualitative data collected was coded, analyzed, and entered into an Interaction Matrix (Tan et al., 1998) to determine prevalent themes. Quantitative data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences to determine frequencies and descriptives on the variables. Clothing comfort was the most important aspect for women’s climbing apparel, which included physical comfort and psychological comfort. Physical comfort was determined by function and fit. Psychological comfort was related to aesthetics. Garment mobility was affected by function (physical attributes of the fabric) and by the fit of the garment, which was significant due to its absence from the literature. The Functional Garment Model for Women Climbers was developed, based on the themes that emerged.

Manufacturers of active sportswear have in the past, ignored the functional and aesthetic aspects of women climbers for climbing apparel. This research addressed some of these needs and the design details of the prototype may have industry application, such as the invisible-through-the- crotch zipper in the prototype pants and the gear loop access on the prototype jacket.

References

Hansen, E. (1997). Taking care of their own. Women’s Sports and Fitness, 19(1), 28-29.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Long, J. (1994). Rock climb! Evergreen, CO: Chockstone Press.

Orlando, Y. (1979). Objectifying apparel design. Combined proceedings, ACTPC proceedings, Eastern, Central, & Western Regional Meetings, 127-132.

Tan, Y., Crown, E., & Capjack, L. (1998). Design and evaluation of thermal protective flightsuits. Part 1, The design process and prototype development. Clothing and Textile Research Journal, 16(1), 47-55.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

CREATING WEARABLE AND FIBER ART USING A THEORY-BASED STRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS

Eulanda A. Sanders Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523

The use of theory as a basis for the design and production of wearable and fiber art results in innovative art built from a foundation. The students in a graduate level course were introduced to the use of semiotics as a theoretical framework for design work created by the means of computer-aided design systems typically used for ready-to-wear production. Semiotics allows the designer to not only identify signs and symbols within a cultural system but also to explore the meaning behind the symbols to use as a foundation and inspiration for design work. This approach to design provides a means for students to articulate the rationale behind the creation of their designs.

Each student chose a culture to study for the course. The students were introduced to French sociologist Bourdieu’s method for classifying symbols and the derived meanings behind them (Leach, 1976) as a method to graphically illustrate the meanings of motifs within a culture. Then the students were challenged to use these findings and additional research to write a research paper and create inspiration boards as the basis for all the design work created in the course. The research paper and inspiration boards were evaluated on (1) current economic, political, and social issues of the culture; (2) description of the geographic location; (3) motifs, patterns, colors, fabrics, and trims preferred by the ethnic or cultural group; (4) meanings of the motifs preferred and used by the group; (5) current textiles and designers in the market that have been influenced by the ethnic or cultural group; and (6) a plan for use of the motifs and symbolic meanings for the semester’s projects. Traditional and popular cultures chosen included India (Kutch embroideries), graffiti artists, vampires, travel culture, and the English Renaissance.

To determine appropriate textile construction techniques for the studied culture and its symbolic meanings of motifs, each student developed a sample notebook. The techniques explored included repeat printing, block printing, free-form embroidery, computer-aided embroidery, binding and tassels, shibori, hand-quilting, machine quilting, hand-knitting, machine knitting, and felting. Computer-aided design programs such as U4ia (textile design for repeats, wovens and knits), U4ia Sketch (a vector-based program for line drawings and colorways), and Melco EDSIII (an embroidery digitizing system) were used for development of the techniques. The students viewed PowerPoint presentations of textiles created by each technique taught.

The students were required to create three major projects for a juried exhibition at the end of the semester that included repeat printed yardage (of at least two colors) and two pieces of fiber/wearable art using at least two techniques explored in the sample notebook. The art produced for the juried exhibition was evaluated on (1) the relation of the designs to the written

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

description of the culture studied, (2) appropriate construction for the item and the materials used, and (3) innovation in design and construction. The final project for the semester was an animated portfolio created on PowerPoint that included computer- generated colorways of samples and projects created in the course.

Reference

Leach, E. (1976). Culture and communication. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT FOR APPAREL DESIGN STUDENTS: INFUSING THE CURRICULUM FROM FRESHMAN TO SENIOR LEVELS

Eulanda A. Sanders Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523

This presentation outlined curriculum changes to a department’s apparel design and production curriculum to enhance the experiences and the quality of students’ understanding of product development. The primary goal for the educators was to strengthen the program by creating a synthesized course in garment assembly and pattern making. Additional goals of the educators were to remove "home sewing" techniques from the curriculum and concentrate on industry techniques for ready-to-wear, tailored, and couture garments and to introduce state-of-the-art computer technologies into the upper division courses. The result was the development of three new courses and modification of the capstone course to infuse curriculum with product development perspectives from the freshman to senior levels. The new courses were Apparel Production I, Apparel Production II, and Computer-Aided Apparel Production.

Apparel Production I, a four-credit freshman level course, introduces the analysis of garment components in the area of pattern development, construction, and quality standards. Domestic and industrial equipment were used to create the projects in the course that included a sample notebook, construction and pattern making, garment components and analysis, sleeveless bodice first sample and production sample, skirt first sample and production sample, and introduction to costing and specifications.

Apparel Production II entails exploration of sewn textile products, flat pattern, pattern grading, and marker-making techniques to enhance student understanding of manufacturing processes through individual and group projects. The projects in the course include a specification project, costing project, pattern problems, production sample project, designer/pattern maker/sample maker project, and client-based manufacturing project.

The Computer-Aided Apparel Production course was designed to utilize industry standard CAD programs for technical sketching, pattern making, pattern grading, and marker making. The purpose is to enhance the skills gained through manual techniques by transferring to computer technologies. The course includes the following CAD activities: pattern problems, production sample projects, pattern grading, marker making, printing management, computerized costing, and a client-based manufacturing project.

The capstone course, CAD Apparel Design and Production, has been traditionally taught from the model of an apparel manufacturer. The class is divided into product development teams, all employed by the apparel manufacturer to develop a line of 10 garments. All the stages of product development are completed on newly acquired industry standard CAD systems and evaluated at

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

merchandise meetings by the entire class. Integrating new CAD technologies and animated presentations for the merchandise meetings has modified the class. The goals of the educators are to integrate more merchandising techniques for the wholesale environments, assortment planning, and increase the amount of product production.

The major significance of the changes in the curriculum is the infusion of the realities of product development for the students, beginning at the freshman level. The presentation included examples of student work at each of the four levels. Information on the educator’s experiences with implementing the new curriculum the first year and related to tangible outcomes was shared.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Examination of the Relationship of Sizing Measurements to Grade Rules for U.S. Women's Clothing for the Upper Torso

Nancy A. Schofield University of Wisconsin-Stout, Menomonie, WI 54751

Karen L. LaBat University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108

The sizes of clothing that are available to U.S. women are created by a process known as grading. One would expect there to be a direct relationship between grading and sizing. If so, the grade rules used to create the sized garments should be derived from the measurements used in sizing. The research question asked whether sizing measurement information could be used in the formation of grade rules.

Grading is accomplished by applying a vertical and/or horizontal increase (or decrease) to certain points of each garment pattern piece to obtain the next larger (or smaller) sized garment. Each of these points, known as cardinal points, is assigned a grade rule. Each grade rule has two components, the horizontal and vertical portion of the increase at that point.

Forty-three sizing charts for women’s clothing spanning the years from 1873 to 2000 were examined. They were collected from retailers, dressmaking texts, published sizing standards, and apparel pattern companies. An attempt was made to obtain several charts from each decade. The study was limited to the measurements of the upper torso. Thirty different measurements were identified from the accompanying descriptions and/or diagrams or photographs.

Body measurement requires the identification of sites on the body to serve as "endpoints" for measurements. These landmarks are based on specific points on certain bones and less exact positions on soft tissue. The landmark for each measurement was identified. Each measurement was examined to determine whether it was useful for grade rule formation. Three criteria were applied:

•The measurement must be either a horizontal or vertical garment measurement.

•The measurement must relate to only one cardinal point.

•The measurement must use a body landmark.

Only 12 measurements met the first two criteria. Seven of those were not related to the existing body landmarks. (Five involved the side seam which has no landmarks. Cross chest and cross back were taken above the location of possible landmarks—the axilla folds.) Of the 30 Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

measurements used in sizing charts, only five (17%) could be used for grade rule formation. These are front and back shoulder widths, scye depth, side neck to bustpoint, and bustpoint to bustpoint. Of these, only back shoulder width was a common measurement.

Next, the cardinal points of the bodice were examined to determine whether there was a corresponding landmark and measurement. Of the 22 cardinal points, only five (23%) were specifically related to body landmarks: the suprasternale bust point, the cervicale, the trapezius point, and the acromion. Three more existing landmarks could be used for measurements of the body for garment purposes but have not.

Each of the 22 grade rules could have a vertical and horizontal component. Of the 38 non-zero grade rule components, 16 had no related body measurement. Only seven of the 38 grade rule components had related body measurements that could be considered useful for grade rule formation. At most, 18% of the grade rule components commonly used to grade a basic woman’s bodice could be based on body measurements that have been used in sizing.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

DESIGN COLLABORATIONS: AN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT

Sherry Schofield-Tomschin, Eric Wiedegreen, and Bradley Whitney Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061

During a time of shrinking university resources, we have witnessed an increase in the number and diversity of merged departments. Although the combined departments have provided some logistical nightmares, they have also provided opportunities for collaborative efforts among faculty from different disciplines. The collaborative endeavors increase the scope and variety of activities available to students and the university community while better utilizing resources. Within our department, along with other program areas, there are two design programs, apparel design and interior design. Faculty from these two areas decided to combine forces to create a gallery exhibit that would emphasize the design similarities between interior spaces and apparel. In addition, the exhibit would allow students and administration to make connections within the department while enhancing the appreciation for other design disciplines. Specifically, the objectives of the exhibit were to (1) provide an educational exhibit that was applicable to both apparel design and interior design, (2) acknowledge the commonality of interests, principles, and concerns across the two programs, and (3) to use design from the 1950s as the impetus for the exhibit.

Choosing the decade of the 1950s was twofold. First, it is not uncommon at the turn of any century to look back and reassess where one has been and to choose elements from that era to move forward into the future. Today's professionals are currently returning to the 50s to find good design. Fashion designers, such as Marc Jacobs and Karl Lagerfeld, borrow today from design idioms of the period. The Internet has embraced graphic designs from the 50s, and even television, with its very roots in this period, is now relying on 50s Quiz Show formats to increase viewers. Second, the department has an historic costume collection underutilized and under appreciated by areas other than Clothing and Textiles. By exhibiting historic garments within a design context, the collection receives increased visibility, and a larger audience is educated about the importance of viewing cultural artifacts to get an expanded view of a given time period.

Beyond historic garments, the exhibit included furniture, photographs, and art pieces that were representative of 50s design. In addition, a web page designed for the exhibit explained our exhibit thesis and included links to other sites that would strengthen understanding of our concept. A computer was available for patrons' immediate use and investigation.

An opening night reception was held for students, faculty, and administration. The three faculty members discussed their area of expertise in relation to the exhibit and the artifacts included. Beyond the reception, flyers were sent to other faculty members within design programs inviting

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

them to the exhibit and offering an informative tour. Our own classes were asked to complete exercises within the exhibit. Within apparel design, my students were required to sketch garments in the exhibit, to write a brief report on the design similarities among the items exhibited, and to design contemporary garments that incorporated design elements from the 50s. Overall, the students enjoyed "getting out of the classroom" and requested additional design opportunities. Beyond the class activity, faculty were able to see the potential for further collaborative efforts with other departments.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Consumer behavior research: trends in topics, nature of inquiry, and methodology

Heesun Seo, Marguerite Moore, and Ann Fairhurst University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996

The purpose of the study is to examine the body of consumer behavior research published in Clothing and Textiles Research Journal (CTRJ) from its beginning in 1982 until the year ending 2000 (Vols. 1-18). The objectives of the study are to review topical areas, approach to inquiry, and methodology adopted in consumer behavior research published in CTRJ over the 19-year period. Through increased understanding of these three areas we can better evaluate the past, current, and future consumer behavior research in the Clothing and Textiles field.

The authors conducted a content analysis on each issue of CTRJ for the 19-year period. Holbrook's (1987) broad definition of consumer behavior research was chosen to guide the study. Holbrook (1987) defined consumer research as "a field of inquiry that takes consumption as its central focus and that therefore examines all facets of the value potentially provided when some living organism acquires, uses and disposes of any product that might achieve a goal, fulfill a need or satisfy a want (p. 130).

