Notes

Preface 1 R. W. Etulain, ‘Research Opportunities in Twentieth-Century Western Cultural History’, in R. W. Etulain and G. D. Nash, eds, Researching Western History: Topics in the Twentieth Century, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1997, p. 147. 2 W. H. Oliver, with B. R. Williams, eds, The Oxford History of , 1st edn, Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press, , 1981, p. viii. 3 Oliver, with Williams, eds, Oxford , p. vii. 4 Oliver, with Williams, eds, Oxford History of New Zealand, p. ix. 5 Oliver, with Williams, eds, Oxford History of New Zealand, p. ix. 6 See, for instance, the reviews in the New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 16, no. 1, 1982, pp. 68–76. 7 G. Wynn, ‘Reflections on the Writing of New Zealand History’, New Zealand Journal of History, 1984, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 104–16. 8 G. Rice, ed., The Oxford History of New Zealand, 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, , 1992, p. vii. 9 Rice, ed., Oxford History of New Zealand, p. vii. 10 E. Bohan, New Zealand: The Story So Far: A Short History, HarperCollins, Auckland, 1997. 11 M. King, The Penguin History of New Zealand, Penguin, Auckland, 2003. 12 J. Belich, Paradise Reforged: A History of the from the 1880s to the year 2000, Allen Lane/Penguin, Auckland, 2001; K. Sinclair, A History of New Zealand, rev. edn, (1st edn 1959), Penguin, Auckland, 2000; Oliver, with Williams, eds, Oxford History of New Zealand; Rice, ed., Oxford History of New Zealand. 13 T. Brooking, The History of New Zealand, Greenwood Press, Connecticut, 2004; G. McLauchlan, A Short History of New Zealand, Penguin, Auckland, 2004; P. Mein-Smith, A Concise History of New Zealand, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005. 14 B. Dalley and G. McLean, eds, Frontier of Dreams: The Story of New Zealand, Hodder Moa Beckett, Auckland, 2005. 15 R. Walker, Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou Struggle Without End, Penguin, Auckland, 2nd edn, 2004; T. Ballantyne and B. Moloughney, eds, Disputed Histories: Imagining New Zealand’s Pasts, University Press, , 2006. 16 P. Gibbons, ‘Cultural Colonization and National Identity’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 36, no. 1, 2002, pp. 5–17. See also Chris Hilliard, ‘Colonial Culture and the Province of Cultural History’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 36, no. 1, 2002, pp. 82–97.

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acknowledgments 1 The Editor met with Dr Ann Parsonson subsequent to this workshop meeting.

chapter 1: Introduction: Reframing New Zealand History 1 P. Gibbons, ‘The Far Side of the Search for Identity: Reconsidering New Zealand History’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 37, no. 1, 2003, pp. 38–49. 2 On exceptionalism in the New Zealand context, see M. Fairburn, ‘Is there a good case for New Zealand Exceptionalism?’, in T. Ballantyne and B. Moloughney, eds, Disputed Histories: Imagining New Zealand's Pasts, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2006, pp. 143–67. 3 P. Gibbons, ‘Cultural Colonization and National Identity’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 36, no. 1, 2002, p. 14; Gibbons, ‘The Far Side of the Search for Identity: Reconsidering New Zealand History’, pp. 38–49. 4 Gibbons, ‘Cultural Colonization and National Identity’, p. 15. See also James Belich’s essay in R. W. Winks, ed., The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. 5, ‘Historiography’, editor-in-chief, W. R. Louis, Assistant editor, A. Low, Oxford University Press, 1998. 5 See further K. Neumann, N. Thomas and H. Erickson, eds, Quicksands: Foundational histories in and New Zealand, University of New South Press, Sydney, 1999, p. xvii. 6 K. Sinclair, A Destiny Apart: New Zealand’s Search for National Identity, Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, Wellington, 1986, p. 3. 7 J. Phillips, ‘Of Verandahs and Fish and Chips and Footie on Saturday Afternoon: Reflections on 100 Years of New Zealand Historiography’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 24, no. 2, 1990, pp. 118–34. 8 Phillips, ‘Of Verandahs and Fish and Chips and Footie on Saturday Afternoon: Reflections on 100 Years of New Zealand Historiography’, p. 131. 9 D. H. Doyle and M. A. Pamplona, eds, Nationalism in the New World, University of Georgia Press, Athens, 2006. 10 J. G. A. Pocock, ‘British History: A Plea for a New Subject’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 8, no. 11, 1974, pp. 3–21. 11 Pocock, ‘British History: A Plea for a New Subject’, p. 21. 12 G. Wynn, ‘Reflections on the Writing of New Zealand History’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 18, no. 2, 1984, pp. 104–16. 13 Wynn, ‘Reflections on the Writing of New Zealand History’, p. 108. 14 E. Olssen, ‘Where to From Here? Reflections on the Twentieth-Century Historiography of Nineteenth Century New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26, no. 1, 1992, p. 70. 15 K. R. Howe, ‘Two Worlds?’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 37, no. 1, 2003, pp. 50–61. 16 Howe, ‘Two Worlds?’, p. 57. 17 C. Hilliard, ‘Island Stories: The Writing of New Zealand History 1920–1940’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 1997, p. 155; F. Hamilton, ‘Founding Histories: Some Pakeha Constructions of a New Zealand Past in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 1999; M. Johnson, ‘Land of the Wrong White Crowd: Pakeha Anti-Racist Organisations and Identity Politics in Auckland, 1964–1981’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 2002; J. Pollock, ‘From colony to culture: historiographical discourse and historical identity in Aotearoa/New Zealand, 1883–2003’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Auckland, 2005. See also J. Pollock, ‘Cultural Colonization and Textual Biculturalism: James Belich and Michael King’s General Histories of New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 41, no. 2, 2007, pp. 180–98. 18 Pollock, ‘From colony to culture’; Pollock, ‘Cultural Colonization and Textual Biculturalism’, pp. 180–98.

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19 M. C. Woods, ‘Re/producing the Nation: Women Making Identity in New Zealand, 1906–1925’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Canterbury, 1997, p. iv. 20 P. Gibbons, ‘Non-fiction’, in T. Sturm, ed., The Oxford History of in English, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1991, see esp. pp. 27–104, pp. 52–3. 21 Hilliard, ‘Island Stories’, passim. 22 Olssen, ‘Where to From Here?’, p. 57. 23 A. W. Shrimpton and Alan Mulgan, Maori and Pakeha: A History of New Zealand, Whitcombe and Tombs, Auckland, 1921; J. B. Condliffe and W. T. G. Airey, A Short History of New Zealand, Whitcombe and Tombs, , 1925; A. J. Harrop, and New Zealand: From Tasman to the Taranaki War, Methuen, , 1926; J. R. Elder, New Zealand: An Outline History, Oxford University Press, London, 1928; and J. C. Beaglehole, New Zealand: A Short History, Allen and Unwin, London, 1936. 24 Hilliard, ‘Island Stories’, passim. 25 Hilliard, ‘Island Stories’, p. 154. See also C. Hilliard, ‘Colonial Culture and the Province of Cultural History’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 36, no. 1, 2002, pp. 82–97. 26 A. Derbyshire, ‘Anyone’s But Our Own: The Teaching of New Zealand History in New Zealand Secondary Schools, 1925–2000’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 2004. 27 This phrase refers to the film made by the Government Film Studios in 1940–41 to commemorate the centennial of the signing of the . See further One Hundred Crowded Years, Government Film Studios, 1941 , accessed Wednesday, 3 December 2008. 28 J. Cowan, Settlers and Pioneers, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1940; W. G. McClymont, The Exploration of New Zealand, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1940; E. H. McCormick, Letters and Art in New Zealand, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1940; New Zealand Department of Internal Affairs Centennial Branch, Making New Zealand: Pictorial Surveys of a Century, Department of Internal Affairs Centennial Branch, Wellington, 1939–1940; New Zealand Department of and Publicity, New Zealand Centennial 1840–1940, Department of Tourism and Publicity, Wellington, 1940; H. M. Simpson, The Women of New Zealand, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1940; L. Webb, Government in New Zealand, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1940; F. L. Wood, New Zealand in the World, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1940. 29 A. Mulgan, From Track to Highway: A Short History of New Zealand, Whitcombe and Tombs, Christchurch, 1944; A. H. Reed, The Story of New Zealand, Reed, Wellington, 1948. 30 J. B. Condliffe and W. T. G. Airey, A Short History of New Zealand, Whitcombe and Tombs, Christchurch, 1925; H. Miller, New Zealand, Hutchinson’s University Library, London, 1950; W. P. Morrell and D. O. W. Hall, A History of New Zealand Life, Whitcombe and Tombs, Christchurch, 1957. 31 J. Belich, Paradise Reforged: A history of the New Zealanders from the 1880s to the year 2000, Penguin, Auckland, 2001. 32 K. Sinclair, A History of New Zealand, Penguin, Auckland, 1959; W. H. Oliver, The Story of New Zealand, Faber, London, 1960, 2nd edn, 1963. 33 Olssen, ‘Where to From Here?’, pp. 57–60. 34 See Derbyshire, ‘Anyone’s But Our Own’, p. 11. 35 Derbyshire, ‘Anyone’s but our own’, passim. 36 Olssen, ‘Where to From Here?’, p. 60. 37 L. Barber, New Zealand: A Short History, Century Hutchinson, Auckland, 1989. 38 K. Sinclair, A History of New Zealand, Penguin, Auckland, 4th edn, 1991; W. H. Oliver, with B. R. Williams, eds, The Oxford History of New Zealand, 1st edn, Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press, Wellington, 1981. 39 A. Curthoys, ‘Losing our way after the imperial turn: charting academic uses of the postcolonial’, in A. Burton, After the Imperial Turn: Thinking With and Through the Nation, Duke University Press, Durham, 2003.

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40 M. Lake, ‘White Man’s Country: The Trans-National History of a National Project’, Australian Historical Studies, vol. 34, no. 122, 2003, pp. 346–63. 41 C. A. Breckenridge, S. Pollock, H. K. Bhaba and D. Chakrabarty, eds, Cosmopolitanism, Duke University Press, Durham and London, 2002. 42 P. Buckner and R. D. Francis, eds, and the British World, University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver and Toronto, 2006, pp. 1–9. See also C. Bridge and K. Fedorowich, eds, The British World: Diaspora, Culture and Identity, Frank Cass, London, 2003; P. Buckner and R. D. Francis, Rediscovering the British World, University of Calgary Press, Calgary, 2005; P. Buckner, ed., Canada and the End of Empire, University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver and Toronto, 2005; P. Buckner and R. D. Francis, eds, Canada and the British World, University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver and Toronto, 2006. 43 A. Woollacott, Gender and Empire, Palgrave Macmillian, Basingstoke and New York, 2006, p. 1 and passim. 44 H. Bhabha, ed., Nation and narration, Routledge, London and New York, 1990; R. Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West, Routledge, London and New York, 2nd edn, 2004. 45 K. Pickles, Transnational Outrage: The Death and Commemoration of Edith Cavell, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke and New York, 2007. 46 See, for instance, D. Novitz and B. Willmott, Culture and identity in New Zealand, G. P. Books, Wellington, 1989. 47 G. Byrnes, The Waitangi Tribunal and New Zealand History, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Oxford, New York, 2004, p. 190. See also the work of Charles Te Ahukaramu Royal, Rawiri Te Maire Tau, Whatarangi Winiata, Danny Keenan and others. 48 Bhabha, ed., Nation and narration; E. Said, Orientalism, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1978; R. Samuel and Paul Thompson, eds, The Myths we live by, Routledge, London and New York, 1990. 49 Burton, After the Imperial Turn, p. 8. 50 Burton, After the Imperial Turn, passim. 51 E. Hobsbawm, Nations and nationalism since 1780: programme, myth, reality, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, 1990, p. 6. 52 B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism, Verso, revised and extended edn, London, 1991. 53 Anderson, Imagined Communities, p. 6. See also L. Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992. 54 D. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2000, p. 6. 55 C. Hall, Civilising Subjects: Metropole and the Colony in the English Imagination 1830–1867, Polity, London, 2002, p. 9. 56 A. Curthoys, ‘Does Australian History Have a Future? Challenging Histories: Reflections on Australian History’, Australian Historical Studies, vol. 118, 2002, p. 145. For local discussions, see D. Montgomerie, ‘Beyond the search for good imperialism: the challenge of comparative ethnohistory’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 31, no. 1, 1997, pp. 153–68; and G. Byrnes and D. Ritter, ‘Antipodean Settler Societies and their Complexities: the Waitangi Process in New Zealand and Native Title and the Stolen Generations in Australia’, Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, vol. 46, no. 1, 2008, pp. 54–78. 57 T. Bender, ed., Rethinking American History in a Global Age, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2002; and Bender’s A Nation Among Nations: America’s Place in World History, Hill and Wang, New York, 2006. 58 C. Hilliard, ‘Book Review’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 32, no. 2, 1998, p. 231. 59 Gibbons, ‘Cultural Colonization and National Identity’, pp. 5-17; Gibbons, ‘The Far Side of the Search for Identity: Reconsidering New Zealand History’, pp. 38–49.

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chapter 2: Origins, Settlement and Society of Pre-European South Polynesia 1 A. J. Anderson, ‘The advent chronology of south Polynesia’, in P. Wallin and H. Martinsson-Wallin, eds, Essays in Honour of Arne Skjolsvold 75 years, Occasional Papers of the Kon-Tiki Museum, Oslo, 2000, pp. 73–82. 2 Thanks to Janet Davidson, Helen Leach and Geoffrey Irwin; and to Louise Furey and Geoffrey Irwin for permission to publish Figures 3 and 4, and Sophie Collins and the Cartography Unit, RSPAS, ANU for drafting Figures 1 and 2. 3 S. P. Smith, The Lore of the Whare Wananga: or Teachings of the Maori College on their History and Migrations etc., Thomas Avery, , 1913 and 1915; D. R. Simmons, The Great New Zealand Myth, Reed, Wellington, 1976; K. R. Howe, The Quest for Origins—Who First Discovered and Settled New Zealand and the Pacific Islands?, Penguin, Auckland, 2003, rev. edn 2008. 4 H. D. Skinner, of the , B. P. Bishop Museum Memoir, vol. 9, no. 1, Honolulu, 1923. 5 N. Gunson, ‘Understanding Polynesian traditional history’, The Journal of Pacific History, vol. 28, 1993, pp. 139–58; M. Orbell, Hawaiki: a new approach to Maori tradition, 1985, Heinemann, Auckland; J. Sissons, ‘Rethinking tribal origins’, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 97, 1988, pp. 199–204; R. Te Maire Tau, ‘Moki—a tribal ancestor and the realms of myth and history’, Unpublished manuscript for Te Tapuae o Rehua and the Middle Island Advisory group, Christchurch, 2000. 6 See also L. Lindstrom, ‘Leftamap Kastom: the political history of tradition on Tanna, ’, Mankind, Special Issue, vol. 13, 1982, pp. 316–29, cited at p. 317. 7 P. Munz, ‘The purity of historical method: some sceptical reflections on the current enthusiasm for the history of non-European societies’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 5, no. 1, 1971, p. 17; J. W. Davidson, ‘History, art or game? A comment on the purity of the historical method’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 5, no. 2, 1971, p. 118. 8 C. Connelly, ‘Historical method, postmodernism and truth’, History Now, vol. 9, 2003, pp. 17–21. 9 A. J. Anderson, ‘Kin and Border: traditional land boundaries in East Polynesia and New Zealand with particular reference to the northern boundary of Ngai Tahu’, Unpublished report to the Waitangi Tribunal, WAI 785, Wellington, 2003. 10 E. Shortland, The Southern Districts of New Zealand, 1851, Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, London; E. Shortland, Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders, 1856, Longmans, London. 11 A. J. Anderson, ‘A model of prehistoric collecting on the rocky shore’, Journal of Archaeological Science, vol. 8, 1981, pp. 109–20; M. S. Allen and L. A. Nagaoka, ‘“In the footsteps of von Haast . . . the discoveries something grand”: The emergence of zooarchaeology in New Zealand’, in L. Furey and S. Holdaway, eds, Change through Time: 50 years of New Zealand archaeology, New Zealand Archaeological Association Monograph 26, 2004, pp. 193–204. 12 N. Prickett, ‘An archaeologist’s guide to the Maori dwelling’, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, vol. 4, 1982, pp. 111–47. 13 R. Duff, The Moa-Hunter Period of Maori Culture, Government Printer, Wellington, 1977, p. x. 14 Y. Marshall, ‘Social organisation’, in L. Furey and S. Holdaway, eds, Change through Time, pp. 55–84; A. Crosby, ‘Ritual’, in Furey and Holdaway, eds, Change through Time, pp. 105–124. 15 J. Golson, ‘Old guards and new waves: reflections on Antipodean archaeology 1954–1975’, Archaeology in , vol. 21, 1986, pp. 2–12. 16 J. Davidson, The Prehistory of New Zealand, Longman Paul, Auckland, 1984, p. 219; Y. Marshall, ‘Social organisation’ and C. Phillips and M. Campbell, ‘From settlement patterns to interdisciplinary landscapes in New Zealand’, in Furey and Holdaway, eds, Change through Time, pp. 85–104. 17 P. V. Kirch, The Lapita Peoples: ancestors of the Oceanic world, Blackwell, Oxford, 1997.

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18 J. Marck, Topics in Polynesian Language and Culture History, Pacific Linguistics 504, Australian National University, Canberra, 2000. 19 A. J. Anderson, ‘Initial human dispersal in remote Oceania: pattern and explanation’, in C. Sand, ed., Pacific Archaeology: assessments and prospects, Le Cahiers de l’Archeologie en Nouvelle-Caledonie 15, Noumea, 2003, pp. 71–84. 20 B. Biggs, ‘Does Maori have a closest relative?’, in D. G. Sutton, ed., The Origins of the First New Zealanders, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1994, pp. 96–105; R. Clark, ‘ and Maori: the linguistic evidence’, in Sutton, ed., Origins of the First New Zealanders, pp. 123–35. 21 See D. Penny, R. Murray-McIntosh and G. L. Harrison, ‘Estimating the number of females in the founding population of New Zealand: analysis of mtDNA variation’, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 111, 2002, pp. 207–21; P. A. Underhill, G. Passarino, A. A. Lin, S. Marzuki, P. J. Oefner, L. L. Cavalli-Sforza and G. K. Chambers, ‘Maori origins, Y chromosome haplotypes and implications for human history in the Pacific’, Human Mutation, vol. 17, 2001, pp. 271–80. 22 G. J. Irwin, The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992. 23 R. Blust, ‘Subgrouping, circularity and extinction: some issues in comparative Austronesian linguistics’, Symposium Series of the Institute of Linguistics Academia Sinica, vol. 1, 1999, pp. 31–94. 24 A. J. Anderson, ‘Towards the sharp end: the type and performance of prehistoric Polynesian voyaging canoes’, in C. M. Stevenson, G. Lee and F. J. Morin, eds, Pacific 2000: Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress on Easter Island and the Pacific, The Easter Island Foundation, Los Osos, California, 2001, pp. 29–37. 25 A. J. Anderson, ‘Slow Boats from : issues in the maritime prehistory of the Indo-Pacific region’, in S. O’Connor and P. Veth, eds, East of Wallace's Line: studies of past and present maritime cultures of the Indo-Pacific region, Modern Quaternary Research in Southeast Asia, vol. 16, Balkema, Rotterdam, 2000, pp. 13–50. 26 A. J. Anderson, ‘Slow Boats from China’, pp. 29–38. 27 The only plausible allusion to a stepped mast in 1770s New Zealand is by one of the Endeavour crew; see further J. C. Beaglehole, ed., The Voyage of the Endeavour 1768–1771, Hakluyt Society, Cambridge, 1955, p. 190. 28 A. Pawley and M. Pawley, ‘Early Austronesian terms for canoe parts and seafaring’, in A. K. Pawley and M. D. Ross, eds, Austronesian Terminologies: Continuity and Change, Pacific Linguistics, C-127, Australian National University, Canberra, 1994, pp. 329–61. 29 Cited in J. C. Beaglehole, ed., The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks, 1768–1771, The Trustees of the Public Library of and Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1962, vol. 2, p. 23. 30 A. J. Anderson, J. Chappell, M. Gagan and R. Grove, ‘Prehistoric maritime migration in the Pacific islands: an hypothesis of ENSO forcing’, The Holocene, vol. 16, 2006, pp. 1–6. 31 See J. Davidson, Prehistory, p. 27; D. G. Sutton, ‘Time-place systematics in New Zealand archaeology: the case for a fundamental revision’, Journal de la Societe des Oceanistes, vol. 84, 1987, pp. 23–9. 32 A. J. Anderson and Y. H. Sinoto, ‘New radiocarbon ages of colonization sites in East Polynesia’, Asian Perspectives, vol. 41, 2002, pp. 242–57; D. Kennett, A. J. Anderson, M. Prebble, E. Conte and J. Southon, ‘Prehistoric human impacts on Rapa’, Antiquity, vol. 80, 2006, pp. 340–54; T. L. Hunt and C. P. Lipo, ‘Late Colonization of Easter Island’, Science, vol. 311, 2006, pp. 1603–6. 33 R. N. Holdaway, ‘Arrival of rats in New Zealand’, Nature, vol. 384, 1996, pp. 225–6; A. J. Anderson, ‘Differential reliability of CAMS ages on Rattus exulans bone gelatin in South Pacific prehistory’, Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, vol. 30, 2000, pp. 243–61. 34 F. J. Brook, ‘Prehistoric predation of the landsnail Placostylus ambagiosus Suter (Stylommatophora: Bulimulidae), and evidence for the timing of establishment of rats in northernmost New Zealand’, Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, vol. 30, 2000, pp. 227–41; J. M. Wilmshurst and T. F. G. Higham, ‘Rat-gnawed seeds date the late arrival of Pacific rats and humans in New Zealand’, The Holocene, vol. 14, 2004, pp. 801–6. 35 D. J. Lowe, R. M. Newnham, B. G. McFadgen and T. F. G. Higham, ‘Tephras and New Zealand archaeology’, Journal of Archaeological Science, vol. 27, 2000, pp. 859–70; M. S. McGlone and

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J. M. Wilmshurst, ‘Dating initial Maori environmental impact in New Zealand’, Quaternary International, vol. 59, 1999, pp. 5–16. 36 A. J. Anderson, ‘The chronology of colonization in New Zealand’, Antiquity, vol. 65, 1991, pp. 767–95; T. F. G. Higham and A. G. Hogg, ‘Evidence for late Polynesian colonization of New Zealand: University of radiocarbon measurements’, Radiocarbon, vol. 39, 1997, pp. 149–92; T. F. G. Higham, A. J. Anderson and C. Jacomb, ‘Dating the First New Zealanders: the chronology of Wairau Bar’, Antiquity, vol. 73, 1999, pp. 420–7. 37 Duff, The Moa-Hunter Period of Maori Culture, p. 118–19. 38 P. J. Sheppard, ‘Moving stones: comments on the archaeology of spatial interaction in New Zealand’, in Furey and Holdaway, eds, Change through Time, pp. 147–68; M. Turner, ‘Functional and technological explanations for the variation amongst early New Zealand adzes’, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, vol. 26, 2004, pp. 57–101. 39 A. J. Anderson, ‘Subpolar settlement in South Polynesia’, Antiquity, vol. 79, 2005, pp. 791–800. 40 T. F. G. Higham and L. Johnson, ‘The prehistoric chronology of Raoul Island, the Kermadec group’, Archaeology in Oceania, vol. 32, 1997, pp. 207–13. 41 A. J. Anderson and P. J. White, ‘Prehistoric settlement on Norfolk Island and its Oceanic context’, in A. J. Anderson and P. J. White, eds, The Prehistoric Archaeology of Norfolk Island, Southwest Pacific, Supplement 27, Records of the Australian Museum, Sydney, 2001, pp. 135–41. 42 A. J. Anderson, ‘Investigating early settlement on Lord Howe Island’, Australian Archaeology, vol. 57, 2003, pp. 98–102. 43 P. Houghton, People of the Great Ocean: aspects of human biology in the early Pacific, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996; A. J. Anderson, ‘Implications of prehistoric obsidian transfer in South Polynesia’, Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, vol. 20, 2000, pp. 117–23. 44 A. J. Anderson and R. C. Green, ‘Domestic and religious structures in the Emily Bay settlement site, Norfolk Island’, in A. J. Anderson and P. J. White, eds, The Prehistoric Archaeology of Norfolk Island, pp. 43–52. 45 A. J. Anderson, ‘The archaeology of Raoul Island’, passim. 46 A. J. Anderson, ‘Subpolar settlement’, passim. 47 A. J. Anderson, ‘A fragile plenty: pre-European Maori and the New Zealand environment’, in E. Pawson and T. Brooking, eds, Environmental Histories of New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2002, pp. 19–34; M. S. McGlone, A. J. Anderson and R. N. Holdaway, ‘An ecological approach to the Polynesian settlement of New Zealand’, in Sutton ed., Origins of the First New Zealanders, pp. 136–63. 48 A. Tennyson and P. Martinson, Extinct Birds of New Zealand, Te Papa Press, Wellington, 2006; A. J. Anderson, Prodigious Birds: moas and moa-hunting in prehistoric New Zealand, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1989. 49 T. H. Worthy and R. N. Holdaway, The Lost World of the Moa: prehistoric life of New Zealand, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 2002. 50 Duff, Moahunting Period, passim; A. J. Anderson, Prodigious Birds, p. 124; and A. J. Anderson, P. Scofield and T. Worthy, ‘The number of moa at Wairau Bar: correction and comment’, Records of the Canterbury Museum, vol. 18, 2004, pp. 49–50. 51 Duff, Moahunting Period, passim. 52 P. Scofield, T. H. Worthy and H. Schlumpf, ‘What birds were New Zealand’s first people eating?— Wairau Bar’s avian remains re-examined’, Records of the Canterbury Museum, vol. 17, 2003, pp. 17–35. 53 G. Law, ‘Coromandel peninsula and Great Barrier island’, in N. Prickett, The First Thousand Years: regional perspectives in New Zealand Archaeology, Dunmore Press, , 1982, pp. 49–61; J. Hamel, ‘South Otago’, in N. Prickett, The First Thousand Years, pp. 129–40. 54 A. J. Anderson, Prodigious Birds, pp. 126–34. 55 A. J. Anderson and I. W. G. Smith, ‘The transient village in southern New Zealand’, World Archaeology, vol. 27, 1996, pp. 359–71. 56 L. Furey, Houhora: a fourteenth century Maori village in Northland, Auckland Museum Bulletin 19, Auckland, 2002.

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57 D. Foley, ‘Analysis of faunal remains from the Kaupokonui site’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Auckland, 1980. 58 Anderson, Prodigious Birds, pp. 144–7. 59 C. Jacomb, ‘A fourteenth-century house from the Rakaia River Mouth, Canterbury, New Zealand’, Archaeology in Oceania, vol. 40, 2005, pp. 91–105. 60 Anderson, Prodigious Birds, pp. 133, 180. 61 See L. Furey, ‘Material Culture’, in Furey and Holdaway, eds, Change through Time, pp. 29–54; H. M. Leach, ‘Archaic adze quarries and working floors: an historical review’, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 99, 1990, pp. 373–94; M. T. Turner and D. Bonica, ‘Following the flake trail: adze production on the Coromandel east coast, New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, vol. 16, 1994, pp. 5–32; A. J. Anderson, ‘Prehistoric exploitation of marine resources at Black Rocks point, Palliser Bay’, in B. F. Leach and H. M. Leach, eds, Prehistoric Man in Palliser Bay, National Museum Bulletin, vol. 21, 1979, pp. 49–65; M. Taylor, ‘Bone refuse from Twilight Beach’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Auckland, 1984. 62 H. O. Forbes, ‘Note on the disappearance of the moa’, Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, vol. 23, 1891, pp. 373–5; H. D. Skinner, ‘Archaeology of Canterbury: Moa-bone Point Cave’, Records of the Canterbury Museum, vol. 2, 1923, pp. 93–104; H. M. Leach and C. Purdue, ‘Identifying fern-root beaters: documentary and statistical aids to recognition’, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, vol. 23, 2003, pp. 129–150; H. M. Leach, ‘Fern consumption in Aotearoa and its Oceanic antecedents’, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 112, 2003, pp. 141–55. 63 A. I. F. Simpson, ‘Regional occurrence of the fern-root plane in prehistoric New Zealanders’, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, vol. 3, 1981, pp. 83–7. 64 H. M. Leach and C. Stowe, ‘Oceanic arboriculture at the margins—the case of the karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus) in Aotearoa’, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 114, 2005, pp. 7–27. 65 H. M. Leach, 1000 Years of Gardening in New Zealand, Reed, Wellington, 1984. 66 H. M. Leach, ‘Evidence of prehistoric gardens in eastern Palliser Bay’, in B. F. Leach and H. M. Leach, eds, Prehistoric Man in Palliser Bay, pp. 137–61; J. R. Goff and B. G. McFadgen, ‘Catastrophic seismic-related events and their impact on prehistoric human occupation, coastal New Zealand’, Antiquity, vol. 75, 2001, pp. 155–62. 67 I. G. Barber, ‘Crops on the border: the growth of archaeological knowledge of Polynesian cultivation in New Zealand’, in L. Furey and S. Holdaway, eds, Change through Time, p. 191. 68 Leach, 1000 Years of Gardening, passim. 69 Davidson, Prehistory, pp. 121–7. 70 A. J. Anderson, ‘The origins of muttonbirding in New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, vol. 22, 2000, pp. 5–14. 71 A. J. Anderson, ‘Retrievable time: prehistoric colonization of South Polynesia from the outside in and the inside out’, in T. Ballantyne and B. Moloughney, eds, Disputed Histories: imagining New Zealand's pasts, Press, Dunedin, 2006, pp. 25–41. 72 M. King, Moriori: a people rediscovered, Viking, Auckland, 1989; A. J. Anderson, ‘Retrievable time’, p. 27, question the historical population figures. 73 D. G. Sutton, ‘Chatham Islands’, in N. J. Prickett, ed., The First Thousand Years, pp. 160–78. 74 Tennyson and Martinson, Extinct Birds, passim. 75 D. G. Sutton, ‘A culture history of the Chatham Islands’, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 89, 1980, pp. 67–93. 76 E. Brenstrum, The New Zealand Weather Book, Craig Potton, Nelson, 1998, pp. 104–5; C. M. Moy, G. O. Seltzer, D. T. Rodbell and D. M. Anderson, ‘Variability of El Niño/Southern Oscillation activity at millennial timescales during the Holocene epoch’, Nature, vol. 420, 2002, pp. 162–5. 77 J. Ogden, L. Basher and M. McGlone, ‘Fire, forest regeneration and links with early human habitation: evidence from New Zealand’, Annals of Botany, vol. 81, 1998, pp. 687–96. 78 M. S. McGlone, J. M. Wilmshurst and H. M. Leach, ‘An ecological and historical review of bracken (Pteridium esculentum) in New Zealand, and its cultural significance’, New Zealand Journal of Ecology, vol. 29, 2005, pp. 165–84.

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79 D. G. Sutton and M. A. Molloy, ‘Deconstructing Pacific palaeodemography: a critique of density-dependent causality’, Archaeology in Oceania, vol. 24, 1989, pp. 31–6; J. Terrell, Prehistory in the Pacific Islands, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986, pp. 188–95. 80 L. A. Nagaoka, ‘Explaining subsistence change in southern New Zealand: foraging theory models’, World Archaeology, vol. 34, 2002, pp. 84–102. 81 Holdaway and Jacomb, ‘Rapid extinction’, passim; A. J. Anderson, ‘Defining the period of moa extinction’, Archaeology in New Zealand, vol. 43, 2001, pp. 195–200; F. J. Petchey, ‘New Zealand bone dating revisited: a radiocarbon discard protocol for bone’, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, vol. 19, 1999, pp. 81–124. 82 T. H. Worthy, ‘What was on the menu? Avian extinction in New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, vol. 19, 1997, pp. 125–60; I. W. G. Smith, ‘Retreat and resilience: fur seals and human settlement in New Zealand’, in G. Monks, ed., The Exploitation and Cultural Importance of Sea Mammals, Oxbow Books, Oxford, 2005, pp. 6–18. 83 I. W. G. Smith, ‘Nutritional perspectives on prehistoric marine fishing in New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, vol. 24, 2002, pp. 5–31. 84 B. F. Leach, C. Quinn, J. Morrison and G. Lyon, ‘The use of multiple isotope signatures in reconstructing prehistoric human diet from archaeological bone from the Pacific and New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, vol. 23, 2001, pp. 31–98. 85 Sheppard, ‘Moving stones’, p. 167. 86 Turner, ‘Functional and technological explanations’, p. 61. 87 Furey, ‘Material Culture’, p. 41. 88 Furey, ‘Material Culture’, p. 41; R. Cassels, ‘Early prehistoric wooden artifacts from the Waitore site (N136/16), near Patea, Taranaki’, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, vol. 1, 1979, pp. 85–108. 89 A. J. Anderson, ‘The art of concealment: Maori rock art in the ’, Ka Tuhituhi o Nehera. National Museum Publication, Wellington, 1988, pp. 4–8. 90 P. Bain, ‘Geographic and temporal variation in Maori rock art drawings in two regions of southern New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, vol. 7, 1985, pp. 39–59. 91 Trotter and McCulloch, Prehistoric Rock Art, passim. 92 Anderson and Ritchie, ‘Pavements, pounamu and ti’, passim; A. J. Anderson and R. McGovern- Wilson, Beech Forest Hunters: the archaeology of Maori rockshelter sites on Lee Island, Lake Te Anau, southern New Zealand, New Zealand Archaeological Association Monograph 18, 1991; R. Walter, I. Smith and C. Jacomb, ‘Sedentism, subsistence and socio-political organization in prehistoric New Zealand’, World Archaeology, vol. 38, 2006, pp. 274–90. 93 J. M. Davidson, ‘The prehistory of Motutapu Island, New Zealand: five centuries of Polynesian occupation in a changing landscape’, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 87, 1978, pp. 327–37. 94 H. M. Leach, ‘The significance of early horticulture in Palliser Bay for New Zealand prehistory’, in B. F. Leach and H. M. Leach, eds, Prehistoric Man in Palliser Bay, pp. 241–49. 95 Davidson, ‘Motutapu Island’; Marshall, ‘Social Organisation’, p. 79. 96 Leach and Leach, Palliser Bay, passim. 97 G. J. Irwin, ed., Kohika: the archaeology of a late Maori lake village in the Ngati Awa rohe, , New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2004. 98 C. Jacomb, Panau: the archaeology of a Banks Peninsula Maori village, Canterbury Museum Bulletin 9, Christchurch, 2004. 99 L. M. Furey, Oruarangi: the archaeology and material culture of a Hauraki pa, Bulletin of the Auckland Institute and Museum 17, Auckland, 1996; C. Phillips, Waihou Journeys: the archaeology of 400 years of Maori settlement, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2000. 100 R. J. Beck, New Zealand Jade, Reed, Wellington, 1984. 101 J. H. Beattie, Traditional Lifeways of the Southern Maori, A. J. Anderson, ed., University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 1994; B. Brailsford, Greenstone Trails: the Maori search for pounamu, Reed, Wellington, 1984, passim.

