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Noah Anderson Rise of Papal Administration: Apostolic Authority Noah Anderson Rise of Papal Administration: Apostolic Authority in the Context of Crusading Aquila – The FGCU Student Research Journal Volume 2 Issue 1 (2016) DOI 10.24049/aq.2.1.4 © 2016 Anderson Distributed under Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 OPEN ACCESS Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal 5LVHRI3DSDO$GPLQLVWUDWLRQ$SRVWROLF$XWKRULW\LQWKH&RQWH[WRI&UXVDGLQJ Noah Anderson: History LQKHUHQWO\VXSHULRUWRWKDWRIVHFXODUSRZHU7KH¿UVW3RSH Scholars generally place the rise of the Papal Monarchy to act the part in the eleventh century was the indirect within the context of a battle between Church and State planner of the First Crusade, Pope Gregory VII, who, (i.e. Investiture Controversy), and within a modernized several times, gave apostolic blessings to the Normans mode of thinking that separates religious, political and conquering Sicily (Roger I of Sicily) and England (William social spheres in Christendom throughout the Middle the Conqueror), albeit to protect his position of power Ages. This paper aims to discuss the issues with this over his contemporary, King Henry IV.1 Watt summarizes common interpretation within the context of Crusading, this theoretically when he states, “The solution neatly and also attempts to examine the relationship between summarized the three postulates of Church-State relations: feudal society and the crusade. Mostly, it will focus on the superiority of the spiritual power, manifested in the how the crusade developed from a chaotic movement privilegium fori, was emphatically maintained with the to a centrally planned one as canon law integrated principle that the lay power should have no part in the with social and political norms. It is no coincidence punishment of clerical criminals… to preserve clerical that the more institutionalized and centralized the autonomy, the cooperation of the powers came into the papacy became, especially after the conclusion of the reckoning when a cleric was incorrigible.”2 In this respect, Investiture Controversy in the early 1100s, crusading, as Watts continues, once spiritual power concluded its too, institutionalized. For convenience, I’ve chosen the proceeds, it could, in theory, hand those deemed applicable simple approach of examining the papacy’s interpretation to the secular arm. In this way, interpreting tension between of power as stated in canon law and papal decretals. John church and state as a power struggle is misleading. Instead, A. Watt’s survey on the subject will be employed. Then, I the relationship was more dualistic with spiritual power will begin with the rise of the reform papacy under Leo IX being superior to the secular arm. This interpretation and Gregory VII, focusing entirely on the latter as he was lay at the forefront of Urban II’s call for Crusade. The the instigator of Leo’s idealistic vision of reform. Then I important thing to note is that apostolic power, coming will discuss how Urban attempted to reconcile the militant directly from Christ, was superior to secular power. QDWXUHRIWKHNQLJKWO\DULVWRFUDF\ZLWK&KULVWLDQSDFL¿VW 3RSH*UHJRU\9,,ZDVWKH¿UVWSRSHWRSXWWKLVWKHRU\ aims. Then, once again, I will continue to focus on the into action when he appointed Papal Legates to travel papacy by following the changing vision of the crusading WKURXJKRXW &KULVWHQGRP GHPDQGLQJ ¿GHOLW\ IURP DOO movement throughout the twelfth century, coming to a secular lords. They resisted, however, as the reform culmination with Innocent III’s reign as Vicar of Christ. movement progressed. The reform movement continued His papacy is one of great importance for the crusading on par with his vigorous attempts to gain political movement as it became an organized institution under control, which he saw as rightfully his, of Christendom. papal authority. Nonetheless, I will also attempt to address The ideal of Christendom thus expanded to all parts of a shift in crusade policy as belief in a crusade to rival the Europe whether they were new converts, like in the case success of the First Crusade slowly waned in Christendom of the Scandinavian countries, or old Christian centers toward the end of Christian occupation in the Holy like Spain, at this point in a constant military battle with Land, namely exploring Gregory IX crusade planning. the Muslims of Al Andalus. The main advancement During the eleventh century, the church was seen made during Gregory’s papacy was the formation and as a corrupt organization in respect to their inherent consolidation of the College of Cardinals, which as it moralizing nature. In turn, a reform movement, eventually still stands today, elects the Pope. By expanding clerical named the Gregorian Reform by historians, took hold of bureaucracy, the Reform movement, in their continued the clergy, protesting against simony, a lack of celibacy battle with what they saw as the sinful enterprise of and other issues concerning the power of the Pope. A