Nine-six articles were classified as having consumer behavior research content. Each article was further analyzed by topic, approach to inquiry, and methodology. Disagreements from the initial classification were addressed through consultation with a third-party expert. Following the consultant's recommendations, 11 article disagreements were re-classified. Inter-rater correlation was scored for topical classification, resulting in a coefficient of .86.

The content analysis indicated researcher attention to nine topical areas, including 19 sub- categories. The final sample (N=96) accounted for approximately 21% of all published articles in CTRJ from 1982 to 2000. Two topics, Decision-Process Behavior and Interpersonal Influences, accounted for approximately 40% of all reviewed research. Additionally, Patronage Behavior (16.7%), Environmental Influences (15.6%), and Organizational Behavior (11.5%) received notable attention. Postpurchase Behavior (7.3%), Consumer Behavior in Fashion Process (6.3%), Research Method in Consumer Behavior (2.1%), and Diffusion of Innovation (1.2%) also received limited research attention.

The dominant approach to inquiry was empirical (83%), which far outweighed descriptive and conceptual approaches. Only 13% of the consumer behavior research articles reviewed were classified as descriptive, followed by an even smaller percentage (4%) classified as conceptual. Methodology results indicated a tendency toward the empirical approach for consumer behavior research in CTRJ. The most common approach was the survey research method (75%), which included mail, telephone, and questionnaires. Limited studies were found that used experimental

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

research design (10%), interview method (in-person and telephone) (6%), content analysis (3%), secondary data analysis (2%), and other (4%).

These findings provide insightful directions for advancing consumer behavior research within CTRJ. It is clear that consumer behavior research has played an important role in CTRJ over the 19-year period. However, results of this study suggest that topical diversity, attention to conceptual development, and alternative methods for inquiry will be necessary to enrich consumer behavior research in the clothing and textiles field.

Reference

Holbrook, M. B. (1987). What is consumer research? Journal of Consumer Research, 17, 128- 132.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

DO INTERNET SHOPPERS, INTERNET BROWSERS, AND INTERNET NONUSERS DIFFER IN NEED FOR COGNITION, FASHION LEADERSHIP, AND IMPULSIVE BUYING?

Dong Shen, California State University Sacramento, Sacramento, CA 95819

In the field of clothing, Internet shoppers, browsers, and nonusers are those who buy clothing from the Internet, who only browse the Internet for clothing information rather than purchasing, and who neither purchase nor browse, respectively. Lee and Johnson (1999) found that in their sample there were 16% Internet shoppers, 20% Internet browsers, and 64% nonusers. The rapid growth of the Internet requires further investigation of these three groups’ personalities besides the structure of clothing consumers in term of their Internet usage. The purpose of this study was to understand clothing consumers’ Internet usage from the perspective of their individual traits. The specific objectives were to (1) reexamine the structure of clothing consumers in term of their Internet usage and (2) investigate the relationship between clothing consumers’ Internet usage and their need for cognition, fashion leadership, and impulsive buying.

The Internet allows clothing information to be readily gathered, analyzed, and compared so Internet shoppers and browsers might have lower need for cognition than Internet nonusers. However, the ease of computer-mediated information searches increases difficulty in examining results. Even the most specific and detailed searches can result in thousands of electronic "hits" so Internet shoppers and browsers might have higher need for cognition than nonusers. The same two-possibility situation exists for fashion leadership and impulsive buying. We hypothesized that there was no difference among Internet shoppers, browsers, and nonusers in terms of need for cognition, fashion leadership, and impulsive buying.

Data were obtained from a survey conducted at a midwest university. One hundred and twenty- five undergraduates with an average age of 20 participated. The questionnaire was composed of four parts: need for cognition scale, fashion leadership scale, impulsive buying scale, and Internet usage. The results showed that 25% respondents were Internet shoppers, 57% were Internet browsers, and 18% were nonusers. Compared with Lee and Johnson’s finding (1999), the majority of clothing consumers in this study were Internet browsers rather than nonusers. Three-way ANOVA was used for further investigation and the results showed that all the three groups (Internet shoppers, browsers, and nonusers) were not significantly different in need for cognition (F(2, 119)=.783, p=.459), fashion leadership (F(2,119)=.627, p=.536), and impulsive buying (F(2,119)=1.903, p=.154). All three null hypotheses were supported.

This study implied that clothing consumers’ Internet usage did not differ in their personalities if we view all web sites as a whole (in this study, we did not measure in what kind of web sites the respondents did purchase or browse). If we view all retail stores (department stores, specialty stores, discount stores, etc.) as a whole, we might find the same results. Therefore, when more Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

and more clothing consumers become Internet browsers and Internet shoppers from nonusers, we need to study their characteristics after specifying different kinds of web sites.

Reference

Lee, M. Y., & Johnson, K. K. (1999). Exploring differences between internet apparel purchasers, browsers, and non-purchasers. In N. J. Owens (Ed.), ITAA Proceedings (p. 87). Monument, CO: ITAA.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY OF ALPACA FIBERS

Sohie Shim and Kathryn A. Jakes The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210

While the study of the chemical and physical structure of sheep’s wool has received considerable attention due to its large commercial use, similar studies of specialty hair fibers are much more limited. With the increasing population of camelids in North America, owners and breeders are becoming concerned with fiber produced by these animals in addition to breeding and showing animals themselves. If a commercial textile fiber industry is to be developed, even a small scale specialty industry, the quality of the fiber must be established and assured. As part of a large research program concerned with animal health and nutrition, fiber obtained from animals fed controlled diets has been used to (1) develop appropriate techniques for infrared examination, (2) develop appropriate data handling methods for spectral comparison including calculation of second derivative spectra, and (3) analyze spectra to determine chemical change.

Infrared spectra were collected using a Perkin-Elmer Model 2000 Infrared spectrometer, with a DTGS detector, 128 scans, 4 cm-1 resolution. Clear sharp spectra were obtained by collecting spectra from pellets made with approximately 200 mg KBr, and approximately 5 mg chopped fiber which had been dried in a desiccator. The pellets were pressed using a Carver press at 9000 psi. The period of exposure to air was limited to less than 5 minutes. Spectra were also obtained using attenuated total reflectance (ATR) of fiber bundles pressed against a KRS-5 crystal, but the absorbance spectra obtained through KBr pellets were superior. Increasing the pressure against the KRS-5 crystal and increasing the number of scans did not improve the spectra. After performing a 13-point Savitsky-Golay smoothing of the spectra, second derivative spectra were calculated using 5 point transformation. Ratios of absorbance peak heights and of second derivative peak heights were calculated for peaks in the fingerprint region.

Overall spectra appear similar to sheep’s wool with characteristic amide bands. Fiber collected from near the tip of the lock displayed more cysteic acid (1040cm-1/1230cm-1) and cysteine-S- sulfonate (1020cm-1 /1230cm-1) than fiber from the mid point of the same lock, reflecting the oxidative weathering of the tips. Fiber collected from "tender" locks (i.e., those whose tenacity is so low that they will break by force in the hand alone) display less cysteic acid than normal fiber. ATR spectra displayed comparatively more cysteic acid than spectra obtained from KBr pellets, as would be expected from oxidized surfaces.

Page 1 of 1

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

COMPARISON OF 3-DIMENSIONAL BODY SCANNING TECHNOLOGIES

Karla P. Simmons and Cynthia Istook North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695

With the world’s population growing by leaps and bounds, our space is getting more limited. Space for our homes, for our cars, and for our workplaces is being compromised. What if we could make these things more efficient and be satisfied with what we have? Technology is being developed that will allow the creation of better fitting clothing to go into our already cramped closets and more ergonomically pleasing workstations and automobiles that are used everyday.

For years, anthropometric data has been used to evaluate body sizes for certain target markets and populations. These measurements help to guide the design and sizing of apparel in the forms of life-protective clothing and equipment, uniforms, and fashion apparel. They are also used to develop workstation layout and virtual simulation. One of the most recent technologies available, which is accelerating these efforts, is a non-contact, 3-dimensional, whole body scanner. These scanners allow for anthropometric data collection so that human engineering, modeling, and apparel design can more easily take place.

Companies are developing new scanner technology everyday. With more than a dozen on the market today, the challenge for potential users is to determine the potentially beneficial capabilities of each scanner. Whole body scanners are currently available from Cyberware, Hamamatsu, Wicks and Wilson, Telmat, Vitronic/Techmath, and Textile Clothing Technology Corporation ([TC]^2), to name a few. Depending on the technology that drives a particular scanner, the application for each could differ greatly. With applications such as custom apparel design, system design and simulation, Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

medical research, and design of objects for public display, 3-dimensional body scanners must be investigated in order to promote usage within the industry.

This study attempts to explore each whole body scanner in today’s market and make comparisons. Questions examined include (1) what is the technology related to each scanner, (2) how does it record the data obtained, (3) what attributes of the human body can it obtain and record, (4) what is the accuracy and reliability of the data obtained, (5) what is the cost of the unit, (6) what is the time involved in a scan, (7) what is the physical size or space requirement of the scanner, (8) what are the current applications, and (9) what are the future possibilities of each scanner? Answers to these questions should encourage the adoption of this developing technology since it will allow users to select the most appropriate whole body scanner for their particular application or requirements.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF SCHOOL UNIFORMS

Eleonora Skibinsky and Karen Robinette California State University Northridge, Northridge, CA 91330

Children’s academic performance and discipline in the public schools has become a very serious issue. School administrators are trying to find ways to improve the school system by decreasing class sizes, implementing more intensive academic programs, hiring more qualified teachers, having hallway patrols, and requiring students to wear uniforms (Hook & Pine, 1999; U.S. Department of Education, 1996). Through this study, the researcher intended to investigate whether or not a school uniform is one of the components to better learning, resisting peer pressure related to clothing, and increasing safety in public schools. The researcher developed a questionnaire to satisfy the purpose of this study. Two groups of 6th-grade public middle school students were formed. One group (n=29) consisted of students who had a uniform requirement, and another group (n=42) was comprised of students without a uniform requirement. The responses from the two groups were compared and the percentage was calculated for each category. Chi squares were computed to test the hypotheses.

The results suggested that students did not consider academic performance and peer pressure to be related to wearing or not wearing uniforms. For both groups, relationship with parents and grades were the most important; clothing was found to be among the least important factor. The students who wore uniforms felt significantly safer in school. Pupils from both groups did not mind wearing uniforms as long as the uniforms looked and felt like "normal clothing." Students suggested that their uniforms, if required, should be made out of nicer, softer fabrics and be more casual looking and fashionable. In addition, the group of students without a uniform requirement indicated various colors and styles for the uniforms that would fit current fashion trends.

Page 1 of 1

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN THE KAWABATA INSTRUMENTAL EVALUATION AND THE SUBJECTIVE EVALUATION OF KOREAN AND AMERICAN CONSUMERS: ON THE SUITABILITY OF SELECTED 1999 SPRING/SUMMER FABRICS FOR WOMEN’S FORMAL WEAR MATERIAL

Cheunsoon Ahn Song, University of Inchon, Inchon, 402-749 Korea Sookja Lim, Ewha Woman’s University, Seoul, 120-750 Korea Seung-Hee Lee, University of Ulsan, Ulsan, 680-749 Korea Yoon Yang, Ewha Woman’s University, Seoul, 120-750 Korea Sharron J. Lennon, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210 Sue M. Parker, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487

During the 1970’s a group of Japanese scientists led by S. Kawabata (1980) theorized the mental process relating to fabric hand evaluation and integrated standard verbal expressions of fabric hand into the concept of "Total Hand Value (THV)." The THV for different clothing items can be measured using the Kawabata instrumental system. Since its development, the Kawabata system has been adopted in many different countries as a way of objectively measuring and standardizing the fabric hand. However, due to change in the consumer’s lifestyle, the consumer’s taste and value for preferred fabric type has changed rapidly. Moreover, the newly developed finishes which allow different and a more delicate touch of fabrics, the development of finer yarns, lightweight fabrics all resulted in a larger variety of fabrics than was available 30 years ago. With such changes it is necessary that one should investigate whether or not the Kawabata’s THV can still reflect the subjective evaluation when tested on current fashionable fabrics.

