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America’s History Eighth Edition Terms & Concepts – Unit 7 Chapter 13: Expansion, War, and Sectional Crisis, 1844-1860

Big Idea: What were the causes of the Mexican War, and in what ways did it bring about a growing sectional crisis during the 1850s?

1. Introduction o Expansionist surge of the 1840s had deep roots. o However, obstacles included Native Americans on the Great Plains, Mexico, and Britain o Expansionist James K. Polk is elected in 1844 (key election!) . New Mexico . California . Oregon o Territorial acquisitions ignited sectional debate over slavery

2. Manifest Destiny: North and South o Generational Shift – older statesmen (i.e. Clay, Webster, etc.) were more willing to compromise and/or avoid sectional issues. The new generation would not compromise. o The Push to the Pacific . John L. O’Sullivan and the coining of Manifest Destiny • Underlying rhetoric: Anglo-American superiority, republican ideals (spread American freedom and democracy), and spread Protestantism. . Oregon – desired for its fertile farm land, particularly the Willamette Valley • Since 1818, the territory had been jointly held by Britain and the . • Oregon Trail • “Oregon Fever” • Settlers attempted to re-create life of the eastern states in the West (*caption on page 413) . California • California Trail – About 3,000 early pioneers settled along the Sacramento River. • Spanish Forts and Missions, 1770s • Mexican Independence in 1821 • American economic link to California (pg. 415) • Californios • Many Americans did not assimilate into Mexican society. o The Plains Indians . Unique ecology of the Great Plains – West of the 100th Meridian = semiarid region (“The Great American Desert”) . Nomadic buffalo-hunting tribes (Apache, Comanche, Kiowa, Cheyenne, Sioux, etc.) – students need to be familiar with some of these examples, especially the Comanche and the Lakota Sioux. . Nomadic horse culture dominated the Great Plains . Many tribes were devastated by smallpox and other illnesses just as earlier tribes to the east had been. . European weapons also altered the geography of the native peoples.\ . Dependence on the buffalo o The Fateful Election of 1844 . Changed American policy toward the Great Plains, the Far West, and Texas . Annexation of Texas • Southern leaders supported / northerners opposed expansion of slavery • Rumors of British desires to keep Texas independent, take California and possibly Spanish Cuba sparked new demands by southerners to annex Texas and expand. (pg. 417) • Northerners begin demanding American sovereignty over ALL of Oregon Territory (54⁰40’) • Northerners want Oregon / Southerners want Texas (President John Tyler) • Van Buren (northern Democrat) and Clay (Whig) persuade the Senate to reject Tyler’s proposed treaty to annex Texas – They are hoping to, once again, avoid the issue of slavery. . The issue of expansion is the central issue in this election! . The Democrats nominate James K. Polk – the “dark horse” from • Southern expansionist • Slave holder • Known as “Young Hickory” • Campaigned on the promise to take both Oregon and Texas o Rallying cry for taking ALL of Oregon = “Fifty-four forty or fight!” o Idea of jingoism – extreme patriotism/nationalism (pg. 418) . Whigs nominate – supported the American system, tried to dodge the Texas issue, alienated northern Whigs with his eventual support for annexation. . Northern Whigs threw their support to Liberty Party candidate James Birney. This also threw the election to Polk! . Polk’s election brings Texas into the Union by joint-resolution (simple majority needed rather than two-thirds for passage of a treaty). America’s History Eighth Edition Terms & Concepts – Unit 7