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102 P. Bellwood, Archaeological Research at Lake Mangakaware, Waikato, 1968–70, New Zealand Archaeological Association Monograph 9, Auckland, 1978. 103 J. Davidson, ‘The Paa Maaori revisited’, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 96, 1987, pp. 7–26; M. Schmidt, ‘“Few Have Been Tested by the Spade . . .” Pa excavation and radiocarbon dating in New Zealand archaeology’, MA Research Paper, University of Auckland, 1993; T. Walton, ‘The burden of defence in prehistoric New Zealand’, New Zealand Archaeological Association Newsletter, vol. 44, 2001, pp. 47–57. 104 D. G. Sutton, L. Furey and Y. Marshall, eds, The Archaeology of Pouerua, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2003; I. G. Barber, ‘Loss, land and monumental landscaping: towards a new interpretation of the “Classic” Maori emergence’, Current Anthropology, vol. 37, 1996, pp. 868–80. 105 J. Golson, ‘Excavations at Mt. Wellington’, New Zealand Archaeological Association Newsletter, vol. 3, 1960, pp. 31–4. 106 R. G. Law and R. C. Green, ‘An economic interpretation of Taniwha Pa, lower Waikato, New Zealand (N52/1)’, Mankind, vol. 8, 1972, pp. 255–69. 107 Davidson, Prehistory, p. 167. 108 R. Foster and B. Sewell, ‘The Tamaki River Pa: the excavation of a small defended site, R11/1506, on the Tamaki River, Auckland, New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, vol. 19, 1997, pp. 5–25. 109 R. G. Law, ‘Pits long, large and prestigious: recognition of varieties of Maori kumara storage pits in northern New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, vol. 21, 2000, pp. 29–45. 110 According to the Bishop of New Zealand in 1844; see G. A. Selwyn, ‘Diary of visitation to Canterbury and Otago’, January–February 1844, Typescript, Hocken Library, Dunedin. 111 Sutton, Furey and Marshall, Pouerua, p. 237; Barber, ‘Loss, land and monumental landscaping’, passim. 112 F. W. Shawcross, ‘An archaeological assemblage of Maori combs’, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 73, 1964, pp. 382–98. 113 B. G. McFadgen and R. A. Sheppard, Ruahihi Pa: a prehistoric defended settlement in the southwestern Bay of Plenty, National Museum of New Zealand Bulletin 22, Wellington, 1984. 114 S. Bulmer, ‘Settlement patterns in Tamaki-makau-rau’, in J. M. Davidson, G. J. Irwin, B. F. Leach, A. Pawley and D. Brown, eds, Oceanic Culture History: essays in honour of Roger Green, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology Special Publication, Dunedin, 1996, pp. 641–55. 115 A. Fox, ‘Pa and people in New Zealand: an archaeological estimate of population’, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, vol. 5, 1983, pp. 5–18. 116 A. Walton, ‘How big are pa?’, Archaeology in New Zealand, vol. 49, 2006, pp. 174–87. 117 Davidson, Prehistory, p. 184. 118 I. Pool, Te Iwi Maori: a New Zealand population past, present & projected, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1991, pp. 29–58. 119 Davidson, Prehistory, pp. 56–59; Pool, Te Iwi Maori, pp. 35–42. 120 A. Grey, Aotearoa and New Zealand: a historical geography, Canterbury University Press, Christchurch, 1994, p. 91. 121 B. F. Leach, ‘The prehistory of the southern ’, Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, vol. 11, 1981, pp. 11–33. 122 M. W. Graves and M. Sweeney, ‘Ritual behaviour and ceremonial structures in eastern Polynesia: changing perspectives on archaeological variability’, in M. W. Graves and R. C. Green, eds, The Evolution and Social Organisation of Prehistoric Society in Polynesia, New Zealand Archaeological Association Monograph 19, Auckland, 1996, pp. 102–21; T. L. Hunt and C. P. Lipo, ‘Cultural elaboration and environmental uncertainty in Polynesia’, in C. M. Stevenson, G. Lee and F. J. Morin, eds, Pacific 2000, pp. 103–16. 123 N. J. Prickett, ‘Maori fortifications of the Tataraimaka district, Taranaki’, Records of the Auckland Institute and Museum, vol. 19, 1982, pp. 1–52; N. J. Prickett, ‘Maori fortifications of the Okato district, Taranaki’, Records of the Auckland Institute and Museum, vol. 20, 1983, pp. 1–39.

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124 G. J. Irwin, Land, Pa and Polity: a study based on the Maori fortifications of Pouto, New Zealand Archaeological Association Monograph 15, Auckland. 125 Anderson, Prodigious Birds, p. 125. 126 See I. Goldman, Ancient Polynesian Society, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1970; A. Ballara, Iwi: the dynamics of Maori tribal organization from c. 1769 to c. 1945, University Press, Wellington, 1998. 127 Marsden 1814, cited in R. McNab, ed., Historical Records of New Zealand, Government Printer, Wellington, vol. 1, 1908, p. 387. 128 Goldman, Ancient Polynesian Society, p. 430. 129 R. P. Boast, Ngati Toa and the Upper South Island, Evidence to the Waitangi Tribunal, WAI 785, A56, vol. 1, 2000, p. 41. 130 Anderson, Welcome of Strangers, p. 112. 131 W. Martin cited in N. Smith, Native Custom and Lore affecting the Maori, Maori Purposes Fund Board, Wellington, 1942, p. 63. 132 I. Goldman, Ancient Polynesian Society, p. 46; I. H. Kawharu, Maori Land Tenure: studies of a changing institution, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1977, p. 38. 133 H. Allen, ‘Horde and hapu: the reification of kinship and residence in prehistoric Aboriginal and Maori settlement organisation’, in J. M. Davidson, G. J. Irwin, B. F. Leach, A. Pawley and D. Brown, eds, Oceanic Culture History, pp. 657–74; A. J. Anderson, ‘Wakawaka and mahinga kai: models of traditional land management in southern New Zealand’, in Davidson, Irwin, Leach, Pawley and Brown, eds, Oceanic Culture History, pp. 631–40; A. Walton, ‘Settlement patterns in the River valley’, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, vol. 16, 1994, pp. 123–68. 134 Ballara, Iwi, pp. 163, 200, 265, 283. 135 Sissons, ‘Rethinking tribal origins’, p. 202. 136 Anderson, ‘Kin and Border’, p. 148. 137 Anderson, Welcome of Strangers, pp. 105–10. 138 P. V. Kirch, The Evolution of the Polynesian Chiefdoms, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1984. 139 D. G. Sutton, ‘Organisation and Ontology: the origins of the northern Maori chiefdom’, Man, vol. 25, 1990, pp. 667–92. 140 Marshall, ‘Social Organisation’, p. 70; P. V. Kirch and R. C. Green, Hawaiki, Ancestral Polynesia— An essay in historical anthropology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001, pp. 226–35. 141 A. J. Anderson, ‘Islands of Exile: ideological motivation in maritime migration’, Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, vol. 1, 2006, pp. 33–48; N. J. Prickett, ‘An archaeologists’ guide to the Maori dwelling’; D. G. Sutton, ‘The archaeology of belief: structuralism in stratigraphical context’, in A. Pawley, ed., Man and a Half: essays in honour of Ralph Bulmer, The Polynesian Society, Auckland, 1991, pp. 540–50.

142 J. C. Beaglehole, Endeavour, 2nd November 1769, p. 191.

chapter 3: Humans and the Environment in New Zealand, c. 1800 to 2000 1 A. J. Anderson, ‘A Fragile Plenty: Pre-European Maori and the New Zealand Environment’, in E. Pawson and T. Brooking, eds, Environmental Histories of New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2002, pp. 19–34. 2 Graeme Wynn, ‘“Shall we linger along ambitionless?”: Environmental perspectives on British Columbia’, BC Studies, nos 142–3, 2004, pp. 5–67. 3 Anne Salmond, Between Worlds: Early Exchanges Between Maori and Europeans, 1773–1815, Viking, Auckland, 1997, pp. 175–397.

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4 R. P. Hargreaves, ‘Speed the Plough: An Historical Geography of New Zealand Farming Before the Introduction of Refrigeration’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Otago, 1966, pp. 1–56. 5 A. W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986, pp. 217–69, 270. 6 Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, vol. 1, 1869, p. 14. 7 R. Galbreath, ‘Images of colonisation: Native rats and dying pillows’, The Turnbull Library Record, vol. 12, nos 1–2, 1993, pp. 33–42. 8 See T. Hearn, ‘Mining the Quarry’, in Pawson and Brooking, Environmental Histories of New Zealand, pp. 84–99. 9 W. J. Gardner, ed., A History of Canterbury, vol. 2, General History 1854–76, Whitcombe and Tombs, Christchurch, 1971, pp. 90–3, 152–5, 139–41. 10 P. Holland and B. Fitzharris, ‘Wind in the Tussock: The Weather in the Foothills of Mid-Canterbury during 1866–1871’, in G. Kearsley and B. Fitzharris, eds, Southern Landscapes: Essays in Honour of Bill Brockie and Ray Hargreaves, Department of Geography, University of Otago, Dunedin, 1990, pp. 39–53. 11 Cited in James Beattie, ‘Rethinking science, religion and nature in environmental history: Drought in early twentieth-century New Zealand’, Historical Social Research, vol. 29, 2004, pp. 82–103. 12 John Richardson, Report on the Present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand, Richard and John E. Taylor, London, 1843, p. 1. 13 G. M. Thomson, The Naturalisation of Animals and Plants in New Zealand, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1922; H. Guthrie-Smith, Tutira: The Story of a New Zealand Sheep Station, Random House, Auckland and University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1999. 14 G. Park, Nga Uruora (The Groves of Life): Ecology and History in a New Zealand Landscape, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1995, pp. 30–9; M. Roche, History of New Zealand Forestry, GP Books, Wellington, 1990, p. 132. 15 R. Arnold, ‘The virgin forest harvest and the development of colonial New Zealand’, New Zealand Geographer, vol. 32, 1976, pp. 105–26; P. Star, ‘Doomed Timber: Towards an Environmental History of Seaward Forest’, in T. Ballantyne and J. A. Bennett, eds, Landscape/ Community: Perspectives from New Zealand History, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2005, pp. 17–30. 16 K. F. O’Connor, ‘Changing Diversity in Open Country Grasslands: The Varied Effects of Early Pastoralism on New Zealand Landscapes’, in G. Kearsley and B. Fitzharris, eds, Glimpses of a Gaian World: Essays in Honour of Peter Holland, School of Social Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, 2004, pp. 61–79. 17 L. J. Wild, The Royal Agricultural Society of New Zealand (Incorporated): The History of the Society, Avery Press Ltd, New Plymouth, 1951. 18 P. Star, ‘New Zealand’s changing natural history: Evidence from Dunedin, 1868–1875’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 32, no. 1, 1998, pp. 59–69. 19 R. M. McDowall, Gamekeepers for the Nation: The Story of New Zealand's Acclimatisation Societies, 1861–1990, Canterbury University Press, Christchurch, 1994; C. Brennan, ‘Imperial Game: A History of Hunting, Society, Exotic Species and the Environment in New Zealand and Victoria, 1840–1901’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Melbourne, 2004. 20 See R. Drayton, Nature's Government: Science, Imperial Britain, and the ‘Improvement’ of the World, Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 2000; I. Tyrrell, True Gardens of the Gods: Californian-Australian Environmental Reform, 1860–1930, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1999. 21 Phormium tenax. See further W. Shepherd and W. Cook, The Botanic Garden, Wellington: A New Zealand History, 1840–1987, Millwood Press, Wellington, 1988, pp. 85–7 (p. 97). 22 J. A. Johnston, ‘The New Zealand bush: Early assessments of vegetation’, New Zealand Geographer, vol. 37, no. 1, 1981, pp. 19–24. 23 V. Wood, ‘Appraising soil fertility in early colonial New Zealand: The “biometric fallacy” and beyond’, Environment and History, vol. 9, 2003, pp. 393–405.

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24 P. Holland and B. Mooney, ‘Wind and water: Environmental learning in early colonial New Zealand’, New Zealand Geographer, vol. 62, no. 1, 2006, pp. 39–49. 25 New Zealand Farmer, February 1892, p. 55. 26 G. Park, ‘“Swamps Which Might Doubtless Easily be Drained”: Swamp Drainage and its Impact on the Indigenous’, in Pawson and Brooking, eds, Environmental Histories of New Zealand, pp. 151–65. 27 Coturnix novazelandiae, Sceloglaux albifacies, Turnagra capensis, Herealocha acutirostri, Xenicus longipes, Callaeas cinerea cinerea. See C. King, Immigrant Killers: Introduced Predators and the Conservation of Birds in New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1984, p. 212. 28 Tony Whitaker, ‘Was the kawekaweau the world’s largest gecko?’, Forest and Bird, no. 264, 1992, pp. 44–6. 29 Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, pp. 146–72. 30 Nasturtium officinale. See W. T. L. Travers, ‘Acclimatisation in Canterbury’, New Zealand Country Journal, vol. 8, no. 6, 1884, pp. 496–500. 31 Sir J. L. C. Richardson and W. H. Pearson, ‘Report on the rabbit nuisance in Southland’, AJHR, 1876, H-10, p. 4. 32 P. Star, ‘From Acclimatisation to Preservation: Colonists and the Natural World in Southern New Zealand, 1860–1894’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Otago, 1997, pp. 253–39; P. K. Wells, ‘“An enemy of the rabbit”: The social context of acclimatisation of an immigrant killer’, Environment and History, vol. 12, no. 3, 2006, pp. 269–96. 33 King, Immigrant Killers, p. 93. 34 Otago Witness, 6 October 1883, p. 6. 35 R. Galbreath, Working for Wildlife: A History of the New Zealand Wildlife Service, Bridget Williams Books and Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1993, pp. 16–30. 36 J. T. Salmon, ‘The Influence of Man on the Biota’, in G. Kuschel, ed., Biogeography and Ecology in New Zealand, Junk, The Hague, 1975, pp. 643–1. 37 J. Beattie, ‘Environmental anxiety in New Zealand, 1840–1941: Climate change, soil erosion, sand drift, flooding and forest conservation’, Environment and History, vol. 9, no. 4, 2003, pp. 379–92. 38 N. Clayton, ‘Weeds, People and Contested Places: Selected Themes from the History of New Zealanders and their Weeds, 1770–1940’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Otago, 2006. 39 R. Galbreath, DSIR: Making Science Work for New Zealand: Themes from the History of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1926–1992, Victoria University Press/Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1998, pp. 80–108. 40 P. Gibbons, ‘Cultural colonisation and national identity’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 36, no. 1, 2002, pp. 5–17. 41 P. Gibbons, ‘“Going Native”: A Case Study of Cultural Appropriation in a Settler Society, with Particular Reference to the Activities of Johannes Andersen in New Zealand During the First Half of the Twentieth Century’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Waikato, 1992; G. Park, Effective Exclusion? An Exploratory Overview of Crown Actions and Maori Responses Concerning the Indigenous Flora and Fauna, 1912–1983, Waitangi Tribunal, Wellington, 2001. 42 This is the case in K. Sinclair, A Destiny Apart: New Zealand’s Search for National Identity, Allen and Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, Wellington, 1986, despite references to environment and climate on pp. 6–9. 43 For contrasting approaches see P. Star and L. Lochhead, ‘Children of the Burnt Bush: New Zealand and the Indigenous Remnant, 1880–1930’, in Pawson and Brooking, Environmental Histories of New Zealand, pp. 119–135 (esp. pp. 133–4); G. Park, Effective Exclusion?, pp. 245 ff. 44 G. Park, Theatre Country: Essays on Landscape and Whenua, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 2006, p. 112. 45 The Mohaka Ki Ahuriri Report, WAI 201, Waitangi Tribunal, Wellington, 2004, p. 633. 46 W. Mantell to W. Rolleston, 12 April 1866, cited in Waitangi Tribunal, The Ngai Tahu Report, Wellington, 1991, p. 497.

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47 W. Docherty to J. Haast [July 1870], Von Haast papers, MS 37/56, ATL. 48 J. D. Enys, ‘An account of the Maori manner of preserving the skin of the huia, Hetaralocha auctirostris Buller’, Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, vol. 18, 1875, pp. 204–5. 49 T. H. Potts, ‘Help us save our birds’, Nature, 2 May 1872, pp. 5–6; S. and J. Hill, Richard Henry of Resolution Island, John McIndoe, Dunedin, 1987, pp. 107–20. 50 T. R. Dunlap, Nature and the English Diaspora: Environment and History in the , Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999. 51 C. Potton, Tongariro: A Sacred Gift, Lansdowne Press, Auckland, 1987, pp. 130–4; W. Fox in AJHR, 1874, H-26, p. 4. 52 R. Wilkin, ‘Grass and forage plants best adapted to New Zealand’, New Zealand Country Journal, vol. 1, no. 1, 1877, p. 16. 53 E. B. Levy, ‘The grasslands of New Zealand: Principles of pasture establishment’, New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, vol. 23, 1921, p. 257. 54 Galbreath, DSIR, pp. 58–79; T. Brooking, R. Hodge and V. Wood, ‘The Grasslands Revolution Reconsidered’, in Pawson and Brooking, eds, Environmental Histories of New Zealand, pp. 169–82. 55 See M. Williams and B. Macdonald, The Phosphateers: A History of the British Phosphate Commissioners and the Christmas Island Phosphate Commission, Melbourne University Press, Carlton, 1985, pp. 127–8. 56 P. W. Smallfield, ‘Presidential address’, Proceedings of the Twelfth Conference, New Zealand Grassland Association, 1950, pp. 7–22. 57 R. Arnold, New Zealand's Burning: The Settlers’ World in the Mid 1880s, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1994, esp. pp. 194, 204. 58 J. Watson, Links: A History of Transport and New Zealand Society, GP Publications, Wellington, 1996, pp. 173, 181. 59 J. E. Martin, ed., People, Politics and Power Stations: Electric Power Generation in New Zealand, 1880–1998, Electricity Corporation of New Zealand and Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 2nd edn, 1998. 60 Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, Future Currents: Electricity Scenarios for New Zealand, 2005–2050, Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, Wellington, 2005, pp. 18–19, 27. 61 , New Zealand Official Yearbook 2004, David Bateman, Auckland, 2004, p. 83. 62 See S. Ville, The Rural Entrepreneurs: A History of the Stock and Station Agent Industry in Australia and New Zealand, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000. 63 W. Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West, W. W. Norton, New York and London, 1991; J. C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed, Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1998. 64 H. Stringleman and G. Hunt, Rural Challenge: A History of Wrightson Ltd, Reed Books, Auckland, 2006, p. 50. 65 Pawson and Brooking, eds, Environmental Histories of New Zealand, p. xii. 66 AJHR, 1915, C-6, p. 5. 67 Lochhead, ‘“Preserving the Brownies’ Portion”’, pp. 160–91. 68 See Roche, History of New Zealand Forestry, pp. 405–14. 69 Ross Galbreath, ‘Founding Forest and Bird’, Forest and Bird, no. 287, 1998, pp. 28–31. 70 H. Moller, ‘Customary Use of Indigenous Wildlife: Towards a Bicultural Approach to Conserving New Zealand’s Biodiversity’, in B. McFadgen and P. Simpson, eds, Biodiversity: Papers from a Seminar Series on Biodiversity, hosted by Science and Research Division, Wellington, 14 June– 26 July 1994, Wellington, 1996, pp. 89–125. 71 L. Cockayne, ‘Sketch of the plant geography of the Waimakariri river basin, considered chiefly from an oecological point of view’, Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, vol. 32, 1899, pp. 95–136; L. Cockayne, ‘Report on a botanical survey of the Tongariro National Park’, AJHR, 1908, C-14.

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72 D. Young, Our Islands, Our Selves: A History of Conservation in New Zealand, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2004. 73 P. Star, ‘Native bird protection, national identity and the rise of preservation in New Zealand to 1914’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 36, no. 2, 2002, pp. 123–36; P. Star, ‘Native forest and the rise of preservation in New Zealand (1903–1913)’, Environment and History, vol. 8, no. 3, 2002, pp. 275–94. 74 W. Satchell, The Toll of the Bush (ed. K. Smithyman), Auckland University Press/Oxford University Press Auckland, 1985, pp. 95–6. 75 R. Galbreath, Working for Wildlife: A History of the New Zealand Wildlife Service, Bridget Williams Books and Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1993, pp. 31–112. 76 R. Hodge, ‘Seizing the day: Perrine Moncrieff and nature conservation in New Zealand’, Environment and History, vol. 9, no. 4, 2003, pp. 407–18. 77 K. B. Cumberland, Soil Erosion in New Zealand: A Geographical Reconnaissance, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, Wellington, 1944, pp. 151–73; L. W. McCaskill, Hold this Land: A History of Soil Conservation in New Zealand, Reed, Wellington, 1973. 78 M. Roche, Land and Water: Water and Soil Conservation and Central Government in New Zealand, 1941–1988, Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1994. 79 Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, The Cities and their People: New Zealand’s Urban Environment, Parliamentary Commission for the Environment, Wellington, 1998, p. 3. 80 I. L. Baumgart, ‘To Meet the Challenge of the Environment’, Thomas Cawthron Memorial Lecture No. 45, Nelson, 1974, pp. 8–11. 81 R. Taylor and I. Smith, The State of New Zealand’s Environment 1997, Ministry for the Environment and GP Publications, Wellington, 1997, chaps 5–7. 82 J. T. Salmon, Heritage Destroyed: The Crisis in Scenery Preservation in New Zealand, Reed, Wellington, 1960; M. Watts, The Poisoning of New Zealand, Auckland Institute of Technology Press, Auckland, 1994; R. Carson, Silent Spring, Fawcett Publications, Greenwich, CT, 1962; Bruce Wildblood-Crawford, ‘Grassland utopia and Silent Spring: Rereading the agrichemical revolution in New Zealand’, New Zealand Geographer, vol. 62, no. 1, 2006, pp. 65–72. 83 L. W. Cook, ed., Measuring Up: New Zealanders and the Environment, Statistics New Zealand, Wellington, 1993, pp. 130–2. 84 A. P. Fox, ‘The Power Game: The Development of the Manapouri—Tiwai Point Electro-Industrial Complex, 1904–1969’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Otago, 2001; N. Peat, Manapouri Saved! New Zealand's First Great Conservation Success Story, Longacre Press, Dunedin, 1993. 85 Young, Our Islands, Our Selves, pp. 79–189. 86 Young, Our Islands Our Selves, pp. 206–11. 87 N. J. Ericksen, P. R. Berke, J. L. Crawford and J. E. Dixon, Planning for Sustainability: New Zealand under the RMA, International Global Change Institute, The University of Waikato, Hamilton, 2003. 88 Taylor and Smith, The State of New Zealand's Environment, p. 13. 89 Park, Nga Uruora, p. 329. 90 G. Park, New Zealand as Ecosystems: The Ecosystem Concept as a Tool for Environmental Management and Conservation, Department of Conservation, Wellington, 2000, p. 7. 91 From the Green Party’s 1999 ‘Conservation Policy’, ratified 9 June 2005, , accessed 3 November 2006. 92 A. F. Mark and K. J. M. Dickinson, ‘South Island High Country in Transition: Issues, Options and Initial Outcomes with the Tenure Review Process’, in Kearsley and Fitzharris, eds, Glimpses of a Gaian World, pp. 285–308. 93 D. Campbell-Hunt, Developing a Sanctuary: The Karori Experience, Victoria Link, Wellington, 2002. 94 Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, Growing for Good: Intensive Farming, Sustainability and New Zealand’s Environment, Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, Wellington, 2004, pp. 5, 126, 146.

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95 See G. M. Winder, ‘Seafarer’s gaze: Queen Street business and Auckland’s archipelago, 1908’, New Zealand Geographer, vol. 62, no. 1, 2006, pp. 50–64. 96 B. Hersoug, ‘Maori Fishing Rights: Coping with the Aboriginal Challenge’, in S. Jentoft, H. Minde and R. Nilsen, eds, Indigenous Peoples: Resource Management and Global Rights, Eburon Academic Publishers, Delft, 2003, pp. 125–48. 97 Rev. Maori Marsden, ‘The Natural World and Natural Resources’ [‘written during the late 1970s or early 1980s’], in Te Ahukaramu Charles Royal, ed., The Woven Universe: Selected Writings of Rev Maori Marsden, Estate of Rev. Maori Marsden, Wellington, 2003, pp. 24–53. 98 J. Lovelock, Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1979. 99 N. R. Wheen and J. Ruru, ‘The Environmental Reports’, in J. Hayward and N. R. Wheen, eds, The Waitangi Tribunal: Te Roopu Whakaman i te Tiriti o Waitangi, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2004, pp. 97–112.

chapter 4: History and Memory: The Wood of the Whau Tree, 1766–2005 1 The light wood of the whau (nothopanex arboreum) was used as floats for nets. Great Britain Parliamentary Papers (GBPP), 1845, XXXIII (108), p. 10. I am revisiting this metaphor, which I drew upon in ‘Maori Oral Narratives, Pakeha Written Texts: Two Forms of Telling History’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 21, no.1, 1987, p. 16. 2 M. Restall, L. Sousa and K. Terraciano, eds, Mesoamerican Voices: Native Language Writings from Colonial Mexico, Oaxaca, Yucatan, and Guatemala, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, p. 24. 3 See J. Vansina, Oral Tradition as History, James Curry, London, 1985, pp. 18–20; R. Te Maire Tau, Ngã Pikitu˜roa o Ngãi Tahu—The Oral Traditions of Ngãi Tahu, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2003, pp. 147, 260. 4 B. Allen, ‘Story in Oral History: Clues to Historical Consciousness’, Journal of American History, vol. 79, no. 2, September 1992, p. 610. 5 V. O’Sullivan, Finding the Pattern, Solving the Problem. Katherine Mansfield the New Zealand European, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1989, p. 3. 6 J. Prytz Johansen, The Maori and his Religion in its Non-Ritualistic Aspects, Ejnar Munksgaard, Copenhagen, 1954, p. 36. 7 Johansen, The Maori and his Religion in its Non-Ritualistic Aspects, p. 37. 8 W. Yate, An Account of New Zealand, 1835, third (facsimile) edn, Irish University Press, Shannon, 1970, pp. 273–4. 9 W. Winiata, ‘Survival of Mãori as a People and Mãori Archives’, Archifacts, April 2005, p. 10. 10 R. Howard-Malverde, The Speaking of History: ‘Willapaakushayki’ or Quechua Ways of Telling the Past, Institute of Latin American Studies, London, 1990, pp. 3–4. 11 J. Cruikshank, The Social Life of Stories: Narrative and Knowledge in the Yukon Territory, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 1998, pp. 2–3, 40, 118, 135. 12 A. Taonui (Te Popoto hapu, Hokianga), ‘Book of the Ancestors’, 1849, MS 120, Auckland Museum (AM). See D. R. Simmons, The Great New Zealand Myth, Reed, Wellington, 1976, p. 39; Binney, The Legacy of Guilt, 2nd edn, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2005. 13 Hence the hapu ‘Ngai Tawake’, his lineal descendants and the pre-eminent hapu in the central in the early nineteenth century. 14 Simmons, Great New Zealand Myth, p. 39. 15 23 November 1840, in F. Porter, ed., The Turanga Journals: Letters and Journals of William and Jane Williams, 1840–1850, Price Milburn/Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1974, p. 138. 16 24 December 1841, ‘Journal’ (transcript), CN/M13, p. 523, CMS microfilm, Auckland University Library (AUL).

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17 C. Baty, 18 January 1843, in Charles Girard, ed., Lettres reçues d’Océanie par l’administration général de pères maristes . . . 1836–1854, Padri Maristi, Rome, 1998, vol. 2, p. 555. 18 29 December 1841, ‘Journal’, CN/M13, p. 529, CMS microfilm, AUL. Colenso’s emphasis. 19 4 January 1842, ‘Journal’, CN/M13, p. 534, CMS microfilm, AUL. 20 Waiata 1, Book of waiata mostly composed by Te Kooti Arikirangi, 1766–1890, MS C-35, AUL. The oral narrative was written down by the head (Poutikanga) of the Haahi Ringatu (Ringatu Church), Paora Delamere, about 1932–33; see J. Binney, Redemption Songs: A Life of the Nineteenth-Century Maori Leader Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki, 2nd edn, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1997, pp. 11–12. 21 Reweti T. Kohere, He Konae Aronui, Reed, Wellington, 1951, p. 34. 22 ‘Te Horeta Te Taniwha of Ngati Whanaunga’, in John White, The Ancient History of the Maori, Government Printer, Wellington, 1888, vol. V (English), pp. 121–25; see also Te Ao Hou, no. 52, September 1965, pp. 43–9. 23 Narrative told by Hemi Kopu, Tuhoe elder from Ruatoki, to Elsdon Best in the 1890s, in Best, Tuhoe, 3rd edn, Reed for the Polynesian Society, Wellington, 1977, vol. I, p. 557. 24 Best, Tuhoe, I, pp. 531–3. 25 Sissons, Te Waimana: The Spring of Mana, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 1991, p. 279. 26 ‘When the tattooed face has passed away, strangers will occupy this world [New Zealand], and their faces will be white’. Narrator and trans. Ngata in 1907, New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 1907, 139, p. 518. 27 N. Besnier, Literacy, Emotion, and Authority: Reading and Writing on a Polynesian Atoll, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995, p. 178; J. Rappaport, Cumbe Reborn: An Andean Ethnography of History, Chicago University Press, Chicago, 1994; L. Paterson, Colonial Discourses: Niupepa Mãori 1855–1863, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2006. 28 Hone Heke Pokai (John William Heke) to Queen Victoria, 10 July 1849, GBPP, 1850 [1280], p. 17. 29 B. Baigent, essay on early Maori writing, New Zealand Herald, 17 June 1967, sect. 2, p. 3, included in G. A. Selwyn Papers, MSS MP 90/5, Box 1, AUL. 30 Hone Heke Pokai, and Taihara to Selwyn, 6 February 1842, Selwyn Papers, MSS MP 90/5, Box 1, AUL. Trans. Jane McRae. 31 H. Hogan, ed., Renata’s Journey: Ko te Haerenga o Renata, Canterbury University Press, Christchurch, 1994; Journals of William Cotton, microfilm, AUL. 32 Petition from Renata Kawepo (and 25 others), n.d., ordered to be printed 27 August 1873, Petition No. 7, Appendices to the Journal of the Legislative Council, 1873. 33 Following J. Comaroff, cit. B. Chevannes, Rastafari: Roots and Ideology, Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, 1994, p. 17. 34 Jane McRae, ‘“E manu, tena koe!” “O bird, greetings to you”: The Oral Tradition in Newspaper Writing’, in J. Curnow, N. Hopa and J. McRae, eds, Rere atu, taku manu! Discovering history, language and politics in the Maori-language newspapers, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2002, p. 53. 35 Printed text (and manuscript trans.) in Cotton, 7 July 1845, ‘Journal’, vol. IX, pp. 140–41, microfilm, AUL. 36 Genesis 11:9. 37 Wiremu Tamehana, at Ngaruawahia, to the Governor, 7 June 1861, Appendices to the Journal of the House of Representatives (AJHR), 1860–61, E-1B, pp. 18–19; Maori and English text reprinted in Evelyn Stokes, ed., Wiremu Tamihana Rangatira, Huia, Wellington, 2002, pp. 228–32. 38 Karauria Pahura, 24 March 1862, at Waiapu, Rangitukia, to ‘all Waikato’, AJHR 1863, E-4, p. 44. 39 [Francis Fenton and William Martin], Ko Nga Ture o Ingarani (The Laws of England), [Williamson & Wilson], Auckland, 1858, p. [i]. 40 Kepa Te Uruhi, reporting Hohepa’s account, 20 February 1865, AJHR 1864–65, E-5, p. 4. 41 Oral promise, recorded in Robert Biddle, Manuscripts, vol. I, p. 173, private collection; trans. Jane McRae. See Binney, Redemption Songs, pp. 2–3, 641.