The purposes of this research were as follows: (1) to examine whether the THV ratings of the trend fabrics coincide with the fabric preference ratings collected from the consumer survey and (2) to see whether there is a cross-cultural difference in the THV ratings and the consumer’s preference ratings between the trend fabrics of Korea and U.S.A. Fifty fabrics which were used by the apparel manufacturers as women’s formal wear materials during the 1999 Spring/Summer season were sponsored by several leading fabric converters of Korea and the U.S.A. The Kawabata system was used to measure the THV of each fabric for its suitability as "Women’s Summer Suiting." A questionnaire which was designed to investigate the fabric preference according to the 5-point Likert scale was administered to 50 Korean women of Seoul, Korea and 50 American women of Columbus, Ohio in the 20s and 40s age groups. T-tests were conducted to investigate the differences in the means. The Spearman Rank Tests were conducted to compare the ratings of different THVs and those of the fabric preference scores of different subject groups. The result showed that the mean THVs of U.S.A. fabrics as "Women’s Summer Suiting" were higher than those of the Korean fabrics. The consumer’s preference survey indicated that the Koreans and the Americans in the same age group tend to show similar preference ratings; the 20s tend to prefer the Korean fabrics and the 40s tend to prefer the U.S.A. Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

fabrics. The rank comparison between the THV scores and the consumer’s preference scores indicated that for Korean fabric group only there were significant similarities between the THV rankings and the preference rankings of the 40s (p=.025), and the American 20s (p<.001) population groups.

Reference

Kawabata, S. (1980). The standardization and analysis of hand evaluation (2nd ed.). The Textile Machinery Society: Kyoto, Japan.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF PROMOTION TYPE ON PRICE PERCEPTIONS

Nancy Stanforth Kent State University, Kent, OH 44121

Jung Im Shin Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078

Effective use of promotions is important to the survival of retail firms. This study investigated the impact of three differently framed promotions on price perceptions during and after a promotion. The tested promotions were off-price, gift-with-purchase promotion (GWP) of an apparel product, and gift-with-purchase promotion of a non-apparel product. Jeans were used as the promoted product.

Mental accounting theory posits that consumers use past pricing activities as a reference in forming future price judgments (Thaler, 1985), and reactions to price may depend on how the price compares with what they expect to pay for the brand. Research (Folkes & Wheat, 1995; Thaler, 1985) has found that various promotional frames impact consumers’ price perceptions differently. Off-price promotional frames are thought to result in consumers adopting the low sale price as the reference price and consider the regular price to be unacceptably greater than the price they expect to pay.

We predicted that consumers presented with a GWP promotion would have higher price perceptions than those presented with an off-price promotion and the type of gift would not influence price perceptions. We also predicted that there would be a relationship between price perceptions and willingness to buy the jeans at original price after the promotional period. Each promotional frame was presented as a scenario offering a $19.50 value to the consumer from an original $58. Participants were 181 female students, of which 87 percent were under 25 years of age and 96 percent were undergraduates.

There was a main effect for promotional frame, F (2, 172)=11.358, p=.000, with the price perception of jeans with an off-price frame (M=$35.35) lower than jeans offered with either GWP frame (apparel M=$41.80 or a non-apparel M = $42.98). Price perceptions impacted willingness to buy after the promotional period ended ( 2 (90) = 119.88, p=.019), with participants more willing to buy when they held higher price perceptions during the promotional period. Finally, participants who saw the off-price promotional frame were less willing to buy after the promotional period than those who saw either GWP frame ( 2 (2)=5.990, p =.050).

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Retailers must carefully evaluate their promotional offerings. Off-price framing changed both the participants’ price perceptions and their willingness to buy at regular price later. Using a variety of promotional frames may help to maintain consumer price perceptions closer to original retail.

References

Folkes, V., & Wheat, R. D. (1995). Consumers’ price perceptions of promoted products. Journal of Retailing, 71, 317-328.

Thaler, R. (1985). Mental accounting and consumer choice. Marketing Science, 4, 199-214.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

SOURCE PREFERENCES OF FASHION OPINION LEADERS AND NON- LEADERS: INVESTIGATION OF COLLEGE STUDENTS IN BANGKOK, THAILAND

Nancy Stanforth Kent State University, Kent, OH 44121

Darin Sriphanya Tulsa, OK 74114

American retail firms are expanding internationally and must understand how best to meet the needs of their international customers through in-store merchandising and promotions. Understanding the information sources that are used by international customers may lead to improved sales, allowing retailers to better serve their international fashion customers. Thailand is one of Asia’s fastest growing economies, making it a potential market for American products. The purpose of this study was to investigate the fashion information source preferences of college-age opinion leaders and non-leaders in Thailand in three stages of the fashion adoption process. The channels of communication utilized in the adoption of emerging fashion trends in the Thai market place were examined. Three stages of the adoption process were selected for investigation: the awareness stage when a person is aware of a new fashion, the comprehension stage when a person learns about the product’s characteristics and function, and the legitimization stage when he/she is ready to adopt or reject the new style (Sproles, 1979).

A self-designating opinion leadership scale was used to identify fashion opinion leaders and non- leaders among a convenience sample of 301 Thai college students. Respondents were predominantly female (55%) and between 18 and 23 years of age (78%). Thai fashion opinion leaders were generally well educated, younger in age, and resided in metropolitan areas. Results showed that Thai fashion opinion leaders used different information sources than opinion leaders in other parts of the world (Dawar, Parker, & Price, 1996; King & Summers, 1967). Point-of- purchase merchandising, such as window displays and in-store displays, were found to be particularly important and were frequently used by fashion opinion leaders as sources of information concerning new fashions. As compared with non-leaders, Thai opinion leaders used more sources of information during the awareness and comprehensive stages and used market- dominated sources more often. Finally, in the legitimization stage, the most frequently used information sources were self, in-store displays, and window displays. Opinion leaders also interacted more frequently with fashion information sources than did non-leaders.

Retailers who plan to conduct business in Thailand should recognize the importance of the in- store experience for Thai opinion leaders. Thai opinion leaders are more likely to use in-store information to make choices. As these opinion leaders spend more on apparel than the non- opinion leaders, it is important for retailers to meet their needs. As opinion leaders, they Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

influence others to buy products and thus are an important way for international retailers to become established in the market.

References

Dawar, W. R., Parker, P., & Price, L. J. (1996). A cross-cultural study of interpersonal information exchange. Journal of International Business Studies, 3, 497-516.

King, C. W., & Summers, J. O. (1967). The new product adoption research project (No. 196). Purdue University, Institute for Research in Behavioral, Economic, and Management Sciences.

Sproles, G. B. (1979). Fashion: Consumer behavior toward dress. Minneapolis: Burgess.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

A HISTORY OF SEWING: TEACHING, CONTROVERSY, AND SURVIVAL THROUGH THE NEEDLE AND THREAD

Sandra Stansbery Buckland: Discussant The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Reference

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Development of an Automated system for Handling Made-to-Measure Clothing pre-production processes Nancy J. Staples, Christine W. Jarvis, and Jill M. Forrester Clemson Apparel Research, Pendleton, SC 29630

The concept of made-to-measure clothing has been utilized for many years. In fact, made-to- measure clothing predates the current industry procedure of manufacturing clothing for standard sizes. Made-to-measure clothing, however, has always been a more expensive and time- consuming process. Recently the commercial interest in Mass Customization has risen dramatically. Made-to-measure clothing represents one extreme on the continuum of the concept of Mass Customization. If the time and cost of manufacturing can be significantly decreased, it appears that an appreciable market for clothing manufactured for the individual customer will exist.

Since 1993 researchers at a U.S. demonstration manufacturing facility have been manufacturing made-to-measure (special measurement) shirts for the US military and studying the means by which to automate, in particular, the pre- and post-production processes. The typical manufacturer of special measurement shirts manually completes the pre-production manufacturing processes for each made-to-measure garment ordered. The man-hours needed to select an appropriate size manually, determine the necessary alterations, and modify the pattern were found to contribute significantly to the cost of the made-to-measure garment. In fact, it was found that a major portion of the cost of manufacturing made-to-measure garments lies in the pre- and post-production operations including order entry, size selection, pattern modification, and shipping.

As a result of this facility’s experiences in producing over 7000 made-to-measure shirts, researchers have developed custom software and links to commercial software that automate the made-to-measure pre-production process. The steps in this process include Web-based initial order entry (with the individual’s measurements transmitted electronically), size assignment, pattern selection and modification, markermaking, and generation of a cutfile to be single ply cut on a numerically-controlled cutter. These software developments have reduced the entire pre- production process for made-to-measure garments from many hours to less than two minutes.

The presentation will describe and demonstrate the entire pre-production process from order entry through generation of the cut file. The methods used to automate the pre-production process and a description of the software links necessary to tie existing manufacturing software together will be discussed. A description of efficient methods for automating the size selection of made-to-measure garments will be given, as well as a description of the necessary methods for obtaining accurate measurement data. The pros and cons of the decisions made in handling the various stages in the pre-production manufacturing process will also be discussed. The

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

presentation will conclude with a brief discussion of the concepts and techniques developed as applied to the Mass Customization continuum.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Design Process: Prototype Sports Bra

Cathy Starr and Grace Krenzer Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078

"They can put a man on the moon, but they can’t put a woman in a sports bra that’s very comfortable" (Miller, 1998, p. 2). Despite today’s technological advances, many physically active women are still unable to acquire comfortable, supportive sports bras. Ramifications from the inability to locate a good, supportive bra can manifest itself in the refusal to exercise, discomfort during exercise, and the irreversible breakdown of breast tissue.

Sports bras, which are available in two forms, encapsulation and compression, are designed to control, support, and contain breast tissue during strenuous exercise. Many are purported to facilitate moisture transport as well. The purpose of this study was to use a design process that incorporated conducting several research studies as input to the development of a prototype sports bra for large-breasted women. The literature review indicated that a good sports bra should provide good upward support, limit motion of the breasts, and be constructed from primarily non-elastic materials that are absorptive, non-allergenic, and non-abrasive.

The survey instrument was developed to evaluate users’ perceptions of the fit and performance of sports bras, determine design preferences, obtain demographic information, and provide insight into the complex engineering problem involved in designing bras. The method of data collection was a self-administered questionnaire for ease of distribution and for collecting the largest possible amount of data in the shortest time. As a random sampling would not target specific lifestyles, a convenience sample of women who regularly exercise was obtained primarily by personal contact. Individuals were approached at local health centers and asked to participate in the survey. Of the 122 questionnaires that were distributed, 82 were returned for a response rate of 67%. Clothing characteristics that influence active women’s satisfaction with currently available sports bras, specifically fit and support problems, were addressed. In general, cup size was an important determinant in respondents’ satisfaction with available sports bras. A second study examined 14 potential materials considered suitable for this end use. Tests for abrasion resistance, dimensional stability, pilling resistance, elongation and recovery, and wicking were conducted using standard test methods.

Design and materials specifications and design criteria were developed and ranked. The resulting prototype sports bra was designed to resolve specific comfort, support, and aesthetic issues reported by large-busted women. This was accomplished through fabric choices, design modifications, and fabric layering. A non-stretch, encapsulating inner bra constructed from soft, non-abrasive polyester/hydrofil nylon was designed to provide support, limit breast motion, and facilitate wicking. High modulus stretch fabric created a cropped tank for aesthetic concerns and for additional support. Higher neckline and wider side bands were incorporated for greater

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

coverage and support. Adjustable back closure and a wider underbust band created ease in donning and doffing while providing greater support, comfort, and fit. Wider, non-stretch, adjustable straps were incorporated to reduce breast motion and increase comfort.

References

Miller, M. (October 5, 1998). Booster shots; that’s non-support for you. The Los Angeles Times, p. 2.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

THE FONTBONNE FROCK: UNIFORMS AS FACILITATORS OF CHANGE

Joyce Starr Johnson Fontbonne College, St. Louis, MO 63105

Laurel E. Wilson University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211

This investigation of a 1920s Catholic female college uniform analyzes its adoption, use, and eventual rejection through the conceptual framework developed by Hamilton (1987). Consideration of three cultural components suggested by Hamilton (technology, social structure, ideology) allows interpretation of the broader implications of the phenomenon of dress within a cultural system. This approach was used in response to academic concerns regarding the value of historic artifact research, as addressed in recent academic journals (see Fashion Theory, 2 [4]).

The subject of this research was a uniform called the Fontbonne Frock, adopted in the fall of 1927 by the students of Fontbonne College in St. Louis, Missouri. Fontbonne College was founded by the Sisters of St. Joseph of Carondelet in 1923 and offered both liberal arts and professional programs to its students. The uniform was worn for 11 academic years, went through two design changes, and was discontinued in 1938 by a vote of the students.