3. War, Expansion, and Slavery, 1846-1850 o Polk begins advocating for acquisition of California o Democrats and expansionists largely ignore the growing sectional crisis over the expansion of slavery. o War with Mexico, 1846-1848 . Economic and political instability in Mexico since 1821 . Mexico is committed to preserving historic boundaries . Suspends diplomatic relations with the U.S. when the U.S. annexes Texas o Polk’s Expansionist Program . Begins to aggressively encourage independence and then acquisition of California. . Captain John C. Frémont dispatched . Polk’s secret initiative • John Slidell to Mexico (secure Rio Grande as Texas boundary and offer to buy California and New Mexico) • Mexico refuses o Move toward war – Texas boundary dispute (Nueces R. or Rio Grande R.) . Gen. Zachary Taylor sent to occupy area between Nueces and Rio Grande – stage set for war. . May, 1846 – Polk delivers war message – “…Mexico…has…shed American blood upon American soil.” . Congress votes to go to war, despite objections from northern Whigs ( Representative ’s “spot resolution”). . June, 1846 – settlement of Oregon Boundary Dispute – Polk wants to avoid war with Britain (agrees to U.S. boundary at the 49th parallel rather than 54⁰40’. o American Military Successes . U.S. established military superiority almost immediately. . American’s in California staged a revolt supported by Frémont’s forces. – established the “Bear Flag Republic” . American forces secured control of California in 1847. . General takes Veracruz and Mexico City (September, 1847) – forced Mexico to surrender. o A Divisive Victory . Initially – patriotic expansionism (noble struggle to extent “the principles of free government.”) . War divided the nation. • Conscience Whigs – northern Whigs who opposed the war on moral grounds • Voters repudiate Polk’s war policy in elections of 1846 – Whigs take control of Congress • Emerson and Thoreau oppose the war – Thoreau refuses to pay tax, is jailed, and pens “Civil Disobedience” in response o The Wilmot Proviso . Polk’s policies split the Democrats . David Wilmot from Pennsylvania – proposes the Wilmot Proviso • Wilmot Proviso supports the “free-soil” argument – keep slavery out in order to allow opportunities to small, independent farmers. Do not allow planter aristocracy to take over the West! • Ban on slavery in territories gained from the war (Mexican Cession) • Congress becomes divided along sectional lines! • Wilmot Proviso is defeated in the Senate, but old sectional wounds are reopened. • Democratic expansionists become more threatened and more aggressive in response to the Wilmot Proviso . Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo • Mexican Cession • Mexico gets $15 million o Free Soil . Debate over expansion dominates Election of 1848 . “Slave Power” conspiracy (pg. 421) . Free-soil movement • “Slavery was an institution of “aristocratic men” and a danger to “the great mass of the people… [because it]…threatens the general and equal distribution of our lands into convenient family farms.” ***point this quote out to students! . Free Soil Party organized in 1848 • did not argue for abolition • more focused on stopping the expansion of slavery in order to preserve republican ideals • won broad support from aspiring white farmers • many radical abolitionists (Garrison) criticized Free Soil Party o Election of 1848 . Democratic nominee – (promoted squatter sovereignty) . Northern Democrats who opposed expansion of slavery joined the Free-Soil Party . Free-Soil Party nominee - Martin Van Buren (former northern Democrat) . Whig nominee – Zachary Taylor (“Old Rough and Ready”) • Louisiana slave holding family – Supported slavery in the South, but NOT in the territories. • Won support in the North • Military heroics also won him support • Taylor wins the election! America’s History Eighth Edition Terms & Concepts – Unit 7

o California Gold and Racial Warfare . Sutter’s Mill, 1848 – beginning of the California Gold Rush . By the end of 1849 more than 80,000 settlers had flooded into California . Rapid population growth forces Congress into immediate decision (and debate) over California statehood. o Forty-Niners . Concerns over lawlessness and instability in California . Entry of Chinese miners in 1850 – Americans called for laws to expel them. . Few Forty-Niners struck it rich. o Racial Warfare and Land Rights . Americans begin taking over land claims in California . Defeat of many native tribes in California . Californio loss of land o 1850: Crisis and Compromise . Rapid settlement of California – skip territorial phase and admit to the Union . California state constitution prohibited slavery – President Taylor urged Congress to admit California as a free state . Constitutional Conflict • John C. Calhoun – uphold southern honor and political power (radical view – supported by the Deep South) o Proposed a constitutional amendment to create a dual presidency – dividing North and South o Advanced the argument that because slaves were property, Congress had no authority to regulate slavery in the territories. “Slavery follows the flag” • James Buchanan – moderate, northern Democratic view o Extend the Missouri Compromise Line (36⁰30’) to the Pacific o Guaranteed slave owners access to western territories • Stephen A. Douglas – Democratic senator from Illinois o Popular sovereignty (squatter sovereignty – first advanced by Lewis Cass in 1848) o Leave it up to the settlers in a territory to decide the status of slavery. They will vote on the issue. o Gained a great deal of support. – Remove the explosive issue of slavery from Congress and let the people decide. • William Seward and Salmon Chase – antislavery advocates o Restrict slavery in its existing boundaries o Eventually extinguish it completely o “higher law than the Constitution” – “Higher Law” Seward (Slavery is morally unjust and violates God’s law). . A Complex Compromise • Whig and Democratic politicians worked on a compromise to preserve the Union • Clay, Webster, and Douglas won passage of the Compromise of 1850 o New, stricter Fugitive Slave Act o California admitted as a Free State o Resolved boundary dispute between Texas and New Mexico o Abolished the slave trade in the District of Columbia o New Mexico and Utah territories would be left open to popular sovereignty to decide issue of slavery. • Southern “fire-eaters” – demanded that slavery be protected where it existed and grant statehood to any territory adopting a proslavery constitution.