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42 Evidence of Akuhata Te Kaha, 6 May 1897, Whakatane Minute Book (MB) 5, p. 190, Maori Land Court (MLC), microfilm, AUL. 43 Oral Source (OS): Horopapera Tatu, Tataiahape, 27 January 1978, tape 2a. Trans. based on Rangi Motu; cit. Binney, Redemption Songs, p. 155. 44 ‘Te Ohaki’ refers to ‘dying words’ that must be upheld: in this case, the house memorialises the last spoken words of Te Kooti. 45 W. H. Oliver, ‘The Future Behind Us: The Waitangi Tribunal’s Retrospective Utopia’, in A. Sharp and P. McHugh, eds, Histories, Power and Loss, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2001, p. 27. 46 G. Byrnes, The Waitangi Tribunal and New Zealand History, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2004, p. 5. 47 J. McAloon, ‘By Which Standards? History and the Waitangi Tribunal’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 40, no. 2, 2006, pp. 194–213. 48 Turanganui (Poverty Bay) and Urewera (2001–05). 49 McAloon, ‘By Which Standards?’, p. 202; Belgrave, ‘Looking Forward: Historians and the Waitangi Tribunal’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 40, no. 2, 2006, p. 232. See also Richard Evans, ‘History, Memory, and the Law: the Historian as Expert Witness’, History and Theory, vol. 41, 2002, p. 340. 50 G. Phillipson, ‘Talking and Writing History: Evidence to the Waitangi Tribunal’, in J. Howard and N. R. Wheen, eds, The Waitangi Tribunal, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2004, p. 43. 51 Waitangi Tribunal, Muriwhenua Land Report, Waitangi Tribunal, Wellington, 1997, p. 3. 52 Waitangi Tribunal, Te Roroa Report, Waitangi Tribunal, Wellington, 1992, p. vii. 53 Waitangi Tribunal, Te Roroa Report, pp. 23, 41. 54 M. Belgrave, Historical Frictions: Maori Claims and Reinvented Histories, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2005, p. 27. 55 G. Young, ‘Nga Kooti Whenua: The Dynamics of a Colonial Encounter’, PhD thesis, Massey University, Albany, 2003, pp. 192, 211–17. 56 A. Parsonson, ‘Stories for Land: Oral Narratives in the Maori Land Court’, in B. Attwood and F. Magowan, eds, Telling Stories: Indigenous History and Memory in Australia and New Zealand, Allen and Unwin, Crows Nest, 2001, p. 25. 57 Restall et al., pp. 14–15. 58 Waiata 28 (1), MS C-35, AUL. The lament was composed by Te Kooti, and sent by him to Kokohinau for the New Year, 1882. Trans. based on Frank Davis. 59 G. Dening, Performances, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1996, p. 109. 60 Tukua Te Rangi and his father, Tutakangahau, to Minister of Justice, 29 January 1899, J 1/1899/124, Archives New Zealand, Wellington (NAW). Trans. based on CT. 61 ‘Himene, Te Tangi a Heremaia’, in Te Pukapuka o Nga Kawenata, Ringatu Church, n.p., n.d., p. 27. 62 II Chronicles 35:25; Lamentations 5. 63 Cit. Caroline Elkins, Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain’s Gulag in Kenya, Henry Holt, New York, 2005, p. 200. 64 Best, Tuhoe, I, pp. 149–50. 65 J. Binney, ‘When the White Kawau Flies’, in J. Lutz, ed., Myth and Memory: Rethinking Stories of Indigenous-European Contact, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, 2007, pp. 140–59; R. K. J. Wiri, ‘The Prophecies of the Great Canyon of Toi: A History of Te Whaiti-nui-a-Toi in the Western Urewera Mountains of New Zealand’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Auckland, 2001. 66 Hou Te Pouwhare to Te Puke ki Hikurangi, 5 September 1903, in M. Orbell, ed., He Reta ki Te Maunga, Letters to the Mountain, Maori Letters to the Editor, 1898–1905, Reed, Auckland, 2002, pp. 137 (Maori), 140 (English). 67 Rappaport, Cumbe Reborn, p. 177. 68 Rappaport, Cumbe Reborn, p. 134. 69 E. Shils, Tradition, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1981, p. 52.

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70 The oral nature of the agreement explains why the written terms survive in the government archives only in the form of draft letters, dated 20 November 1871, AGG-HB 4/8, NAW. 71 Col. Thomas Porter, who was present and who later translated Ropata’s speech into English, ‘Proceedings of a Meeting held at Ruatahuna’, 11 December 1871, AD 1/1872/679, NAW. 72 ‘Proceedings of a Meeting held at Ruatahuna’, 11 December 1871, AD 1/1872/679, NAW. 73 Te Makarini, Kereru Te Pukenui, Te Whenuanui, and the Tuhoe chiefs to McLean, 9 June 1872, AJHR 1872, F-3A, pp. 28–9. 74 He is identified in Best, Tuhoe, I, p. 197. 75 AJHR 1895, G-1, p. 76. 76 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 1896, 96, p. 166. 77 See Besnier, Literacy, Emotion, and Authority, p. 79. 78 Minutes of meeting between Tuhoe and Duncan MacIntyre, Minister of Maori Affairs, at Mataatua, Ruatahuna, 23 April 1971, Elsdon Craig private collection, Auckland. 79 Oral prediction in Biddle, MSS, I, p. 10, cit. J. Binney, ‘Te Umutaoroa: The Earth Oven of Long Cooking’, in Sharp and McHugh, eds, Histories, Power and Loss, p. 154. 80 H. Reynolds, The Other Side of the Frontier: Aboriginal Resistance to the European Invasion of Australia, Penguin, Ringwood, 1982; Frontier: Aborigines, Settlers and Land, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1987; Why Weren’t We Told?, Viking, Ringwood, 1999; S. Macintyre and A. Clark, The History Wars, Melbourne University Press, Carlton, 2003; S. Macintyre, ‘Who Plays Stalin in Our History Wars?’, Sydney Morning Herald, 16 September 2003. 81 Elkins, Imperial Reckoning, pp. 373–4. 82 Elkins, Imperial Reckoning, pp. xii, 205, 371–2. 83 Cit. Elkins, Imperial Reckoning, p. 214. 84 Cit. Elkins, Imperial Reckoning, p. 165. 85 See J. Binney, G. Chaplin, C. Wallace, Mihaia. The Prophet Rua Kenana and his Community at Maungapohatu, 4th edn, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2005, pp. 109–11. 86 OS: Monita Delamere, Opotiki, 16 February 1982, tape 3a. Cit. Binney, Redemption Songs, p. 63. 87 Major J. T. Edwards to Defence Minister, 8 May 1867, AD 31:15, AJHR 1868, A-15E, pp. 16–18; W. Rolleston to J. C. Richmond, 3 February 1868, AD 31:16, NAW. 88 Certified certificate of marriage, Wairoa, 11 December 1882. 89 Binney, Redemption Songs, pp. 145, 590, n. 151. 90 OS: Robert (Boy) Biddle (secretary of the Haahi Ringatu, following his father), Kutarere, 14 December 1981, tape 3b; Binney, Redemption Songs, p. 402. 91 To the Native Minister, 24 February 1888, NLPD 1888/95, MA-MLP 1/1900/101, NAW. Trans. based on CT. 92 Baker’s mistress, Maria Nikora, who bore him a child in May 1889, was sister to one of the two Maori claimants, Tauha Nikora from Ngati Patu, a hapu of Te Whakatohea living on the coast at Omarumutu. 93 The government took over the survey lien from Baker; thus it became a debt payable to the government. 94 13 April 1889, Opotiki MB 6, p. 16, MLC, microfilm, AUL. Author’s emphasis. 95 Opotiki MB 6, p. 18, MLC, microfilm, AUL. 96 Tau, Ngã Pikitu˜roa o Ngãi Tahu, pp. 34, 42. 97 Joint evidence of Paora Tuhaere and Wi Te Wheoro, 18 February 1871, AJHR 1871, A-2A, p. 26. 98 Wainui 2 hearing, H. A. H. Monro, Poverty Bay Notes, 1869, p. 157, MS 366:14, AM; cf. Poverty Bay Commission MB, p. 226, MLC, microfilm, AUL. 99 See Binney, Redemption Songs, pp. 109–12. This research was upheld by the Waitangi Tribunal’s subsequent inquiries: Turanga Tangata, Turanga Whenua, Waitangi Tribunal, Wellington, 2004, vol. I, pp. 202, 213, 216.

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100 An ‘owl-person’ in the pre-Spanish Aztec world was a malevolent creature of the night, see Doña Luz Jiménez, in F. Horcasitas, ed., Life and Death in Milpa Alta: A Nahuatl Chronicle of Díaz and Zapata, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1972, p. 145. 101 Horcasitas, Life and Death in Milpa Alta, pp. 151–3. 102 ‘Pinepine Te Kura’, composed by Te Kooti in 1888, Waiata 53, MS C-35, AUL. 103 OS: Reremoana Koopu, Maraenui, 12 May 1984, tape 7a. Cit. J. Binney and G. Chaplin, Ngã Mõrehu: The Survivors, 4th edn, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2004, pp. 59–62. 104 Ralph Johnson, ‘The Northern War 1844–1846’, Northland Research Programme, Waitangi Tribunal, 2006, p. 240. 105 Te Kooti’s prediction for the opening of the meeting-house Tokanganui a Noho at , January 1883, in Te Pukapuka o Nga Kawenata, p. [127]; see Binney, Redemption Songs, pp. 277–8. 106 OS: Reuben Riki, Muriwai, near Gisborne, 16 May 1982, tape 2a. 107 Korotau Basil Tamiana, evidence presented orally, 23 February 2005, to the Waitangi Tribunal at Maungapohatu. 108 A. Green and M. Hutching, eds, Remembering: Writing Oral History, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2004, p. 7. 109 Shils, Tradition, p. 50. 110 Shils, Tradition, p. 51. 111 P. Novick, The Holocaust and Collective Memory, Bloomsbury, London, 2000, pp. 2–3, 275–6. 112 T. Watkin, editorial, New Zealand Listener, 14–20 January 2006. 113 M. Kundera, cit. Mark Osiel, Mass Atrocity, Collective Memory, and the Law, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, 2000, p. 13. 114 Watkin, editorial, New Zealand Listener, 14–20 January 2006. 115 J. Winterson, Lighthousekeeping, Harper Perennial, London, 2005, p. 41.

chapter 5: The State, Politics and Power, 1769–1893 1 G. M. Meiklejohn, ‘Early conflicts of press and government: the rise and fall of Auckland’s first newspaper, studied in relation to the politics of its day’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of New Zealand, 1951; A. M. Leslie, ‘The general election of 1871 and its importance in the history of New Zealand’, Unpublished MA thesis, Auckland University College, 1956; D. G. Herron, ‘The structure and course of New Zealand politics, 1853–1858’, University of New Zealand, Unpublished PhD thesis, 1959; D. A. Hamer, ‘The law and the prophet: a political biography of Sir Robert Stout (1844–1930)’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Auckland, 1960; J. L. Hunt, ‘The election of 1875–6 and the abolition of the provinces’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of New Zealand, 1961; J. P. Cumming, ‘The compact and financial settlement of 1856’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Auckland, 1963. 2 J. Vernon, ed., Re-reading the Constitution: New Narratives in the Political History of England’s Long Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1996; C. Hall, K. McClelland and J. Rendall, Defining the Victorian Nation: Class, Race, Gender and the Reform Act of 1867, Cambridge, 2000. 3 J. Cook, The Journals of Captain James Cook on his voyages of discovery: Volume 1. The voyage of the Endeavour, 1768–1771, edited by J. C. Beaglehole, Hakluyt Society, Cambridge, 1968, p. 276. 4 Cook, The Journals of Captain James Cook, p. 278. 5 Cook, The Journals of Captain James Cook, p. 204. 6 Cook, The Journals of Captain James Cook, p. 243. 7 Bigge to Earl Bathurst, 27 February 1823, R. McNab, ed., Historical Records of New Zealand, Government Printer, Wellington, 1908–1914, vol. 1, pp. 589, 593. 8 Stephen, minute 25 May 1830, CO 201/215, pp. 696–7.

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9 Yate to Colonial Secretary, NSW, 16 November 1831, GBPP, 1840 (238), p. 7. 10 Letter of the Right Honorable Lord Viscount Goderich, and Address of James Busby, Esq. British Resident, to the Chiefs of New Zealand (Sydney, 1832); see original 14 June 1832, CO 209/1, 104. 11 R. S. Hill, Policing the Colonial Frontier: the Theory and Practice of Coercive Social and Racial Control in New Zealand, 1767–1867—Volume One, Historical Publications Branch, Dept. of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1986, pp. 62–3. 12 Richard Wolfe, Hell-hole of the Pacific, Penguin, Auckland, 2005. 13 The Association’s Charter was reprinted in Bay of Islands Advertiser, 26 May 1842. 14 Busby to Colonial Secretary, 31 October 1835, ‘Despatches and Letters of James Busby 1833–1839’, ATL, qMS-0345. 15 Hobson to Glenelg, 21 January 1839, CO, 209/4, 87–8. 16 James Stephen to Henry Labouchere, 15 March 1839, C. O. 209/4, 326–8. 17 Orange, Treaty of Waitangi, pp. 258–66. 18 See M. H. Fisher, ed., The Politics of the British annexation of , 1757–1857, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1993; C. U. Aitchison, ed., A Collection of Treaties, engagements, and sunnuds relating to India and neighbouring countries, 7 vols, Longmans, Green, Reader and Dyer, London and Calcutta, 1862–65. 19 D. V. Jones, License for empire: by treaty in early America, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1982. See also R. A. Williams, Jr., Linking Arms Together: American Indian Treaty Visions of Law and Peace, 1600–1800, Routledge, New York, 1997; R. A. Williams, Jr., The American Indian in Western Legal Thought: The Discourses of Conquest, Oxford University Press, New York, 1990. 20 W. H. Oliver, ‘The future behind us: the Waitangi Tribunal’s retrospective utopia’, in A. Sharp and P. G McHugh, eds, Histories Power and Loss: Uses of the Past—a New Zealand Commentary, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2001, pp. 14–15. See also G. Palmer, ‘The Treaty of Waitangi: Principles for Crown Action’, Victoria University Law Review, vol. 19, no. 4, 1989, pp. 335–45. 21 J. G. A. Pocock, ‘The treaty between histories’, in Sharp and McHugh, eds, Histories Power and Loss, p. 79. 22 Report from the Select Committee on Aborigines (British Settlements); with the Minutes of Evidence, Appendix and Index, 1837 (425), pp. 77–81. 23 Waitangi Tribunal, Motunui-Waitara Report, Waitangi Tribunal, Wellington, 1983, p. 52. 24 Hill, Policing the Colonial Frontier: the theory and Practice of Coercive Social and Racial Control in New Zealand, 1767–1867, pp. 90–1, 126. 25 Hill, Policing the Colonial Frontier: the theory and Practice of Coercive Social and Racial Control in New Zealand, 1767–1867, p. 127. 26 A. H. McLintock, Crown Colony Government, Government Printer, Wellington, 1958, pp. 99–105. 27 Martin, New Zealand, p. 140. 28 R. Stone, ‘Auckland’s Political Opposition in the Crown Colony Period 1841–53’, in L. Richardson and W. D. McIntyre, eds, Provincial perspectives: essays in honour of W. J. Gardner, University of Canterbury/Whitcoulls, Christchurch, 1980, p. 24; Southern Cross, 9 September 1843. 29 J. Belich, The and the Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict, Penguin, Auckland, 1988, new edn, p. 30. 30 New Zealand Spectator and Cook Strait Guardian, 23 August 1845. 31 Heke to FitzRoy, C.O. 209/35, pp. 101–3. 32 New Zealand Spectator and Cook Strait Guardian, 23 August 1845. Italics in the original. 33 New Zealand Company 20th Report, Corresp. 10, pp. 107, 158, 199. 34 Williams to CMS, 28 July 1845, CN/0 94(b). 35 See Great Britain Parliamentary Debates, vol. 81, column 752. 36 J. Adams, ‘Governor FitzRoy’s Debentures and their Roll in His Recall’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 20, no. 1, 1986, pp. 44–63.

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37 Nelson Examiner, 18 October 1845 to 15 November 1845. 38 Diary of David Burn, editor of the Southern Cross, 8 October 1850, cited in Stone, ‘Auckland’s Political Opposition in the Crown Colony Period 1841–53’, p. 19. 39 Z. Laidlaw, Colonial connections, 1815–45: patronage, the information revolution and colonial government, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 2005. 40 Southern Cross, 18 December 1847. 41 Bay of Islands Advertiser, 23 July 1840. 42 Bay of Islands Advertiser, 10 September 1840. 43 Bay of Islands Advertiser, 10 December 1840. 44 Stone, ‘Auckland’s Political Opposition in the Crown Colony Period 1841–53’, p. 18. 45 New Zealand Gazette, 19 July 1843. 46 J. O. Miller, Early Victorian New Zealand: a study of racial tension and social attitudes, 1839–1852, Oxford University Press, London, 1958, p. 148. 47 New Zealand Journal, 16 April 1845. 48 New Zealand Journal, 15 March 1845. 49 S. L. Cheyne, ‘Search for a constitution: people and politics in New Zealand’s crown colony years’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Otago, 1975; N. Atkinson, Adventures in Democracy: A history of the Vote in New Zealand, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2003, p. 18. 50 Orange, Treaty of Waitangi, p. 140. 51 Grey to Stanley, 10 May 1846, CO 209/43. 52 Grey to Lord Grey, 3 May 1847, CO 209/52. 53 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 1889, vol. 64, pp. 631–4. 54 23 Feb 1852, cited in McLintock, Crown Colony Government, p. 328. 55 Atkinson, Adventures in Democracy, p. 48. 56 Herron, ‘Structure and Course of New Zealand Politics 1853–1858’, pp. 100–1, 149. 57 Orange, Treaty of Waitangi, pp. 212, 215–56, 222. 58 M. P. K. Sorrenson, ‘A History of Maori Representation in Parliament’, B-13–14, Appendix B of in Report of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System; ‘Towards a Better Democracy’, December 1986, AJHR, 1986, H-3. 59 C. Orange, ‘The Covenant of Kohimarama: a ratification of the Treaty of Waitangi’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 14, no. 1, 1980, pp. 61–82. 60 ‘Kohimarama Conference’, AJHR, 1860, E-9, pp. 4–5. 61 Maori Messenger, 13, 26 July 1860. 62 ‘Kohimarama Conference’, AJHR, 1860, E-9, p. 24. 63 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 1861–63, pp. 67, 94. 64 Browne to Newcastle, 27 April and 1 November 1860, BPP, 1861 (2798) XLI, pp. 33, 160. 65 Browne to Newcastle, 22 March 1860, BPP, 1861 (2798) XLI, p. 17. 66 James Belich argues that New Zealand contained ‘two spheres’ at this time: the ‘British colony’ and ‘Maori Aotearoa’; see J. Belich, Making Peoples: a history of the New Zealanders from Polynesian settlement to the end of the nineteenth century, Penguin, Auckland, 1996, p. 229. 67 P. G. McHugh, Aboriginal societies and the common law: a history of sovereignty, status, and self- determination, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004, pp. 47–8. 68 These crises included Punjab (1845–49), Ireland (1848, 1865), Ceylon (1848), India (1857–58) and Jamaica (1865). 69 R. Taylor, Past and Present of New Zealand, William Macintosh, London/Henry Ireson Jones, Wanganui, 1868, p. 128; Sir W. Martin, ‘The Taranaki Question’, AJHR, 1861, E-2, p. 23; New Zealand Spectator, 10 October 1860. Also see K. Sinclair, ‘Te Tikanga Pekeke: the Maori ­ Anti-Landselling Movements in Taranaki’, in P. Munz, ed., The Feel of Truth: Essays in New Zealand and Pacific History, Reed/ Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, 1969, pp. 79–94.

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70 A. Parsonson, ‘Te Rangitake, Wiremu Kingi?—1882’, The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Volume One, 1769–1869, Bridget Williams Books/Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1990, pp. 499–502. 71 Belich, Making Peoples, p. 236. 72 Sorrenson, ‘A History of Maori Representation in Parliament’, B-17. 73 Sorrenson, ‘A History of Maori Representation in Parliament’, B-18. 74 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 1858–1860, p. 777. 75 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates 1867, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 460–1. 76 Belich, Making Peoples, pp. 244, 265; see also Atkinson, Adventures in Democracy, p. 50. 77 Section 6 of Maori Representation Act 1867, New Zealand Statutes. 78 Belich, Making Peoples, pp. 244, 265. 79 Atkinson, Adventures in Democracy, p. 50. 80 B. Lawrence, ‘Real’ Indians and others: mixed-blood urban Native peoples and indigenous nationhood, UBC Press, Vancouver, 2004, pp. 31–2. 81 See undated draft of instructions, February 1838, CO 209/4, p. 233. 82 H. C. Evison, ‘Taiaroa, Hori Kerei ?—1905’, The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Volume Two, 1870–1900, Bridget Williams Books/Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington 1993, pp. 493–5. 83 McHugh, ‘A history of Crown sovereignty in New Zealand’, in Sharp and McHugh, eds, Histories, Power and Loss, p. 192. 84 L. Stone, ed., An Imperial state at war: Britain from 1689 to 1815, Routledge, London, 1994. 85 E. Olssen, ‘James Macandrew, 1819?-1887’, The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Volume One, 1769–1869, Bridget Williams Books/Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1990, pp. 243–5. 86 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 1870, vol. 7, pp. 251–9; 1875, vol. 18, pp. 609–18; 1876, vol. 23, pp. 531–8. 87 A. Cooper, E. Olssen, K. Thomlinson and R. Law, ‘The Landscape of Gender Politics: Place, People and Two Mobilisations’, in B. Brookes, A. Cooper and R. Law, eds, Sites of Gender: Women, Men and Modernity in Southern Dunedin, 1890–1939, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2003, pp. 15–49. 88 The sweating system is a term used to describe an unjust system of labour subcontracting, where the conditions imposed by employers tend to reduce the rate of payment to a minimal living wage and subject workers to unsanitary conditions and unduly long hours. 89 Femina, [Mary Ann Muller], An Appeal to the Men of New Zealand, J. Hounsell, Bookseller and Stationer, Nelson, 1869. 90 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, vol. 20, 1876, pp. 403–4; vol. 33, 1879, p. 32. 91 Patricia Grimshaw, Women’s Suffrage in New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1972, pp. 13–14. 92 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 1878, vol. 20, p. 200; 1881, vol. 38, p. 415. 93 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 1887, vol. 57, pp. 240–1. 94 Cooper, Olssen, Thomlinson and Law, ‘The Landscape of Gender Politics’, pp. 43–8; K. Thomlinson, ‘We the Undersigned: An Analysis of Signatories to the 1893 Women’s Suffrage Petition from Southern Dunedin’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Otago, 2001. 95 Atkinson, ‘Adventures in Democracy’, pp. 84–94. 96 Electoral Act 1893, 20th schedule, Section 8 and Part 3. 97 W. P. Reeves, State experiments in Australia and New Zealand, 2 vols, Grant Richards, London, 1902, vol. I, p. v. 98 Reeves, State Experiments, vol. II, p. 354. 99 New Zealand Times, 5 August 1895.

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100 A. Ross, New Zealand aspirations in the Pacific in the nineteenth century, Clarendon, Oxford, 1964, p. 289. 101 Robert Stout, Notes on the Progress of New Zealand for Twenty Years, 1864–1884, Government Print, Wellington, 1886. 102 Ross, New Zealand aspirations in the Pacific in the nineteenth century, pp. 157–60, 184. 103 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 28 September 1900, vol. 114, p. 426. 104 B. Moloughney and J. Stenhouse, ‘“Drug-Besotten, Sin-Begotten Fiends of Filth”: New Zealanders and the Oriental “Other”, 1850–1920’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 33, no. 1, 1999, p. 50. 105 R. S. Hill, The iron hand in the velvet glove: the modernisation of policing in New Zealand, 1886–1917, Dunmore Press with Historical Branch, Dept. of Internal Affairs, Palmerston North, 1995.

chapter 6: Maori Economies and Colonial Capitalism 1 Waitangi Tribunal, The Ngai Tahu Report, Waitangi Tribunal, Wellington, 1991, p. 831. 2 W. H. Oliver, ‘A Reply to Jim McAloon’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 41, no. 1, 2007, p. 86. 3 Waitangi Tribunal, Rangahaua Whanui Series, I, Waitangi Tribunal, Wellington, 1997, pp. xvii–xxiv. 4 Waitangi Tribunal, Muriwhenua Land Report, Waitangi Tribunal, Wellington, 1997, p. 8. 5 Crown Law Office, Gary Hawke ‘Economic Issues’ (WAI 686, 01), 2000, p. 35. 6 The Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975 and The Treaty of Waitangi Amendment Act 1985. 7 Tim Shoebridge, ed., Waitangi Tribunal Bibliography, 1975–2005, Waitangi Tribunal, Wellington, 2006 has some 1200 entries. 8 Muriwhenua Land Report, p. 177; The Ngai Tahu Report, p. 831. 9 W. H. Oliver, ‘The Future Behind Us’, in A. Sharp and P. McHugh, eds, Histories Power and Loss: Uses of the Past–A New Zealand Commentary, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2001. 10 See P. Gibbons, ‘The Far Side of the Search for Identity’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 37, no. 1, 2003, pp. 38–49. 11 Eric R. Wolf, Europe and the People without History, University of California Press, California, 1982, p. 3. For more recent global perspectives see Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Capital 1848–1875, Vintage, New York, 1996; C. A. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World 1780–1914, Blackwell, Oxford, 2004. 12 Linda Barrington, ed., The Other Side of The Frontier: Economic Explorations into Native American History, Westview Press, Colorado, 1999, p. x. 13 For a recent explanation see G. Byrnes, The Waitangi Tribunal and New Zealand History, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2004, pp. 113–14. 14 K. R. Howe, Where the Waves Fall, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1984; K. R. Howe, ‘The Fate of the “Savage”, in Pacific Historiography’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 14, no. 1, 1980, pp. 45–60; A. Parsonson, ‘The Pursuit of Mana’, in W. H. Oliver, with B. R. Williams, eds, The Oxford History of New Zealand, Clarendon & Oxford, Wellington, 1981. 15 P. Monin, Hauraki Contested: 1769–1875, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2nd edn, 2006, pp. 3–4. 16 Byrnes, The Waitangi Tribunal, p. 121. 17 R. White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1991. See also G. Phillipson’s essay in J. Binney, ed., Te Kerikeri 1770–1850: The Meeting Pool, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2007, pp. 60–1. 18 White, The Middle Ground, p. x. 19 S. Banner, How the Indians Lost Their Land: Law and Power on the Frontier, Harvard University Press, MA, 2005, p. 82.

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20 N. Thomas, Colonialism’s Culture: Anthropology, Travel and Government, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1994, pp. 9, 105; R. Eves, ‘Colonialism, Corporality and Character’, History & Anthropology, vol. 10, no. 1, 1996, pp. 85–138; G. D. Westermark, ‘Reading the South Pacific: Colonialism and Anthropology in an Australian Journal’, History & Anthropology, vol. 12, no. 2, 2001, pp. 159–78. 21 John Logan Campbell, 28 January 1856, Auckland Provincial Council, Session V, pp. 3–4, Auckland Public Library. 22 Thomas McDonnell, BPP NZ2, 1844 (556), p. 27. 23 M. K. Watson and B. R. Patterson, ‘The Maori economy in the Wellington Region 1840–52’, Pacific Viewpoint, vol. 26, no. 3, 1985, p. 529. 24 Southern Cross, 27 May 1843, p. 3. 25 G. B. Earp, 13 June 1844, BPP NZ2, 1844 (556), p. 106. 26 See H. Petrie, ‘Maori Enterprise: Ships and Flour Mills’, in I. Hunter and D. Morrow, eds, City of Enterprise, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2006. 27 W. Brown, 26 March 1855, Auckland Provincial Council, Session III, p. 3, Auckland Public Library. 28 ‘A Return of . . . all Native Vessels . . .’, 2 July 1858, LE 1 1858/234 (76), Archives New Zealand (ANZ). 29 H. Petrie, ‘“For a Season Quite the Rage”? Ships and flourmills in the Maori Economy 1840s–1860s’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Auckland, 2004, p. 271. 30 See LE 1 1858/234 (76), ANZ. 31 H. Petrie, Chiefs of Industry: Maori Tribal Enterprise in Early Colonial New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2006, pp. 126–39. 32 Parsonson, ‘The Pursuit of Mana’; K. Howe, ‘Missionaries, Maoris and “Civilisation” in the Upper- Waikato, 1833–1863’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Auckland, 1970; J. Belich, Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders From Polynesian Settlement to the End of the Nineteenth Century, Penguin, Auckland pp. 87–8. 33 Petrie, Chiefs of Industry, p. 276. 34 Petrie, Chiefs of Industry, pp. 168–9. 35 Maori Messenger, 15 March 1858. 36 Ashwell to CMS, 21 July 1859, CN/0 19. 37 A. S. Thomson, 9 December 1865, BPP NZ11, 1860 (2747), p. 414. 38 Maori Messenger, 1 February 1855, p. 35. 39 T. S. Grace: Pioneer Missionary, Reed, Auckland, 1928; ‘Turanga Report’, 16 August 1853. 40 New Zealander, 26 November 1846, p. 4. 41 Monin, Hauraki Contested, pp. 151–2, 159. 42 R. C. J. Stone, From Tamaki-Makau-Rau to Auckland, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2001, p. 132. 43 P. Stearns, Consumerism in World History: The Global Transformation of Desire, Routledge, London, 2001, p. ix. 44 White, The Middle Ground, p. 128–31. 45 R. Firth, Economics of the New Zealand Maori, Government Printer, Wellington, 2nd edn, 1959 (1st edn 1929), chap. IX. 46 Monin, ‘The Maori Economy of Hauraki’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 29, no. 2, 1995, p. 207. 47 A leading example is the Feast of 1844. 48 Firth, Economics of the New Zealand Maori, pp. 228, 238–42. 49 Petrie, Chiefs of Industry, pp. 202–8. 50 Rangahaua Whanui Series, III, p. 190. 51 Auckland Provincial Council, Session V, 28 January 1856, p. 2.

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52 New Zealander, 13 February 1847. 53 Southern Cross, 4 January 1850, p. 2. 54 Southern Cross, 20 January 1855, p. 2. 55 Editorial, Maori Messenger, 31 January 1856. 56 Maori Messenger, 30 April 1856, pp. 13–14; 31 May 1856, p. 15. 57 Statistics of New Zealand for 1857, Auckland, 1858, No. 47; Statistics of New Zealand for 1862, Auckland, [n.d.], No. 22. 58 Journal of F. D. Fenton commencing on 12 July 1857, Appendices to Journals of House of Representatives (AJHR) 1860, E-1c, pp. 14–24. 59 H. S. Wardell Diary, 20 May and 11 August 1858, MS-2121; H. H. Turton Report, 20 November 1861, AJHR 1862, E-5A, p. 6. 60 K. Sinclair, ‘Maori Nationalism and the European Economy, 1850–1860’, Historical Studies, vol. 5, no. 18, 1952, pp. 119–34. 61 Petrie, ‘For a Season all the Rage’, pp. 16, 279–83; Monin, Hauraki Contested, pp. 157–8; L. Paterson, Colonial Discourses: Niupepa Maori 1855–1863, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2006, esp. chap. 6. 62 Ashwell, Annual Letter, 6 December 1858, CN/0 19. 63 Monin, Hauraki Contested, pp. 161, 207; Fenton, Report, March 1857. 64 New Zealander, 15 December 1847. 65 Ralph Barker, Letter, October 1851, CN/ 022. 66 Fenton, Report, March 1857, pp. 8–9. 67 Maori Messenger. April 1857, Cited in AJHR, 1860 F-3, p. 153; Maori Messenger, 30 May 1857, pp. 2–7. 68 Fenton, Report, March 1857, p. 22. 69 Ron Crocombe has identified this as an obstacle to cattle farming in the Pacific in the twentieth century; see R. Crocombe, The South Pacific, University of South Pacific Press, , 2001, p. 299. 70 Grace, Pioneer Missionary, pp. 81, 84, 93, 95. 71 Rangahaua Whanui Series, III, p. 268. 72 Ngai Tahu Report, pp. 487–8. 73 Morgan, 3 January 1853. 74 New Zealander, 26 March 1856, p. 1; New Zealander, 6 January 1855, p. 1; New Zealander, 23 February 1856, p. 4. 75 R. P. Hargreaves, ‘Maori Flour Mills of the ’, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 71, no. 1, p. 229. 76 New Zealander, 1 December 1858, p. 3. 77 Muriwhenua Land Report, pp. 332–3. 78 New Zealander, 31 January 1863, p. 3. 79 Waitangi Tribunal, Te Raupatu o Moana, Report on the Tauranga Confiscation Claims, Waitangi Tribunal, Wellington, 2004, p. 56. 80 Waitangi Tribunal, Tauranga Moana, p. 56. 81 Morgan to Grey, 3 January 1853, GL NZ m44 (19), Auckland Public Library. 82 Ashwell to Gore Browne, 7 November 1859, BPP NZ11, 1860 (492), p. 162. 83 New Zealander, 19 June 1858, p. 3; Crown Law Office, C. Edwards ‘Turanganui a Kiwa 1840–1865 Issue 2’, WAI 814, 10, 2002, p. 46. 84 J. Hutton (and V. O’Malley), ‘The Nature and Extent of Contact and Adaptation in Northland c. 1769–1840’, chap. 2, Crown Forestry Rental Trust, 2007. 85 R. Firth, Primitive economics of the New Zealand Maori, Routledge, London, 1929, pp. 455–7. 86 Petrie, Chiefs of Industry, esp. chaps 8 and 9.

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87 Wolf, Europe and the People Without History, p. 297. 88 Monin, Hauraki Contested, pp. 133–4. 89 Grey to Grey, 15 December 1847, BPP NZ6 1847–50, p. 55. 90 Firth, Primitive economics of the New Zealand Maori, p. 133. 91 S. Webster, ‘Maori Hapu as a whole way of struggle’, Oceania, vol. 69, no. 1, 1998, p. 12. 92 Waitangi Tribunal, Hauraki Report, Waitangi Tribunal, Wellington, 2006, p. 662. 93 Rangahaua Whanui, I, p. 8; Rangahaua Whanui, III, p. 266. 94 Rangahaua Whanui, I, pp. 7, 68. 95 K. Sorrenson, ‘Land Purchase Methods and Their Effect on Maori Population, 1865–1901’, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 65, no. 3, pp. 183–99. 96 A. Ward, A Show of Justice: Racial ‘amalgamation’ in nineteenth century New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, reprint 1995, (1st edn 1973), p. 267. 97 H. Kawharu, Maori Land Tenure: Studies of a Changing Institution, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1977. 98 Turanga Tangata Turanga Whenua, 2004; Hauraki Report, 2006. 99 Hauraki Report, p. 788. 100 D. Loveridge, ‘Origins of the Native Land Acts and Native Land Court’, Crown Law Office, 2000, p. 235. 101 Hauraki Report, p. 682. 102 L. Head, ‘The Pursuit of Modernity in Maori Society’, in Sharp and McHugh, eds, Histories Power and Loss, pp. 97–121. 103 Byrnes, The Waitangi Tribunal, p. 121. 104 Hauraki, pp. 834, 894, citing the conclusion of Michael Belgrave and Grant Young. 105 Hutton (see footnote 84) cites D. A. Chappell, ‘Active Agents versus Passive Victims: Decolonized Historiography or Problematic Paradigm?’, The Contemporary Pacific, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 303–26. 106 Banner, How the Indians Lost Their Land, pp. 3–4. 107 AJHR, 1873, G-1, pp. 6, 7, 13. 108 See AJHR, G-1, ‘Reports of Native Officers in Native Districts’, for the 1870s. 109 Monin, Hauraki Contested, pp. 244–6. 110 AJHR, 1874, G-1, p. 5. 111 J. Gardner, ‘A Colonial Economy’, cited in Oliver, with Williams, eds, The Oxford History of New Zealand, 1st edn, 1981, pp. 57–86 (p. 79). 112 AJHR, 1875, G-1A, p. 3. 113 AJHR, 1886, G-12, p. 17. 114 R. P. Hargreaves, ‘Maori Agriculture after the Wars’, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 69, 1960, pp. 354–67 (p. 355). 115 The main source remains R. P. Hargreaves, ‘Maori Agriculture after the Wars’, pp. 354–67. 116 AJHR, 1886, G-12, p. 18. 117 Gardner, ‘A Colonial Economy’, p. 81. 118 R. S. Bush, 12 May 1874, Raglan, AJHR, 1874, G-2, p. 11. 119 AJHR 1873, G-1, p. 2; AJHR, 1883, G-1A, p. 1. 120 Tauranga Moana Report, p. 355. 121 Firth, Primitive economics of the New Zealand Maori, pp. 455–7. 122 Webster, ‘Maori Hapu as a whole way of struggle’, pp. 1–26. 123 H. W. Brabant in AJHR, 1883, G-1A, pp. 3–4. 124 Monin, Hauraki Contested, pp. 228, 240–2. 125 Monin, Hauraki Contested, p. 243–4.