Primary sources used in this investigation included papal letters, communications, and encyclicals; college newspapers and yearbooks; popular and academic literature from the 1920s and 30s; and interviews with college personnel. These sources yielded a variety of data confirming that adoption of the Frock was in direct response to papal concerns regarding modesty and obedience for women during an era when women were being actively encouraged to attend college and become intellectually independent. Articles in the student newspaper over the 11 years indicated that students were both concerned with modesty and obedience to papal concerns but also with fashionability and personal choice in clothing. Secondary data was used to assist in the interpretation of the primary data. This included work from material culture studies and church and academic scholars. Hamilton’s metatheory (1987) was particularly useful in identifying the roles that religion, socialization, and kinship systems played in clothing adoption and use for this group of female college students.

Findings from this study state that adoption of the uniform was used to bridge opposing ideologies of this era: obedience to authority vs. progressive roles for educated women. Reversal of the uniform policy is demonstrated in changing ideological views toward authority and greater societal acceptance of the higher education of women. Findings from this study can be broadened to understand the importance of church, familial, and collegial influences and the multiple symbolic roles of clothing to college women during this period of great social change.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Reference

Hamilton, J. A. (1987). Dress as a cultural sub-system: A unifying metatheory for clothing and textiles. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 6(1), 1-7.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

A COLLABORATIVE PROJECT: TEAM-BASED CLASS ASSIGNMENT TO DIGITALLY PRINT FABRIC

Karen Steen and Anita Fitzgerald Cazenovia College, Cazenovia, NY 13035

The purpose of this presentation is to describe a team-based assignment to design and digitally print surface patterns onto fabric in a CAD for Fashion class and an Electronic Graphic Design class. The project’s objectives were to (1) explore the technology of two computer platforms (Mac and PC) in creating surface pattern repeat designs, (2) investigate methods of digitally printing directly onto fabric, and (3)expose students to team-based collaboration.

Innovative uses of technology and interpersonal skills in a team-based environment are competencies that employers expect of graduates. Current industry research includes the digital printing of fabric. The current challenge of digitally printing fabric is developing permanent inks or dyes that are compatible with fabrics. This project addressed how to incorporate the teaching of these competencies and technologies into the college classroom environment.

Students were paired into teams consisting of one student from each class. The size and proximity of the classrooms accommodated both classes meeting together. The fashion students created a motif inspired by a researched historic textile design using AutoCAD software on PC workstations. This motif was presented to the graphic design team member who scanned the image using Illustrator software on a Mac workstation. The team members then manipulated the image by repeating and coloring it to create a design appropriate for printing on a scarf or necktie. The teams met for part of one class period each week during a three-week period to evaluate the designs and propose new design directions. Designs were also presented and evaluated in large group class critiques.

Upon completion of the final designs students experimented with digitally printing the full-scale designs (up to 40 inch squares) onto fabric using a low-cost method of fabric pressed onto freezer paper and printed on a wide-bed Epson 9000 printer. The affordable process used in this class is intended to simulate printing onto fabric and to provide a printed fabric prototype that students can use in a final end product of a scarf or necktie. Experimentation included working with various fabrics and printer settings to determine the most effective printing methods.

Student outcomes were assessed through weekly reflective writing the students e-mailed to instructors on the progress of the project and the team interaction. Evaluations were also gathered through discussions and written surveys. Feedback included assessment of the technology (software and digital printing) as well as feedback on students’ perceptions of the challenges and benefits of working in a team with a student from another discipline.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Qualitative feedback received from students revealed that students were enthusiastic about working with students from another major and were able to assess and compare the technology of the two platforms and software packages. Also, sharing in the team process made them responsible to another student in completion of the project and served as a motivator to the students. The final result of printing on fabric was successful and students’ observations of the roles and interaction of the fashion and graphic designers were a valuable learning experience.

The project will be repeated with modifications. The roles of members will be more clearly defined and the teams may be larger. The affordability of the process was a distinct advantage and the creation of improved technology of inks/dyes in the future will create continued opportunities for this and related class assignments.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

A QUESTION OF ASSUMPTIONS IN DEVELOPMENT OF THE BODICE FRONT SLOPER

Ann Stemm Illinois State University, Normal, IL 61790

A basic sloper for female garments consists of five pattern pieces: bodice front and back, skirt front and back, and sleeve. These pattern pieces are without seam allowances and are used as the basis of flat pattern design. To achieve a garment design that will fit the body, one must start with an accurate sloper. Slopers may be developed through the process of draping on the dress form or through the process of drafting. One common foundation for the bodice front is the single dart sloper where all dart excess is located in a waistline dart. Zamkoff & Price (1987) and Joseph-Armstrong (2000) suggest that a rectangle or cylinder of fabric is shaped to fit the human body by use of darts and seams. They and Handford (1984) make the assumption that when all the dart excess is taken out in a waistline dart, the center back and center front will remain parallel and the side seams will form complementary angles. This is not what happens.

Handford (1984) and Miller (1994) developed the front waistline dart by forming the inner dart leg in a pleasing line from bust point to about three inches from center front at waistline. The outer dart leg is determined by measuring from the back waistline-side seam point an amount equal to front waistline arc—three inches. A muslin made from the draft is much too curved for the size 10 dress form. When a basic bodice draped on the form according to Joseph-Armstrong (2000) was aligned with side seams together, the center front and center back did not remain parallel. If center front and center back are kept parallel, there is a gap between the side seams. In comparing the bodices created by the two techniques, it was evident that the major difference was in the size of the front waistline dart.

Darts are used to shape the two-dimensional fabric to fit the body bulge. Darts on the bodice front can be combined or divided using the bust point as the pivot point. Whenever a dart is changed to another location on bodice front, the one thing that remains consistent is the angle of the dart at the bust point. On the drafted bodice the dart measured 34 at the bust point. On the draped bodice the dart measured 24 . The difference in dart angle appears to represent the difference in ease added at the bust level and at waistline level. It appears that center front and center back of the draped bodice would be parallel if lined up on the side seam mark before the ease wedge is added. However, when patterns are drafted, the ease is included. Use of dart angle may provide a more accurate way of drafting patterns. This concept needs to be tested on a range of sizes and for various cup sizes. We need to be careful about perpetuating assumptions about the relationship of pattern pieces without testing the results.

References

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Handford, J. (1984). Professional pattern making for designers. Redondo Beach, CA: Plycon Press.

Joseph-Armstrong, H. (2000). Draping for apparel design. New York: Fairchild.

Miller, P. B. (1994). AutoCAD for the apparel industry. Albany, NY: Delmar.

Zamkoff, B., & Price, J. (1987). Basic pattern skills for fashion design. New York: Fairchild.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

THE MEANING OF DRESS IN CIVIL WAR REENACTING: PATTERN CATEGORIZATION OF MALE REENACTOR IMAGES

Mitchell D. Strauss University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, IA 50614

In the United States there are numerous hobby organizations that participate in the public reenactment of historical events. Reenacting involves assuming the dress of an historical period and emulating the lifestyle of that time. The more common reenacting groups in the U.S. include those that celebrate the American Revolutionary War, the early 1800's westward expansion, and World War II. The most popular, as judged by the comparative frequency of annual reenacting events and the total numbers of participants, is American Civil War reenacting. The relative prominence of Civil War reenacting is a reflection of the unresolved nature of outcomes of that war, and that it remains permanently lodged in the country's social and political consciousness. Recent vitriolic debate about the presence of the Confederate Battle Flag perched above the South Carolina State House speaks eloquently to the continuing conflict among Americans regarding the Civil War. Reenacting, one of the most obvious manifestations of the unresolved nature of the Civil War, begs further interpretation of its meaning because of its high potential for exploring conflict within the American social and cultural psyche. In this research, analysis of reenactor dress is the methodological approach used for further exploration of the ongoing social and cultural rifts associated with the Civil War. Exploration of the deeper meanings which underlie Civil War reenacting was the purpose of my research.

Analytical techniques developed in the field of visual anthropology were the central investigative tools utilized during this study to analyze reenactor dress. Field images of reenactor impressions were photographed by the author at several regional and national reenactment events to generate a broad sampling of the appearance of participants. The images were subsequently assessed with methods used in ethnographic analysis of photographs. The goal of the research was to establish a pattern categorization of reenactor's historical impressions based on dress authenticity. The research sought to identify key dress cues or variables that could be used to sort images along a continuum of dress authenticity. The final stages of the research involved appraising photographic imagery as a means of understanding some of the social, cultural, and political motivations that underpin the movement. The research included visual assessment of photographic images by the researcher. Analysis of the images was also validated in a separate session by group of long term participants in the reenactment movement. The assessors were members of a Confederate reenacting unit known regionally for their commitment to historical accuracy. Content analysis was conducted on their commentary and responses during the assessment of the images presented to them.

Research findings indicated that reenactor images do differentiate along a continuum of dress authenticity, and key cues were identified that can be used to sort or differentiate images. The

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

photographic images stratified across four levels of dress authenticity and were observed as being direct indicators of commitment to historical accuracy, a major value among serious reenactors. More importantly, image cues were also found to suggest underlying meanings related to cultural and political motivations, as well as individualized expressions of masculinity.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

FASHION MARKETING COMMUNICATION THROUGH NEWSLETTERS AND WEB SITES

Tana Stufflebean University of Central Oklahoma, Edmond, OK 73034

Imagine students being able to find answers to questions about course requirements and assignments, curriculum changes, dates of upcoming events and much more intriguing information, all in insightful and entertaining places: the faculty and student organization Web sites and newsletters! With the use of Web pages and newsletters, educators can inform students of all the opportunities that may be available through their department, enrollment information, requirements for graduation, and many other items of student interest. These resources can help create an increased communication between faculty and students through information submitted by both faculty and students.

Purpose and Objectives

The purpose of this curriculum development project was to incorporate newsletters and web pages as a means of communication between faculty and students. The objectives were to

•Develop Web sites for the Fashion Marketing Program, individual faculty members, and two student organizations (Fashion Troupe and Phi Upsilon Omicron) to provide information on course offerings, curriculum changes, activities, internship openings, field trips, design and retail competitions, and other opportunities/information.

•Develop newsletters to be sent each semester by the program coordinator and student organizations.

Procedures

During the first month of each semester innovative newsletters were designed by the faculty program coordinator to introduce the faculty members and program information to all majors in the Fashion Marketing Program and all students enrolled in Fashion Marketing classes. Recruitment and retention are high priorities on campus. Communication with majors and potential majors has been identified as a method of helping students feel like they are an important part of the university. Web sites were designed and implemented as a method for easy student access and continual updated information.

Evaluation

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

This creative project has incorporated several opportunities for students to become more involved in activities and be aware of the Fashion Marketing Program. Students have reported how they are much more informed by these two methods of communication. Student participation for one of the out-of-state field trips almost doubled from last year due to the increased communication through newsletters and Web sites. Both student organization's activities have increased in membership and participation.

Future Implications

Plans are being made to continue both communication resources (newsletters and Web sites). If companies were willing to pay 2.2 million dollars for a 30-second commercial during the Super Bowl just to advertise their Web sites, the impact of Web site use is evident! With computer technology, new possibilities will continue for creative communication in education for all subject matter.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

APPLICATION OF BRICOLAGE

Bernadette Tatarka Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717

Using a case study approach, the purpose of this paper is to analyze bricolage as an approach and problem-solving strategy for apparel design. "Bricolage" is a French word meaning "do-it- yourself"(Levi-Strauss, 1966). It is the process of finding solutions to problems by examining, using, and combining cultural signs in ways in which they were not initially intended. (Culture, for the purpose of this study, being defined as a system that is learned and reflected in behavior patterns characteristic of the members of a particular society [Kaiser, 1997]). As a result of the bricolage process, a new context for usage is created. There has yet to be an application of bricolage as a problem-solving strategy for apparel design.

Eight apparel design abstracts selected from the 1998 and 1999 International Textiles and Apparel Association proceedings were selected as appropriate samples for this study; each indicated a cultural influence. (These designs were assumed to be successful since they had been accepted for the design competition.) Each abstract was analyzed to determine selected terms related to the process described as bricolage. Terms scrutinized included "examining" the process of solutions, "using," and "combining" cultural signs. In addition, since "cultural signs" is an essential part of the bricolage process, terms such as "culture" and "applications of culture" were reviewed.