4. The End of the Second Party System, 1850-1858 o Hope that the Compromise of 1850 would preserve the Union for many years. o Hopes quickly faded . Antislavery northerners did not support the compromise – they hated the Fugitive Slave Act and demanded Free-Soil in the West . Southerners planned to extend slavery into the West, the Caribbean, and Central America o Resistance to the Fugitive Slave Act . Most controversial element of the compromise . Many northerners and Midwesterners refused to follow the law. . Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852) boosted opposition to the Fugitive Slave Law • Gained rapid support and popularity in the U.S. and Britain . Northern states begin passing personal liberty laws – guaranteed all residents the right to trial by jury, therefore curbing the Fugitive Slave Law. . 1857, Wisconsin Supreme Court decision in Ableman v. Booth – ruled Fugitive Slave Law unconstitutional, because it violated the rights of Wisconsin citizens – 1859 the Taney Court overturned this ruling and upheld federal supremacy and the Fugitive Slave Law. o The Whigs Disintegrate and New Parties Rise . Election of 1852 – both the Whigs and Democrats were split along sectional lines. • Whigs nominate Winfield Scott o Whigs fragmented over the issue of slavery. • Democrats nominate – Wins election! o Proslavery Initiatives . President Pierce pursued an expansionist foreign policy . Gadsden Purchase, 1853 – for the purpose of a transcontinental railroad America’s History Eighth Edition Terms & Concepts – Unit 7 . Ostend Manifesto – secret plan to obtain Cuba and expand slavery. It failed when northerners denounced the plan to expand slavery. o Kansas- Act . 1854 – destroys the Whig Party . Stephen A. Douglas proposes the creation of the large, free territory of Nebraska for the purpose of building a northern-routed transcontinental railroad. . Southerners opposed the plan. • They wanted to extend slavery throughout the Louisiana Purchase lands, despite the old Missouri Compromise of 1820. • They hoped that a southern city would serve as the eastern center for the transcontinental railroad, rather than Chicago. . To win southern support for his plan, Douglas amended his bill to repeal the Missouri Compromise. • The region would now be organized under the terms of “popular sovereignty” • Formation of two territories (Kansas and Nebraska) with the idea that one would be free and the other would allow slavery. o The Republican and American Parties . In 1854, anti-Nebraska Democrats joined ex-Whigs, Free-Soilers, and abolitionists to form the Republican Party. • all its members opposed slavery • completely sectional party (supported only in the North) • praised a society based on the middling classes • Abraham Lincoln becomes a prominent Republican . American, or Know Nothing Party • Nativist • Anti-Immigrant • Anti-Catholic • Northern members were strongly anti-slavery • Competed with the Republicans for widespread support in the North . Bleeding Kansas • Border-crossing Missourians (pg. 433) • New England Emigrant Aid Society • Pierce Administration accepts the legitimacy of the proslavery Lecompton Constitution. o Most Kansas residents call this a “sham” o Refuse to honor this new government • Violence erupts in 1856 – become known as “Bleeding Kansas” o Proslavery “sack” on Lawrence o John Brown murders at Pottawatomie o Kansas statehood is delayed due to growing violence there. • Caning of Charles Sumner o Violence and radicalism spills over onto the floor of the U.S. Senate • Political compromise is growing less and less likely. o Buchanan’s Failed Presidency . Election of 1856 – dominated by the violence in Kansas • Republicans nominate – John C. Frémont • Democrats nominate – James Buchanan (Buchanan wins!) • American Party splits down sectional lines • Republicans replace Whigs as second major party; however, it is a sectional party. (No support in the South!) • Democrats are the only national party - but there are weaknesses that threaten a split. . Dred Scott: Petitioner for Freedom • Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) – considered one of the worst decisions ever handed down by the Supreme Court! • Raised the controversial issue of Congress’s constitutional authority over slavery. • Dred Scott sued for his freedom based on his years living with his master in free territory. • Supreme Court denied Scott’s argument that he was a free man. • Chief Justice Roger Taney pens the opinion o Denies individuals of African descent the right to citizenship in the U.S. o Therefore Scott has no right to sue in federal court o Endorses the idea that the Fifth Amendment protection of private property allows slave holders the right to take their property anywhere in the territories – Says that Congress has no constitutional power to regulate this movement. o Therefore, the Northwest Ordinance (1787) and Missouri Compromise (1820) were unconstitutional. o Territorial governments cannot prohibit slavery . Buchanan splits the Democratic Party over his support for Taney in the Dred Scott decision and his support for the proslavery Lecompton Constitution.

5. Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Triumph, 1858-1860 o Democrats split along sectional lines o Republicans gain support in the North and Midwest o Lincoln’s Political Career . Rejected his father’s life as a subsistence farmer America’s History Eighth Edition Terms & Concepts – Unit 7 . Gained entry into the middle class . Studied law and became a well-respected lawyer in Springfield, Illinois o An Ambitious Politician . Joined the Whig Party . Elected to the Illinois state legislature . 1846, won election to Congress . Opposed the expansion of slavery . Early in his political career, he supported the colonization of freed African Americans to Africa or South America. . Returned to politics because of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, Stephen Douglas’s support for popular sovereignty, and repeal of the Missouri Compromise • Reaffirmed his opposition to the expansion of slavery • Joined the Republican Party o Lincoln-Douglas Debates . 1858 Illinois Senate Race • Lincoln vs. Douglas • “House Divided” speech, “A house divided against itself cannot stand.” American society “cannot endure permanently half slave and half free…It will become all one thing, or all the other.” • Douglas’s Freeport Doctrine: Douglas’s attempt to reconcile the Dred Scott decision with his support for popular sovereignty. • Despite the lack of support for the Freeport Doctrine, Douglas narrowly defeats Lincoln for the Senate seat. • Lincoln gains a national reputation • 1858, Republicans win control of the House of Representatives o The Union Under Siege . The Rise of Radicalism • Moderate Democrats vs. Fire-eaters o Moderates demanded “southern rights” and protections to slavery (Jefferson Davis) o Fire-Eaters repudiated the Union and actively promoted secession • Northern Antislavery radicals o William Seward from New York o Abolitionist John Brown . Raid on Harper’s Ferry, 1859 . Brown’s martyrdom in the North vs. Condemnation and fear in the South . Many southerners blamed the Republican Party – growing fear and distrust . Many southerners also feared that the national Democratic Party could no longer protect their interests. • Democratic Party Convention in April, 1860 (Prior to Election of 1860) o Northern Democrats nominate Stephen A. Douglas o Southern Democrats nominate John C. Breckinridge o Election of 1860 . Democrats divided – opens the door for a Republican victory • Northern Democrats – Stephen Douglas • Southern Democrats – John Breckinridge . Constitutional Union Party – Nominates John Bell . Republicans nominate – Abraham Lincoln because of his moderate stance on slavery . Republicans use the free-soil platform on the issue of slavery . Lincoln wins the election; however, he is a minority president with only 40% of the nationwide popular vote. . This is a sectional victory for the Republicans . Southerners do not trust Lincoln or the Republicans and fear that their institution of slavery will be threatened.