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126 S. Banner, ‘Conquest by Contract: Wealth Transfer and Land Market Structure in Colonial New Zealand’, Law and Society Review, vol. 34, 2000, pp. 59–60. 127 Banner, ‘Conquest by Contract’, p. 50. 128 See Turanga Report, chap. 9. 129 Rees, Memorandum, AJHR, 1884, G-2, p. 4. 130 Rangahaua Whanui, I, p. 124. 131 Rangahaua Whanui, I, p. 70. 132 T. Brooking, Lands for the People, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 1996, pp. 131–4, 140–1. 133 T. Brooking, ‘“Busting Up” The Greatest Estate of All: Liberal Maori Land Policy, 1891–1911’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26, no. 1, 1992, p. 81. 134 ‘“Busting Up” The Greatest Estate of All’, p. 97. 135 K. Howe, ‘Two Worlds’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 37, no. 1, 2003, p. 53. 136 A. Wanhalla, ‘Transgressing Boundaries: A History of the Mixed Descent Families of Maitapapa, Taieri, 1830–1940’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Canterbury, 2004; A. Puckey, ‘Substance of the Shadow: Maori and Pakeha political economic relationships, 1860–1940: a far northern case study’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Auckland, 2006. 137 Puckey, ‘Substance of the Shadow’, p. 3. 138 This view has been expressed by two historians: M. Belgrave, ‘Looking Forward: Historians and the Waitangi Tribunal’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 40, no. 2, 2006, p. 236; Oliver, ‘The Future Behind Us’, pp. 16–17. 139 M. Belgrave, ‘Looking Forward’, p. 236.

chapter 7: New Zealand’s Pacific 1 A. L. Stoler and F. Cooper, ‘Between Metropole and Colony: Rethinking a Research Agenda’, in Stoler and Cooper, eds, Tensions of Empire, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1997, p. 4. 2 M. Boyd, ‘New Zealand and the Other Pacific Islands’, in Keith Sinclair, ed., The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1990; see also R. G. Crocombe, Pacific Neighbours: New Zealand’s Relations with Other Pacific Islands, Institute of Pacific Studies, Suva, 1992. 3 J. Belich, Paradise Reforged: A History of the New Zealanders From the 1880s to the Year 2000, Allen Lane, Auckland, p. 239; K. Sinclair, A History of New Zealand, Penguin, Auckland, 1991, 4th rev. edn, pp. 248–9, 320, 347. 4 P. Mein-Smith, A Concise History of New Zealand, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, pp. xvii, 116, 137, 184–5. 5 M. King, The Penguin History of New Zealand, Penguin, Auckland, p. 306; W. H. Oliver, with B. R. Williams, eds, The Oxford History of New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1981. 6 F. Cooper, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2005, pp. 153–8; G. Wilder, The French Imperial Nation-State: Negritude and Colonial Humanism between the Wars, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2005. 7 See, for instance, William Fox, The Six Colonies of New Zealand, John W. Parker, London, 1851. 8 Archives New Zealand, OLC 4/20: Curnin, memo, 27 February 1872. 9 Boyd, ‘New Zealand and the Other Pacific Islands’, pp. 309–10. 10 I. C. Campbell, ‘New Zealand and the Mau in Samoa: Reassessing the Causes of a Colonial Protest Movement’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 33, no. 1, 1999, pp. 92-110; I. C. Campbell, ‘Resistance and Colonial Government: A Comparative Study of Samoa’, Journal of Pacific History, vol. 40, no.1, 2005; D. Scott, Years of the Pooh-Bah: A Cook Islands History, Cook Islands Trading Corporation, Rarotonga, 1991; D. Scott, Would a Good Man Die? Island, New Zealand and the Late Mr Larsen, Hodder & Stoughton, 1993.

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11 K. Howe, ‘New Zealand’s Twentieth Century Pacifics: Memories and Reflections’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 34, no. 1, p. 19. 12 A. Salmond, The Trial of the Cannibal Dog: Captain Cook in the South Seas, A. Lane, London, 2003, pp. 108–62; James Cook, The Journals of Captain Cook on His Voyages of Discovery, J .C. Beaglehole and R. A. Skelton, eds, Hakluyt Society, Cambridge, 1955, vol. 3, p. 73; J. Belich, Making peoples: a history of the New Zealanders from Polynesian settlement to the end of the nineteenth century, Penguin, Auckland, 1996, p. 20. 13 Salmond, The Trial of the Cannibal Dog, pp. 111–12. 14 J. L. Nicholas, Narrative of a Voyage to New Zealand, Hughes and Baynes, London, 1817, vol. 1, pp. 92–6; J. Polack, New Zealand: Being a Narrative of Travels and Adventures During a Residence in That Country Between the Years 1831 and 1837, Richard Bentley, 1838, vol. 2, p. 74. 15 D. Shineberg, ed., The Trading Voyages of Andrew Cheyne, 1841–1844, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1971, pp. 286–90; D. Hanlon, Upon a Stone Altar: A History of the Island of Pohnpei to 1890, University of Hawai’i Press, Honolulu, 1988, p. 64. 16 D. Chappell, ‘Secret Sharers: Indigenous Beachcombers in the Pacific Islands’, Pacific Studies, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 1–22; D. Chappell, Double Ghosts: Oceanian Voyagers on Euroamerican Ships, M. E. Sharpe, Armonk, 1997, passim. 17 Nicholas, Narrative, vol. 2, pp. 219–20. 18 M. Reilly, ‘Leadership in Ancient Polynesia’, in T. Ballantyne and B. Moloughney, eds, Disputed Histories: Imagining New Zealand’s Pasts, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2006, pp. 43-4; R. A. K. Mason, Frontier Forsaken: An Outline History of the Cook Islands, Challenge, Auckland, 1947, p. 22. 19 Scott, Years of the Pooh-Bah, pp. 131–41. 20 C. Pugsley, Te Hokowhitu a Tu: The Maori Pioneer Battalion in the First World War, Reed, Auckland, 1995. 21 M. Pointer, Tagi Tote e Lotu Haaku/My Heart Is Crying a Little: Niue Involvement in the Great War, 1914–1918, K. Folau (trans.), Government of Niue, Niue, 2000, p. 33. 22 A. Curnow, ‘An Unhistoric Story’; Sinclair, A History of New Zealand, p. 218. 23 K. Sinclair, A Destiny Apart: New Zealand’s Search for National Identity, Allen and Unwin, Wellington, 1986, p. 121; A. Ross, New Zealand Aspirations in the Pacific in the Nineteenth Century, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1964. 24 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 5 October 1900, pp. 387–426. 25 The only substantial work on these remains Ross, New Zealand Aspirations. 26 D. Hilliard, God’s Gentleman: A History of the Melanesian Mission, 1849–1942, University Press, St. Lucia, 1978. 27 Ross, New Zealand Aspirations in the Pacific; see also, for example, W. P. Morrell, Britain in the Pacific Islands, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1960, pp. 280–97; J. Ward, British Policy in the South Pacific (1786–1893), Australasian Publishing, Sydney, 1948, pp. 197–204. 28 P. M. Kennedy, The Samoan Tangle: A Study in Anglo-German Relations, 1878–1900, Queensland University Press, St. Lucia, 1974, p. 119. 29 See esp. Sinclair, A Destiny Apart, pp. 121–2. 30 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 5 October 1900, p. 114. 31 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 5 October 1900, p. 392. 32 T. D. Salesa, ‘Half-Castes Between the Wars: Colonial Categories in New Zealand and Samoa’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 98–116. 33 M. Meleisea, The Making of Modern Samoa: Traditional Authority and Colonial Administration in the History of Western Samoa, Institute of Pacific Studies of the University of the South Pacific, Suva, 1987, pp. 102–54. 34 Campbell, ‘Re-Assessing the Mau’, pp. 109, 110. 35 Tate to Richardson, MS-Papers-264–10, n.d., ATL.

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36 S. D. Wilson, ‘The Record in the Cook Islands and Niue 1901–45’, in A. Ross, ed., New Zealand’s Record in the Pacific Islands in the Twentieth Century, Longman Paul, Auckland, 1969, p. 29. 37 R. D. Frisbie, The Book of Puka-Puka: A Lone Trader on a South Sea Atoll, Century Company, New York, 1929, p. 232. 38 Scott, Years of the Pooh-Bah, passim. 39 C. Pugsley, On the Fringe of Hell: New Zealanders and Military Discipline in the First World War, Hodder and Stoughton, Auckland, 1991, pp. 147–8, 226–8. 40 I. McGibbon, ‘Stephen Shepherd Allen 1882–1964’, The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Volume Four, 1921–1940, Auckland University Press/Department of International Affairs, Wellington, 1998, pp. 9–10. 41 Wilhelm Solf, Report on Samoa, Unpublished tss, 1907, Heinrich Neffgen Papers, MS-Papers-3823, ATL. 42 C. Phillips, ‘Civilization of the Pacific’, Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand, vol. 9, 1876, pp. 87–8. 43 W. Price, Adventures in Paradise: Tahiti, Samoa, Fiji, William Heinemann, London, 1956, p. 145. 44 Tate to Gray, 11 December 1922, MS-Papers-264-03, ATL. 45 Frisbie, The Book of Puka-Puka, p. 233. 46 Crocombe, Pacific Neighbours, p. 19. 47 Scott, Years of the Pooh-Bah, p. 26. 48 M. Field, Mau: Samoa’s Struggle Against New Zealand Oppression, Reed, Wellington, 1984, p. 63; Richardson to Bell, 30 June 1923, IT 79/78, Archives New Zealand. 49 Richardson to William Downie Stewart, 2 April 1923, MS-0985-012/001, Hocken Library. 50 Scott, Would a Good Man Die?, p. 27. 51 L. Macquoid, ‘The Women’s Mau: Female Peace Warriors in Western Samoa’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Hawai’i, Honolulu, 1995. 52 T. Magaoa Chapman, et al., Niue: A History of the Island, Institute of Pacific Studies, Suva, 1982, p. 128. 53 R. P. Gilson, The Cook Islands, 1820–1950, Victoria University Press with the Institute of Pacific Studies, Wellington and Suva, 1980, p. 105. 54 For example, D. V. Williams, ‘Te Kooti Tango Whenua’: the Native Land Court 1864–1909, Huia, Wellington, 1999. 55 5 October 1900, New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, pp. 114, 420. 56 ‘Recommendations to Synods’, undated, PAMBU 520, Methodist Church of New Zealand, Overseas Missions Department, Minutes—Various, 1910–1920. 57 Cited in K. Sinclair, , Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1976, p. 81. 58 See, though, A. Stephen, ed., Pirating the Pacific: images of travel, trade and tourism, Powerhouse Publishing, Haymarket, NSW, 1993. 59 Wilson, ‘The Record in the Cook Islands and Niue 1901–45’, p. 45. 60 B. Macdonald, In Pursuit of the Sacred Trust: Trusteeship and Independence in Nauru, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, Wellington, 1988; M. Williams and B. Macdonald, Phosphateers: A History of the British Phosphate Commissioners and the Christmas Island Phosphate Commission, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1985. 61 P. Smallfield, The Grasslands Revolution in New Zealand, Hodder and Stoughton, Auckland, 1970. 62 L. Poyer, S. Falgout and L. Carucci, The Typhoon of War: Micronesian Experiences of the Pacific War, University of Hawai’i Press, Honolulu, 2001. 63 M. Wright, Pacific War: New Zealand and 1941–45, Reed, Auckland, 2003; J. Crawford, New Zealand’s Pacific Frontline: Guadalcanal-Solomon Islands Campaign, 1942–5, New Zealand Defence Force, Wellington, 1992; M. Hutching, Against the Rising Sun: New Zealanders Remember the Pacific War, Harper Collins, Auckland, 2006.

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64 Defense Force, Samoa Group, Correspondence and Reports, 1942, Box 6, Folder 11: T. E. Watson to Commanding General Force, 30 October 1943, Record Group 127 370/ B/19/02, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC. 65 Officially it remained Pacific Section 2 NZEF, as the 3 Division was never gazetted. Oliver Gillespie, The Pacific, War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1952, p. 72. 66 Fraser to Freyberg, 7 May 1943, in Internal Affairs War History Branch, Documents Relating to New Zealand’s Participation in the Second World War, Historical Publications Branch, Wellington, vol. 2, p. 195. 67 See, for instance, K. R. Hancock, New Zealand at War, Reed, Wellington, 1946, p. 278. 68 B. Liua’ana, Samoa Tula’i: Ecclesiastical and Political Face of Samoa’s Independence, 1900–1962, pp. 274–87. 69 J. Sullivan, Doing Our Bit: New Zealand Women Tell Their Stories of World War Two, HarperCollins, Auckland, 2002, p. 93. 70 Tellingly, the only index entry for Samoans in the first 1981 edn of the Oxford History redirects to ‘see Immigration, Pacific Islanders’. 71 See Campbell, ‘New Zealand and the Mau’; Campbell, ‘Resistance and Colonial Government’; M. Boyd, New Zealand and Decolonisation in the South Pacific, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, Wellington, 1987. 72 A. Fleras and P. Spoonley, Recalling Aotearoa: Indigenous Politics and Ethnic Relations in New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1999; C. Macpherson, ‘Transnational New Zealand’; for a kindred approach, see H. Johnson and B. Moloughney, ‘Introduction: Asia and the Making of Multicultural New Zealand’; T. Ballantyne, ‘Teaching Maori About Asia: Print Culture and Community in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand’, in Johnson and Moloughney, eds, Asia in the Making of New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2006, pp. 1–10, 13–35. 73 This is taken from the song by the Strong Islanders, ‘Strong Island Flow’. 74 Boyd, New Zealand and Decolonisation; I. C. Campbell, Worlds Apart: A History of the Pacific Islands, Canterbury University Press, Christchurch, 2003. 75 Scott, Years of the Pooh Bah; Scott, Would a Good Man Die? 76 J. W. Davidson, Samoa mo Samoa: The Emergence of the Independent State of Western Samoa, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1967, p. 167. 77 Cooper, Colonialism in Question, p. 232; Todd Shepard, The Invention of Decolonization: The Algerian War and the Remaking of , Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 2006. 78 See A. Ballara, Proud to be White? A Survey of Pakeha Prejudice in New Zealand, Heinemann, Auckland, 1986. 79 P. Spoonley, R. Bedford and C. Macpherson, ‘Divided Loyalties and Fractured Sovereignty: Transnationalism and the Nation-State in Aotearoa/New Zealand’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, vol. 29, no.1, pp. 31–4. 80 C. Macpherson, ‘From Pacific Islanders to Pacific People: The Past, Present and Future of the Pacific Population in Aotearoa’, in P. Spoonley, C. Macpherson and D. Pearson, eds, Tangata, Tangata: The Changing Ethnic Contours of New Zealand, Dunmore Press, Southbank, 2004, pp. 135–56. 81 Vocational Training Council, Understanding Samoans, VTC, Wellington, 1975. 82 Konai Helu-Thaman, ‘The Defining Distance’, in M. Chapman, ed., Mobility and Identity in the Island Pacific, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1985, p. 108. 83 D. Pitt and C. Macpherson, Emerging Pluralism: The Samoan Community in New Zealand, Longman Paul, Auckland, 1974, p. 113. 84 L. Tuhega, ‘The Problem of Absentee Owners’, in Solomona Kalauni, et al., Land Tenure in Niue, Institute of Pacific Studies, Suva, 1977, pp. 25–31; C. Macpherson and P. Spoonley, ‘Transnational New Zealand: Immigrants and Cross-Border Connections’, in Macpherson, et al., Tangata, Tangata, pp. 175–94; Spoonley, Bedford and Macpherson, ‘Divided Loyalties’, pp. 34–9. 85 J. Corbett, ‘White Flight: Often Seen, Seldom Talked About’, Metro, vol. 157, 1994, pp. 51–4; Education Review Office, Improving Schooling in Mangere and Otara, Education Review Office,

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Wellington, 1996; T. Hyde, ‘White Men Can’t Jump: The Polynesianisation of Sport’, Metro, no. 147, 1993, pp. 62–9. 86 New Zealand Herald, 21 January 1976. 87 B. Gustafson, His Way: A Biography of Robert Muldoon, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2000, p. 161. 88 A. Wendt, ‘Towards a New Oceania’, Mana Review, vol. 1, no.1, 1976, pp. 49–60; A. Hooper, ed., Class and Culture in the South Pacific, Institute for Pacific Studies, Suva, 1987. 89 South Pacific Trade and Regional Economic Cooperation Agreement, 1981. 90 Human Rights Committee, 2 November 2000, Views on Communication No.675/1995; Tavita v. Minister of Immigration (1994); Puli’uvea v. Removal Authority (1996). 91 L. Felise Va’a, Saili Matagi: Samoan Migrants in Australia, Institute of Pacific Studies, Suva, 2001; C. Macpherson, ‘Public and Private Views of Home: Will Western Samoan Migrants Return?’, Pacific Viewpoint, vol. 26, no. 1, 1985, pp. 242–62. 92 Meleisea, The Making of Modern Samoa; Tuiatua Tupua Tamesese, ‘The Riddle in Samoan History: The Relevance of Language, Names, Honorifics, Genealogy, Ritual and Chant to Historical Analysis’, Journal of Pacific History, vol. 30, no. 1, 1995, pp. 3–21; Lilikala Kame’eleihiwa, Native Lands, Foreign Desires: How Shall We Live in Harmony/Ko Hawai’i ‘Aina a me Na Koi Pu’umake a ka Po’e Haole: Pehea la e Pono ai?, Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, 1992; J. Huntsman and A. Hooper, : A Historical Ethnography, University of Auckland Press, Auckland, 1996; M. Reilly, War and Succession in Mangaia from Mamae’s Texts, Polynesian Society, Auckland, 2003; ‘Okusitino Mahina, ‘Art as Ta-Va “Time-Space” Transformation’, in Tupeni Baba, ed., Researching Pacific and Indigenous Peoples, Centre for Pacific Studies, Auckland, 2004; ‘Okusitino Mahina, ‘The Tongan Traditional History Tala-e-Fonua’, Unpublished PhD thesis, Australian National University, Canberra, 1992; Epeli Hau’ofa, ‘Our Sea of Islands’, The Contemporary Pacific, vol. 6, 1994, pp. 148–61. 93 T. K. Teaiwa, ‘On Analogies: Rethinking the Pacific in a Global Context’, The Contemporary Pacific, vol. 18, no. 1, 2006, p. 1. 94 Boyd, ‘New Zealand and the Other Pacific Islands’, p. 322; F. Wood, New Zealand in the World, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1940, pp. 129–30. 95 See Hau’ofa, ‘Our Sea of Islands’; Gatoloaifaana Peseta S. Sio, Tapasa o Folauga i Aso Afa/ Compass of in a Storm, University of South Pacific Centre, Apia, 1984.

chapter 8: Migration and Ethnic Identities in the Nineteenth Century 1 Hamilton McIlrath (Rangiora) to his family (Co. Down), 12 August 1862. 2 James McIlrath (Southbridge) to his family (Co. Down), 21 December 1872. 3 James McIlrath (Southbridge) to his family (Co. Down), 26 August 1875. 4 James McIlrath (Lakeside, Canterbury) to his brother William (Co. Down), 24 February 1891. 5 J. Graham, ‘Settler society’, in W. H. Oliver, with B. R. Williams, eds, The Oxford History of New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1981, p. 113. 6 W. D. Borrie, Immigration to New Zealand, 1854–1938, Australian National University, Canberra, 1991. 7 C. Macdonald, A Woman of Good Character: Single Women as Immigrant Settlers in Nineteenth- Century New Zealand, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1990. 8 Te Ara—the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, Settler and Migrant Peoples of New Zealand, David Bateman, Auckland, 2006. 9 J. Phillips and T. Hearn, Settlers: New Zealand Immigrants from England, Ireland and , 1800–1945, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2008. 10 R. P. Davis, Irish Issues in New Zealand Politics, 1868–1922, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 1974; D. H. Akenson, Half the World from Home: Perspectives on the Irish in New Zealand, 1860–1950, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1990.

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11 Davis, Irish Issues, p. 213. 12 Akenson, Half the World from Home, p. 196. 13 L. Fraser, Castles of Gold: A History of New Zealand’s West Coast Irish, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2007; L. Fraser, ed., A Distant Shore: Irish Emigration and New Zealand Settlement, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2000; L. Fraser, To Tara Via Holyhead: Irish Catholic Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century Christchurch, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1997; A. McCarthy, Irish Migrants in New Zealand, 1840–1937: ‘The Desired Haven’, Boydell Press, Woodbridge, 2005; B. Patterson, ed., Ulster-New Zealand Migration and Cultural Transfers, Four Courts Press, Dublin, 2005; B. Patterson, ed., The Irish in New Zealand: Historical Contexts and Perspectives, Stout Research Centre for New Zealand Studies, Wellington, 2002. 14 M. Molloy, Those Who Speak To The Heart: the Nova Scotian Scots at Waipu, 1854–1920, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1991; T. Brooking and J. Coleman, eds, The Heather and the Fern: Scottish Migration and New Zealand Settlement, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2003. See also G. L. Pearce, The Scots of New Zealand, Harper Collins, Auckland, 1976; J. Hewitson, Far Off In Sunlit Places: Stories of the Scots in Australia and New Zealand, Canongate Books, , 1998. 15 Molloy, Those Who Speak to the Heart, p. 125. 16 R. Arnold, The Farthest Promised Land: English Villagers, New Zealand Immigrants of the 1870s, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1981. 17 R. Dalziel, ‘Popular protest in early New Plymouth: why did it occur?’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 20, no. 1, 1986, pp. 3–26; R. Dalziel, ‘Emigration and kinship: migrants to New Plymouth 1840–1843’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 25, no. 2, 1991, pp. 112–28. 18 H. Bender and B. Larsen, Danish Emigration to New Zealand, Danes Worldwide Archive, Denmark, 1990; V. A. Burr, Mosquitoes and Sawdust: A History of Scandinavians in Early Palmerston North and Surrounding Districts, The Club, Palmerston North, 1995; O. Koivukangas, From the Midnight Sun to the Long White Cloud: Finns in New Zealand, Institute of Migration, Turku, 1996; J. S. Lyng, The Scandinavians in Australia, New Zealand and the Western Pacific, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1939. 19 J. N. Bade, ed., German Connection: New Zealand and German-speaking Europe in the Nineteenth Century, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1993, p. xi. 20 T. Sawicka, ‘Poles’, in Settler and Migrant Peoples, p. 224. 21 J. W. Pobóg-Jaworowski, History of the Polish Settlers in New Zealand, 1776–1987, Warsaw, 1990; J. W. Pobóg-Jaworowski, Polish Settlers in Taranaki, 1876–1976, , 1976. 22 A. Trlin, Now Respected, Once Despised: Yugoslavs in New Zealand, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1979. 23 W. H. McLeod, Punjabis in New Zealand: A History of Punjabi Migration, 1890–1940, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 1986. 24 McLeod, Punjabis in New Zealand, p. 49. 25 See M. Ip, ‘Chinese New Zealanders: old settlers and new immigrants’, in S. W. Greif, ed., Immigration and National Identity in New Zealand: One People, Two Peoples, Many Peoples?, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1995, pp. 161–99; S. W. Greif, The Overseas Chinese in New Zealand, Asia Pacific Press, , 1974. 26 J. Ng, Windows on a Chinese Past, 4 vols, Otago Heritage Books, Dunedin, 1993–99. See also J. Ng, ‘The sojourner experience: the Cantonese goldseekers in New Zealand, 1865–1901’, in M. Ip, ed., Unfolding History, Evolving Identity: The Chinese in New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2003, pp. 5–30. 27 See A. R. Grigg, ‘Attitudes in New Zealand to Scandinavian Immigration, 1870–1876’, BA Hons Essay, University of Otago, 1973; A. Holmes, ‘“The Chinese are the same everywhere”: The Distortion of the Chinese Community in Dunedin, 1880–1920’, BA Hons Essay, University of Otago, 2000; A. Lynch, ‘“Drunken, Dissipated and Immoral”: Perceptions of Irish Immigrants to New Zealand, 1868–1918’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Auckland, 1997; C. Smithyman, ‘Attitudes to Immigration in New Zealand, 1870–1900’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Auckland, 1971.

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28 Grigg, ‘Attitudes in New Zealand to Scandinavian Immigration’, p. 22; O. R. Davie, ‘Chinese Immigration into New Zealand, 1878–81’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Otago, 1969, p. 8. 29 P. Coleman, ‘Transplanted Irish Institutions: Orangeism and Hibernianism in New Zealand, 1877–1910’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 1993; H. McNamara, ‘Sole Organ of the Irish Race in New Zealand? A Social and Cultural History of the New Zealand Tablet and its Readers, 1898–1923’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Auckland, 2002. 30 A. Galbraith, ‘New Zealand’s “Invisible Irish”: Irish Protestants in the of New Zealand, 1840–1900’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Auckland, 1998; H. Mehaffy, ‘A Matter of the Heart: Some Perspectives on the Cultural Identities of Female Irish Migrants in New Zealand from Vogellite Immigration to the Irish Free State’, MA, University of Auckland, 2002; S. McKimmey, ‘“A Thorough Irish Female”: Aspects of the Lives of Single Irish Born Women in Auckland, 1850–1880’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Auckland, 1997. 31 See McCarthy, Irish Migrants in New Zealand; D. Hastings, Over the Mountains of the Sea: Life on the Migrant Ships, 1870–1885, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2006. 32 M. Ip and N. Murphy, Aliens at my Table: Asians as New Zealanders See Them, Penguin, Auckland, 2005. 33 D. Baines, Emigration from Europe, 1815–1930, Macmillan Education Limited, Basingstoke and London, 1991, p. 7. 34 Akenson, Half the World from Home, table 5, p. 22. Assisted figures derived from annual migration returns found in AJHR. 35 AJHR, 1875, D-2, No. 111, p. 78. 36 J. Belich, Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders From Polynesian Settlement to the End of the Nineteenth Century, Allen Lane, Auckland, 1996, p. 278. 37 AJHR, 1871, D-No.3, Encl. in No. 8, p. 7. 38 R. R. McClean, ‘Scottish emigrants to New Zealand, 1840–1880: Motives, Means, and Background’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1990; S. Butterworth with G. Butterworth, Chips off the Auld Rock: Shetlanders in New Zealand, Shetland Society of Wellington, Wellington, 1997. 39 See, for instance, T. M. Devine, ‘Highland migration to Lowland Scotland, 1780–1860’, Scottish Historical Review, vol. 62, no. 174, 1983, pp. 137–49. 40 See McCarthy, Irish Migrants in New Zealand, table 1.2, pp. 58–9, for varied sources documenting Irish origins. 41 M. Ip, Home Away From Home: Life Stories of Chinese , New Women’s Press, Auckland, 1990, p. 16; Trlin, Now Respected, Once Despised. 42 Burnley, From Southern Europe to New Zealand, pp. 11, 20. 43 Borrie, Immigration to New Zealand, 1854–1938, p. 38. 44 Macdonald, A Woman of Good Character, passim. 45 L. Fraser and K. Pickles, eds, Shifting Centres: Women and Migration in New Zealand History, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2002; F. Porter and C. Macdonald, eds, ‘My Hand Will Write What My Heart Dictates’: The Unsettled Lives of Women in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand as Revealed to Sisters, Family, and Friends, Bridget Williams Books, Auckland, 1996. See also A. McCarthy, ‘“In prospect of a happier future”: private letters and Irish women’s migration to New Zealand, 1840–1925’, in Fraser, ed., A Distant Shore, pp. 105–16; R. McClean, ‘Reluctant leavers? Scottish women and emigration in the mid-nineteenth century’, in Brooking and Coleman, eds, The Heather and the Fern, pp. 103–16. 46 K. A. Miller, D. N. Doyle and P. Kelleher, ‘“For love and liberty”: Irish women, migration and domesticity in Ireland and America, 1815–1920’, in P. O’Sullivan, ed., The Irish Worldwide: History, Heritage, Identity, Vol. 4. Irish Women and Irish Migration, Leicester University Press, Leicester, 1995, p. 53. 47 Belich, Making Peoples, p. 313. 48 See R. Dalziel, Sir Julius Vogel, Reed, Wellington, 1968. 49 Borrie, Immigration to New Zealand, pp. 56, 132.

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50 For disciplinary approaches see C. Brettell and J. Hollifield, eds, Migration Theory: Talking Across Disciplines, Routledge, New York, 2000. 51 Ebenezer Hay (Wellington) to his brother Robert Hay (Ayrshire, Scotland), 17 April 1841, Canterbury Museum, ARC 1990.8. 52 See the special double edn of Immigrants and Minorities, vol. 23, nos 2–3, 2005, which focuses on Irish migrants; A. McCarthy, A Global Clan: Scottish Migrant Networks and Identities Since the Eighteenth Century, Tauris Academic Studies, London and New York, 2006. 53 M. Minson, ‘Trends in German immigration to New Zealand’, in Bade, ed., German Connection; Pobóg-Jaworowski, History of the Polish Settlers in New Zealand, p. 10. 54 A. R. Grigg, ‘Attitudes in New Zealand to Scandinavian Immigration, 1870–1876’, BA Hons Essay, University of Otago, 1973, p. 17. 55 Belich, Making Peoples, pp. 280–6. 56 Local agents appointed by the Agent-General, AJHR, 1873, D-2, p. 18. 57 See McCarthy, Irish Migrants in New Zealand, passim. 58 AJHR, 1874, D-1, No. 56, p. 30. 59 Hastings, Over the Mountains of the Sea; T. Simpson, The Immigrants: The Great Migration From Britain to New Zealand, 1830–1890, Godwit, Auckland, 1997; S. Clarke, ‘The Voyage to Otago, 1870s’, BA Hons Essay, University of Otago, 1990. 60 Borrie, Immigration to New Zealand, p. 90. 61 Borrie, Immigration to New Zealand, pp. 88–9. 62 E. and H. Laracy, The Italians in New Zealand and Other Studies, Societe Dante Alighieri, Auckland, 1973. 63 Bessie Macready (Governors Bay) to her cousins (County Down, Ireland), 27 March 1878, PRONI D1757/2/4. 64 C. R. Clark, Women and Children Last: The Burning of the Emigrant Ship Cospatrick, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2006. 65 Shipboard journal of John Forsyth Menzies, 8 December 1878, Canterbury Museum, 91/85. 66 AJHR, 1874, D-1, No. 17, p. 10. 67 Extracts from the diary of Bessie Prouten, in Porter and Macdonald, eds, ‘My Hand Will Write’, p. 75. 68 Letters from Otago, 1848–1849, Hocken Library, Dunedin, 1978, p. 9. 69 Transcript of shipboard journal of Matthew Francis Moriarty on the Northern Monarch, 31 January 1879, Canterbury Museum 73/67. 70 Fraser, Castles of Gold. 71 N. G. Schiller, L. Basch and C. Blanc-Szanton, ‘Transnationalism: a new analytic framework for understanding migration’, in N. G. Schiller, L. Basch and C. Blanc-Szanton, eds, Towards a Transnational Perspective on Migration: Race, Class, Ethnicity and Nationalism Reconsidered, New York Academy of Sciences, New York, 1992. 72 P. Levitt and B. Nadya Jaworsky, ‘Trasnational migration studies: past developments and future trends’, Annual Review of Sociology, vol. 33, 2007, p. 131. 73 Levitt and Jaworsky, ‘Transnational migration studies’, p. 142. 74 See esp. the works by Fraser and McCarthy with regard to the Irish. 75 M. Fairburn, The Ideal Society and Its Enemies: the Foundations of Modern New Zealand Society, 1850–1900, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1989, p. 94. 76 Fairburn, The Ideal Society, p. 11. 77 Porter and Macdonald, ‘My Hand Will Write’, pp. 3, 6, 386–7. 78 McCarthy, Irish Migrants in New Zealand, passim. 79 Elizabeth McCleland (Co. Londonderry) to her daughter Ann (Port Nicholson), 1 October 1840, PRONI, T/3034/1.