"Examination" occurred through various means, such as exploring and using special fabrics, as in Case Studies 1, 6, and 7. For Studies 1, 4, 5, and 6, the colors were drawn from examinations of different cultural aspects, which helped to inspire design details. The designer of each case study suggested a means of drawing from examination of various cultures to apply special techniques or symbols to their design. Combination of Eastern and Western elements appeared to be a common theme in Case Studies 1, 2, 5, 6, and 7. Combining traditional fabric, colors, and Western design, the garments in Case Studies 1, 2, 5, 6, and 7 are examples of the application of cultural signs in ways in which they were not initially intended.

Learning to express the design process in terms that colleagues in other disciplines can understand is important to the continued success of our programs. As a problem-solving technique, bricolage can be applied as a means to describe a successful design process. Future applications could follow a design process while carefully analyzing the various steps and techniques related to choices influenced by culture.

References

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Kaiser, S. B. (1997). The social psychology of clothing: Symbolic appearances in context (2nd ed. rev.). New York: Fairchild.

Levi-Strauss, C. (1966). The savage mind. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

PROFILING THE SHOPPING BEHAVIORS OF YOUNG ADULT CONSUMERS

Jane Boyd Thomas and Richard Morris Winthrop University, Rock Hill, SC 29733 Doris Kincade Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061

Apparel retailers and manufacturers are learning that today’s apparel consumers are different from consumers in past generations. Part of this difference is due to the variety of shopping options available in the marketplace. The purpose of this research was to profile the shopping behaviors of young adult consumers. Data for this study was collected using a pen and pencil questionnaire. The questionnaire contained two parts: questions related to (1) fashion and shopping orientation and (2) demographics. Based on a review of the literature, a 35-item list of questions related to fashion and shopping orientation was developed. A five-point Likert scale (1= strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree) was used to examine fashion and shopping orientation.

Using the population of a large southern university, the sample was selected as a random selection within clusters; 50 participants were selected from ten clusters. The questionnaire was administered by the researchers in person and the completed questionnaire was returned to the researchers. The response rate was 88.6% with 427 useable surveys returned. The sample was comprised primarily of females (71.7%) with the majority between 19-20 years of age (50%).

Principle Components Factor Analysis with Varimax Rotation was used to reduce the dimensionality of the 35 items related to fashion and shopping orientation. Twenty-nine of the 35 items were retained and four reliable factors (e.g., Cronbach's alpha greater the .78) emerged. These four factors explained 91.9 percent of the variability in shopping behaviors. These four factors were labeled as follows: recreational shopper, brand shopper, TV shopper, and anti- catalog shopper.

The recreational shopper is best described as someone who "loves to shop" and views shopping as a leisure activity. This young adult enjoys shopping and "stops to look at clothes even when they are not planning to buy anything." Brand shoppers are very loyal to favorite brands and are willing to purchase expensive brands in order to "keep their wardrobes up -to-date". The third factor was labeled the TV shopper. This young adult consumer regularly watches home shopping channels and considers home shopping channels to be like network stations (i.e., NBC or ABC). The TV shopper also watches home shopping channels with their family and friends. Thus, for this group home shopping is a social activity. The fourth factor was labeled the anti-catalog shopper. Respondents in this group indicated that "catalogs were junk mail" and that "browsing through catalogs was a waste of time." Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

The identification of these four types of shopping behaviors has importance for the apparel and retail industry. Information on shopping behaviors is necessary for the successful development and execution of apparel and retail strategy. Knowing where a target population shops for apparel, their degree of loyalty toward a brand, and their views toward some types of non-store retailing, like catalogs, is extremely important.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

REPLICATION OF A DYEING PROCESS USED IN PREHISTORIC EASTERN NORTH AMERICA

Amanda Thompson The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43212

The purpose of the research was to discover information about the dyeing technology employed by natives of prehistoric eastern North America during the Mississippian period (ca. 1000-1650 A.D.). Information was gathered from ethnographic sources after an extensive review of literature and from the examination of the archaeological record with consideration of both reports and artifacts. Natural dyeing literature was also reviewed. Compiling information from these sources, a dyeing protocol was developed to replicate the red coloration frequently noted in these sources. Milkweed fibers collected in the field and hand processed were dyed with combinations of sumac, bedstraw, iron oxide, and potassium carbonate. The colored fiber products were evaluated for colorimetric values of saturation and depth of shade and for colorfastness to water and crocking. Throughout the dyeing processes, the parameters of time and knowledge base required were also noted.

The darkest and most saturated dye formulation was one in which the fibers were dyed with bedstraw, sumac, and iron oxide, producing a rich, red color (Delta L*= -25.72, Delta C*= - 1.64). The most colorfast dye formation was one in which sumac and bedstraw were assisted with potassium carbonate (Delta L*= -21.62, Delta C*= -1.04).

The research showed that the most effective dyeing was one which required a considerable expenditure of time, since the most effective dyeing required the collection and use of multiple plants and an auxiliary and the dyeing of very clean, more highly processed fibers. The prehistoric dyer employed a considerable knowledge base in dyeing textile fibers including understanding how to locate and maintain plants in the field, how to collect and process the plants, and how to dye the fibers effectively. Through such replication, we can experimentally test the likelihood of certain procedures in textile production in the past and thereby determine those procedures that must have been followed.

Page 1 of 1

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

EXAMINING SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL ROLES OF 4-H UNIFORMS: CASE STUDIES FROM THE SOUTH

Julianne Trautmann and Catherine R. Boyd, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762

For approximately four decades, 4-H uniforms were a means of identifying members and played significant roles in developing youth’s self-identities. The purpose of this study was to examine the social-psychological role of 4-H uniforms, c1910-1970. Mississippi, the founding state of the 4-H movement, is the primary location for this study.

The 4-H organization and its dress was researched through primary sources including "National 4-H News" and "The 4-H Review"; photograph archives at Mississippi State University; actual 4-H dress; and oral interviews with persons who had a former affiliation with 4-H club and/or Extension. These resources, supported and validated by prior research, provided valuable information on the uniforms’ functions and importance to the individual and the organization (Dean, 1985; Joseph, 1986).

Findings revealed that 4-H uniforms molded youth’s self-identities and encouraged participation. According to symbolic interaction theory (Stone, 1962), 4-H uniforms were a form of nonverbal communication that facilitated interaction among participants by visually acknowledging members within their role set. Oral histories revealed the uniforms inspired respect, gave wearers a sense of belonging and pride, and visually showed their dedication to the organization. Gender differences were expressed as girls were encouraged to construct 4-H ensembles while boys wore smaller items such as caps, pins, belt buckles, and jackets.

Interviewees stated the 4-H organization was enhanced by the adoption of uniforms as these signaling devices allowed members to visually identify youth as viable members and to express the organization’s mission. Uniforms also served an egalitarian role in the organization’s formative years by allowing rural youth to appear from the same socioeconomic status. The initial role of 4-H uniforms was to help create leaders, but this eventually led to their demise in the early 1970s. Since that time, the emphasis has been on identification (i.e., developing the individual) rather than conformity through the use of uniforms. Today, there exists a quasi- uniform (Holloman, 1990): small yet distinctive symbols that denote 4-H membership and accomplishments within that organization (e.g., pins, badges).

This study revealed the important social-psychological role of 4-H uniforms in developing youth leaders in the 20th century. Though no longer used, these uniforms provided details about the history and role of this youth education program and its links to a greater social-cultural context.

References

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Dean, T. S. H. (1985). History of the 4-H uniform for females in Texas. Unpublished master’s thesis, Texas Woman’s University, Denton, TX.

Holloman, L. O. (1990). Clothing symbolism in African American Greek letter organizations. In Starke, B. M., Holloman, L. O., & Nordquist, B. K. (Eds.), African American dress and adornment: A cultural perspective. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.

Joseph, N. (1986). Uniforms and nonuniforms: Communication through clothing. Westport, CT: Greenwood.

Stone, G. P. (1962). Appearance and the self. In Rose, A. M. (Ed.), Human behavior and the social processes: An interactionist approach. New York: Houghton Mifflin.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

BABY BOOM CONSUMERS' WILLINGNESS TO PARTICIPATE IN A RESEARCH WEBSITE

Pamela V. Ulrich and Ann Beth Presley Auburn University, AL 36849

Use of the Internet for communication between and among consumers and businesses is expanding rapidly. The pace of change makes it difficult to step back and take stock of the costs and benefits of using the Internet for consumer research. The purpose of this research, the first stage of which is reported here, is to explore baby boom consumers' response to and interest in participating in a research website dedicated to issues of relevance to them and to businesses in the textile, apparel, and retail arenas. The second stage of the research activates a controlled- access website involving the sample identified in the earlier stage.

The baby boom cohort was selected as a powerful demographic force which has effected substantial change in the marketplace at each life cycle stage and which, therefore, expects businesses to be responsive. Aged 36 to 54, boomers may be reaching the heights of their working careers and incomes, beginning to think about their retirement years, heavily involved in raising families and/or facing empty nests, and coping with aging parents. Although some industry segments have adjusted their products and services to mid-life boomers, much of the fashion industry remains focused on youth. Boomers who are affluent enough to own and use computers at home may be consumers with something to say about how the textile and apparel marketplace is or is not meeting their needs, and they may be boomers who are on the verge of setting trends that anticipate the target market's behavior in coming years. The objective of this research was to profile two segments: those who were and were not willing to participate in a research website dedicated to textile and apparel issues.

Telephone survey methodology was used to execute the research with a purchased list of 4998 men and women reported to be boomers and own computers. The instrument was developed by the researchers and Auburn University's Survey Research Center to elicit demographic information and indicators of computer use and innovativeness. The survey was completed by 721 men and 331 women. The male to female ratio was at least partially due to the composition of the original list. Respondents were asked all questions prior to being given a brief description of the controlled-access website and asked if they were willing to be a part of it. Those who refused were asked to indicate why. Of the 1052 total, 451 (43%) agreed to participate, and 601 (57%) did not. There was no significant difference between the men and women in agreement rates. Those agreeing and not agreeing had similar demographic characteristics, with respondents from all states and rural to metropolitan communities. Eighty-seven percent were employed full- time; 63% had more than $50,000 incomes, and 59% had baccalaureate or post-baccalaureate degrees. Eighty-six percent were married, but fewer (60%) had children at home. Most (74%)

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

used computers at work at least five days per week and at home four to seven days per week (65%).

The relative proportions of men and women agreeing and refusing to participate in the website were similar. What set apart those who refused was their reason. Respondents were given six choices from which to select or asked to provide their own. More than half (59%) chose time as the primary rationale for not participating, plus others indicated time factors in their own words. Just 8% cited the topic, and only 4% indicated privacy. Privacy may have been low because individuals likely to select it may not have been responding. Survey personnel encountered refusals to answer based on skepticism about ulterior, business-related motives being connected to the survey. The findings suggest possible limitations to samples in website-based consumer research and a need to further explore the characteristics of consumers who choose to be a part of this new medium.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

THE ROLE OF LIFESTYLE, SUBCULTURE, PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS, STORE CHOICE AND SHOPPING TIME IN CLOTHING MARKETING IN SOUTH AFRICA

Annette M. van Aardt and H. S. Steyn Potchefstroom University, South Africa

Elizabeth M. Visser and Ronel du Preez University of Stellenbosch, South Africa

Strategic marketing applications are influenced by a wide range of factors, of which one of the most important is the shopper, his lifestyle, and shopping habits. South African clothing marketers are faced with the challenge of achieving sustainable success in the domestic multicultural environment consisting of diversified (third-world) and traditional (first-world) markets. In the future, marketing strategies based on diverse target markets will be the key to success (Du Plessis & Rousseau, 1999).

Problem Statement

Blacks, whites, coloureds, and Asians (by far the minority and not included in this study) form the South African population. Consequently, the market consists of numerous minimarkets, populated by consumers with different lifestyles and subcultural characteristics. The purpose of market segmentation is to know more about the differences and similarities between consumers. The Darden (1980) model of patronage consumer behavior and the store choice model of Assael (1992) were used to identify single factors influencing strategic marketing.

Aim

To investigate similarities and differences between black, white, and coloured clothing shoppers in South Africa with regard to demographics, various dimensions of lifestyle, and store choice and to inform clothing marketers of the results.