VLPRQ\DQGOHFKHU\KDGDQLURQJULSRQSDSDORI¿FHVDQG debate between secular rulers and the Pope erupted over in turn, propagated a policy of moralization to all parts of these issues, especially over simony and lay investiture. Christendom. Then, after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, Many historians have examined this debate in the vein and the following call from the Byzantine Empire for of calling it a power struggle between Church and State, assistance, Gregory decided to make a general call to assist seeing it in modern terms; the investiture controversy the Eastern Church led by the Pope himself. According to being ‘fought’ by Gregory VII and Henry IV of the Holy Bisson, this was an active attempt at proving the political Roman Empire. The problem with this interpretation is authority of the Papacy. Bisson refers to Gregory’s that many historians believe it was not religious, seeing claim of leading the crusade and the continual width it only in a similar way as Enlightenment thinkers. But, 1 Thomas N. Bisson, The Crisis of the Twelfth Century: Power, as John A. Watt’s demonstrated, apostolic authority, in the Lordship, and the Origins of European Government (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2009), 206. eyes of early canonists such as Gratian (the compiler of 2 John A. Watt, The Theory of Papal Monarchy in the Thirteenth the Decretum), saw spiritual power, that is the Pope’s, as Century: The Contribution of Canonists (New York: Fordham University Press, 1965), see Chapters 1, 30-33. 29 Anderson DOI 10.24049/aq.2.1.4 of this policy as, “Procedures of synod and consistory by the time it reached Antioch.7 Although feudal tensions FRQWLQXHG WR SURMHFW WKH SRSH LQ H[DOWHG RU VDQFWL¿HG proliferated, the First Crusade ultimately achieved what power often, as before, incompletely differentiated his it set out to do by taking Jerusalem. Hence, the First FODLPVWR¿GHOLWDULDQWHUUHVWULDOORUGVKLS´3 He also refers Crusade’s success underpinned these organizational issues. to Gregory’s “procedures” to show his spiritual and Urban II’s successors proved fruitful in continuing his temporal authority as quasi-feudal lordship. Many kings, policy as many saw the spiritual as well as the material however, from Robert of Guiscard and his descendants EHQH¿WV RI FUXVDGLQJ VSLFHV DQG JROG FRLQDJH ZHUH and Henry IV and even William the Conqueror showed more readily imported into coastal cities in the northern lack of respect for the pope’s temporal powers to comply. Mediterranean. A good example of the growing power Thus, there was a struggle between active power and real of the Church in line with the institutionalization of the power in line with the political mode of the day, but the Papacy can be found in the foundation of the Order of real concern here is that Gregory had set a precedent for the Temple. In 1118-1120, the Order of the Temple was his successors in which they could claim that apostolic founded by a group of layman under the direction of power was of greater importance than the Secular sphere. Hugh of Paynes. By the mid-1120s, the order, under the One of the issues concerning Pope Urban II, then, championship of Bernard of Clairvaux, was accepted FRQVLVWHG RI GH¿QLQJ DSRVWROLF SRZHU DV ZHOO DV WKH under the direction of the papacy. Thus, this new Order, generalized moralization of the church and Christendom as embraced the ideals of monasticism and the Holy War, a whole. Joseph Lynch, in his brief outline of the medieval effectively expanded the mission of the Papal Monarchy church, sees this in direct line with a growing sense of despite being a wholly autonomous cooperation (in respect Christendom, an ideal that touched on the very fabric of WRRWKHUFOHULFDORI¿FHVDQGVHFXODUORUGV DFWLQJLQWKHRU\ the Medieval mind. 4 Much as the modern man looks to for the Papacy to protect pilgrims travelling to the Holy humanity as an ideal to keep the peace, so too did many Sepulchre. According Karl Borchardt, the high degree of Christians in Europe5. Projecting this view, Pope Urban II centralized administration found within the Order of the appealed to the masses by holding the Council of Clermont 7HPSOH VSUHDG WR RWKHU PRQDVWLF RUGHUV DQG LQÀXHQFHG in November of 1095, where he pleaded for peace in all Papal Administration. 8 The Church recognized, to Christian lands among the milite classes to defend the VRPH GHJUHH LQ WKH EHQH¿FLDO QHWZRUN FRPPHUFLDO RU safety of Western, as well as Eastern, Christendom. In otherwise, established by the Temple, that exemption response, Urban hoped to create a lasting bond with the proved fruitful for spiritual institutions. The Templars Eastern Church to reconcile the Schism.6 He promised proved less ascetic as time went by, contributing to the Crusaders protection of property and the remission of all political and military failures of the feudal states in the existing confessed sins in line with typical pilgrims and Holy Land. However this may have caused the downfall individuals undergoing severe penance.
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