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80 Ng, Windows on a Chinese Past, vol. 1, p. 11. 81 Greif, The Overseas Chinese, pp. 4, 18. 82 Quoted in Ng, Windows on a Chinese Past, vol. 1, p. 91. 83 Trlin, Now Respected, Once Despised, pp. 64–5. 84 John Birmingham (Otago) to his parents Patrick and Mary Birmingham (Kildare), 22 November 1870, National Library of Ireland, Ms 17801. Thanks to David Fitzpatrick for providing me with a transcript of this letter. 85 Shipboard journal of John Cardwell on the City of Tanjore, 1881, PRONI T/1698/4. 86 See McCarthy, Irish Migrants in New Zealand, chaps 6 and 7; A. McCarthy, ‘“Bands of fellowship”: the role of personal relationships and social networks among Irish migrants in New Zealand, 1861–1911’, Immigrants and Minorities, vol. 23, nos 2/3, 2005, pp. 339–58. 87 Borrie, Immigration to New Zealand, pp. 98–121. 88 Farm Account Book, 1841–1862, cited in D. Murphy, The Flanagans of Tobertoby, Co. Louth (1989, privately circulated), p. 30. 89 Unassisted passengers to Victoria, fiche 130, PRO, Laverton. I am grateful to Professor David Fitzpatrick for this information. 90 Michael Flanagan to Richard Flanagan, 18 February 1865. Copies of original letters were kindly provided by Donald Murphy. 91 See Fraser, Castles of Gold, passim. 92 Michael Flanagan (Charleston) to Richard Flanagan (Termonfeckin), 10 August 1867. 93 Richard Flanagan (Louth) to Patrick and Michael Flanagan (West Coast), 24 January 1867. 94 Michael Flanagan (Charleston) to Richard Flanagan (Termonfeckin), 10 August 1867. 95 Patrick Flanagan (Grahamstown) to Michael Flanagan (West Coast), 18 October 1869. 96 Patrick Flanagan (Grahamstown) to Michael Flanagan (West Coast), 6 December 1869. 97 Bridget Kirk (Clogher Head) to Michael Flanagan, 10 May 1870. 98 Michael Flanagan to John Flanagan, 20 May 1890. 99 Seacliff Mental Hospital Medical Casebooks, National Archives Dunedin, DAHI/19956/D264/46, case 2801. 100 R. Cohen, Global Diasporas: An Introduction, University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1997. 101 R. Brubaker, ‘The “diaspora” diaspora’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol. 28, no. 1, 2005, p. 3. 102 Brubaker, ‘The “diaspora” diaspora’, p. 12. 103 William Safran cited in J. Clifford, ‘Diasporas’, Cultural Anthropology, vol. 9, no. 3, 1994, p. 304. 104 E. Delaney, K. Kenny and D. MacRaild, ‘Symposium: Perspectives on the Irish diaspora’, Irish Economic and Social History, vol. 33, 2006, p. 49. 105 A. D. Smith, National Identity, Penguin, London, 1991, p. 21. 106 K. N. Conzen, D. A. Gerber, E. Morawska, G. E. Pozzetta and R. J. Vecoli, ‘The invention of ethnicity: a perspective from the USA’, Journal of American Ethnic History, vol. 12, no. 1, 1992, p. 28. 107 See R. Sweetman, Faith and Fraternalism: A History of the Hibernian Society in New Zealand, 1869–2000, Hibernian Society, Wellington, 2002; Coleman, ‘Transplanted Irish institutions’; T. A. Moyes, ‘The sash their fathers wore: a history of Orangeism in the North Island of New Zealand, 1868–1900’, Unpublished MA dissertation, University of Auckland, 1994. 108 See E. R. Entwistle, History of the Gaelic Society of New Zealand, 1881–1891, E. R. Entwistle, Dunedin, 1981; L. Satterthwaite, The Burns Heritage: A History of the Dunedin Club, L. Satterthwaite, Dunedin, 1991. 109 Ng, Windows on a Chinese Past, vol. 1, p. 94. 110 D. Handelman, ‘The organization of ethnicity’, Ethnic Groups, vol. 1, 1977, pp. 187–200. 111 This point is made by C. Kidd, British Identities Before Nationalism, p. 5. 112 Fraser, Castles of Gold, p. 78.

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113 Ng, ‘The Sojourner Experience’, in Ip, ed., Unfolding Identities, p. 19; Greif, The Overseas Chinese, p. 19. 114 Ng, Windows on a Chinese Past, vol. 1, p. 63. 115 See Ng, Windows on a Chinese Past, vol. 1, p. 66. 116 McLeod, Punjabis in New Zealand, p. 49. 117 Trlin, Now Respected, Once Despised, pp. 164–5. 118 J. Williams, ‘Puhoi, the Bohemian settlement’, in Bade, ed., German Connection, p. 66. 119 H. J. Gans, ‘Symbolic ethnicity: the future of ethnic groups and cultures in America’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol. 2, no. 1, 1979, p. 14. 120 AJHR, 1874, D-1A, Encl. 1 in No. 9, pp. 13–14. 121 AJHR, 1873, D-1, Encl. 5 in No. 8, p. 8; 1874, Sub-Encl. to Encl. 2 in No. 12, Report by Surgeon of ship ‘Punjaub’. 122 AJHR, 1873, D-1, Encl. 5 in No. 8, p. 8; 1876, D-1, No. 26, p. 15. 123 Enclosure 2 in No. 42, AJHR, 1872, D-No.1, p. 49. 124 AJHR, 1872, Encl. 3 in No. 1, p. 6; 1873, Sub-Encl. 1 to Encl. 3 in No. 36, Quarterly Report, p. 40. 125 M. Ip, Home Away From Home: Life Stories of Chinese Women in New Zealand, New Women’s Press, Auckland, 1990, p. 15. 126 J. W. Maude to John Marshman, 13/18 January 1863, CH287, CP 607d/13, National Archives Christchurch. 127 Godley, 26 November 1850, p. 158. 128 Godley, 20 June 1850, extract 18 July 1850, p. 79. 129 Lady Barker, Station Life in New Zealand, Whitcombe and Tombs Ltd, Christchurch, 1956; first published 1870, p. 40. 130 John Deans (Port Nicholson) to Gavin Brackenridge, 16 January 1843 in Pioneers of Canterbury: Deans Letters, 1840–1854, Reed, Dunedin and Wellington, [1937], p. 56. 131 Ebenezer Hay (Annandale, Pigeon Bay) to his parents (Ayrshire, Scotland), 5 January 1852, Canterbury Museum. 132 ‘A hundred years ago: the raids of Te Rauparaha’, Canterbury Pilgrims and Early Settlers Scrapbook, 1923–1935, vol. 2, p. 254, Christchurch Library. 133 A. Wanhalla, ‘One white man I like very much: Intermarriage and the cultural encounter in southern New Zealand, 1829–1850’, Journal of Women’s History, vol. 20, no. 2, 2008, pp. 34–56. 134 See, for instance, McCarthy, Irish Migrants in New Zealand, pp. 220–5. 135 The Green Ray: A Review of Current Affairs, Literature, Art, Industry and a Magazine of Irish National Thought, vol. 2, no. 5, 1 April 1918, Per GRE, ATL. 136 Caledonian Society of Otago, 56th Annual Report, 15 November 1918, MS-1045/6, Hocken Library, Dunedin. 137 The N.Z. Scotsman, vol. 1, no. 8, 15 October 1927. 138 ‘Rules of the Society’, p. 1, Pahiatua and Districts Scottish Society, Inc, CO-W/2/12/598, National Archives, Wellington. 139 The Green Ray: A Review of Current Affairs, Literature, Art, Industry and a Magazine of Irish National Thought, vol. 1, no. 10, 1 October 1917, p. 197, Per GRE, ATL; S. Brosnahan, ‘“Shaming the shoneens”: The Green Ray and the Maoriland Irish Society in Dunedin, 1916–22’, in L. Fraser, ed., A Distant Shore, pp. 117–34. 140 The Green Ray, vol. 1, no. 10, 1 October 1917, p. 197, Per GRE, ATL. 141 S. G. Brosnahan, ‘“The battle of the borough” and the “saige o Timaru”: sectarian riot in colonial Canterbury’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 28, no. 1, 1994, pp. 41–59. 142 See Patterson, ed., Ulster New Zealand Migration, passim. 143 New Zealand Freeman’s Journal, 7 August 1885, p. 11.

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144 D. Fitzpatrick, ‘“This is the place that foolish girls are knowing”: reading the letters of emigrant Irish women in colonial Australia’, in T. McClaughlin, ed., Irish Women in Colonial Australia, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1998, p. 163. 145 S. L. Baily, ‘Cross-cultural comparison and the writing of migration history: some thoughts on how to study Italians in the new world’, in V. Yans-McLaughlin, ed., Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics, Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford, 1990, p. 247. 146 D. H. Akenson, ‘Reading the texts of rural immigrants: letters from the Irish in Australia, New Zealand, and North America’, in D. H. Akenson, ed., Canadian Papers in Rural History, vol. 7, Langdale Press, Gananoque, 1990, p. 388. 147 See D. Gabaccia, Italy’s Many Diasporas, University of Washington Press, Seattle, 2000. 148 Emily McIlrath (Canterbury) to her cousins (Co. Down), 12 August 1915.

chapter 9: The New Zealand Economy 1792–1914 1 The point is made by K. H. O’Rourke and J. G. Williamson, ‘When did globalisation begin?’, European Review of Economic History, vol. 6, no. 1, 2002, p. 27, on whose analysis this argument depends. 2 K. Marx and F. Engels, The Communist Manifesto, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1967, p. 81. 3 Marx and Engels, Communist Manifesto, p. 84. 4 J. B. Condliffe, New Zealand in the Making: a study of economic and social development, Allen and Unwin, London, 1930, p. 45. 5 Condliffe, New Zealand in the Making, p. 23. 6 Condliffe, New Zealand in the Making, p. 283. 7 M. Bassett, The State in New Zealand: socialism without doctrines? Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1997. 8 C. G. F. Simkin, The Instability of a Dependent Economy: Economic fluctuations in New Zealand, 1840–1914, Oxford University Press, London, 1951, passim. 9 C. B. Schedvin, ‘Staples and regions of Pax Britannica’, Economic History Review, vol. 43, no. 4, 1990, p. 533. 10 P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British imperialism, 1688–2000, Longman, New York, 2002, p. 208. 11 W. Armstrong, ‘New Zealand: imperialism, class and uneven development’, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology, vol. 16, no. 3, 1978, p. 297. 12 Armstrong, ‘New Zealand: imperialism, class and uneven development’, p. 301. See also P. McMichael, Settlers and the agrarian question: foundations of capitalism in colonial Australia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1984, p. 102. 13 W. B. Sutch, Colony or Nation? Economic crises in New Zealand from the 1860s to the 1960s, Sydney University Press, Sydney, 1966; W. B. Sutch, The Quest for Security in New Zealand 1840–1966, Oxford University Press, 1966. See also Armstrong, ‘New Zealand: imperialism, class and uneven development’, passim. 14 Cain and Hopkins, British imperialism, passim. 15 G. Hawke, The Making of New Zealand: an economic history, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985. 16 J. Belich, Making Peoples: a history of the New Zealanders from Polynesian settlement to the end of the nineteenth century, Allen Lane/Penguin, Auckland, 1996, pp. 359–60. 17 J. Belich, Paradise Reforged: a history of the New Zealanders from the 1880s to the year 2000, Allen Lane, Auckland, 2001, chap. 2. 18 P. Mein-Smith, A Concise History of New Zealand, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, esp. chap. 5 and epilogue.

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19 A. Salmond, Between Worlds: Early Exchanges between Maori and Europeans, 1773–1815, Viking, Auckland, 1997, chap. 9. 20 D. R. Hainsworth, Builders and adventurers: the traders and the emergence of the colony 1788–1821, Cassel, North Melbourne, 1969, pp. 34, 85. 21 H. Morton, The Whale’s Wake, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 1982, pp. 90–4, 106, 121, 134, 144; H. B. Carter, Sir Joseph Banks 1743–1820, British Museum, London, 1988, pp. 433–4; D. R. Hainsworth, ed., Builders and adventurers: the traders and the emergence of the colony 1788–1821, Cassell, Melbourne, 1968, pp. 86–90; M. J. E. Steven, ‘The Changing Patterns of Commerce’, in G. J. Abbot and N. B. Nairn, eds, Economic growth of Australia 1788–1821, Melbourne University Press, Carlton, 1969, p. 183. 22 Hainsworth, Builders and adventurers, p. 74. 23 Much of the detail on the Britannia and Francis is in R. McNab, Murihiku and the southern islands, William Smith, , 1907, chaps 4–6; A. Salmond, Between Worlds: early exchanges between Maori and Europeans, 1773–1815, Viking, Auckland, 1997, pp. 285–94; D. R. Hainsworth, ‘Trade within the Colony’, in Abbott and Nairn, eds, Economic growth of Australia 1788–1821, p. 268; M. Steven, Trade, Tactics, Territory: Britain in the Pacific, 1783–1823, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1983, p. 87. 24 Hainsworth, Builders and adventurers, p. 99. 25 Morton, Whale’s Wake, chap. 15 and esp. pp. 51–3, 121–5, 131–3, 140–7. 26 H. Petrie, ‘Maori Enterprise: Ships and Flour Mills’, in I. Hunter and D. Morrow, eds, City of Enterprise: Perspectives on Auckland Business History, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2006, p. 29. 27 Salmond, Between Worlds, chaps 17 and 18, and p. 339; Morton, Whale’s Wake, p. 126; ‘Rev. S. Marsden’s Account of his First Visit to New Zealand’, in R. McNab, Historical Records of New Zealand, Government Printer, Wellington, vol. 1, 1908, pp. 343–8; J. M. R. Young, ‘Australia’s Pacific Frontier’, Historical Studies Australia and New Zealand, vol. 12, no. 47, 1966, p. 379; ‘Governor King to Earl Camden 30 Apr 1805’, in McNab, Historical Records, vol. 1, p. 255; Morton, Whale’s Wake, p. 126; Salmond, Between Worlds, p. 339; ‘King Papers, 2 Jan 1806’, in McNab, Historical Records, vol. 1, pp. 263–6. 28 Petrie, ‘Maori Enterprise’, pp. 30, 31. 29 A. Anderson, The Welcome of Strangers: an ethnohistory of southern Maori AD 1650–1850, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 1997, pp. 81–2. 30 Salmond, Between Worlds, p. 250. 31 The specifications are given by R. A. Cruise, Journal of a ten months’ residence in New Zealand, Capper Press, Christchurch, 1974 (first published 1824), p. 21; R. P. Wigglesworth, ‘The New Zealand timber and flax trade, 1769–1840’, PhD Thesis, Massey University, 1970, pp. 108–9. 32 E. Dieffenbach, Travels in New Zealand, vol. 1, Capper Press, Christchurch, 1974 (first published 1843), pp. 201–53; E. J. Wakefield, Adventure in New Zealand, vol. 1, John Murray, London, 1845, p. 412. 33 Anderson, Welcome of Strangers, p. 180. 34 Anderson, Welcome of Strangers, pp. 126–9, 180. On whaling rights, see E. Shortland, The Southern Districts of New Zealand, Capper Press, Christchurch, 1974, pp. 83–91. 35 P. Temple, A Sort of Conscience: The Wakefields, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2002, p. 1. See also G. Martin, Edward Gibbon Wakefield: Abductor and Mystagogue, Ann Barry, Edinburgh, 1997. An earlier treatment, at least as sceptical as Martin’s, is J. Miller, Early Victorian New Zealand: a study of racial tension and social attitudes, 1839–1852, Oxford University Press, London, 1958. 36 B. Semmell, The Liberal Ideal and the Demons of Empire: Theories of Imperialism from Adam Smith to Lenin, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1993, chap. 2. 37 F. J. A. Broeze, ‘Private Enterprise and the Peopling of Australasia, 1831–50’, Economic History Review, vol. 35, no. 2, 1982, p. 235. 38 Temple, pp. 195, 232–3.

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39 Temple, p. 244. 40 Temple, pp. 245, 302. 41 See further Tony Ballantyne’s Chapter 5 in this volume. 42 The 1844 Select Committee report comprises volume two of Irish University Press series of British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies—New Zealand, Irish University Press, Shannon, 1968. 43 Dispatch dated 13 June 1845, cited in Waitangi Tribunal, The Ngai Tahu land report, para. 5.3.6. 44 Dispatch dated 13 June 1845, cited in Waitangi Tribunal, The Ngai Tahu land report, para. 5.3.6. 45 Earl Grey to Grey, 23 December 1846, in ‘Correspondence Relative to the Affairs of New Zealand’, Irish University Press series of British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies—New Zealand, volume 6, Irish University Press, Shannon, 1968, pp. 67–8. 46 H. C. Evison, Te Wai Pounamu. The Greenstone Island: a history of the southern Maori during the European colonisation of New Zealand, Aoraki Press, Wellington, 1993; Waitangi Tribunal, The Ngai Tahu Report; A. G. Bagnall, Wairarapa: a historical excursion, Trust Lands Trust, Masterton, 1976, chaps 2–4; J. C. Weaver, ‘Frontiers into Assets: The Social Construction of Property in New Zealand 1840–1865’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, vol. 27, no. 3, 1999, pp. 17–54. 47 Temple, A Sort of Conscience, p. 172. 48 Weaver, ‘Frontiers into Assets’, passim. 49 Canterbury Museum Archives, Deans Family Papers, William Deans to John Deans Sr and James Deans, 4 June 1851, folder 4. On Australia, see Sylvia Morrissey, ‘The Pastoral Economy, 1821–1850’, in J. Griffen, ed., Essays in Economic History of Australia, Jacaranda, Milton, 1967; J. Ker, ‘The Wool Industry in New South Wales 1803–30’, Business Archives and History, vol. 2, no. 1, 1962; E. A. Beever, ‘The Origin of the Wool Industry in New South Wales’, Business Archives and History, vol. 5, no. 1, 1965; S. H. Roberts, The Squatting Age in Australia, Melbourne University Press, Carlton, 1970; L. Peel, Rural Industry in the Port Phillip Region, Melbourne University Press, Carlton, 1974; T. Dingle, The Victorians: volume 2—Settling, Fairfax, Syme & Weldon Associates, McMahons Point, 1984. 50 L. G. D. Acland, The Early Canterbury Runs, Whitcoulls, Christchurch, 1975; R. Pinney, Early South Canterbury Runs, Reed, Wellington, 1971 and Early Northern Otago Runs, Auckland: Collins, 1981. 51 Nelson Evening Mail, 20 July 1991, p. 7; Nelson Evening Mail, 22 July, p. 4. 52 Petrie, ‘Maori Enterprise’, pp. 41–9; P. Monin, This Is My Place: Hauraki Contested, 1769–1875, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2001, pp. 122–8, 152–61, 168–9. See also H. Petrie, ‘Bitter Recollections? Thomas Chapman and Benjamin Ashwell on Maori Flourmills and Ships in the Mid- Nineteenth Century’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 39, no. 1, 2005, pp. 1–21; H. Petrie, Chiefs of Industry: Maori Tribal Enterprise in Early Colonial New Zealand, Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2006. 53 M. K. Watson and B. R. Patterson, ‘The Growth and Subordination of the Maori Economy in the Wellington region of New Zealand, 1840–52’, Pacific Viewpoint, no. 26, 1985; B. Dacker, Te Maemae me te Aroha: The pain and the love, a history of Kai Tahu Whanui in Otago 1844–1984, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 1994, chap. 5. 54 Quoted in D. Hamer, ‘Wellington on the Urban Frontier’, in D. Hamer and R. Nicholls, eds, The Making of Wellington 1800–1914, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1990, p. 241. 55 R. Stone, ‘Auckland Business, 1841–2004: Myth and Reality’, in Hunter and Morrow, eds, City of Enterprise, p. 233. 56 Stone, ‘Auckland Business’, p. 234. 57 Nelson Examiner, 12 March 1842, and generally through March and April 1842. 58 Nelson Examiner, 23 July 1842. 59 R. C. J. Stone, Young Logan Campbell, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1982, cited at p. 86; see also chap. 8. 60 Monin, ‘This is my place’, pp. 127–32.

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61 Hamer, ‘Wellington on the Urban Frontier’, p. 247. 62 Roberta Nicholls, ‘Levin, William Hort’, in The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Volume One, 1769–1869, Allen and Unwin/Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1990, pp. 239–40. 63 J. L. Bailey, The Nelson Directory, C. and J. Elliott, Nelson, 1857. 64 J. Campbell to Sclanders and Co, 20 September 1881; Sclanders and Co Box 3, Nelson Provincial Museum; Buxton and Co, Journal, 1886–87, Nelson Provincial Museum. 65 D. H. Doyle, The Social Order of a Frontier Community: Jacksonville, Illinois, 1825–70, University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1978, pp. 63–4. 66 D. N. Hawkins, Beyond the Waimakariri, Whitcombe and Tombs, Christchurch, 1957, pp. 218–22; see also Press, 22 October 1919, p. 5. 67 Nelson Examiner, 20 September 1851, p. 123. See also D. A. Hamer, New Towns in the New World: Images and Perceptions of the Nineteenth-Century Urban Frontier, Columbia University Press, New York, 1990, p. 147. 68 J. H. M. Salmon, A History of Goldmining in New Zealand, Government Print, Wellington, 1963, pp. 28–38. Statistics of New Zealand (1860) gives £138,898, but notes this is exclusive of private exports that cannot be quantified. 69 E. Olssen, A History of Otago, John McIndoe, Dunedin, 1984, p. 56. 70 See J. McAloon, No Idle Rich: the Wealthy in Canterbury and Otago 1840–1914, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2002, chaps 2 and 3. 71 Salmon, A History of Goldmining, pp. 46–52. 72 J. Forrest, ‘Otago During the Goldrushes’, in R. F. Watters, ed., Land and Society in New Zealand, Reed, Wellington, 1965, pp. 82–4. 73 T. J. Hearn, ‘Miners and Irrigators’, New Zealand Geographer, vol. 50, no. 1, 1994, pp. 33–9. 74 Olssen, Otago, p. 69. 75 Olssen, Otago, p. 66. 76 Statistics of New Zealand. 77 See Forrest, ‘Otago During the Goldrushes’, passim. 78 Summaries of many of these careers are in Cyclopedia Publishing Company, The Cyclopedia of New Zealand: vol 4 (Otago and Southland), Cyclopedia Publishing Co, Wellington, 1905. 79 P. R. May, The West Coast Goldrushes, Pegasus, Christchurch, 1967, p. 110. 80 May, West Coast Goldrushes, p. 255. 81 May, West Coast Goldrushes, chaps 17 and 18. 82 Salmon, Goldmining, chap. 9. 83 D. Grant, Bulls, Bears and Elephants: A history of the New Zealand Stock Exchange, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1997, pp. 28–36. 84 R. C. J. Stone, Makers of Fortune: A Colonial Business Community and its Fall, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1973, pp. 12–14. 85 See Stone, Makers of Fortune, p. 9. 86 R. Dalziel, Julius Vogel: Business Politician, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1986, p. 104; see also M. Bassett, The State in New Zealand 1840–1984: socialism without doctrines?, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1998. 87 R. Arnold, New Zealand’s Burning: the settlers’ world in the 1880s, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1994, p. 25. 88 Dalziel, Vogel, chap. 7. 89 The figures are given by Dalziel, Vogel, p. 204. 90 Arnold, New Zealand’s Burning, pp. 25–6. 91 Arnold, New Zealand’s Burning, p. 32. 92 New Zealand Statistics, 1879; R. Arnold, The Farthest Promised Land: English villagers, New Zealand immigrants of the 1870s, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1981.

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93 New Zealand Official Handbook, 1892, p. 226. 94 New Zealand Statistics, 1880. 95 S. J. Butlin, Australia and New Zealand Bank, Longmans, London, 1961, pp. 154–61; K. Sinclair and W. F. Mandle, Open account: a history of the Bank of New South Wales in New Zealand, 1861–1961, Whitcombe and Tombs, Wellington, pp. 4–16; N. M. Chappell, New Zealand banker’s hundred: a history of the Bank of New Zealand, 1861–1961, Bank of New Zealand, Wellington, 1961; G. Hawke, The Thoroughbred among Banks in New Zealand: 1872–1947, the early years, Sir Frank Holmes, ed., National Bank of New Zealand, Wellington, 1997. 96 Sinclair and Mandle, Open Account, p. 8. 97 Butlin, Australia and New Zealand Bank, p. 191. 98 Sinclair and Mandle, Open Account, pp. 119, 128–9; Stone, Makers of Fortune, p. 22. 99 Hawke, Thoroughbred among Banks, pp. 11–16; McAloon, No Idle Rich, pp. 68–73. 100 S. Ville, The Rural Entrepreneurs: a history of the stock and station agent industry in Australia and New Zealand, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2000, p. 14. 101 Ville, Rural Entrepreneurs, p. 14. 102 Ville, Rural Entrepreneurs, p. 14. 103 Ville, Rural Entrepreneurs, pp. 18–20; see also Hawke, Thoroughbred among Banks, pp. 56–61. 104 H. J. Hanham, ‘New Zealand promoters, British investors, 1860–1895’, in R. Chapman and K. Sinclair, eds, Studies of a Small Democracy: Essays in Honour of Willis Airey, Blackwood and Janet Paul, Auckland, 1963; Sinclair and Mandle, Open Account, pp. 29–35, 45; Butlin, Australia and New Zealand Bank, pp. 163–4, 214–16, 218. 105 Sinclair and Mandle, Open Account, pp. 61–2. 106 Stone, Makers of Fortune, chap. 8; McAloon, No Idle Rich, p. 176. 107 Stone, Makers of Fortune, pp. 147–50, 169; Sinclair and Mandle, Open Account, p. 120. 108 Sinclair and Mandle, Open Account, pp. 85–92. 109 See R. Swedberg, ed., Entrepreneurship: the Social Science View, Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York, 2000; M. Casson, ed., Entrepreneurship, Edward Elgar, Aldershot, 1990; G. Boyce and S. Ville, The development of modern business, Palgrave, New York, 2002; G. Fleming, et al., The big end of town: big business and corporate leadership in twentieth-century Australia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2004. 110 I. Hunter, ‘Risk, Persistence and Focus: A life cycle of the entrepreneur’, Australian Economic History Review, vol. 45, no. 3, 2005, p. 253. See also I. Hunter, Age of Enterprise. Rediscovering the New Zealand Entrepreneur 1880–1910, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2007. 111 I. Hunter, ‘Risk, Persistence and Focus’, pp. 255–8. 112 Casson, Entrepreneurship and Business Culture, Edward Elgar, Aldershot, 1995, p. 90. 113 Stone, Young Logan Campbell, p. 86. 114 Stone, Young Logan Campbell, pp. 109–12, 131–4, 181–93. 115 A. G. Flude, Henderson & Macfarlane’s Circular Saw Line, A. G. Flude, Auckland, 1993. 116 See, for example, Butlin, Australia and New Zealand Bank, p. 230; Sinclair and Mandle, Open Account, pp. 83–99. 117 K. Sinclair, A History of New Zealand, Penguin, Auckland, 1980, pp. 166–9. 118 D. A. Hamer, The New Zealand Liberals: The years of power, 1891–1912, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1986, p. 23. 119 J. M. Ritchie to W. S. Davidson, 4 June 1891, Private Letterbook no. 6; Ritchie to Grenfell, 15 November 1890, Private Letterbook no. 5, NMA Papers, UN28, Hocken Library; AJHR, 1888, H13. 120 Ritchie to W. S. Davidson, 21 November 1894, Private Letterbook no. 7, NMA Papers, UN28, Hocken Library. 121 McAloon, No Idle Rich, passim.

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122 W. J. Gardner, A Pastoral Kingdom Divided: Cheviot, 1889–94, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1992. 123 T. Brooking, Lands for the People: the Highland clearances and the colonisation of New Zealand—a biography of John McKenzie, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 1996. 124 Hamer, New Zealand Liberals, pp. 98–100, 128–31. 125 McAloon, No Idle Rich, chap. 6. 126 Brooking, Lands for the People, pp. 254–5. 127 Brooking, Lands for the People, pp. 134, 245. 128 Brooking, Lands for the People, p. 141. 129 New Zealand Official Yearbook, 1913, pp. 332–3. 130 Ville, Rural Entrepreneurs, p. 40; McAloon, No Idle Rich, chap. 3. 131 G. McLean, The Southern Octopus: The rise of a shipping empire, New Zealand Ship and Marine Society, Wellington, 1990; McAloon, No Idle Rich, chap. 3. 132 AJHR, 1893 H-2, pp. 31–3; AJHR, 1902 I-10, pp. 1–4. 133 AJHR 1888, C-1, p. 5; Report by John Sawyers, Government Dairy Instructor, 1890, AJHR, H-23, p. 1; AJHR, 1890, B-6, p. 50; AJHR, 1892, C-1, p. 22. 134 AJHR, 1890, C-1, p. 3. 135 R. Arnold, Settler Kaponga 1881–1914: a frontier fragment of the Western World, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1997, p. 135. 136 Arnold, Settler Kaponga, p. 142. 137 Arnold, Settler Kaponga, p. 238. 138 Cyclopedia, Canterbury, p. 358; Press, 22 March 1912, p. 8; Cyclopedia, Otago, pp. 104, 349, 596. 139 M. M. Roche, ‘Internationalisation as Company and Industry Colonialisation: The Frozen Meat Industry in New Zealand in the 1900s’, New Zealand Geographer, vol. 49, no. 1, 1993, p. 5. 140 ‘Ovis’, ‘The Frozen Meat Trade’, New Zealand Country Journal, vol. 14, 1890, p. 95. 141 W. Weddell and Co, ‘Review of the Frozen Meat Trade 1892’, in Levin papers 2/6/7; Edmund Doxat to Edward Pearce, 9 July 1894, in Levin papers 2/3/5, Alexander Turnbull Library. 142 D. M. Higgins, ‘“Mutton Dressed as Lamb?” The Misrepresentation of Australian and New Zealand meat in the British market, c. 1890–1914’, Australian Economic History Review, vol. 44, no. 2, 2004, p. 162. 143 Higgins, ‘“Mutton Dressed as Lamb?”’, pp. 173–8. 144 Bassett, State in New Zealand, p. 78; Hamer, The New Zealand Liberals, p. 122; New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, vol. 60, 1888, pp. 315, 510; New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, vol. 90, 1895, pp. 332, 344. 145 New Zealand Official Yearbook, 1902, pp. 116–19. 146 C. B. Schedvin, ‘Staples and Regions of Pax Britannica’, Economic History Review, vol. 43, 1990, pp. 533–9 (p. 533). See also J. G. Williamson, ‘World Factor Migrations and Demographic Transitions’, Australian Economic History Review, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 118–41. 147 J. P. Fogarty, ‘The comparative method and the nineteenth century regions of recent settlement’, Historical Studies, vol. 19, no. 76, p. 419. 148 Long-run figures for Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the USA are in A. Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, 2003, pp. 71–89. 149 See J. W. Davidson, ‘New Zealand, 1820–1870: An essay in re-interpretation’, Historical Studies Australia and New Zealand, vol. 5, no. 20, p. 153. 150 B. Fitzpatrick, The British Empire in Australia 1834–1939, 2nd edn, Macmillan, Melbourne, 1969, p. xxviii.

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chapter 10: Colonisation, Empire and Gender 1 See W. D. McIntyre, : Statesmen and Status, 1907–1945, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, Wellington, 2007. 2 L. Trainor and R. Walkinton, ‘The rocky road to republicanism: anti-monarchism in New Zealand: a comment’, History Now, vol. 2, no. 1, 1996, pp. 38–40 (p. 38). 3 P. Gibbons, ‘Cultural Colonization and National Identity’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 36, no. 1, 2002, pp. 5–17. See also C. Hilliard, ‘Colonial Culture and the Promise of Cultural History’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 36, no. 1, 2002, pp. 82–97. 4 E. Pawson, ‘Postcolonial New Zealand?’, in K. Anderson and F. Gayle, eds, Cultural Geographies, Addison, Wesley, Longman, Australia, 1990, pp. 25–50 (p. 26). 5 D. Novitz and B. Willmott, eds, Culture and Identity in New Zealand, GP Books, Wellington, 1989; R. Du Plessis, ed., Feminist Voices: Women’s Studies Text for Aotearoa/New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1992; R. Du Plessis and L. Alice, eds, Feminist Thought in Aotearoa New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1998; B. James and K. Saville-Smith, Gender, Culture and Power, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1989; R. Law, H. Campbell and J. Dolan, eds, Masculinities in Aotearoa/New Zealand, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1999. 6 R. Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West, Routledge, London and New York, 1990, p. 20. 7 C. Harris, The Resettlement of British Columbia: Essays on Colonialism and Geographical Change, UBC Press, Vancouver, 1997. 8 G. Byrnes, ‘Conclusion-Fracturing the National Story?’, in G. Byrnes, The Waitangi Tribunal and New Zealand History, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Oxford, New York, 2004, p. 190. 9 E. Said, Culture and Imperialism, Vintage, London, 1993; B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, 2nd edn, Verso, London and New York, 1991; E. Hobsbawn and T. Ranger, eds, The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983; R. Samuel, Theatres of Memory Vol. 1: The Past and Present in Contemporary Culture, Verso, London and New York, 1994; R. Samuel and P. Thompson, eds, The Myths We Live By, Routledge, London and New York, 1990. 10 H. Bhabha, ‘Conference Presentation’, in P. Mariani, ed., Critical Fictions: The Politics of Imaginative Writing, Bay Press, Seattle, 1991, pp. 62–5 (p. 63). 11 S. Slemon, ‘Unsettling the Empire: Resistance Theory for the Second World’, in P. Mongia, ed., Postcolonial Theory: A Reader, Arnold, London and New York, 1996, pp. 72–83. 12 A. McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest, Routledge, London and New York, 1995, p. 353. 13 J. Belich, Making Peoples: a History of the New Zealanders from Polynesian Settlement to the End of the Nineteenth Century, Penguin, Auckland, 1986, p. 276. See also M. Woods, ‘A Place in the Legend: Gender and National Identity in Australia and New Zealand, 1890–1918’, BA Hons Essay, University of Canterbury, 1995. 14 R. Ward, The Australian Legend, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1958. 15 See C. Daley and D. Montgomerie, eds, The Gendered , Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999. 16 K. Sinclair, A Destiny Apart: New Zealand’s Search for National Identity, Allen and Unwin, Wellington, 1986. 17 See A. Thomson, ANZAC Memories: Living with the Legend, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1994. 18 R. Dalziel, ‘The Colonial helpmeet: women’s role and the vote in nineteenth-century New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 11, no. 2, 1977, pp. 112–23 (p. 112). 19 See D. D. Alessio, ‘“Domesticating the heart of the wild”: female personifications of the Colonies, 1886–1940’, Women’s History Review, vol. 6, no. 2, 1997, pp. 239–69; M. Warner, Monuments and Maidens: The Allegory of the Female Form, Vintage, London, 1985. 20 Belich, Making Peoples, p. 242.