Method

A convenience stratified quota sample of 396 black, white, and coloured female clothing shoppers in two medium-sized towns in the North West Province was selected. Two discount stores, two chain speciality stores, and two department stores were selected to interview the respondents. The survey instrument was a questionnaire comprising sections on lifestyle and demographics. Store choice and subcultural membership were selected independent variables. Reliability (alpha coefficients) and validity (factor analysis) of the lifestyle scale were found

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

satisfactory. The final analysis yielded five factors. Further statistical analyses included MANOVA, ANOVA, and effect size computations to determine practical significance.

Results

Each of the five lifestyle groups was comprised of black, coloured, and white respondents. The most prominent and statistically significant relationships occurred between subculture and three of the five lifestyle groups, namely Hobbies/Community Oriented, Apparel Oriented, and Media Oriented. No strong preferences for specific stores were found. Shopping day was not related to lifestyle, and time of the day when shopping was done had a small effect. The biographic characteristics of the three subcultural groups differed in many respects. Implications of the results are that clothing marketers and retailers must take note of the fact that lifestyle is not a one-dimensional construct and that South African markets cannot be segmented on the basis of subcultural membership only. Lifestyle and related variables must be taken into consideration, as well, in order to meet the needs of the diversified South African consumer.

References

Assael, H. (1992). Consumer behaviour and marketing action. (4th ed.). Boston: PWS-Kent.

Darden, W. R. (1980). A patronage model of consumer behavior. In R. W. Stampfl & E. Hirschman (Eds.), Competitive structure in retail markets: The department store perspective (pp. 43-52). Chicago: American Marketing Association.

Du Plessis, P. J., & Rousseau, G. C. (1999). Buyer behaviour: A multicultural approach (2nd ed.). London: Thomson.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

SHOPPING ORIENTATION AND LIFESTYLE OF FEMALE APPAREL SHOPPERS: A SOUTH AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE

Elizabeth M. Visser and Ronel du Preez University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Annette van Aardt, Potchefstroom University, Potchefstroom, South Africa Nancy J. Miller, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50010

South Africa has a very complex and dynamic marketing milieu within a heterogeneous society. In order for retailers to effectively develop strategies consistent with consumer needs, it is necessary to determine the unique consumer profile of the market segment and to investigate key variables which influence apparel shopping behaviour in a multi-cultural South Africa. For the purpose of this research paper the following variables affecting apparel shopping behaviour were investigated: patronage behaviour, lifestyle, shopping orientation, and demographic information. The purpose of this study was (1) to investigate if distinct clusters of female apparel shoppers can be identified based on these variables and (2) to profile different clusters of consumers who share the same characteristics according to the differentiation variables.

The sample included 800 female shoppers, 18 years and older and representative of three population groups (African, Coloured*, and White). Quota sampling was applied. The measuring instrument was a store intercept survey questionnaire. Statistical analysis included descriptive statistics, coefficient alpha, factor analysis, Ward clustering, MANOVA, ANOVA, and Bonferroni. (* People of mixed race according to the previous political dispensations’ race classification system in South Africa).

Lifestyle and shopping orientation as variables are not one-dimensional constructs. Factorial analysis of lifestyle and shopping orientation indicated three components respectively. The lifestyle components reflected a yuppie lifestyle, an apparel-orientated lifestyle, and a traditional lifestyle. Shopping orientation components were labelled shopping self-confidence and enjoyment, credit prone opinion leadership, and local store patronage.

Three clusters were identified that differed significantly with regard to patronage behaviour, lifestyle, and shopping orientation. Profiles of clusters were established based on the factor components as well as on patronage behaviour and demographics. Cluster 1 (49.5%) constitutes a White and Coloured majority, with the highest educational levels and household income, preferences for departmental and chain speciality stores, socially active and confident apparel shoppers who enjoy the shopping experience. Cluster 2 (28%) has an African and Coloured majority, the lowest educational levels and household income. They buy apparel at departmental and discount stores, portray a traditional at- home lifestyle, little apparel opinion leadership, brand consciousness, and out shopping. Cluster 3 (22.5%) has an African majority. They are the Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

youngest with high educational levels, and the highest apparel expenditure. They prefer departmental and chain speciality stores. Members disclose an active apparel-oriented lifestyle including window shopping and high media usage. They are very brand conscious, confident apparel shoppers who enjoy shopping experiences at local stores. The findings of this research have implications for apparel retailers and marketers, and future researchers in the fields of Consumer Behaviour and Clothing could use it as a point of departure in planning investigations into multi-cultural societies.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

LINKING LEADERSHIP AND EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING: RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES

Jane Walker University of North Carolina-Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402

Experiential learning for university students in textile and apparel programs is perceived by both educators and members of the business world as an important part of the education process. Academicians support experiential learning, but quantifying and developing methods to measure the worth of such learning experiences has not been the focus of academic research. Over the years, university faculty and business/industry persons have voiced one consistent theme, leadership. An opportunity exists to explore the leadership theme with research using university faculty and industry personnel.

The purposes of this pilot research study were to (1) obtain baseline information about internships from university faculty and business/industry perspectives, (2) ascertain whether common issues emerged (including leadership), and (3) establish a direction for further empirical research. Selected university faculty throughout the United States and industry personnel responded to a series of questions regarding internships. Baseline information indicated that both university faculty and industry personnel support internships. Most existing internships have a retail focus. Internships experiences are inconsistent in organizational structure and quality and international internships are perceived by faculty as desirable (but more difficult to supervise and maintain). Both faculty and industry personnel indicated that creative problem solving is critically important in a global textile and apparel industry.

Common issues emerged: (1) internships are perceived as valuable by both university faculty and business/industry, but the value is not uniformly consistent among the internship experience nor has it been quantifiable, and (2) teaching students to think creatively in business/industry settings and leading others were viewed as more important than specific experiences or subject matter requirements. A potential overarching focus on leadership development for experiential learning emerged.

A direction for future research with a leadership focus was established. Personnel were contacted from The Center for Creative Leadership, an internationally respected research facility with a primary focus on leadership development. Use of a leadership model developed by researchers at the Center was acquired. This model has been developed and tested with global executives (including textile and apparel executives). This model will be combined with adult learning theory or andragogy (Knowles, 1990). Use of this model, combined with adult learning theory, will account for changes that occur in learning styles and requirements of university students (both traditional and non-traditional students). Survey instruments from the Center for Creative

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Leadership are being adapted for this study. This research framework will provide a basis for this research, as well as for future academic research on experiential learning.

The results of this study will be used to address the nature, focus, and challenges provided by experiential learning experiences. Clearly, the implications of this research are the strengthening of existing textile and apparel programs and the experiential learning that takes place in those programs.

Reference

Knowles, M. (1990). The adult learner: A neglected species. Houston: Gulf.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

PREDICTING E-APPAREL SHOPPERS: DEMOGRAPHIC, ATTITUDINAL, AND BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS

Kittichai Watchravesringkan and Soyeon Shim University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721

Drawing upon Fishbein’s (1975) attitude and behavioral intention model, this study was designed to provide a better understanding of the role of demographic characteristics and of attitude toward the Internet shopping in influencing computer users’ intention to seek information and to purchase apparel via this interactive medium.

The usable data of 684 respondents were collected through a national mail survey. MANCOVA and stepwise multiple regression were employed to test hypotheses. Results indicated that Fishbein’s model has successfully explained the relationship between attitude and behavioral intention among the online consumers. Certain demographic characteristics were related to variety of attitudes toward the Internet shopping and to intention to use the Internet as an informational source and transactional channel. In addition, the link between information search mode and shopping mode indicates that searching for information on the Internet is likely to result in Internet shopping. Theoretical and practical implications deriving from the findings are discussed.

Reference

Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Beliefs, attitude, intentions, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA.: Addison-Wesley.

Page 1 of 1

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

NICHE MARKETING TO THE COWBOY TRADE

Laurel E. Wilson University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211

One of the most important specialty markets in Montana and Wyoming during the late 19th century consisted of the cowboy trade. Although the market was relatively small, it paid merchants to cater to the needs and desires of those who worked on the ranches. By the early 20th century, the number of men employed in this occupation declined but other related occupations replaced them. Perhaps the most important for the owners of saddleries and general mercantiles were the dudes who paid handsomely to stay at dude ranches and who wanted to absorb some of that western flavor. This new market changed the way goods were advertised and sold, as well as changing the nature of the goods offered.

The sources used for this study included newspaper and magazine advertisements targeted to actual cowboys and to the dude ranch trade, catalogs offered by western retailers, dude ranch brochures, letters to prospective guests of dude ranches, and business records. In addition, articles of clothing worn by actual cowboys were compared to those worn by dudes and photographs of both working cowboys and dudes were examined. Finally, magazine articles that reported on the activities of cowboys and guests at dude ranches served as excellent sources of information.

These two markets were very different. Working cowboys tended to be boys or young men who earned only about 30 dollars a month. They were seasonal employees for the most part. Although some of them were born in the West, most were born in the Midwest, leaving there shortly before becoming cowboys. Dress was very important to these young men who often spent two or three months salary—a whole season’s earnings— to get properly outfitted in appropriate cowboy gear (Wilson, 1991). Dudes, on the other hand, tended to be families whose members ranged in age from young children to adults well into middle age. Men and women, boys and girls went to dude ranches to spend their summers. Most were well-to-do Easterners with a few big-city Midwesterners represented as well. Dress was also very important to this group who often purchased the best quality goods in the latest styles so they could experience the essence of the west—being cowboys or cowgirls.

Most of the newspaper advertisements targeted to the working cowboy market emphasized function, quality, and price. Newspaper ads targeting dudes focused on style and quality. Surprisingly, catalog copy did not vary too much over time. The 1890s catalogs used language such as "showy" and "flashy" as often as those produced in the 1920s. The real difference in the catalogs was that fashion played a much larger role in the later ones. Chaps offered in chartreuse, purple, and orange were offered in the later catalogs and museum collections show that dudes purchased these more expensive, fashionable styles. Photographs show working cowboys Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

wearing functional dress, whereas photographs of dudes show them wearing flashy clothing including satin shirts, spotted, "woolie" chaps, and huge hats with showy hatbands.

Reference

Wilson, L. (1991). "I was one proud kid": An interpretation of differences in posed and unposed photographs of Montana cowboys. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 9(3), 49-58.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

COLORFASTNESS COMPARISONS OF NATURALLY PIGMENTED COTTONS WITH DYED 100% COTTON FABRICS

Virginia Wimberley and Lydia L. Roper The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487

Color has been and continues to be an important aspect of textile aesthetics and personal appearance. Additionally, the consumer preference has been growing for 100% cotton fabrics, amounting to approximately 60% of all apparel categories by U.S. consumers. Retention of color becomes an importance aspect of consumer satisfaction for these products during the normal wear and care. Three common dyestuffs used for cottons are vat, direct and reactive dyes. While cost and performance are the criteria for the dye house, the consumer's satisfaction with the textile product is predicated upon the performance when subjected to home use situations of light exposure, perspiration, and home laundering.

Both U.S. grown and Peruvian pigmented cotton fibers and fabrics have elicited interest among the crafts communities. Both Pakucho Pax and Fox have found important niche markets in the U.S. and Europe where consumers view these fibers and fabrics as viable alternatives to the synthetically dyed cottons in the world market. Will a wider distribution of consumers be willing to support pigmented cottons for both their environmental friendliness and perceived value above other choices of dyed cottons?

Fourteen fabrics, two twill weave and 12 interlock knit, were donated for testing by Milliken and Cotton, Inc. in colorations to match fabrics of naturally pigmented cotton from FoxFibre and Pachuko Pax, of Peru. Six fabrics were dyed with vat dyes, four with direct dyes and four with reactive dyes in shades of beige to tan to mid brown to dark brown. The purpose of this research was to test the stability of commercial dyes against that of the naturally pigmented cottons. Standard AATCC test methods and procedures were used to assess colorfastness to home laundering, perspiration and light. Specimens were subjected to laundering using Aqua Clean and AATCC phosphate detergent in conditions of Cold (80° F), Warm (120°), and Hot (140° F.) water temperatures for the equivalent of 5, 10, and 15 cycles. For colorfastness to light, specimens were exposed to a carbon arc lamp in an Atlas Weather-o-meter for the length of time required to produce 5, 10, 15 AFU. Color measurements were taken, using a Hunter LabScan II Spectrometer. Ambient light and perspiration exposure were included to allow for comparison with the previous colorfastness study data.