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21 M. Dixson, The Real Matilda: Woman and Identity in Australia 1788 to 1975, Penguin Books, Ringwood, 1976, pp. 11–12. 22 See M. Lake, ‘The Politics of Respectability: Identifying the Masculinist Context’, Historical Studies, vol. 22, 1986, pp. 116–31; M. Lake, ‘Mission Impossible: How Men Gave Birth to the Australian Nation—Nationalism, Gender and Other Seminal Acts’, Gender and History, vol. 4, no. 3, 1992. 23 M. Dixson, The Imaginary Australian: Anglo-Celts and Identity—1788 to the Present, University of New South Wales Press, Sydney, 1999, p. 59. 24 P. Grimshaw, M. Lake, A. McGrath and M. Quartly, eds, Creating a Nation 1788–1990, Penguin Books, Ringwood, 1994, 1996. 25 See F. Paisley, Loving Protection? Australian and Aboriginal Women’s Rights 1919–1939, Carlton South, Melbourne University Press, 2000. 26 See B. Brookes, C. Macdonald and M. Tennant, eds, Women in History: Essays on European Women in New Zealand, Allen and Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, Wellington, 1986; B. Brookes, C. Macdonald and M. Tennant, eds, Women in History 2: Essays on Women in New Zealand, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1992. 27 C. Macdonald, M. Penfold and B. Williams, eds, The Book of New Zealand Women/Ko Kui Ma Te Kaupapa, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1991; S. Coney, ed., Standing in the Sunshine: A History of New Zealand Women Since They Won the Vote, Viking, Auckland, 1993. 28 See in particular B. Brookes, ‘Gender, Work and Fears of a “Hybrid Race” in 1920s New Zealand’, Gender and History, vol. 19, no. 3, 2007, pp. 501–18; B. Brookes, ‘Nostalgia for “innocent homely pleasures”: The 1964 New Zealand Controversy over Washday at the Pa’, Gender and History, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 242–61. 29 See P. Buckner and R. D. Francis, eds, ‘Introduction’, Canada and the British World, UBC Press, Vancouver and Toronto, 2006, pp. 1–9 (p. 8). 30 See P. Buckner, ed., Canada and the End of Empire, UBC Press, Vancouver and Toronto, 2005; C. Bridge and K. Fedorowich, eds, The British World: Diaspora, Culture and Identity, Frank Cass, London, 2003; Buckner and Francis, eds, Canada and the British World; P. Buckner and R. D. Francis, eds, Rediscovering the British World, University of Calgary Press, Calgary, 2005; K. Darian-Smith, P. Grimshaw, K. Lindsay and S. Macintyre, eds, Exploring the British World, RMIT Publishing, Melbourne, 2004. 31 See K. Pickles, Transnational Outrage: The Death and Commemoration of Edith Cavell, Palgrave, Basingstoke and New York, 2007. 32 A. Woollacott, Gender and Empire, Palgrave, Basingtoke and New York, 2006, p. 1. 33 C. Macdonald, ‘Too Many Men and Too Few Women: Gender’s “Fatal Impact” in Nineteenth Century Colonies’, in Daley and Montgomerie, eds, The Gendered Kiwi, pp. 17–35 (p. 32). 34 C. Swaisland, Single Gentlewomen on the Golden Land: The Emigration of Single Women from Britain to Southern Africa, 1820–1939, Pietermaritzburg, 1993, p. 5. 35 A. J. Hammerton, Emigrant Gentlewomen: Genteel Poverty and Female Emigration 1830–1914, London, 1979; J. Gothard, ‘A Compromise with Conscience: The Reception of Female Immigrant Domestic Servants in Eastern Australia 1860–1890’, Labour History, vol. 62, 1992, pp. 38–51; U. Monk, New Horizons: a Hundred Years of Women’s Migration, London, 1963. 36 C. Macdonald, A Woman of Good Character: Single Women as Immigrant Settlers in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand, Wellington, 1990. 37 D. Kennedy, ‘Empire Migration in Post-War reconstruction: The Role of the Overseas Settlement Committee, 1912–1922’, Albion, vol. 20, no. 3, 1988, pp. 403–19 (p. 407). 38 B. L. Blakeley, ‘The Society for Overseas Settlement of British Women and the Problems of Empire Settlement, 1917–1936’, Albion, vol. 20, no. 3, 1988, pp. 421–44. 39 S. Constantine, ed., Emigrants and Empire: British Settlement in the Dominions Between the Wars, Manchester University Press, Manchester and New York, 1990, p. 8. 40 B. Semmel, Imperialism and Social reform: English Social-Imperialist Thought 1895–1914, Cambridge, MA, 1960.

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41 G. F. Plant, Oversea Settlement: Migration From the to the Dominions, London, 1951, p. 5. 42 New Zealand: The Better Britain, 1926, pp. 4–5. 43 Report from Wellington, November 1927, YWCA aid to Immigrant Girls, L 1 129a, National Archives (NA). 44 Swaisland, Single Gentlewomen, p. 96. 45 Coney, ed., Standing in the Sunshine, p. 198. 46 M. Nolan, Breadwinning: New Zealand Women and the State, Canterbury University Press, Christchurch, 2000, pp. 129–32. 47 J. Bush, Edwardian Ladies and Imperial Power, Cassel, London, 2000, p. 2. 48 V. Ware, Beyond the Pale: White Women, Racism and History, Verso, London and New York, 1992, p. 162. 49 A. Davin, ‘Imperialism and Motherhood’, History Workshop, vol. 5, 1978, pp. 9–64; J. Haggis, Women and Colonialism: Untold Stories and Conceptual Absences—A Critical Survey, Department of Sociology, University of Manchester, Manchester, 1988. 50 M. Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1991; J. Troloppe, Britannia’s Daughters: Women of the British Empire, London, Melbourne, Auckland and Johannesburg, 1983; H. Calloway, Gender, Culture and Empire: European Women in Colonial Nigeria, Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1987; C. Knapman, White Women in Fiji 1835–1930: The Ruin of Empire?, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1986. 51 C. Hall, White Male and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History, Routledge, London and New York, 1992; C. Hall, Civilising Subjects: Colony and Metropole in the English Imagination, 1830–1867, Chicago University Press, Chicago and London, 2002. 52 See M. Lake, Faith: Faith Bandler, Gentle Activist, St Leonards, 2002; Paisley, Loving Protection?. 53 P. Buckner and C. Bridge, ‘Reinventing the British World’, The Round Table, vol. 368, 2003, pp. 77–88 (p. 78). 54 C. Midgley, ed., Gender and Imperialism, Manchester University Press, Manchester and New York, 1998; R. Roach Pierson and N. Chaudhuri, eds, with Beth McAuley, Nation, Empire, Colony: Historicizing Gender and Race, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1998; A. Burton, ed., Gender, Sexuality and Colonial Modernities, Routledge, London and New York, 1999; P. Levine, ed., Gender and Empire, Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York, 2004. 55 See D. Stasiulis and N. Yuval-Davis, eds, Unsettling Settler Societies: Articulations of Gender, Race, Ethnicity and Class, Sage, London, 1995. 56 A. Burton, At the Heart of Empire: Indians and the Colonial Encounter in Late-Victorian Britain, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1998; A. Woollacott, To Try Her Fortune in London: Australian Women, Colonialism and Modernity, Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York, 2001. See also Special Issue of the Women’s History Review, vol. 11, no. 3, 2002; R. Pesman, Duty Free: Australian Women Abroad, Oxford University Press, Melbourne and New York, 1996. 57 S. Mills, Discourses of Difference: An Analysis of Women’s Travel Writing and Colonialism, London and New York, 1993; A. Blunt and G. Rose, eds, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies, Guilford Press, New York and London, 1994. 58 A. L. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault’s History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things, Durham USA, 1995; A. McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest, Routledge, London and New York, 1995. 59 K. Pickles and M. Rutherdale, eds, Contact Zones: Aboriginal and Settler Women in Canada’s Colonial Past, UBC Press, Vancouver, 2005; M. L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation, Routledge, London and New York, 1992. 60 Woollacott, Gender and Empire, p. 1. 61 See A. L. Stoler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2002; A. Burton, ‘Rules of Thumb: British history and “imperial culture” in nineteenth- and twentieth-century Britain’, Women’s History Review, vol. 3, no. 4, 1994, pp. 483–501; A. Burton, ‘Some Trajectories of “Feminism” and “Imperialism”’, Gender

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and History, vol. 10, no. 3, 1998, pp. 558–68; A. Burton, ‘Thinking beyond the boundaries: empire, feminism and the domains of history’, Social History, vol. 26, no. 1, 2001, pp. 60–71; K. Pickles, Female Imperialism and National Identity: Imperial Order Daughters of the Empire, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 2002. 62 See A. L. Stoler and F. Cooper, ‘Between Metropole and Colony: Rethinking a Research Agenda’, in F. Cooper and A. L. Stoler, eds, Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1997, pp. 1–56; T. Ballantyne and A. Burton, eds, Bodies in Contact, Duke University Press, New Haven, 2005. 63 Pickles and Rutherdale, eds, Contact Zones, p. 3. 64 See J. Belich, Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders from Polynesian Settlement to the End of the Nineteenth Century, Penguin, Auckland, 1996, pp. 152–5; A. J. Ballantyne, ‘The Reform of the Heathen Body: CMS Missionaries, Maori and Sexuality’, in M. Reilly and J. Thomson, eds, When the Waves Rolled in Upon Us: Essays in Nineteenth Century Maori History, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 1999, pp. 31–41; K. Rountree, ‘Re-Making the Maori Female Body: Marianne William’s Mission in the Bay of Islands’, Journal of Pacific History, vol. 35, no. 1, 2000, pp. 49–66; A. Wanhalla, ‘Transgressing Boundaries: A history of the Mixed Descent Families of Maitapapa, Taieri, 1830–1940’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Canterbury, 2004. 65 D. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: postcolonial thought and historical difference, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2000. 66 See A. Else, ed., Women Together: A History of Women’s Organisations in New Zealand, Daphne Brassell/Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1993. 67 J. Bush, ‘Edwardian Ladies and the “Race” Dimensions of British Imperialism’, Women’s Studies International Forum, vol. 21, no. 3, 1998, pp. 277–89 (p. 282). 68 A. Woollacott, ‘Inventing Commonwealth and Pan-Pacific Feminism: Australian Women’s International Activism in the 1920s-30s’, Gender and History, vol. 10, no. 3, 1998, pp. 425–8 (p. 95). 69 E. Van Heyningen and P. Merrett, ‘“The Healing ”. The Guild of Loyal Women of 1900–1912’, Unpublished paper, British World History Conference, Cape Town, January 2002; D. Davidson, Women on the Warpath: Feminists of the First Wave, University of Western Australia Press, Nedlands, 1997; K. Pickles, ‘Colonial Counterparts: The First Academic Women in Anglo- Canada, New Zealand and Australia’, Women’s History Review, vol. 10, no. 2, 2001, pp. 273–97. 70 W. D. McIntyre, The Significance of Commonwealth 1965–90, Macmillan, Basingstoke and London, 1991. 71 J. M. MacKenzie, Propaganda and Empire: The Manipulation of British Public Opinion, 1880–1960, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1984, p. 148. 72 See D. McCurdy, ‘Feminine Identity in New Zealand: The Girl Peace Scout Movement 1908–1925’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 2000. 73 Mb367 series a, 5, Mr G. G. Hogg, Victoria League Annual Meeting 1936. Victoria League Collection, MacMillan Brown Library (MBL), University of Canterbury, Christchurch. 74 B. O. Stokes, A History of the Victoria League for Commonwealth Friendship in New Zealand, New Zealand, 1979, p. 3. 75 Victoria League Card: Aims and Work (1920s), Mb 367 series a, 2, MBL. 76 L. Bryder (and RNZ Plunket Society), A Voice for Mothers: the Plunket Society and Infant Welfare, 1907–2000, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2003, p. ix. 77 P. Mein-Smith, Maternity in Dispute: New Zealand 1920–1939, Wellington, 1986. For Australia see P. Mein-Smith, Mothers and King Baby: Infant Survival and Welfare in an Imperial World: Australia 1880–1950, Macmillan, London, 1997; M. Tennant, ‘Matrons with a Mission: Women’s Organisations in New Zealand, 1893–1915’, Unpublished MA thesis, Massey University, Palmerston North, 1976. 78 P. Mein-Smith, ‘New Zealand milk for “building Britons”’, in M. Sutphen and B. Andrews, eds, Medicine and Colonial Identity, London, 2003, pp. 79–102 (pp. 85, 95). 79 C. M. Coates and C. Morgan, Heroines and History: Representations of Madeleine de Vercheres and Laura Secord, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 2002, p. 4; Pickles, Transnational Outrage, passim.

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80 Stokes, History of the Victoria League, p. 6. 81 C. Maclean and J. Phillips, The Sorrow and the Pride: New Zealand War Memorials, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1990, p. 37. 82 Maclean and Phillips, The Sorrow and the Pride, pp. 31–2. 83 Stokes, History of the Victoria League, p. 8. 84 Stokes, History of the Victoria League, p. 12. 85 Stokes, History of the Victoria League, p. 7. 86 Stokes, History of the Victoria League, p. 8. 87 Stokes, History of the Victoria League, p. 5. 88 Stokes, History of the Victoria League, p. 16. 89 See A. M. C. Madrell, ‘Empire, emigration and school geography: changing discourses of imperial citizenship, 1880–1925’, Journal of Historical Geography, vol. 22, no. 4, 1996, pp. 373–87. 90 Stokes, History of the Victoria League, p. 5. 91 Mb367, series a, 1, Minutes of 6 December 1922, MBL. 92 Mb367, series a, 1, Minutes of 14 August 1924, MBL; Mb367, series a, 2, Minutes of 4 March 1926, MBL. 93 P. Gibbons, ‘Non-fiction’, in T. Sturm, ed., The Oxford History of New Zealand Literature in English, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1991, pp. 27–104 (pp. 52–3). 94 Stokes, History of the Victoria League, p. 13. 95 E. Ebbett, Victoria’s Daughters: New Zealand Women of the Thirties, Reed, Wellington, 1981, p. 7. 96 Mb367, series a, 1, Minutes of 12 April 1923, MBL. 97 Mb367, series a, 5, Minutes of 15 April 1936, MBL. 98 Mb367, series a, 7, Minutes of 23 May 1940, MBL. 99 A. Clarke, Holiday Seasons: Christmas, New Year and Easter in Nineteenth Century New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2007. 100 P. Gibbons, ‘The Far Side of the Search for National Identity: Reconsidering New Zealand History’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 73, no. 1, 2003, pp. 38–49; J. Belich, Paradise Reforged: A History of the New Zealanders from the 1880s to the Year 2000, Penguin, Auckland. 2001. 101 Belich, Making Peoples, p. 122. 102 M. Stocker, ‘Queen Victoria monuments in New Zealand: a centenary survey’, History Now, vol. 7, no. 4, 2001, pp. 5–9. 103 C. McGeorge, ‘Learning about God’s Own Country’, New Zealand Journal of Education Studies, vol. 18, no. 1, 1983, pp. 3–12; E. P. Malone, ‘The New Zealand School Journal and The Imperial Ideology’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 12, no. 1, 1973, pp. 12–27. 104 McGeorge, 1997, personal communication. 105 J. Nauright, ‘Sport, manhood and empire: British responses to the tour of 1905’, International Journal of the History of Sport, vol. 8, no. 2, 1991, pp. 239–55; L. Richardson, ‘Rugby, Race and Empire: the 1905 All Black Tour’, Historical News, vol. 47, 1983, pp. 1–6. 106 C. Pugsley, Gallipoli: The New Zealand Story, Reed, Auckland, 1998; A. Thomson, ANZAC Memories: Living with the legend, Oxford University Press, Melbourne and Oxford, 1994; Phillips A Man’s Country?; M. Shadbolt, Voices of Gallipoli, Hodder and Stoughton, Auckland, 1988. 107 W. D. McIntyre, ‘Imperialism and Nationalism’, in G. Rice, ed., The Oxford History of New Zealand, 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1992, pp. 337–47. 108 ‘God’s own country’ was coined by Thomas Bracken and during the Liberal era; see M. Fairburn, The Ideal Society and its Enemies: The Foundations of Modern New Zealand Society 1850–1900, University of Auckland Press, Auckland, 1989, p. 24. 109 Fairburn, The Ideal Society, p. 29. 110 J. Mulgan, Man Alone, Longman Paul, Auckland, 1939 (1975). 111 B. Crump, The Life and Times of a Good Keen Man, Hodder Moa Beckett, Auckland, 1992, p. 40.

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112 K. Ireland, Barry Crump: a tribute to Crumpy, 1935–1996, Hodder Moa Beckett, Auckland, 1996, p. 72. 113 Fairburn, The Ideal Society, pp. 195–229; Phillips, A Man’s Country?, p. 266. 114 Phillips, A Man’s Country?, p. 288. 115 C. Bell, Inventing New Zealand, Penguin, Auckland, 1996, p. 164. 116 K. Ireland, Barry Crump: a tribute to Crumpy, p. 92. 117 E. Grayland, Famous New Zealanders, 2nd edn, Whitcombe and Tombs, Christchurch, 1969, pp. 110–14. 118 K. M. Morin, R. Longhurst and L. Johnston, ‘Troubling Spaces of Mountains and Men: New Zealand’s Mount Cook and Hermitage Lodge’, Social and Cultural Geography, vol. 2, no. 2, 2001, pp. 118–39 (p. 134). 119 E. Hillary, View from the Summit, Random House, Auckland, 1999. 120 Grayland, Famous New Zealanders, p. 116. 121 Morin, Longhurst and Johnston, ‘Troubling Spaces’; P. Hansen, ‘Confetti of Empire: the Conquest of Everest in Nepal, India, Britain and New Zealand’, Comparative Study of Society and History, vol. 42, 2000, pp. 307–32; G. T. Stewart, ‘The British Reaction to the Conquest of Everest’, Journal of Sport History, vol. 7, no. 1, 1980, pp. 21–51. 122 R. Phillips, Mapping Men and Empire: A Geography of Adventure, London and New York, Routledge, 1997. 123 E. Hillary, Nothing Venture, Nothing Win: His Autobiography, Hodder and Stoughton, Auckland, 1975, p. 22. 124 Hillary, View from the Summit, p. ix. 125 Crump, The Life and Times, p. 191. 126 K. Ireland, Barry Crump: a tribute to Crumpy, p. 4. 127 T. Bell and I Noble, eds, Hillary of Everest: The Years After, Wilson and Horton Ltd., Auckland, 1973, p. 3. 128 Bell and Noble, Hillary of Everest, p. 9. 129 K. Ireland, Barry Crump: a tribute to Crumpy, p. 27. 130 Bell and Noble, Hillary of Everest, p. 7. 131 Hillary, View from the Summit, p. 285. 132 G. Jenkins and S. D’Antal, Kiri: Her Unsung Story, Harper Collins, London, 1998, p. 243. 133 Holmes Show, Television New Zealand (TVNZ), 20 April 1998. 134 K. Te Kanawa (with C. Wilson), Opera for Lovers, Hodder Moa Beckett, Auckland, 1996, p. 19. 135 K. Boon, Kiri Te Kanawa, Price Milburn, Nelson, 1993, p. 1. 136 J. Sutton Beets, ‘Images of Maori Women in New Zealand Postcards after 1900’, Women’s Studies Journal, vol. 13, no. 2, 1997, pp. 7–24. 137 J. M. Booth and J. K. Hunn, Integration of Maori and Pakeha, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1962. 138 N. H. Harris and K. Te Kanawa, Kiri: Music and a Maori Girl, Reed, Wellington, Auckland and Sydney, 1966, p. 7. 139 Jenkins and D’Antal, Kiri, p. xii. 140 Jenkins and D’Antal, Kiri, p. 369. 141 New Zealand Woman’s Weekly, 15 September 1969, p. 73. 142 D. Fingleton, Kiri: A Biography, Arrow Books, London, 1983, p. 148. 143 Jenkins and D’Antal, Kiri, p. 367. 144 Jenkins and D’Antal, Kiri, blurb. 145 New Zealand Woman’s Weekly, 3 August 1998, p. 10–11. 146 Katie Pickles, ‘Exceptions to the Rule: Explaining the World’s First Women Presidents and Prime Ministers’, History Now, vol. 7, no. 2, 2001, pp. 13–18 (pp. 14–15).

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147 W. D. McIntyre, The Significance of the Commonwealth, 1965–90, Canterbury University Press, Christchurch, 1991; W. D. McIntyre, When, If Ever, Did New Zealand Become Independent?, Canterbury History Foundation, Christchurch, 2002; S. Ward, ed., British Culture and the End of Empire, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 2001. 148 A. Burton, ed., Gender, Sexuality and Colonial Modernities.

chapter 11: New Zealand’s Wars 1 J. Belich, ‘War’, in C. David and P. Lineham, eds, The Future of the Past: Themes in New Zealand History, Department of History, Massey University, Palmerston North, 1991, p. 121. 2 For an explanation of the suspension of the ANZUS alliance, see David Capie’s chapter in this volume. 3 See J. Crawford, In the Field for Peace: New Zealand’s contribution to international peace support operations: 1950–1995, New Zealand Defence Force, Wellington, 1995. 4 G. L. Weinberg, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1994. References to New Zealand appear on twenty of this book’s 920 pages of substantive text. 5 See, for example, J. Phillips, ‘War and National Identity’, in D. Novitz and B. Wilmott, eds, Culture and Identity in New Zealand, GP Books, Wellington, 1989, pp. 91–109. 6 J. Phillips, ‘National identity and war’, in I. McGibbon, ed., The Oxford Companion to New Zealand Military History, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 2000, p. 348; J. Belich, ‘New Zealand Wars’, in McGibbon, Oxford Companion, p. 384. 7 J. Belich, The New Zealand Wars and the Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1986; Landmark Productions, The New Zealand Wars/Nga Pakanga Nunui o Aotearoa, written and presented by J. Belich, directed by T. Stephens, screened on Television One, June–July 1998. See also J. Cowan, The New Zealand Wars, A History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period, 2 vols, Government Printer, Wellington, 1922–23; I. McGibbon, ‘“Something of them is here recorded”: Official war history in New Zealand’, Paper presented to the Official Histories Workshop, held at the Australian War Memorial, Canberra, 1 October 1998, p. 10; J. Phillips, ‘The New Zealand Wars on Television’, People’s History, no. 28, September 1998, p. 8; A. Ward, ‘Review Article: James Belich, The New Zealand Wars and the Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 21, no. 2, 1987, pp. 270–4. 8 C. Hilliard, ‘James Cowan and the Frontiers of New Zealand History’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 31, no. 2, 1997, p. 233. 9 Belich, ‘War’, p. 132. 10 See I. McGibbon, The Path to Gallipoli: Defending New Zealand, 1840–1915, GP Books, Wellington, 1991; G. Barratt, Russophobia in New Zealand 1838–1908, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1981. 11 Cited in J. Crawford and I. McGibbon, eds, ‘Introduction’, One Flag, One Queen, One Tongue: New Zealand, the British Empire and the South African War, 1899–1902, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2003, p. viii. 12 See M. McKinnon, ‘Opposition to the War in New Zealand’, in Crawford and McGibbon, One Flag, One Queen, One Tongue, pp. 28–45; M. Hutching, ‘New Zealand Women’s Opposition to the South African War’, in Crawford and McGibbon, One Flag, One Queen, One Tongue, pp. 46–57. 13 D. O. W. Hall, The New Zealanders in South Africa 1899–1902, War History Branch, Wellington, 1949; J. Crawford (with E. Ellis), To Fight for the Empire, Reed, Auckland, 1999; Crawford and McGibbon, One Flag, One Queen, One Tongue. 14 K. Sinclair, A Destiny Apart: New Zealand’s Search for National Identity, Allen and Unwin in association with Port Nicholson Press, Wellington, 1986, pp. 130–3; J. Phillips, A Man’s Country: The Image of the Pakeha Male—A History, Penguin, Auckland, 1987, pp. 142–5, 151–2.

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15 See J. Crawford, ‘The Best Mounted Troops in South Africa?’, in Crawford and McGibbon, One Flag, One Queen, One Tongue, pp. 73–99. 16 ‘Boer War’, in McGibbon, Oxford Companion, p. 63; Sinclair, Destiny Apart, p. 129. 17 McGibbon, Path to Gallipoli, p. 123; Phillips, ‘National identity and war’, p. 348; Sinclair, Destiny Apart, pp. 125, 141. 18 J. Belich, Paradise Reforged: A History of the New Zealanders From the 1880s to the Year 2000, Allen Lane/Penguin, Auckland, 2001, pp. 76–85; Sinclair, Destiny Apart, pp. 94–108. 19 See A. Gould, ‘“Different Race, Same Queen”: Maori and the War’, in Crawford and McGibbon, eds, One Flag, One Queen, One Tongue, pp. 119–27. 20 E. Ellis, ‘New Zealand Women and the War’, in Crawford and McGibbon, eds, One Flag, One Queen, One Tongue, pp. 128–50. 21 Phillips, ‘War and National Identity’, p. 96; Phillips, A Man’s Country, esp. pp. 152, 210. 22 P. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000, Random House, New York, 1987, pp. 194–256. 23 Belich, Paradise Reforged, p. 81. 24 See McGibbon, Path to Gallipoli, pp. 171–80. 25 See Belich, Paradise Reforged, pp. 79–81; J. Crawford, ‘The Impact of the War on the New Zealand Military Forces and Society’, in Crawford and McGibbon, eds, One Flag, One Queen, One Tongue, pp. 209–12; McGibbon, Path to Gallipoli, pp. 137, 149; J. Phillips, ‘75 Years Since Gallipoli’, in D. Green, ed., Towards 1990: Seven Leading Historians Examine Significant Aspects of New Zealand History, GP Books, Wellington, 1989, pp. 93–4. 26 C. Maclean and J. Phillips, The Sorrow and the Pride: New Zealand War Memorials, Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1990, pp. 27–38, 47–67. 27 See Phillips, A Man’s Country, pp. 152–8. 28 Sinclair, Destiny Apart, p. 91. 29 I. McGibbon, ‘The Shaping of New Zealand’s War Effort, August-October 1914’, in J. Crawford and I. McGibbon, eds, New Zealand’s Great War: New Zealand, the Allies and the First World War, Exisle Publishing, Auckland, 2007, pp. 49–68; McGibbon, Path to Gallipoli, pp. 257–9. 30 Belich, Paradise Reforged, pp. 108–12; see also McGibbon, ‘The Shaping of New Zealand’s War Effort’, passim. 31 See O. E. Burton, The Silent Division: New Zealanders at the Front: 1914–1919, Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1943; J. Phillips, N. Boyack and E. P. Malone, eds, The Great Adventure: New Zealand Soldiers Describe the First World War, Allen and Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, Wellington, 1988; C. Pugsley, Gallipoli: The New Zealand Story, Reed, Auckland, 1998 [First published by Hodder & Stoughton, 1984]; N. Boyack, Behind the Lines: The Lives of New Zealand Soldiers in the First World War, Allen & Unwin, Wellington, 1989; C. Pugsley, On the Fringe of Hell: New Zealanders and Military Discipline in the First World War, Hodder & Stoughton, Auckland, 1991; G. Harper, Massacre at Passchendaele: The New Zealand Story, HarperCollins, Auckland, 2000. 32 J. Phillips, ‘National identity and war’, p. 349. 33 Phillips, ‘75 Years Since Gallipoli’, pp. 96–101. 34 See J. Cowan, The Maoris in the Great War: A History of the New Zealand Native Contingent and Pioneer Battalion, Whitcombe and Tombes, Auckland, 1926; C. Pugsley, Te Hokowhitu a Tu: the Maori Pioneer Battalion in the First World War, Reed, Auckland, 1995; M. Soutar, ‘Te Hokowhitu-a-Tu: A Coming of Age’, in Crawford and McGibbon, eds, New Zealand’s Great War, pp. 96–105. 35 Cited in Phillips, ‘75 Years Since Gallipoli’, p. 102. 36 Belich, Paradise Reforged, p. 212. 37 See D. Malouf, ‘The One Day’, in P. O’Brien and B. Vaughan, eds, Amongst Friends: Australian and New Zealand Voices from America, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2005, pp. 33–41. 38 See S. Worthy, ‘A Debt of Honour: New Zealanders’ First Anzac Days’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 36, no. 2, 2002, pp. 185–200. 39 McGibbon, ‘The Shaping of New Zealand’s War Effort’, p. 49.

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40 P. Baker, King and Country Call: New Zealanders, Conscription and the Great War, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1988. 41 See, for example, Belich, Paradise Reforged, pp. 100–8; G. Parsons, ‘Debating the War: The Discourses of War in the Christchurch Community’, in Crawford and McGibbon, eds, New Zealand’s Great War, pp. 550–68; Phillips, ‘75 Years Since Gallipoli’, p. 101. 42 See J. Bassett, ‘Colonial Justice: The Treatment of Dalmatians in New Zealand During the First World War’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 33, no. 2, 1999, pp. 155–79. 43 See, for example, M. Hutching, ‘The Moloch of War: New Zealand Women who Opposed the War’, in Crawford and McGibbon, eds, New Zealand’s Great War, pp. 85–95. 44 Worthy, ‘A Debt of Honour’, p. 195. 45 See R. Kay, ‘Caging the Prussian Dragon: New Zealand and the Paris Peace Conference 1919’, in Crawford and McGibbon, eds, New Zealand’s Great War, pp. 123–41. 46 See Sinclair, Destiny Apart, chap. 6. 47 B. Anderson, Imagined Communities, Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, Verso, London, 1991, rev. edn, p. 6. 48 Bassett, ‘Colonial Justice’, p. 155. 49 Phillips, ‘75 Years Since Gallipoli’, p. 105; Maclean and Phillips, Sorrow and the Pride, pp. 73–5, 103–8. 50 W. D. McIntyre, New Zealand Prepares for War: Defence Policy, 1919–39, University of Canterbury Press with assistance from Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs and the Ministry of Defence, Christchurch, 1988, pp. 16–17; M. McKinnon, Independence and Foreign Policy: New Zealand in the World Since 1935, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1993, chap. 2. 51 B. S. Bennett, New Zealand’s Moral Foreign Policy 1935–1939: The Promotion of Collective Security through the League of Nations, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, Wellington, 1988; McKinnon, Independence and Foreign Policy, pp. 14–16. 52 McIntyre, New Zealand Prepares for War, pp. 110–13; McKinnon, Independence and Foreign Policy, pp. 23–4, 28–32. 53 McIntyre, New Zealand Prepares for War, p. 255. 54 I. McGibbon, ‘New Zealand’s strategical approach’, in J. Crawford, ed., Kia Kaha: Zealand in the Second World War, pp. 9–19; McIntyre, New Zealand Prepares for War, p. 254. 55 McIntyre, New Zealand Prepares for War, p. 238. 56 J. Belich, Paradise Reforged, chap. 9, esp. pp. 271–2, 285–7; McGibbon, ‘New Zealand’s strategical approach’; McIntyre, New Zealand Prepares for War, pp. 254–5; R. Rabel, ‘“Where She [Britain] Goes, We Go”: But With Eyes Wide Open’, New Zealand Defence Quarterly, vol. 27, 1999, pp. 26–31; I. Wards, ‘: Warrior Prime Minister’, in M. Clark, ed., Peter Fraser: Master Politician, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1998, pp. 149–58; G. Harper, ‘Threat Perception and Politics: The Deployment of Australian and New Zealand Ground Forces in the Second World War’, Journal of the Australian War Memorial, no. 20, April 1992, pp. 36–43. 57 See Belich, Paradise Reforged, pp. 274–8; M. Hutching, ed., with I. McGibbon, J. Phillips and D. Filer, ‘A Unique Sort of Battle’: New Zealanders Remember Crete, HarperCollins NZ in association with the History Group, Ministry for Culture & Heritage, Auckland, 2001; I. McGibbon, New Zealand and the Second World War: The people, the battles and the legacy, Hodder Moa Beckett, Wellington, 2003, pp. 68–74. 58 N. C. Phillips, Italy, Vol. I: The Sangro to Cassino, War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1957; R. Kay, Italy, Vol. II: From Cassino to Trieste, War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1967; J. Crawford, North from Taranto: New Zealand and the Liberation of Italy, New Zealand Defence Force, Wellington, 1994; McGibbon, New Zealand and the Second World War, pp. 163–77; M. Wright, Italian Odyssey: New Zealanders in the Battle for Italy, Reed, Auckland, 2003; R. Rabel, ‘Up the Strada; Remembering the Italian Campaign’, in Megan Hutching, ed., with Roberto Rabel, ‘A Fair Sort of Battering’: New Zealanders Remember the Italian Campaign, 1943–5, HarperCollins NZ in association with the History Group, Ministry for Culture & Heritage, Auckland, 2004, pp. 20–44.

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59 N. M. Taylor, The New Zealand People at War: The Home Front, Vols. I and II, Historical Publications Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1986. 60 J. E. Martin, ‘War Economy’, in McGibbon, ed., Oxford Companion, pp. 583–7. 61 D. Montgomerie, ‘The Limitations of Wartime Change: Women War Workers in New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 23, no. 1, 1989, pp. 68–86; D. Montgomerie, The Women’s War: New Zealand Women 1939–45, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2001. 62 C. Hilliard, ‘A Prehistory of Public History: Monuments, Explanations and Promotions, 1900–1970’, in B. Dalley and J. Phillips, eds, Going Public: The Changing Face of New Zealand History, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2001, pp. 33–8. 63 See L. Hobbs, G. F. Kaye and N. Colvin, Kiwi down the Strada, Whitcombe & Tombs, Christchurch, 1963; Hutching, ‘A Fair Sort of Battering’; G. Slatter, One More River: The Final Campaign of the Second New Zealand Division in Italy, David Ling Publishing, Auckland, 1995, esp. pp. 170–5; J. McLeod, Myth and Reality: The New Zealand Soldier in World War II, Reed Methuen, Auckland, 1986, pp. 8–10, 191. 64 Cited in McIntyre, New Zealand Prepares for War, p. 239. 65 See Phillips, A Man’s Country, pp. 198–212; Montgomerie, The Women’s War, passim. 66 See M. Ashby, ‘Fraser’s Foreign Policy’, in Clark, ed., Peter Fraser, pp. 185–9. 67 R. Rabel, ‘New Zealand and the United States in the Early Cold War Era, 1945–49’, Australasian Journal of American Studies, vol. 7, Dec 1988, pp. 1–10; T. R. Reese, Australia, New Zealand and the United States: A Survey of International Relations, 1941–1968, Royal Institute of International Affairs/Oxford University Press, London and New York, 1969. 68 See I. McGibbon, ‘The Defence of New Zealand 1945–1957’, in New Zealand in World Affairs, Vol. I: 1945–1957, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, Wellington, 1977, pp. 143–76; W. D. McIntyre, Background to the ANZUS Pact: Policy-making, Strategy and Diplomacy, 1945–55, Macmillan/University of Canterbury Press, New York and Christchurch, 1995; M. McKinnon, ‘From ANZUS to SEATO’, in New Zealand in World Affairs, Vol. I, pp. 115–42; McKinnon, Independence and Foreign Policy, pp. 57–62, 69–81. 69 McGibbon, ‘Official war history’, p. 1. 70 McGibbon, ‘Official war history’, pp. 1, 12–21; R. Walker, ‘The New Zealand Second World War History Project’, Military Affairs, no. 22, February 1969, pp. 173–81. 71 See McGibbon, ‘Official war history’, p. 12. 72 I. McGibbon, New Zealand and the Korean War, Vol. I: Politics and Diplomacy, Vol. II: Combat Operations, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1992. 73 Minister of External Affairs Frederick Doidge described an American security guarantee as ‘the richest prize of New Zealand diplomacy’, letter 9 May 1950 to Sir Carl Berendsen, New Zealand’s Ambassador to the United States, in R. Kay, ed., Documents on New Zealand External Relations, Vol. III: The ANZUS Pact and the Treaty of Peace with Japan, Government Printing Office, Wellington, 1985, pp. 545–6. 74 C. Pugsley, From Emergency to Confrontation: The New Zealand Armed Forces in Malaya and Borneo 1949–1966, Oxford University Press in association with the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage, Melbourne, 2003. 75 R. Rabel, New Zealand and the Vietnam War: Politics and Diplomacy, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2005. 76 R. Rabel, ‘The Vietnam War’, in McGibbon, ed., Oxford Companion, pp. 561–6. 77 R. Rabel, ‘The Vietnam Anti-War Movement in New Zealand’, Peace and Change, no. 17, January 1992, pp. 3–33; Rabel, New Zealand and the Vietnam War, passim. 78 Belich, Paradise Reforged, p. 437. 79 The phrase ‘moral debt’ is from Belich, Paradise Reforged, p. 212. See also R. Rabel, ‘The Distance of Tyranny: New Zealand Security Policy in Historical Perspective’, in New Zealand’s Defence and Strategic Policies in a Changing World: Conference Papers of the New Zealand Military Studies Centre 1992 Conference, New Zealand Military Studies Centre, Waiouru, 1992.

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80 See further M. Van Creveld, The Transformation of War, The Free Press, New York, 1991; D. Dickens, ‘The Revolution in Military Affairs: A New Zealand View—Part 1’, Working Paper 14/99, Centre for Strategic Studies: New Zealand. 81 J. Gates, ‘The Future of War’, New Zealand International Review, no. 20, May/June 1995, p. 4; M. van Creveld, ‘The Enemy Within’, New Zealand Defence Quarterly, no. 19, Summer 1997, pp. 23–5. 82 M. Ignatieff, ‘The Gods of War’, New York Review of Books, 9 October 1997, p. 13. 83 See J. Phillips, ‘New Zealand and the ANZUS Alliance: Changing National Self-Perceptions, 1945–88’, in R. Baker, ed., Australia, New Zealand and the United States: Internal Change and Alliance Relations in the ANZUS States, Praeger, New York, 1991, pp. 183–201; E. Jamieson, Friend or Ally: New Zealand at Odds with its Past, Brassey’s Australia, Sydney, 1990. 84 See Belich, Paradise Reforged, p. 437; R. Rabel, ‘Once Were Allies: New Zealand, the United States and the Vietnam War’, Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations Conference, Washington, DC, 1997, p. 11. 85 Cited in Rabel, New Zealand and the Vietnam War, p. 161. 86 This tendency is especially noteworthy in the treatment of New Zealand approaches to the world wars in Belich, Paradise Reforged. 87 Pugsley, Gallipoli, p. 357. 88 Cited in Ignatieff, ‘The Gods of War’, p. 13. 89 See R. Rabel, ‘War History as Public History’, in Dalley and Phillips, eds, Going Public, pp. 68–71. 90 For recent reflections on these changes by leading New Zealand historian Jock Phillips, see M. Barry, ‘At Peace with the Past’, New Zealand Listener, 28 April–4 May 2007, pp. 14–19.

chapter 12: Ways of Belonging: Sporting Spaces in New Zealand History 1 J. E. Martin, The Forgotten Worker, Allen and Unwin/Trade Union History Project, Wellington, 1990, pp. 47–8. Thanks to Megan Simpson for assistance with this chapter. 2 R. Cashman, Paradise of Sport. The Rise of Organised , Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1995, pp. 42–3. 3 See R. Holt, Sport and the British—A Modern History, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1989; P. Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian England: Rational Recreation and the Contest for Control, 1830–1885, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1978. 4 See P. McDevitt, May the Best Man Win. Sport, Masculinity and Nationalism in Great Britain and the Empire, 1800–1935, Palgrave MacMillan, New York, 2003; J. A. Mangan, ed., The Cultural Bond. Sport, Empire, Society, Cass, London, 1992. 5 C. L. R. James, Beyond a Boundary, Hutchison, London, 1963. 6 J. Belich, Paradise Reforged—A history of the New Zealanders from 1880s to the year 2000, Allen Lane/Penguin, Auckland, 2000 is the only general history to devote more than passing mention to sport. 7 A search of national bibliographical database produces a list of seventy-two local and club history for ; the majority of these were for anniversary year celebrations. 8 G. Ryan, ed., Tackling Rugby Myths. Rugby and New Zealand Society 1854–2004, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2005; G. Ryan, ‘Sport in Nineteenth-Century Aotearoa/New Zealand: Opportunities and Constraints’, in C. Collins and S. Jackson, eds, Sport in Aotearoa/New Zealand Society, 2nd edn, Thomson New House, Auckland, 2007. 9 Sports Archives in the Hocken, Friends of the Hocken Collections, Bulletin Number 24, August 1998. 10 P. Gibbons, ‘Cultural Colonization and National Identity’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 36, no. 1, 2002, p. 15.

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11 B. R. Patterson, Early Colonial Society Through a Prism: Reflections on Wellington’s First Anniversary Day, Wellington Historical and Early Settlers’ Association, Wellington, 1994. 12 C. Mincham, ‘Horseracing in the New Zealand Colonial Community, 1841–1911’, Unpublished MA thesis, Massey University, 2001. 13 Clarke, ‘Feasts and Fasts’, p. 29; A. Clarke, Holiday Seasons: Christmas, New Year and Easter in Nineteenth-century New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2007. 14 The Ballinger Belt, New Zealand Rifle Champion Belt, dating from 1861, is often claimed as New Zealand’s oldest sporting trophy. See ‘Sporting Trophies’ and ‘Rifle Shooting’, in McLintock, Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. 15 C. Macdonald, A Woman of Good Character. Single Women as Immigrant Settlers in Nineteenth- Century New Zealand, Allen and Unwin/Historical Branch, 1990, chap. 3; D. Hastings, Over the Mountains of the Sea, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2006. 16 Mincham, ‘Horseracing in the New Zealand Colonial Community’; J. Binney, ‘“In-Between” Lives: studies from within a colonial society’, in T. Ballantyne and B. Moloughney, eds, Disputed Histories: Imagining New Zealand’s Pasts, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2006, p. 95. 17 G. Ryan, The Making of New Zealand 1832–1914, Frank Cass, London, 2004, p. 28. 18 Most writers describe nga mahi a te rehia (the arts of pleasure), a range of games and skills, practiced within Maori communities. See B. Hokowhitu, ‘Maori Sport: Pre-Colonisation to Today’, in C. Collins and S. Jackson, eds, Sport in Aotearoa/New Zealand Society, 2nd edn, Thomson New House, Auckland, 2007, pp. 78–95; B. Hokowhitu, ‘Te Mana Maori: Te Tatari Nga Korero Parau’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Otago, 2001. 19 The sports paper published from 1890 as the NZ Illustrated Sporting Review & Licensed Victuallers Gazette underlined the connection between the two activities. See also T. Collins and W. Vamplew, Mud, Sweat and Beers: A Cultural History of Sport and Alcohol, Berg, Oxford and New York, 2002. 20 A. Clarke, ‘Feasts and Fasts: Holidays, religion and ethnicity in nineteenth-century Otago’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Otago, 2003, p. 139. 21 G. Griffiths, ‘Jones, Shadrach Edward Robert 1822?-1895’, in The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Volume One, 1769–1869, Allen and Unwin/Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1990, pp. 213–14; Ryan, Making of , pp. 179–84. 22 J. C. M. Cresswell, ‘The origins of horse racing in Auckland’, Auckland-Waikato Historical Journal, no. 57, September 1990, pp. 7–10; M. Mountier, ‘Early Maori involvement in horse racing in the Wellington/Horowhenua region’, Otaki Historical Society: Historical Journal, vol. 12, 1989, pp. 42–51. 23 Mincham, ‘Horseracing in the New Zealand Colonial Community’, pp. 50–2. 24 See, for example, Georgina Bowen, letters, 90–050, MSS, ATL and sketches NON- ATL-P-0053–001–022, ATL, also C. Macdonald, Women Writing Home. Volume 5 New Zealand, Pickering and Chatto, London, 2006; photographs by Dr A C Barker, Canterbury Museum. 25 Workers’ holidays in New Zealand: a brief history, Wellington, 1997; J. E. Martin, Holding the Balance, Canterbury University Press, Christchurch, 1996. 26 William (Bill) Beach, from Australia, was the undefeated world champion sculler, 1884–87. 27 Alfred Warden (Auckland) to Fred Warden (England) 11 October 1886, NZMS 1037, Auckland Public Library. Jem ( James) Mace, 1831–1920, was a famous British boxer, described as ‘the father of modern boxing’. 28 Mason, Sport in Britain, Faber, London, 1988, pp. 47, 50; R. Holt, Sport and Society in Modern France, Archon Books, Hamden, CT, 1980. 29 S. A. G. M. Crawford, ‘A Social History of Nineteenth Century Sport in Otago’, in J. Hinchcliff, ed., The Nature and Meaning of , Centre for Continuing Education, University of Auckland in association with New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport, Auckland, 1978, p. 38b; New Zealand Illustrated Sporting Review & Licensed Victuallers Gazette, 1895–99, continued by New Zealand Illustrated Sporting & Dramatic Review, 1899–. 30 Auckland Amateur Athletic Club, Official Programme Athletic Sports Domain Cricket Ground, Saturday, March 5, 1887, Pamphlet collection, Auckland Institute and Museum Library.

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31 Shops and Shop Assistants Act 1894 provided for a weekly half-holiday (usually taken on Saturday but in rural areas and in Christchurch often midweek). Martin, Holding the Balance, pp. 51–5. 32 I. Jackson, Sand Between My Toes: The Story of Surf Lifesaving in New Zealand, Penguin, Auckland, 2006; C. Daley, Leisure and Pleasure: Reshaping and Revealing the New Zealand Body, 1900–1960, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2003, esp. chap. 4. 33 Ryan, The Making of New Zealand Cricket, pp. 54–6. 34 The Taranaki Cricket Association was formed in March 1894, around nine months before the New Zealand Cricket Council; see R. Arnold (assisted by B. Arnold), Settler Kaponga 1881–1914. A Frontier Fragment of the Western World, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1997, p. 160. 35 Arnold, Settler Kaponga 1881–1914, pp. 160–1. 36 N. Swindells, ‘Social Aspects of Rugby Football in Manawatu from 1878 to 1910’, BA Hons Essay, Massey University, 1978, pp. 13–16. 37 Mt Ida Curling Club, AG-096–1, Hocken. The Royal Caledonian Curling Club was founded in 1838. G. Jarvie and J. Burnett, eds, Sports, Scotland the Scots, Tuckwell, East Linton, 2000, p. 14. 38 See M. Hammer, ‘“Something Else in the World to Live For”: Sport and the Physical Emancipation of Women and Girls in Auckland 1880–1920’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Auckland, 1990. 39 J. Barrington, ‘Thornton, John 1844–1913’, in The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Volume Two, 1870–1900, Bridget Williams Books/Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1993, pp. 538–9; A. W. Beasley, ‘Firth, Joseph, 1859–1931’, in The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Volume Two, 1870–1900, pp. 142–3. 40 Fry, ‘“Don’t Let Down the Side”’, p. 103. 41 Swindells, ‘Social Aspects of Rugby Football in the Manawatu’, pp. 13–16. 42 Edmund Tudor Atkinson to C. W. Richmond, 14 May 1871, MS-Papers-4298–61, ATL (underline in original). 43 J. A. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School: The Emergence and Consolidation of an Educational Ideology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, 1981. 44 See Swindells, ‘Social Aspects of Rugby Football in the Manawatu’, p. 7; A. C. Swan, History of New Zealand Rugby Football, 2 vols, Reed for NZRFU, Wellington, 1948–58; F. Macdonald, The Game of Our Lives. The Story of Rugby and New Zealand and How They’ve Shaped Each Other, Viking, Auckland, 1996. 45 E. Dunning and K. Sheard, Barbarians, Gentlemen and Players: a Sociological Study of the Development of Rugby Football, Robertson, Oxford, 1979. 46 Ryan, The Contest for Rugby Supremacy; Daley, ‘The Invention of 1905’, in Ryan, ed., Tackling Rugby Myths. 47 A. Anderson, ‘Ellison, Thomas Rangiwahia 1866–1868?-1904’, in The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Volume Two, 1870–1900, pp. 131–2. 48 B. Brookes, E. Olssen and E. Beer, ‘Spare Time? Leisure, Gender and Modernity’, in B. Brookes, A. Cooper and R. Law, eds, Sites of Gender, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2003, pp. 151–89. 49 See W. Vamplew, Pay Up and Play the Game. Professional Sport in Britain 1875–1914, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988; M. Clapson, A Bit of a Flutter—Popular Gambling and English Society, c.1823–1961, Manchester University Press, Manchester and New York, 1992. 50 D. Grant, On a Roll—A History of Gambling and Lotteries in New Zealand, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1994. 51 P. Christoffel, ‘Removing Temptation: New Zealand’s Alcohol Restrictions, 1881–2005’, Unpublished PhD thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 2006. 52 Amateur Athletic Carnival Official Programme, Wednesday Evening, December 3rd, 1913, run by Auckland Amateur Athletic and Cycle Club, in J. J. Mulvihill Papers, Ledger 2, NZMS 994, Auckland Public Library.

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53 For example, the New Zealand Amateur Association (1890), New Zealand Amateur Athletic Association (1887) and the New Zealand Amateur Association (1887). 54 Amateur Athletic Carnival Official Programme, Wednesday Evening, December 3rd, 1913, run by Auckland Amateur Athletic and Cycle Club, in J. J. Mulvihill Papers, Ledger 2, NZMS 994, Auckland Public Library. 55 N. A. C. McMillan, ‘Fitzsimmons, Robert 1863–1917’, in The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Volume Two, 1870–1900, pp. 147–8. 56 W. Ingram, ‘Maori Personalities in Sport’, Te Ao Hou, no. 4, Autumn 1953, p. 64. 57 A. Lynch, ‘Otago 17–Southland 11: A Social History of Otago Rugby in the 1940s’, BA Hons Essay, University of Otago, 1984, p. 41 (citing R. Thompson). 58 L. Richardson, ‘The Invention of a National Game: The Struggle for Control’. 59 McLintock, Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. 60 For US parallels, see S. Pope, ed., The New American Sports History, University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1997. 61 P. Baker, King and Country Call: New Zealanders, Conscription and the Great War, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1988. 62 See J. Phillips and C. McLean, The Sorrow and the Pride: New Zealand War Memorials, Historical Branch/GP Books, Wellington, 1990. 63 F. Hall, ‘The “Greater Game”: Sport and Society in Christchurch During the First World War, 1914–1918’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 1989; S. Whitehead, ‘“The Greatest of All Games”: the shape of rugby in World War One New Zealand, 1914–1919’, Melbourne Historical Journal, vol. 33, 2005, pp. 53–65. 64 J. Corbitt, ‘Shimmering images: Gender, modernity and The Mirror 1922–1938’, BA Hons Essay, Victoria University of Wellington, 2000. 65 B. Keys, Globalizing Sport, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA., 2006. 66 New Zealand qualified for the 1982 World Cup. 67 ‘Physical growth and mental attainment: New Zealand schoolchildren’, AJHR, 1927, H-31, pp. 54–7. 68 See M. Tennant, Children’s Health, the Nation’s Wealth: a history of children’s health camps, Bridget Williams Books/Historical Branch, Wellington, 1994; D. A. Dow, Safeguarding the Public Health: A History of the New Zealand Department of Health, Victoria University Press with Ministry of Health in association with Historical Branch, Wellington, 1995. 69 Ruth Fry, ‘“Don’t Let Down the Side”: Physical Education in the Curriculum for New Zealand Schoolgirls 1900–1945’, in B. Brookes, C. Macdonald and M. Tennant, eds, Women in History. Essays on European Women in New Zealand, Allen and Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, Wellington, 1986, pp. 101–17. 70 St Clair (Watea) Croquet Club—relief labour ‘under No 10’ made available through Chairman of Ocean Beach Domain Board, reference no. 91–059, Hocken. 71 P. S. Tait, ‘The response to Depression. Rangitikei County, 1928–35’, Unpublished MA thesis, Massey University, 1978, chap. 3. 72 Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937. The Ministry of Recreation and Sport (1973), Hillary Commission (1986) and SPARC (2002) were all initiatives taken under Labour administrations. 73 Daley, Leisure and Pleasure, chap. 7. 74 NZOYB, 1925, pp. 761–3; NZOYB, 1926, pp. 823–6. 75 K. Ross, Going Bush: New Zealanders and Nature in the Twentieth Century, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2008; L. Wevers, ‘The Pleasure of Walking’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 38, no. 1, 2004, pp. 39–51. 76 P. Day, The Radio Years. A History of Broadcasting in New Zealand; P. Day, Voice and Vision: A History of Broadcasting in New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1994 and 2000. 77 R. Robinson, ‘Lovelock, John Edward 1910–1949’, in The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Volume Four, 1921–1940, pp. 291–2; David Colquhoun, ed., As if Running on Air: the journals of , Craig Potton Publishing, Nelson, 2008.

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78 P. Potiki, ‘Talking about sports’, Te Ao Hou, no. 3, Summer 1953. 79 Holt and Mason, Sport in Britain Since 1945, p. 14. 80 Makereti Staples-Browne [Maggie Papakura] to Mr W. T. Parata, 16 December 1926, MS 1262, Hocken. See Ngahuia Te Awekotuku, ‘Guide Maggie Makereti Papakura’, in C. Macdonald, M. Penfold and B. Williams, eds, The Book of New Zealand Women/Ko Kui Ma te Kaupapa, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1991, pp. 491–3; P. Diamond, Makereti: Taking Maori To The World, Random House, Auckland, 2007. 81 Ryan, ‘Anthropological Football’. 82 W. McCarthy and B. Howitt, Haka! The Maori Rugby Story, Rugby Press, Auckland, 1983. 83 R. Walker, He Tipua. The Life and Times of Sir Apirana Ngata, Viking, Auckland, 2001, pp. 233–4. 84 T. Rei and N. Birch, ‘Ngati Toa Rangatira Women’s Club 1930—’, and photograph Mataatua Ladies’ Hockey Team, in Else, ed., Women Together, pp. 28–30, 17; P. Grace, I. Ramsden and J. Dennis, The Silent Migration: Ngati Poneke Young Maori Club 1937–1948: Stories of Urban Migration, Huia Publishers, Wellington, 2001, p. 64. 85 R. Love, ‘Sport Among the Maori People’, Te Ao Hou, no. 1, Winter 1952, pp. 60–4; J. Taua, ‘The Auckland Maori in Sport’, Te Ao Hou, no. 27, June 1959, pp. 69–73. 86 C. Maclean and J. Phillips, The Sorrow and the Pride. New Zealand War Memorials, Historical Branch/GP Books, Wellington, 1990. 87 See D. C. Pitt, ‘The Joiners: Associations and Leisure in New Zealand’, in S. D. Webb and J. Collette, eds, New Zealand Society: Contemporary Perspectives, John Wiley, Sydney, 1973, pp. 157–62 (p. 157). 88 For example, in Dunedin there were seventy-three rugby teams playing in the 1946 club competition (including thirteen in the senior grade), a minimum of 1095 players; Lynch, ‘Otago 17–Southland 11’, chap. 2. 89 L. Jones and B. Foster, Last Saturday: ritual and regulation, National Library Exhibition, 9 April–16 July 1994, and accompanying book, Last Saturday, Victoria University Press/National Library of New Zealand, Wellington, 1994. 90 N.Z. Sportsman, 1946–58, vol. 1, no. 1, July 1946 – vol. 13, no. 7, March 1958, monthly; 8 o’clock, weekly, 1953–85; Friday Flash, weekly, 1956–1989; New Zealand Turf Digest, 1925—; All-Sports Monthly, 1949–53; Women in Sport, vol. 1, no. 1, Feb 1948 – vol. 2, no. 1, Feb 1949; N.Z. Sportswoman, 1949; P. Day, Radio Days, vol. 1, p. 294. 91 Dunedin Lawn Union Inc, reference no. 87–144, [1946–1974], Hocken. 92 N. A. C. McMillan, ‘Blomfield, Meynell Strathmore 1908–1971’, Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, updated 22 June 2007, ; Day, Radio Years, pp. 169–70. 93 Taieri Amateur Wrestling Association Minutes and Papers, reference no. AG-570, Hocken; K. Scott, Featherston Amateur Wrestling Club, 1933–1983—A club history, 1984, 99–145, Box 12, Hocken. 94 See ‘Post-war New Zealanders’; J. Phillips, ‘The New Zealanders’, Te Ara—the Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, updated 21 December 2006. 95 Christoffel, ‘Removing Temptation’; C. Bollinger, Grog’s own Country—The story of liquor licensing in New Zealand, Price Milburn, Wellington, 1959, 2nd rev. edn, Minerva, Auckland, 1967. 96 G. T. Vincent and T. Harfield, ‘Repression and Reform: Responses within New Zealand Rugby to the Arrival of the “Northern Game”, 1907–8’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 31, no. 2, 1997, pp. 234–50. 97 G. Griffiths, ‘Cavanagh, Victor George 1909–1980’, Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, updated 22 June 2007, . 98 Lynch, ‘Otago 17–Southland 11’, p. 70. 99 Lynch, ‘Otago 17–Southland 11’, p. 61. Prior to 1928 women were admitted free. 100 M. N. Pearson, ‘Heads in the sand’, in Cashman and McKernan, eds, Sport in History, p. 275. 101 See W. Roger, Old Heroes. The 1956 Springbok Tour and the Lives Beyond, Hodder and Stoughton, Auckland, 1991; F. Andrewes, ‘Demonstrable Virility: Images of Masculinity in the 1956 Springbok Tour of New Zealand’, in Ryan, ed., Tackling Rugby Myths, pp. 123–36.

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102 CABTA Papers, 89–097–3, 89–097–5, also at MS-Papers-0404–11B, MS-Papers-2492–12, ATL. 103 Clipping, 10 October 1949, vol. 1, Alwyn Moon Empire Games, 1949–50, NZMS 923, Auckland Public Library. 104 R. Palenski, ‘Bowen, Walter Godfrey 1922–1994’, Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, updated 22 June 2007, . 105 S. Gibson, ‘Engaging in Mischief: The Black Singlet in New Zealand Culture’, in B. Labrum, S. Gibson and F. McKergow, eds, Looking Flash. A History of Clothing in New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2007, pp. 206–21. 106 ‘Golden Shears Competition’, in McLintock, Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. 107 F. Hall, ‘New Zealand Women’s Bowling Association 1948—’, in A. Else, ed., Women Together, pp. 440–2. 108 H. Eichberg, Body Cultures—Essays on sport, space and identity, Routledge, London and New York, 1998. 109 Else, ed., Women Together, p. 432. 110 G. Andrew, ‘“A Girls Game—and Good One, Too”: a critical analysis of New Zealand ’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 1997, p. 136; J. Nauright and J. Broomhall, ‘A Woman’s Game: The Development of Netball and Female Sporting Culture in New Zealand 1906–70’, International Journal of the History of Sport, vol. 11, no. 3, 1994, pp. 387–407. 111 C. Macdonald, ‘Putting Bodies on the Line: Marching Spaces in Cold War Culture’, in P. Vertinsky and J. Bale, eds, Sites of Sport. Space, Place, Experience, Routledge, London and New York, 2004, pp. 85–100; C. Macdonald, ‘Marching in Unison, Dressing in Uniform: Stepping Out in Style with Marching Teams’, in Labrum, et al., eds, Looking Flash, pp. 186–205. 112 D. Grant, On a Roll; T. Judt, Postwar. A History of Europe Since 1945, Pimlico, London, 2007, p. 778. 113 radio interview, 1966, T2336/2, Sound Archives. 114 ‘Report from the Rothmans Sports and Cultural Foundation 1962–1972. The First Ten Years’, c. 1973, Auckland Museum Library; Rothmans 1957–1977, Rothmans, Auckland, 1977. 115 Tennant, Johns Hopkins Field Guide Draft, March 2007; Tennant, Fabric of Welfare. 116 Colin Meads played his last game for the All Blacks in 1971. See Alex Veysey, Colin Meads All Black, 1974. 117 Richards, Dancing on Our Bones; Templeton, Human Rights and Sporting Contacts; Newnham, Interesting Times. 118 Linda Jones was the most successful of the early female jockeys. See J. Costello, The Linda Jones Story, Moa, Auckland, 1979; M. Mountier, Racing Women of New Zealand, Daphne Brasell Associates, Wellington, 1993. 119 Women’s median income in New Zealand is, on average, 82 per cent of the men’s equivalent; Statistics New Zealand, Focusing on Women 2005, . 120 G. McGee, Foreskin’s Lament, Price Milburn, Wellington, 1981 (performed first in various centres during 1980–81). See also C. Hughes, ‘Moira’s lament? Feminist Advocacy and the 1981 Springbok Tour of New Zealand’, in Ryan, ed., Tackling Rugby Myths, pp. 137–50. 121 C. Macdonald, ‘Sport and the welfare state’s ‘social laboratory’, 6th Congress of the International Society for the History of Physical Education and Sport: Sport and Politics, Budapest, 2002, pp. 459–63. 122 P. Day, Voice and Vision, p. 210. 123 N. Mehalski, ‘The determinants of attendance at Carisbrook’, BCom Hons Dissertation, University of Otago, 1996. 124 J. Romanos, The Judas Game: the betrayal of New Zealand rugby, Darius Press, Wellington, 2002. 125 Pitt, ‘The Joiners’, p. 161. 126 J. Lomu, : the autobiography, Headline, London, 2004. For a controversial critique of sport as a vehicle for social mobility of this kind in the USA, see J. M. Hoberman, Darwin’s Athletes. How Sport Has Damaged Black America and Preserved the Myth of Race, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1997.

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127 SPARC (Sport and Recreation New Zealand), the Crown Entity responsible for sport and recreation, absorbed the functions of the New Zealand Sports Foundation, the Hillary Commission (established 1987) and the policy arm of the Office of Tourism and Sport when established on 1 January 2003 under the Sport and Recreation New Zealand Act 2002. 128 B. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 2nd edn, Verso, London, 1991 (first published 1983). 129 See M. Johnes, A History of Sport in Wales, University of Wales Press, Cardiff, 2005; G. Jarvie and J. Burnett, eds, Sport, Scotland the Scots, Tuckwell Press, East Linton, 2000. 130 See D. Morrow, et al., A Concise History of Sport in Canada, Oxford University Press, Toronto, 1989; D. Adair and W. Vamplew, Sport in Australian History, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1997; D. Booth, Race Game: sport and politics in South Africa, Cass, London, 1998. 131 P. Lewis, ‘Out of Ordure’, New Zealand Listener, vol. 207, no. 3486, 3–9 March 2007, p. 56. 132 See ‘Pay up, pay up and win the game. The ruthless world of government funding’, The Economist, 22 July 2006, p. 61.

chapter 13: The Tasman World 1 D. Denoon, ‘Re-Membering Australasia: A Repressed Memory’, Australian Historical Studies, vol. 34, no. 122, 2003, pp. 290–304. Research for this chapter was supported by the Marsden Fund of the Royal Society of New Zealand (grant UOC208) and by a Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade Historical Research Grant. 2 J. Darwin in ‘Imperialism and the Victorians: The Dynamics of Territorial Expansion’, English Historical Review, vol. 112, no. 447, 1997, pp. 614–42; J. M. R. Young, Australia’s Pacific Frontier: Economic and Cultural Expansion into the Pacific: 1795–1885, Cassell Australia, Melbourne, 1967, p. 3. 3 J. G. A. Pocock, The Discovery of Islands, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005; P. Mein- Smith and P. Hempenstall, eds, ‘Empires, Islands, Edges: New Zealand’s Worlds’, New Zealand special issue, Thesis Eleven, no. 92, February 2008. 4 Pocock, Discovery of Islands, p. 6. For an Australian view, see P. Beilharz, Imagining the Antipodes, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and Melbourne, 1997. 5 E. E. Morris, Austral English, Macmillan, London, 1898, p. 9. 6 Royal Commission on Federation, Evidence, AJHR, 1901, A-4, pp. 558, 682. 7 J. Hughes, ed., The Concise Australian National Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1992, p. 15; T. Deverson and G. Kennedy, eds, The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2005, p. 68. 8 W. Pember Reeves, The Long White Cloud: Ao tea roa, 2nd edn, H. Marshall, London, 1899, p. 5. 9 W. B. Sutch, Colony or Nation? Economic Crises in New Zealand from the 1860s to the 1960s, Sydney University Press, Sydney, 1966, pp. 169, 172. 10 A. Burnett and R. Burnett, The Australia and New Zealand Nexus, Australian Institute of International Affairs/NZ Institute of International Affairs, Canberra, 1978, p. 4. 11 K. Sinclair, A Destiny Apart: New Zealand’s Search for National Identity, Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, Wellington, 1986. 12 K. Sinclair, ‘Why New Zealanders are not Australians: New Zealand and the Australian Federal Movement, 1881-1901’, in K. Sinclair, ed., Tasman Relations: New Zealand and Australia, 1788–1988, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1987, chap. 5. 13 J. Belich, ‘Maori and Pakeha, Past and Future’, in P. O’Brien and B. Vaughn, eds, Amongst Friends: Australian and New Zealand Voices from America, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2005, p. 168. 14 J. Belich, Paradise Reforged: A History of the New Zealanders From the 1880s to the Year 2000, Allen Lane/Penguin, Auckland, 2001, pp. 52, 440. 15 ‘Anzac Neighbours’ project, supported by the Marsden Fund of the Royal Society of NZ, 2003–06. See P. Mein-Smith and P. Hempenstall, ‘Australia and New Zealand: Turning Shared

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Pasts into a Shared History’, History Compass, vol. 1, 2003, pp. 6–7; P. Hempenstall, P. Mein- Smith and S. Goldfinch, ‘Anzac Neighbours: a hundred years of multiple ties’, New Zealand International Review, vol. 28, no. 1, 2003, pp. 28–9; P. Mein-Smith, P. Hempenstall, et al., Remaking the Tasman World, University of Canterbury Press, Christchurch, 2008. 16 D. McLean, The Prickly Pair: Making Nationalism in Australia and New Zealand, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2003, p. 11. McLean was Secretary of Defence during the ANZUS crisis in the mid 1980s. 17 J. G. A. Pocock, ‘British history: a plea for a new subject’, reprinted in Pocock, Discovery of Islands, chap. 2, p. 43. 18 K. Grant, P. Levine and F. Trentmann, eds, Beyond Sovereignty: Britain, Empire and Transnationalism, c. 1880-1950, Palgrave Macmillan, Houndmills, Basingstoke, 2007, p. 6. 19 See further Grant, et al., eds, Beyond Sovereignty, p. 3. 20 J. H. Liu, ‘History and Identity: A System of Checks and Balances for Aotearoa/New Zealand’, in J. H. Liu, et al., eds, New Zealand Identities: Departures and Destinations, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 2005, pp. 69–87, esp. p. 73. 21 See P. Kelly, The End of Certainty: The Story of the 1980s, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1992. 22 D. T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998, p. 55. 23 H. Demarest Lloyd, A Country without Strikes, Doubleday, New York, 1900, p. 177. 24 P. Beilharz, ‘The Antipodes: Another Civilization, Between Manhattan and the Rhine?’, New Zealand Sociology, vol. 17, no. 2, 2002, pp. 164–78. 25 S. Macintyre, ‘Neither Capital nor Labour: the politics of the establishment of arbitration’, in S. Macintyre and R. Mitchell, eds, Foundations of Arbitration: The Origins and Effects of State Compulsory Arbitration 1890–1914, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1989, chap. 8. 26 See S. Goldfinch and P. Mein-Smith, ‘Compulsory Arbitration and the Australasian Model of State Development: Policy Transfer, Learning and Innovation’, Journal of Policy History, vol. 18, no. 4, 2006, pp. 419–45. 27 F. G. Castles, The Working Class and Welfare, Allen and Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, Wellington, 1985. 28 J. Salmond, ‘A New Zealand Social Democrat: The World We Have Lost’, in P. Beilharz and R. Manne, eds, Reflected Light: La Trobe Essays, Black Inc., Melbourne, 2006, pp. 206–21. 29 J. McAloon, ‘Unsettling Recolonisation: Labourism, Keynesianism, and Australasia from the 1890s to the 1950s’, Thesis Eleven, no. 92, February 2008, pp. 50–68. 30 See J. Bennett, ‘Social Security, the “Money Power” and the Great Depression: The International Dimension to Australian and New Zealand Labour in Office’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, vol. 43, no. 3, 1997, pp. 312–30. 31 J. Finn, ‘New Zealand Lawyers and “Overseas” Precedent 1874–1973: Lessons from the Otago District Law Society Library’, Otago Law Review, vol. 11, no. 2, 2006, p. 15. 32 Archives NZ, Decimal Currency Division Report on Visit to Australia, T 79 36, 28 June to 6 July 1965. 33 T. Hazledine and J. Quiggin, ‘No More Free Beer Tomorrow? Economic Policy and Outcomes in Australia and New Zealand since 1984’, Australian Journal of Political Science, vol. 41, no. 2, 2006, pp. 145–59. 34 See V. Roberts, ‘The Origin of Victoria’s Public Sector Reforms’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 2005. 35 Council of Australian Governments (COAG), Commonwealth-State Ministerial Councils: A Compendium, July 2006; ‘New Zealand Participation in Ministerial Councils’, courtesy of Australia Division, MFAT. 36 G. Palmer, ‘New Zealand and Australia: Beyond CER’, New Zealand International Review, vol. 15, no. 4, 1990, pp. 2–7. 37 R. Muldoon, My Way, Reed, Wellington, 1981, p. 30.