When the commercially dyed fabrics were exposed to home laundering test procedures, irrespective of the detergent, water temperature, and number of cycles, the reactive dyes showed the least color change [r = .98 - 2.196] followed by vat dyes [r = 1.826 - 3.588]. The direct dyes displayed the greatest change as expressed by Delta E values [r = 1.404 - 5.982]. In comparing the Aqua Clean with the AATCC phosphate detergent, phosphate-washed specimens were Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

slightly higher in Delta E values for reactive dyes. For direct dyes there was very little difference in Delta E values for detergents. For vat-dyed fabrics, the Aqua Clean caused the greatest color change. Detergent type and temperature caused the color of naturally pigmented cotton fabric to became darker with phosphate detergent.

Overall under the conditions of light exposure, the vat dyes performed with the lowest Delta E values. After 15 AFU, the vat-dyed fabrics has delta E values ranging from 0.6 to 3.4. Direct dyes were consistent in performance, evidencing a gradual progression of loss of color ranging from 4.1 to 4.7. The reactive dyes were more erratic with Delta E values from 3.5 to 5.2. The naturally pigmented cotton fabrics had the phenomenon of darkening the browns and greens at 5 and 10 AFU, but this reversed at 15 AFU.

Ambient light exposure caused all 14 fabrics to become darker, all but one became greener, half became bluer and the Delta E values were 2.8 or greater except for one vat dye. Ambient sunlight caused the greatest color change to the Foxfibre browns and greens with the shades becoming more intense.

Exposure to perspiration also caused all the fabrics to become darker and greener; most became bluer and 12 of the 14 fabrics had Delta E values between 0.98 and 2.4. For naturally pigmented cottons, four became lighter and five became darker. Three fabrics shifted toward green and the rest shifted toward red and yellow, in contrast to the behavior of the commercially dyed cottons.

In conclusion the vat dyes performed the best in exposure to light but were sensitive to laundering with Aqua Clean and displayed more color change when subjected to perspiration. In general, the naturally pigmented cotton fabrics showed greater Delta E values than the commercially dyed fabrics when exposed to light, laundering, and perspiration. These total color differences were due to the tendency for colors of the pigmented cottons to become more intense while the vat, direct, and reactive-dyed cottons faded or lost color. The direct dyes performed best when exposed to perspiration followed by light and washing. The reactive dyes performed well with little variation when exposed to washing and perspiration but they showed greater color change to light.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

COLORFASTNESS COMPARISONS OF NATURALLY PIGMENTED COTTONS WITH DYED 100% COTTON FABRICS

Virginia Wimberley and Lydia L. Roper The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

PERCEPTUAL MODALITY PREFERENCES OF CLOTHING AND TEXTILES STUDENTS

Jane E. Workman Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to examine perceptual modality preferences of clothing and textiles students. Learning style has been defined as "individual differences in relating to or interacting with the environment for the purpose of learning" (Cherry, 1981, p. 16). An individual's perceptual modality preference is the preferred means by which information is obtained through the senses. Perceptual modality preferences include Print—printed word; Aural—listening; Interactive—talking with others; Visual—seeing pictures, images, objects, activities; Haptic—touching or holding; Kinesthetic—performing or engaging in body movements; Olfactory—smelling. Cherry (1981) found that, among 96 adults (76 males, 20 females with a mean age of 34), the most to least preferred perceptual modalities were (1) Kinesthetic (M=9.33), (2) Visual (M=8.32), (3) Interactive (M=8.23), (4) Print (M=2.53), (5) Aural (M=1.52); (6) Haptic (M=-2.61); (7) Olfactory (M=-25.28). It is presumed that students learn best when information is presented in their preferred modality. Traditional methods of university teaching include the lecture, which relies heavily on the aural modality, and assigned readings, which rely heavily on the print modality. Students may be "turned off" to formal education by the nature of the pedagogy. Clothing and textiles subject matter is amenable to a balanced pedagogical approach using "hands-on" modalities such as kinesthetic, interactive, haptic, and visual, as well as aural and print.

Method

Clothing and textiles students completed the Perceptual Modality Preference Survey (PMPS). The PMPS (Cherry, 1981) measures students' strengths and weaknesses in seven perceptual learning styles. The PMPS contains 42 items (e.g., "I learn better by reading than by listening"; "I learn better by listening than by reading.") with response alternatives: Always, Usually, Seldom, or Never. Each perceptual style is contrasted with each other style twice and in reverse order. To evaluate both styles in each statement, responses are scored with positive values (accepting the style) and negative values (rejecting the style) (possible range = +36 to -36). Scores are ranked from strongest to weakest preference for perceptual modality learning style.

Results

Participants were 50 females and 4 males (M age=22.19). The most to least-preferred perceptual modalities were (1) Interactive (M=10.22), (2) Kinesthetic (M=5.54), (3) Visual (M=1.44), (4/5) Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Print/Aural (M=-.204), (6) Haptic (M=-.759), (7) Olfactory (M=-14.537). The most preferred learning style was talking with others, followed by performing or engaging in body movements and seeing pictures, images, objects, and activities. Reading printed materials and listening were not preferred ways of learning (i.e., negative value attached to the mean score). The least preferred modes of learning were touching or holding objects and smelling.

Implications

Why were visual and haptic modalities ranked so low? Seeing pictures, images, and objects as well as touching or holding objects are critical ways of obtaining information about fibers, yarns, fabrics, and textile products. Perhaps students need training in how to use these modalities to gather information. Perhaps self-reported preferred learning styles are not the same as actual learning styles. Based on these results, educators in clothing and textiles classes might consider using methods rich in interactive, kinesthetic, and visual modalities without ignoring other learning style preferences. Within the aggregate rank based on mean scores from the 54 students, there was a variety of individual rankings of preferred perceptual modalities.

Reference

Cherry, C. E. (1981). The measurement of adult learning styles: Perceptual modality. Doctoral dissertation: University of Tennessee, Knoxville.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

PERCEPTIONS OF SUCCESSFUL ATTRIBUTES FOR FASHION DESIGNERS: INDUSTRY VS. ACADEMY

Janith Wright and Amanda Nicholson Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244

This study was designed to investigate the importance of various affective and cognitive attributes of college students entering the apparel design field. Although studies have been conducted which address competencies necessary for appropriate curriculum development, little has been written comparing the opinions of industry professionals who participate in the hiring/training process to the academic point of view. This study represents a significant contribution to the field by utilizing a research methodology which provides a systematic and quantitative method of examining human subjectivity utilizing psychometric principles combined with the statistical applications of correlational and factor analysis. This methodology known as Q-methodology was first developed in the 1930's and is widely used in political science but has yet to be explored as an appropriate tool for curriculum development.

A total of 17 university educators and 12 apparel industry professionals who had hiring and training responsibilities were surveyed. Each respondent was asked to rank in two ways 47 different statements based solely on his or her internal frame of reference. The first ranking was to represent their own perspective and the second to represent the perspective of the other group. In this way, the study was co-oriented to discover possible levels of consensus between the two groups. The list of 47 statements was generated through face-to-face interviews with members of both groups resulting in a concourse of statements which was then edited to represent all the attributes mentioned. The final list of statements included both affective competencies (e.g., positive attitude) and cognitive skills (e.g., knowledge of textiles/construction). The rankings were then correlated and factor analyzed to discover the groupings of opinions using Q- methodology (Stephenson, 1935).

Findings indicated that the industry professionals factored uniquely in comparison to the academy members (three factors significant with Eigenvalues of 10.2, 8.02 and 7.08). Industry professionals ranked most highly affective competencies such as positive attitude, time management/problem solving skills, and ability to work within a team. On the other hand, the educators ranked cognitive skills such as patternmaking, knowledge of textiles/construction, and draping as more important to success. Interestingly enough, with regard to the co-orientation process, there was little consensus of opinion between the groups.

This study was intended as a first step in the goal of apparel design curriculum development as it will add to the body of knowledge as to what the academy and the apparel industry believe to be important for success in the field.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

Reference

Stephenson, W. (1935). Technique of factor analysis. Nature, 136, 297.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

BUSINESS JACKET DESIGN PREFERENCES OF WORKING WOMEN

Seulhee Yoo, Denise Bean, JoAnn Shroyer, Shelley Harp, and Peter Westfall Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409

Consumer evaluation of apparel has been shown to be affected by three factors: the aesthetic quality of apparel, characteristics of the viewer, and the environment. Empirical research has documented design factors influencing aesthetic quality of apparel, but limited investigations have addressed individual characteristics of the viewer and the environment. This study examined the aesthetic preferences of working women regarding business jacket design. A national cross-section of 1,500 working women was drawn for the study through a random sampling technique by National Demographics & Lifestyles. Nine hypotheses were formulated to examine the relationships between consumer design preference and (1) design attributes, (2) personal characteristics, (3) psycho-social identity, (4) job-specific-situational characteristics, and (5) physical characteristics.

The research instrument consisted of two parts: visual stimuli and a questionnaire. Visual stimuli were comprised of 18 black-and-white computer-generated drawings of business jackets developed to measure design preference. Five jacket design elements were used in this study and included jacket length, jacket pattern, jacket silhouette, jacket neckline drop, and jacket collar style. Of 243 possible jacket design combinations, 18 designs were formulated using the 3^5 fractional factorial experimental design. The self-administered questionnaire assessed design attributes and preferences utilizing Likert-type scales adapted from previous investigations. Questions were developed to determine physical characteristics, demographics, and consumer characteristics. A mail survey was utilized for collection of the research data. The sample was comprised of 265 female respondents who wore business jackets to work at least once a week. Significance was identified through the use of repeated measures of analysis of variance with an unstructured covariance matrix, as fit by PROC MIXED of SAS/STAT . The denominator degrees of freedom for conducting the F-tests of hypotheses used satterthwaite approximation.

Jacket length, pattern, silhouette, neckline drop, and collar styles were found to be significant. The significant interactions were jacket length and pattern, jacket length and collar style, jacket pattern and silhouette, jacket pattern and neckline drop, jacket silhouette and collar style, jacket neckline drop, and collar. Personal characteristics were not significant. However, three interactions were significant: age and jacket pattern, age and jacket silhouette, and ethnicity and jacket length. Ability to modify self-presentation and overall self-monitoring were also significant including two interactions: (1) self-monitoring and jacket collar style and (2) ability to modify self-presentation and jacket collar. Job-specific-situational characteristics or interactions were not significant. However, figure type was significant. The interactions between figure type and jacket silhouette, figure type and jacket neckline drop, and figure type and jacket collar style were also significant. Jacket design attributes, their interrelationships with each other,

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

and consumer characteristics affected jacket design preferences. Implications suggest the need to consider interactions among design attributes and interacting forces surrounding consumers to maximize consumer purchase satisfaction and retail sales in the apparel market. Future research is recommended to include various ethnic groups, Asians and Hispanic in particular, as well as diverse corporate culture comparison groups.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

UPDATED METHODS OF WRITING AND TRANSMITTING RESUMES

Deborah D. Young Texas Woman's University, Denton, TX 76204

Purpose/Objective of Strategy

Job search often is a complicated process that involves searching for positions, honing interview skills, working on professional appearance, and of course, writing a resume. Until recently, job seekers have applied for positions by presenting a paper resume to a prospective employer either in person or through the mail. However, two additional methods for transmitting a resume to a prospective employer have emerged, fax and e-mail attachment. Once received, resumes simply may be filed away, but some employers are choosing to scan resumes for entry into a computerized database. In addition, job seekers can choose to create and post resumes online through "personalized career management accounts" located on commercial Internet web sites that are accessed directly by employers. The objectives of this creative teaching strategy are to provide undergraduate students with the opportunity to write a traditional paper resume and a resume suitable for scanning, fax a resume, send a resume via an e-mail attachment, and prepare and post a resume online in an Internet job search web site.

Usefulness/Importance to ITAA Members

Analysts have predicted that from 1996 to 2006, universities will produce more candidates than needed for jobs requiring a bachelor's degree. As a result, as university graduates enter into the job search arena, having the skills necessary for success is vital. This creative teaching activity allows undergraduate students to improve their abilities to write resumes appropriate to a delivery method and possible storage method, thereby giving them one additional opportunity to succeed in finding that right first job.

Project Design/Implementation

Students are provided with a wide variety of instruction about resumes, copies of recent articles about resume writing that can be used as references, a resume drafting form for use in writing the traditional and scannable resumes, and a resume-building form for use in creating the online resume. After the initial lecture, a field trip to a university computer lab is made so that students are provided with instruction from an information technology services instructional coordinator about scanning, faxing, sending e-mail attachments, and creating and posting a resume on the commercial web site. To begin the project, the student prepares a first draft of the traditional resume and the scannable resume that is turned in to the instructor for initial review. After the instructor has made corrections, students use the corrected resumes to complete a final draft of

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

both resumes. For completion of the project, each student (1) provides the instructor with the final draft of a traditional resume printed on resume paper, (2) provides the instructor with the final draft of the scannable resume that is scanned into a database by the instructor, (3) faxes a resume to the instructor, (4) sends a resume as an e-mail attachment to the instructor, and (5) creates and posts a resume into a "personalized career management account" available through www.monster.com and prints a copy of the online resume that is turned in to the instructor. After receiving the printed, faxed, and e-mailed resumes and scanning the resumes into the database, the instructor returns all copies to the students.

Effectiveness of Activity in Fostering Desired Outcomes

The effectiveness of the activity is demonstrated through students’ completed resumes. After completion of the activity, students have verbally stated that they are more comfortable with applying for jobs in a variety of ways and have been able to respond promptly when potential employers request a resume.

Continuation/Revision of Activity

This project will continue to be used on an annual basis in a professional development course. The design of this project should be reviewed regularly because of constantly changing career management issues.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

CONSEQUENCES OF CONSUMER SATISFACTION/ DISSATISFACTION WITH THE PERFORMANCE OF APPAREL PRODUCTS AT PURCHASE AND AFTER CONSUMPTION: A COMPARISON OF U.S. AND SOUTH KOREAN CONSUMERS

Jessie Chen-Yu Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061

Keum-Hee Hong Silla University, Pusan, 616-736, Korea

The purpose of the study was to examine consequences of consumer satisfaction and dissatisfaction (CS/D) with the performance of apparel products at purchase and after product consumption in the United States (US) and South Korea. A conceptual model was developed as the framework of the study. Two consequences of CS/D at purchase (i.e., consumers = purchase intention, the price that consumers are willing to pay) were proposed. Eleven consequences of CS/D after consumption, such as brand and store loyalty, word-of-mouth, and public complaints, were proposed.

Two hundred and forty participants, 120 in the US and 120 in South Korea, were recruited. A 2 x 2 x 2 between-subjects experimental design with two nations, two levels of satisfaction at purchase, and two levels of satisfaction after consumption was used. Predictive expectation was used to manipulate participants’ satisfaction at purchase and product performance was used to manipulate participants’ satisfaction after consumption. The t-tests showed that, at both purchase and consumption stages, participants in the satisfaction group were more satisfied than those in the dissatisfaction group at the .001 significant level.

Results showed that the price that participants were willing to pay was a significant consequence of CS/D at purchase for both countries. Participants in the higher satisfaction group were willing to pay more than twice the price that the participants in the lower satisfaction group were willing to pay. This result indicates that retailers can obtain a higher mark-up if they know how to satisfy their customers. However, purchase intention was not a significant consequence of CS/D at purchase for both countries. Consumer satisfaction with the product alone cannot determine consumers’ purchase decision. In today’s highly competitive apparel market, it is not difficult for consumers to find various satisfactory products with good value. Providing satisfied products is necessary but not sufficient. For different market segments, the factors influencing target customers’ purchase decision may be different. Marketers need to understand their target customers’ evaluative criteria and develop their product image according to their target customers’ preferences.

The factor analysis grouped the 11 possible consequences of CS/D after consumption into three factors: brand loyalty/word-of-mouth, store loyalty, and public complaint. Results showed that

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

all proposed actions related to brand loyalty and word-of-mouth were significant consequences of CS/D after consumption for both countries. For South Korean participants, CS/D after consumption significantly affected store loyalty and store switching. For the US participants, CS/D after consumption only significantly affected store loyalty but did not influence store switching. Dissatisfaction with the performance of the product did not result in store switching. These results suggest that monitoring CS/D with the performance of the product is important to brand-name companies. Brand-name companies should not depend on retailers’ customer service to handle the issues of CS/D. In both countries, the dissatisfied participants did not express their likelihood of complaint more than the satisfied participants. Marketers should develop strategies to encourage customers’ feedback. Educators should help consumers to understand the importance of their actions in the role of changing retailers’ practice.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

THE GLOBALIZATION OF ETHNIC STYLE(S): A CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISON OF PERCEPTIONS, PREFERENCES, AND PURCHASE INTENTIONS

Haekyung Yu, University of Inchon, Inchon 402-749, Korea Susan Kaiser and Joan Chandler, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 Chanju Kim, University of Inchon, Inchon 402-749, Korea Joohyeon Lee, Yonsei University, Seoul 120-749, Korea Nayoung Hong, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Korea Zhiming Zhang, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong

This cross-cultural study was inspired by a larger, theoretical question related to global aesthetics: What happens to "ethnic style" when it goes global? Can ethnic or national specificity still be identified in "global style(s)"? If so, how does ethnic symbolism influence consumer behavior? To explore these questions, we compared the perceptions, preferences, and purchase intentions of American, Chinese, and Korean students with respect to 10 dress styles incorporating Asian design influences. These styles were selected from images in fashion magazines used in a previous study of Asian aesthetics in fashion (Yu, Hong, Lee, & Kim, 1998). Two styles without ethnic influences were added as control stimuli. Responses were collected from 163 American students (nearly half of whom were Asian American) from a major university in California, USA, 179 students from three universities in Seoul, Korea, and 132 students in Hong Kong, China. After seeing each design on a slide, students responded to open- end questions regarding their impressions of the style, the areas/cultures that they associated with the style, and the reasons for such associations. They also rated their preferences and purchase intentions on 5-point Likert scales. Frequencies were counted for the responses to open-ended questions, and similar responses were grouped for meaningful comparisons. ANOVA and the Duncan test were also used.

The analysis revealed that the three groups have quite similar responses to some styles while they differ in their responses to other styles. Most often, American and Chinese students shared perceptions while Korean students differed from the other two groups. All three groups were able to distinguish the designs with ethnic influences from those without the ethnic influences and to recognize the cultural origins of the ethnic styles. Not surprisingly, Korean and Chinese students were able to identify different sub-categories of Asian sources. Shapes and parts were the most frequent reasons for an ethnic "feel," even though the materials and prints were the most common Asian design elements found in the styles. In most cases, preferences for the styles were consistent with purchase intentions within each group. However, the three groups varied significantly in their preferences and purchase intentions. The American students showed higher preferences and purchase intentions for the designs with less obvious ethnic influences. The results suggest that the most successful "global style(s)" are those whose ethnic influences are subtle. We relate these findings to the larger theoretical debate on the heterogeneity and

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

homogeneity of commodities and styles in the context of globalization (Kaiser, Nagasawa, & Hutton, 1997).

References

Kaiser, S. B., Nagasawa, R. H., & Hutton, S. S. (1997). Truth, knowledge, new clothes: Responses to Hamilton, Kean, and Pannabecker. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 15, 184-191.

Yu, H., Hong, N., Lee, J., & Kim, C. (1998). Comparative study of Asian ethnic dresses. Journal of the Korean Society of Clothing and Textiles, 22, 1043-1051.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

APPAREL CONSUMPTION PATTERNS OF CHINESE AND AMERICAN CONSUMERS

Yujun Zhao University of North Carolina-Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402

Culture provides a context for consumer decision making for apparel consumption and is the most fundamental determinant of a person's wants and behavior. With the globalization of the textile and apparel industry, it is important to understand apparel consumption patterns of various consumer groups. The purpose of this study was to determine the differences between Chinese and American consumers in information search patterns, criteria used when making apparel purchase decisions, and apparel purchase patterns.

The Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard (1995) Consumer Decision Process Model served as the conceptual framework for this exploratory study. The difference in apparel purchasing decision process between Chinese and American consumers was examined. The decision-making process examined includes information search patterns (stage 2), pre-purchase alternative evaluation (stage 3), and purchase patterns (stage 4).

Data were collected in 1999 with an instrument adapted from the literature (Booher, 1996). The instrument contained Likert scale items including information search patterns, product evaluative criteria, and apparel purchase patterns. The sample consisted of Chinese (n = 26) and American consumers (n =34) who were either employed or were full-time students. Chinese consumers have lived in the United States six months or longer. T-tests were conducted to determine differences between the two groups.

Results indicated that Chinese and American consumers differ on three dimensions: attitude toward fashion (t = 2.829, p = 0.0064), advice searching (t = 4.343, p = 0.001), and easy care criteria (t = 2.48, p = 0.0038). Attitudes toward fashion results indicated that Chinese consumers were more fashion conscious than American consumers. Fashion is an important criterion for Chinese consumers when they make apparel purchasing decisions. Chinese consumers were more likely to seek advice from friends than American consumers. Easy care was more important to Chinese consumers than to American consumers. This means Chinese consumers would be more likely to purchase apparel that does not need to be dry cleaned or ironed.

Results of the study have implications for educators and industry. This study further expands the cross-culture literature by applying the EBM model to Chinese consumers. Future research of this pilot study will include a larger sample of Chinese and American consumers. Industry can use this information to segment the market and target each niche market by a more appealing market mix.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

References

Booher, H. S. (1996). The influence of the Korean lifestyle on the purchase process of jeans. Unpublished master's thesis, the University of North Carolina, Greensboro, NC.

Engel, J. F., Blackwell, R. D., & Miniard, P. W. (1995). Consumer behavior (8th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: The Dryden Press.

Page 2 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

EXAMINATION OF BRAND PERSONALITY AND BRAND ATTRIBUTES OF APPAREL PRODUCTS

Susan L. Zutty and Hye-Shin Kim University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19702

Brand personality refers to the set of human characteristics associated with a brand (Aaker, 1997). To illustrate, Vanity Fair may be perceived as being sophisticated, competent, and sincere. As with human personalities, personality traits associated with a brand tend to be relatively enduring and distinct. This study examines the relationship between brand personality and perceptions of brand attributes for three apparel brands.

Respondents were 105 undergraduate students attending a mid-Atlantic University. Three brands, Gap, Express, and Abercrombie and Fitch, were determined from a prior survey to be store brands with high recognition and patronage from the sample. Five dimensions (sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication, and ruggedness) of brand personality were measured using Aaker's 42-item scale (1997). Seventeen brand attributes were generated, based on evaluative criteria by Eckman, Damhorst, and Kadolph (1990). All items were measured on a 7- point Likert-type scale.

SPSS 9.0 was used for initial analyses. Using principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation, seven three dimensions (style, value, and popularity/ availability) were commonly found in all three brands. Cronbach's alpha for each dimension of each brand ranged from .73 to .85. Cronbach's alpha for brand personality dimensions ranged from .70 to .92.

SAS Version 6.11 was used to estimate regression models. Brand personality dimensions served as independent variables with three brand attributes as dependent variables. Simultaneous- equation estimation using the seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) model with restrictions was conducted. None of the restrictions in models were significant for brand attributes style and value, indicating that a common model and parameters may be used irrespective of brand name. Parameter estimates showed brand personality traits sophistication ( =.20, p<.001) and excitement ( =.20, p<.001) to explain style. Value was explained by sincerity ( =.13, p<.001). For popularity/availability, brand personality dimensions were examined by brand type. For the Abercrombie and Fitch, competent ( =.08, p<.05, R^2=.38) was significant and for the Express, excitement ( =.11, p<.01, R^2=.41) was significant. No brand personality dimension explained popularity/availability for Gap (R^2=.30). Results show that brand attributes such as style and value may be explained by brand personality traits across many types of brands. In other words, commonly held perceptions of style and value may exist within the younger consumer market. However, consumer impressions behind brand attribute popularity/availability appear to differ and be unique for each brand type.

Page 1 of 2

Cincinnati, OH USA 2000 Proceedings

References

Aaker, J. L. (1997, August). Dimensions of brand personality. Journal of Marketing Research, 34, 347-356.

Batra, R., Lehmann, D. R., & Singh (1993). The brand personality component of brand goodwill: Some antecedents and consequences. In D. A. Aaker & A. Biel (Eds.), Brand equity and advertising (pp. 83-96). NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Eckman, M., Damhorst, M. L., & Kadolph, S. J. (1990). Toward a model of the in-store purchase decision process: Consumer use criteria for evaluating women's apparel. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 8(2), 13-22.

Page 2 of 2