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38 Burnett and Burnett, Australia and New Zealand Nexus, p. 12. 39 New Zealand Government, Submission No. 9, Australia’s trade and investment relations under the Australia–New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement, Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, 2006 2 August 2006. 40 B. Galligan, ‘Closer Political Association: Australia and New Zealand’, in A. Grimes, L. Wevers and G. Sullivan, eds, States of Mind: Australia and New Zealand 1901–2001, Institute of Policy Studies, Wellington, 2002, pp. 295–305. 41 Mein-Smith and Hempenstall, et al., Remaking the Tasman World, chap. 7. 42 New Zealand Government, Submission No. 9. 43 D. Goddard, ‘Case Study: Trans-Tasman Court Proceedings and Regulatory Enforcement’, Legal Research Foundation Conference, Whose Law Is It Anyway?, Wellington, 9 March 2007. 44 P. Beilharz, ‘Australia: The Unhappy Country, Or, A Tale of Two Nations’, Thesis Eleven, no. 82, August 2005, p. 82. 45 For an imagined alternative, see K. M. Hunter, ‘What if New Zealand had joined Australia in 1901?’, in S. Levine, ed., New Zealand as it Might Have Been, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 2006, chap. 4. 46 W. Pember Reeves, ‘Attitude of New Zealand’, Empire Review, February 1901, pp. 111–15. 47 D. Denoon and P. Mein-Smith, with Marivic Wyndham, A History of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, 2000, p. 470. 48 J. McCullough, Royal Commission on Federation, Evidence, AJHR, 1901, A-4, p. 223. 49 Capt. Russell, Official Report of the National Australasian Convention Debates, Sydney, 1891, p. 66, Australian Federation Full Text Database , accessed 22 July 2005. 50 See P. Mein-Smith, A Concise History of New Zealand, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and Melbourne, 2005, p. 113; see also Sinclair, A Destiny Apart, p. 114. For a suffragist’s view, see S. M. Allan, ‘New Zealand and Federation’, United Australia, October 1900, pp. 9–11. 51 See P. Mein-Smith, ‘New Zealand’, in Helen Irving, ed., The Centenary Companion to Australian Federation, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, 1999, pp. 400–405; P. Grimshaw, ‘Indigenous Men, White Mothers and ‘Founding Fathers’, in Grimes, et al., eds, States of Mind, pp. 17–34; J. Bennett, ‘Rats and Revolutionaries’: The Labour Movement in Australia and New Zealand 1890–1940, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2004, p. 42. 52 Right Hon. E. Barton, Sydney, Royal Commission on Federation, Evidence, AJHR, 1901, A-4, p. 479. 53 The words are those of W. M. Hughes, Denoon and Mein-Smith, A History of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific, p. 210. 54 J. McCullough, Royal Commission on Federation, Evidence, AJHR, 1901, A-4, p. 223. 55 Report of the Royal Commission on Federation, AJHR, 1901, A-4, p. xxiv. On the myth of natural abundance, see M. Fairburn, The Ideal Society and Its Enemies, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1989. 56 P. Mein-Smith, ‘New Zealand Federation Commissioners in Australia: One Past, Two Historiographies’, Australian Historical Studies, vol. 34, no. 122, 2003, pp. 305–25; G. Martin, Australia New Zealand and Federation 1883–1901, Menzies Centre for Australian Studies, London, 2001, p. 125. 57 W. Curzon-Siggers, Royal Commission on Federation, Evidence, AJHR, 1901, A-4, p. 109. 58 F. L. W. Wood, ‘Why did New Zealand not join the Australian Commonwealth in 1900–1901?’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 2, no. 2, 1968, pp. 123–4. 59 P. Hempenstall, ‘Overcoming Separate Histories: Historians as ‘Ideas Traders’ in a Trans-Tasman World’, History Australia, vol. 4, no. 1, 2007, pp. 04.1–16. 60 Sir John Hall, Official Record of the Proceedings and Debates of the Australasian Federation Conference, Melbourne, 1890, p. 175, Australian Federation Full Text Database.

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61 At the Imperial Economic Conference, Ottawa, 1932, Australians had a ‘community of interest with other Dominions’. National Archives of Australia [NAA], Canberra, Microfilm, Lyons government, CRS A6006, 1934/12/31. 62 Archives NZ, The Tasman Partnership, 5 June 1970, ABHS 18069, W5402 Box 119 BRU 64/1/6 Pt 1. 63 A. Burnett, ‘New Zealand Policies Towards Australia 1960–72: Achievements and Prospects’, in N. Haines, ed., The Tasman: Frontier and Freeway?, Centre for Continuing Education ANU, Canberra, 1972, p. 41. 64 Department of the Treasury, Australia, Submission No. 4 accessed 2 August 2006. 65 G. Hawke, ‘Australian and New Zealand Economic Development from about 1890 to 1940’, in Sinclair, ed., Tasman Relations, p. 104. 66 Belich, Paradise Reforged; Hawke, ‘Australian and New Zealand Economic Development’, pp. 106–10. 67 New Zealand Official Year-Book 1951–52, Census and Statistics Department, Wellington, 1952, p. 275. 68 ATL, Seddon family: MS-Papers-1619–020, Seddon to Premier Adelaide SA, 19 February 1897, and Kingston to Seddon, 22 February 1897; M. Glass, Charles Cameron Kingston: Federation Father, Miegunyah Press, Melbourne, 1997, p. 133. 69 Report of the Royal Commission on Federation, AJHR, 1901, A-4, p. vi. 70 Royal Commission on Federation, p. xxii. 71 C. Murray, ‘The New Zealand Trade Commissioner Service’, The New Zealand Manufacturer, 1961, courtesy of Paul Cotton. Also Archives NZ, Department of Industries and Commerce, IC, vol. 1. 72 Archives NZ, ‘NZ Trade Treaty’, Daily Telegraph, 10 March 1933, C box 92 22.22/8. 73 K. Sinclair, ‘Fruit Fly, Fireblight and Powdery Scab: Australia-New Zealand Trade Relations, 1919–39’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, vol. 1, no. 1, 1972, pp. 27–48; K. Sinclair, ‘The Great Anzac Plant War: Australia-New Zealand Trade Relations, 1919–39’, in Sinclair, ed., Tasman Relations, chap. 7. 74 See NAA, Department of Commerce, Potatoes New Zealand Part 1, A458 Q500/14 Part 1. 75 NAA, P. S. Macdermott, NSW Chamber of Fruit and Vegetable Industries, Sydney, to H. V. Thorby, Asst. Min. for Commerce, Canberra, 6 October 1936, A601 878/10/3, reporting on the New Zealand Committee of Enquiry into Fruit Marketing. 76 NAA, unreferenced newsclipping [Jan. 1935] re: deputation from Fishmongers’ Association to Commonwealth Minister of Health, A601 878/10/3; Archives NZ, Eleanor Glencross, President of Federated Association of Australian Housewives to PM of NZ, 16 October 1939, IC 1 12/76/1 pt 1. 77 NAA, Cablegram Acting PM NZ (Coates) 29 August 1933, A601 878/10/2. 78 Evening Post, 17 January 1945, EA 1 58/4/9, Archives NZ. 79 R. Kay, ed., The Australian-New Zealand Agreement 1944, Wellington: Government Printer, 1972, Introduction and pp. 146–7. 80 Kay, The Australian-New Zealand Agreement 1944, pp. 112, 107, 110. 81 Kay, The Australian-New Zealand Agreement 1944, pp. 142, 144, 147. 82 Aust–NZ Economic Discussions Wellington, Jan. 1945, EA 1 58/4/2/1 Pt 1A, Archives NZ. 83 Ashwin to Fraser, 20 January 1948, EA 1 59/3/303 Pt 1; see also memo, conversations between the PM and Mr Chifley 30 December 1947 and Secretary to Treasury to PM 20 January 1948, EA 1 58/4/2/2 Pt 1, Archives NZ. 84 Semple to Chifley 25 February 1948, EA 1 58/4/2/2 Pt 1. 85 M. Guest and J. Singleton, ‘The Murupara Project and Industrial Development in New Zealand 1945–65’, AEHR, vol. 39, no. 1, March 1999, pp. 52–71. 86 Statement by J. McEwen, New Zealand–Australia Free Trade Agreement, 17 August 1965, statement by J. R. Marshall, 17 August 1965, J. Shepherd, External Affairs, memo to all posts, Australia/ New Zealand Limited Free Trade Arrangement, 17 August 1965, ABHS 18069, W5402 Box 119 BRU 64/1/6 Pt 1.

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87 W. B. Sutch to Chairman, Officials Committee on Economic and Financial Policy, 8 May 1964, AG 40 1964/106B Pt 9. See also J. Marshall, Memoirs Volume Two: 1960 to 1988, Collins, Auckland, 1989, pp. 13, 23. 88 Meetings between the Australian Minister for Trade and New Zealand Ministers, Wellington, 1–2 August 1960, AG 40 1960/24a. 89 P. Mein-Smith, ‘Did Muldoon really “go too slowly” with CER?’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 41, no. 2, 2007, pp. 161–79. 90 H. Templeton, All Honourable Men: Inside the Muldoon Cabinet 1975–1984, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1995, p. 128. 91 This is lamented by K. S. Inglis, Sacred Places: War Memorials in the Australian Landscape, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1999. 92 A. Hawke, ‘The Anzacs’, Unpublished seminar paper, University of Canterbury, 21 April 2005, p. 4. 93 Inglis, Sacred Places; Sinclair, Destiny Apart, p. 170. 94 On the British heroic myth, see J. Macleod, Reconsidering Gallipoli, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 2004. 95 ‘Australia and New Zealand Seek to Protect “Anzac” Trademark’, Intellectual Property & Technology Law Journal, vol. 15, no. 7, 2003, p. 24. 96 Denoon and Mein-Smith, A History of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific, pp. 271–2. 97 H. White, ‘Living without illusions: Where our defence relationship goes from here’, in B. Catley, ed., NZ-Australia Relations: Moving Together or Drifting Apart?, Dark Horse Publishing, Wellington, 2002, p. 138. 98 R. Baird, ‘ANZAC Peacekeeping: trans-Tasman responses to the Bougainville crisis in 1997 and the subsequent evolution of Australia and New Zealand’s regional peacekeeping’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 2008. 99 R. Arnold, ‘The Australasian Peoples and their World, 1888–1915’, in Sinclair, ed., Tasman Relations, p. 53; see also Rollo Arnold, ‘Some Australasian Aspects of New Zealand Life, 1890–1913’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 4, no. 1, 1970, pp. 54–76. 100 W. D. Borrie, The European Peopling of Australasia, Demography RSSS, ANU, Canberra, 1994; see also W. D. Borrie, ‘The Peopling of Australasia, 1788–1988: The Common Heritage’, in Sinclair, ed., Tasman Relations, chap. 11. 101 See Eric Fry, ed., Common Cause: Essays in Australian and New Zealand Labour History, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1986; E. Olssen, ‘Lands of Sheep and Gold’ and Arnold, ‘The Australasian Peoples and their World’, in Sinclair, ed., Tasman Relations, chaps 2 and 3; Bennett, ‘Rats and Revolutionaries’. 102 S. Harford, ‘A Trans-Tasman Community: Organisational Links between the ACTU and NZFOL/ NZCTU, 1970–1990’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 2006. 103 Burnett and Burnett, Australia and New Zealand Nexus, pp. 19–20; J. Foley, Queensland Harry, John Foley, Waimate, 2005. 104 M. Connelly, ‘Seeing Beyond the State: The Population Control Movement and the Problem of Sovereignty’, Past and Present, no. 193, November 2006, pp. 197–233. 105 Burnett and Burnett, Australia and New Zealand Nexus, p. 23. 106 See J. Sutton in B. Brown, ed., New Zealand and Australia: Where are We Going?, NZ Institute of International Affairs, Wellington, 2001, p. 11. 107 N. McMillan, ‘Pressures for Change to the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangements’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 1989, pp. 150–1, 158–9; G. A. Carmichael, ed., Trans-Tasman Migration: Trends, Causes and Consequences, AGPS, Canberra, 1993, pp. 5–8. 108 Borrie, ‘Peopling of Australasia’, in Sinclair, ed., Tasman Relations, pp. 205–56. 109 J. Poot and L. Sanderson, ‘Changes in Social Security Eligibility and the International Mobility of New Zealand Citizens in Australia’, PSC Discussion Papers, no. 65, June 2007, pp. 3–4.

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110 M. Dunne, ‘New Zealand Customs and the Border’ and P. Mein-Smith, ‘Trans-Tasman Ties: An Historian’s Response’, in B. Lynch, ed., New Zealand and the World: The Major Foreign Policy Issues, 2005–2010, NZ Institute of International Affairs, Wellington, 2006, pp. 98, 41. 111 This paragraph draws on P. Hamer, Maori in Australia: Nga Maori I Te Ao Moemoea, Te Puni Kokiri, Wellington, 2007. 112 C. A. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World 1780–1914: Global Connections and Comparisons, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, 2004.

chapter 14: Religion and Society 1 C. Southwell, ‘The Jew Book’, The Oracle of Reason; Or, Philosophy Vindicated, no. 4, 1841, p. 25–7. Copy of the Warrant for the Arrest of Charles Southwell, for Blasphemy, Bishopsgate Institute, Holyoake Collection, envelope no. 1. Thanks to Jim Secord for this and other sources from the Bishopsgate Institute. 2 Auckland Examiner, 11 December 1856, 2 April, 29 October 1857. 3 G. A. Selwyn to H. J. Tancred, 28 April 1860, in Great Britain Parliamentary Papers (hereafter GBPP) 1861, [2798] XLI, pp. 48–53 (Irish University Press edn). 4 O. Hadfield, One of England’s Little Wars, Williams and Norgate, London, 1860, pp. 22, 24–6; O. Hadfield, A Sequel to One of England’s Little Wars, Williams and Norgate, London, 1861, pp. 6–7, 12–13. 5 Auckland Examiner, 9 May 1860; Nelson Examiner, 5 September 1860, p. 2; Taranaki Herald, 26 May 1860, p. 2. 6 W. H. Oliver (with Jane Thomson), Challenge and Response: A Study of the Development of the East Coast Region, East Coast Development Association, Gisborne, 1971. 7 GBPP, 1861 [2798] XLI, pp. 60–1. 8 Hawkes Bay Herald, 8 November 1860. 9 L. Head, ‘The Pursuit of Modernity in Maori Society: The Conceptual Bases of Citizenship in the Early Colonial Period’, in A. Sharp and P. McHugh, eds, Histories, Power and Loss: uses of the past: a New Zealand commentary, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2001, pp. 96–121. 10 D. Cannadine, Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their Empire, Oxford University Press, New York and London, 2001, p. 10. 11 Auckland Examiner, 28 March, 4 April, 11 April, 18 April, 21 April, 2 May, 5 May 1860; Taranaki News, 26 April 1860; New Zealand Advertiser, 15 September 1860. J. Stenhouse, ‘Imperialism, Atheism and Race: Charles Southwell, Old Corruption and the Maori’, Journal of British Studies, vol. 44, no. 4, 2005, pp. 754–74. 12 New Zealander, 5 May 1860, p. 3. 13 New Zealander, 23 May 1860, pp. 3, 5; Auckland Examiner, 23 May 1860, pp. 2–3. 14 G. A. Wood, ‘Church and State in New Zealand in the 1850s’, Journal of Religious History, vol. 8, 1975, pp. 255–70 (pp. 256–57). 15 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 3rd series, vol. 45, 13 December 1847; see Colonial Intelligencer, or, Aborigines Friend, vol. 1, 1847, pp. 5–11. 16 See S. J. Brown, The National Churches of England, Ireland and Scotland, 1801–1846, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001; D. Hempton, Religion and Political Culture in Britain and Ireland: From the Glorious Revolution to the decline of empire, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996. 17 E. Hobsbawm and George Rudé, Captain Swing: A Social History of the English Agricultural Uprising of 1830, Norton, New York, 1975, pp. 229–32. 18 Brown, The National Churches, pp. 180–1. 19 P. Morris, ‘Kiwi Gods: Religion and New Zealand,’ Landfall, no. 215, 2008, pp. 141–9 (p. 148).

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20 See further W. H. McNeill, Mythistory and Other Essays, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1986, pp. 3–22. 21 M. King, The Penguin History of New Zealand, Penguin, Auckland, 2003, p. 518. 22 W. H. Oliver, Prophets and Millennialists, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1978. 23 W. James, The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature, Modern Library, New York, 1929 [originally 1902], p. 31. 24 C. Geertz, Advancing Light: Anthropological Reflections on Philosophical Topics, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2000, pp. 170, 171. 25 J. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World, Chicago University Press, Chicago, 1994, p. 13. 26 See M. Fairburn, The Ideal Society and Its Enemies: The Foundations of Modern New Zealand Society, 1850–1900, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1989. 27 See A. Thomson, ed., What I Believe: The Personal Philosophies of Twenty-Two New Zealanders, GP Publications, Wellington, 1993, pp. 120–33; B. Cooke, Heathen in Godzone: Seventy Years of Rationalism in New Zealand, NZARH, Auckland, 1998, pp. 159–60. 28 F. M. Turner, Contesting Cultural Authority: Essays in Victorian Intellectual Life, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993, p. 5. 29 Turner, Contesting Cultural Authority: Essays in Victorian Intellectual Life, p. 4. 30 Turner, Contesting Cultural Authority: Essays in Victorian Intellectual Life, p. 6. 31 Turner, Contesting Cultural Authority: Essays in Victorian Intellectual Life, passim. 32 F. B. Smith, ‘Charles Southwell, 1814–1860’, in The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Vol. One, 1769–1869, Allen and Unwin, Wellington, 1990, pp. 401–2. 33 K. Sinclair, A History of New Zealand, rev. edn, Pelican, Auckland, 1969, pp. 105, 288. 34 E. Olssen, ‘Towards a New Society’, in G. Rice, ed., The Oxford History of New Zealand, 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1992, pp. 268, 271–2. 35 H. R. Jackson, ‘Churchgoing in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 17, no. 1, 1983, pp. 43–9 (p. 43). 36 Fairburn, Ideal Society, pp. 177–8, 184; J. O. C. Phillips, A Man’s Country: The Image of the Pakeha Male-A History, Penguin, Auckland, 1996, pp. 63, 68. 37 J. Belich, Paradise Reforged: A History of the New Zealanders From the 1880s to the Year 2000, Allen Lane, Auckland, 2001, pp. 122, 166–8, 133–46. 38 J. G. A. Pocock, The Discovery of Islands: Essays in British History, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, p. 6. 39 Sinclair, A History of New Zealand, p. 105. 40 A. R. Grigg, ‘Prohibition, the Church and Labour: A Programme for Social Reform, 1890–1914’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 15, no. 2, 1981, pp. 144–65 (pp. 136, 138–9, 154). 41 Olssen, ‘Towards a New Society’, pp. 272, 268. 42 P. J. Gibbons, ‘The Climate of Opinion’, in Rice, ed., Oxford History of New Zealand, p. 327. 43 K. A. Pickens, ‘Denomination, Nationality and Class in a Nineteenth-Century British Colony: Canterbury, New Zealand’, Journal of Religious History, vol. 15, 1988, pp. 128–40. 44 N. Barlow, ed., Darwin and Henslow: The Growth of an Idea, Letters 1831–1860, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1967, p. 114. 45 J. Belich, Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders From Polynesian Settlement to the End of the Nineteenth Century, Penguin, Auckland, 1996, p. 438. 46 Taranaki Herald, 24 November 1860. 47 D. MacGregor, ‘The Problem of ’, New Zealand Magazine, vol. 1, no. 3, 1876, pp. 517, 520. 48 D. Thomson, A World Without Welfare: New Zealand’s Colonial Experiment, Auckland University Press with Bridget Williams Books, Auckland, 1998, pp. 101–2.

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49 R. M. Burdon, Scholar Errant: A Biography of Professor A. W. Bickerton, Pegasus Press Christchurch, 1956. 50 J. Macmillan Brown, The Memoirs of John Macmillan Brown, Whitcombe and Tombs, Christchurch, 1974; M. Belgrave, ‘Archipelago of Exiles: A Study in the Imperialism of Ideas: Edward Tregear and John Macmillan Brown’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Auckland, 1979, pp. 104, 125. 51 T. Beaglehole, ‘Thomas Hunter, 1876–1953’, Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, updated 22 June 2007, URL: . 52 K. Moffat, ‘Destruction, Transformation, Rebellion, Alienation: The Critique of Puritanism in pre- 1930 New Zealand Novels’, Journal of New Zealand Literature, vol. 16, 1998, pp. 86–96. 53 R. M. Chapman, ‘Fiction and the Social Pattern’, Landfall, vol. 7, no. 1, 1953, pp. 26–58 (p. 58). 54 W. H. Oliver, ‘The Awakening Imagination’, in Rice, ed., The Oxford History of New Zealand, pp. 556–7. 55 P. J. Lineham, ‘Freethinkers in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 19, no. 1, 1985, pp. 61–81. 56 Lineham, ‘Freethinkers’, p. 78. 57 R. Stout, The Resurrection of Christ, Freethought Association, Dunedin, 1880; R. Stout, Evolution and Theism, Telegraph and Standard Office, Christchurch, 1881, pp. 1, 2, 7. 58 D. A. Hamer, ‘Robert Stout’, in G. Stein, ed., The Encyclopedia of Unbelief, Prometheus Press, Buffalo, 1985, pp. 654–7 (p. 656). 59 Lineham, ‘Freethinkers’. 60 J. Milne, The Romance of a Pro-Consul: Being the Personal Life and Memoirs of the Right Hon. Sir George Grey KCB, Chatto and Windus, London, 1899, p. 29. 61 R. Brent, Liberal Anglican Politics: Whiggery, Religion and Reform 1830–1841, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1987, p. 18. 62 S. Grant, ‘God and the Governor: George Grey in New Zealand’, in J. Stenhouse, ed., Christianity, Modernity and Culture: New Perspectives on New Zealand History, ATF Press, Adelaide, 2005, pp. 240–68. 63 See further S. Grant, ‘God’s Governor: George Grey and racial amalgamation, 1845–1853’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Otago, 2005. 64 K. Sinclair, William Pember Reeves: New Zealand Fabian, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1965; W. Pember Reeves, The Long White Cloud: Ao Tea Roa, Horace Marshall and Son, London, 1898; W. Pember Reeves, State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand, 2 vols, Grant Richards, London, 1902. 65 Reeves, State Experiments, vol. 2, p. 354; see also T. Ballantyne, ‘Writing out Asia: Race, Colonialism and Chinese Migration in New Zealand History’, in C. Ferrall, P. Millar and K. Smith, eds, East by South: China in the Australian Imagination, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 2005, pp. 87–109. 66 W. H. Oliver, ‘A Destiny at Home’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 21, no. 1, 1987, pp. 9–15 (p. 11). 67 K. Sinclair, History of New Zealand, pp. 105, 287–8. 68 K. Sinclair, History of New Zealand, p. 42. 69 K. Sinclair, The Origins of the Maori Wars, New Zealand University Press, Wellington, 1961, pp. 23, 25, 224–5. 70 K. Sinclair, History of New Zealand, p. 92; R. R. McLean, ‘Scottish Piety: The Free Church settlement of Otago, 1848–1853’, in J. Stenhouse and J. Thomson, eds, Building God’s Own Country: Historical Essays on Religions in New Zealand, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2004, pp. 21–31. 71 K. Sinclair, History of New Zealand, p. 287; K. Sinclair, Walter Nash, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1976. 72 B. Davis, The Way Ahead, The Caxton Press, Christchurch, 1995, p. 82.

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73 K. Sinclair, History of New Zealand, pp. 105, 287–8. 74 J. Binney, A Legacy of Guilt: A Life of Thomas Kendall, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1968, pp. 1, 6, 13, 14. 75 J. Belich, The New Zealand Wars and the Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1986, pp. 326–30. 76 P. Temple, A Sort of Conscience: The Wakefields, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2002, pp. 358, 360–1. 77 E. Olssen and A. Levesque, ‘Towards a History of the European Family in New Zealand’, in P. E. Koopman-Boyden, ed., Families in New Zealand Society, Methuen, Wellington, 1978, pp. 1–25 (p. 3). 78 B. Brookes, ‘“Housewives’ Depression”. The Debate Over and in the 1930s’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 15, no. 2, 1981, pp. 127, 131–4. 79 J. Belich, Paradise Reforged, pp. 122, 157, 184. 80 J. Binney, Redemption Songs: A Life of Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1995; B. Mikaere, Te Maiharoa and the Promised Land Heineman, Auckland, 1988; R. Lange, ‘Indigenous Agents of Religious Change, 1830–1860’, Journal of Religious History, vol. 24, no. 3, 2000, pp. 279–95. 81 L. Head, ‘Wiremu Tamihana and the Mana of Christianity’, in Stenhouse, ed., Christianity, Modernity and Culture, pp. 58–86 (p. 59). 82 M. King, Whina: A biography of Whina Cooper, Penguin, Auckland, 1991. 83 E. Kolig, ‘Coming through the backdoor? Secularisation in New Zealand and Maori Religiosity’, in J. Stenhouse and B. Knowles, eds, The Future of Christianity: Historical, Sociological, Political and Theological Perspectives from New Zealand, ATF Press, Adelaide, 2004, pp. 183–206. 84 See A. Davidson, Christianity in Aotearoa, New Zealand Education for Ministry Board, Wellington, 3rd edn, 2004, pp. 28–37. 85 A. H. McLintock, The History of Otago: The Origins and Growth of a Wakefield Class Settlement, Otago Centennial Historical Publications, Dunedin, 1949, pp. 276–9. 86 J. Stenhouse, ‘The Rev. Dr James Copland and the Mind of New Zealand Fundamentalism’, Journal of Religious History, vol. 17, no. 4, 1993, pp. 475–97. 87 R. Sweetman, A Fair and Just Solution? A History of the Integration of Private Schools in New Zealand, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 2002. 88 J. Binney, ‘Ancestral Voices: Maori Prophet Leaders’, in K. Sinclair, ed., The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1996, pp. 153–84; H. Riseborough, Days of Darkness: Taranaki, 1878–1884, Allen and Unwin, Wellington, 1989. 89 J Binney, G. Chaplin and C. Wallace, Mihaia: The Prophet Rua Kenana and His Community at Maungapohatu, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1996 [first published 1979]; P. Webster,Rua and the Maori Millennium, Price Milburn for Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1979. 90 P. Baker, King and Country Call: New Zealanders, Conscription and the Great War, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1988, pp. 167, 187, 194–7. 91 G. Troughton, ‘The Maoriland Worker and Blasphemy in New Zealand’, Labour History, vol. 91, 2006, pp. 113–29 (pp. 115–17). 92 R. Sweetman, Bishop in the Dock: The Sedition Trial of James Liston, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1997, pp. 11, 277. 93 A. K. Davidson and P. J. Lineham, Transplanted Christianity: Documents Illustrating Aspects of New Zealand Church History, 2nd edn, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1989, pp. 181–83. 94 D. Hempton, Religion and Political Culture; H. McLeod, Religion and Society in England, 1850–1914, Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1996. 95 Davidson, Christianity in Aotearoa, pp. 28–32. 96 Truth, 31 October 1914, p. 1. 97 Truth, 6 May 1911, p. 7; 25 November 1911, p. 5; 29 September 1917, p. 1; 14 March 1914, p. 5. 98 Truth, 4 March 1916, p. 5; 11 March 1916, p. 5; 14 November 1914, p. 1.

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99 Truth, 7 April 1910, p. 4; 18 November 1911, p. 5; 5 December 1914, pp. 5, 14. 100 Truth, 24 July 1935, p. 26; Truth, 25 September 1935, p. 20; Truth, 2 October 1935, p. 20. 101 Davidson and Lineham, Transplanted Christianity, pp. 181–3. 102 M. F. Hay, ‘The Salvation Army in Milton’, in J. Stenhouse and J. Thomson, eds, Building God’s Own Country: Historical Essays on Religions in New Zealand, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2004. 103 G. Troughton, ‘Religion, Churches and Childhood in New Zealand, c. 1900–1940’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 40, no. 1, 2006, pp. 39–56. 104 C. Southwell, Confessions of a Freethinker, London [1850], pp. 40–1. 105 A. Cooper, E. Olssen, K. Thomlinson and R. Law, ‘The Landscape of Gender Politics: Place, People and Two Mobilisations’, in B. Brookes, A. Cooper and R. Law, eds, Sites of Gender: Women, Men and Modernity in Southern Dunedin, 1890–1940, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2003, pp. 15–49. 106 Olssen, A History of Otago, pp. 107–9; E. Olssen, Building the New World: Work, Politics and Society in Caversham 1880s–1920s, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1995, pp. 61–2, 171–7. 107 C. Daley, Girls & Women, Men & Boys: Gender in Taradale, 1886–1930, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999, pp. 10–11. 108 See J. Stenhouse, ‘Christianity, Gender and the Working Class in Southern Dunedin, 1880–1940’, Journal of Religious History, vol. 30, no. 1, 2006, pp. 18–44. 109 Olssen, A History of Otago, pp. 107–9; Olssen, Building the New World, pp. 61–2, 171–7; K. O’Connell, ‘“Be Strong and Show Thyself a Man”-Christian Masculinities in Southern Dunedin, 1885–1925’, BA. Hons Dissertation, University of Otago, 2001, pp. 40–56. 110 Otago Workman, 28 June 1889, p. 5; Workman, 5 December 1896, p. 11. 111 Otago Workman, 9 July 1892. 112 Otago Workman, 13 August 1892, p. 4. 113 Otago Workman, 10 December 1892, p. 5. 114 Otago Workman, 15 November 1889, p. 5. 115 Otago Workman, 13 June 1891, p. 4. 116 Otago Workman, 9 August 1889, p. 1. 117 Stenhouse, ‘Christianity, Gender and the Working Class’, pp. 39–42. 118 G. Troughton, ‘Jesus in New Zealand, c. 1900–1940,’ Unpublished PhD thesis, Massey University, 2007. 119 W. H. Oliver, Looking for the Phoenix: a memoir, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2002, pp. 5, 14, 29–30. 120 M. Nolan, Kin: a collective biography of a New Zealand Working Class Family, Canterbury University Press, Christchurch, 2005. 121 See C. Brickell, ‘The Politics of Post-War Consumer Culture’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 40, no. 2, 2006, pp. 133–49. Thanks to Dr Chris Brickell for drawing this pamphlet to my attention. 122 See J. Devaliant, Kate Sheppard: a biography: the fight for women’s votes in New Zealand: the life of the woman who led the struggle, Penguin, Auckland, 1992, pp. 21–2. 123 The Prohibitionist, 2 January 1892, p. 3. 124 P. Lineham, ‘The Unexplained Religion of the WCTU’, Unpublished TS, Massey University, 1999. Thanks to Dr Lineham for a copy of this paper. 125 See P. Wallace, ‘The Faithful for Franchise: Religion and First-Wave Feminism, with special reference to Dunedin, 1885–1995’, BA Hons Dissertation, University of Otago, 2005, pp. 39–45. 126 R. L. Numbers and J. Stenhouse, ‘Antievolutionism in the Antipodes: from protesting evolution to promoting creationism in New Zealand’, British Journal for the History of Science, vol. 33, 2000, pp. 335–50. 127 P. Lineham, ‘Government support of the churches in the modern era,’ in R. Ahdar and J. Stenhouse, eds, God and Government: The New Zealand Experience, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2000, pp. 41–58.

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128 J. Munro, The Story of Suzanne Aubert, Auckland University Press/Bridget Williams Books, Auckland, 1996. 129 L. Fraser, Castles of Gold: A History of New Zealand’s West Coast Irish, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2007, pp. 105–32. 130 P. Lineham, ‘The Inter-Church Council on Public Affairs,’ in J. Stenhouse, ed., Christianity, Modernity and Culture, pp. 269–310; C. Van Der Krogt, ‘Exercising the Utmost Vigilance: The Catholic Campaign Against Contraception in New Zealand During the 1930s,’ Journal of Religious History, vol. 22, no. 3, 1998, pp. 320–35. 131 D. McEldowney, ed., Presbyterians in Aotearoa 1840–1990, Presbyterian Church of New Zealand, Wellington, 1990, pp. 103–43. 132 Belich, Paradise Reforged, p. 519. 133 E. Isichei, ‘Some ambiguities in the academic study of religion’, Religion, vol. 23, 1993, pp. 379–90 (p. 385). 134 S. Kaviraj, ‘The Imaginary Institution of India’, in P. Chatterjee and G. Pandey, eds, Subaltern Studies VII, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1992, pp. 1–39. 135 M. Hill and W. Zwaga, ‘The “Nones” story: a comparative analysis of religious nonalignment’, New Zealand Sociology, vol. 4, no. 2, 1989, pp. 164–85. 136 D. Martin, Pentecostalism: The World Their Parish, Blackwell, Oxford, 2002; H. Cox, Fire from heaven: the rise of pentecostal spirituality and the reshaping of religion in the twenty-first century, Addison- Wesley, Reading, MA, 1995; B. Knowles, ‘Pentecostalism and the Christian future’, in J. Stenhouse and B. Knowles, Christianity in the Post-Secular West, ATF Press, Adelaide, 2007, pp. 177–208. 137 New Zealand Herald, 24 August 2004, p. A3. 138 W. Vercoe, ‘By the Rivers of Babylon’, in W. Ihimaera, ed., Te Ao Marama: Regaining Aotearoa: Maori Writers Speak Out—Volume 2 He Whakaatanga o to Ao: The Reality, Reed, Auckland, 1993, pp. 83–4. 139 E. T. J. Durie, ‘Value and the New Millennium: The Time is Right to Promote Christian Ethics in the formulation of Law’, in B. Atkin and K. Evans, eds, Human Rights and the Common Good: Christian Perspectives, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1999, pp. 122–5 (pp. 124, 125). 140 W. H. Oliver, ‘The Future Behind Us: The Waitangi Tribunal’s Retrospective Utopia’, in Sharp and McHugh, Histories, Power and Loss, pp. 9–29. 141 Sunday Star-Times, 8 March 1998, p. A2; , 10 March 1998, p. 2. 142 R. Wuthnow, ‘Secularisation and the Future of Christianity: Lessons from the American Experience’, in Stenhouse and Knowles, eds, Christianity in the Post Secular West, pp. 27–52. 143 I would like to thank Sue Heydon for this information. 144 Sunday Star-Times, 13 January 2008, p. A3. 145 N. Glasgow, Directions: New Zealanders Explore the Meaning of Life, Shoal Bay Press, Christchurch, 1995, pp. 83–4. 146 Belich, Paradise Reforged, p. 464. 147 D. Thomson, Selfish Generations? The Aging of New Zealand’s Welfare State, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1991. 148 See , downloaded 5 April 2005. 149 Sunday Star-Times, 10 September 2006, p. A4.

chapter 15: Constantly on the Move, but Going Nowhere? Work, Community and Social Mobility 1 R. M. Burdon, ‘New Zealand Society: Its Characteristics’, in A. H. McLintock, ed., An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, vol. 2, Government Printer, Wellington, 1966, pp. 672–3. Thanks to David Pearson, Don MacRaild, Kim Sterelny and Giselle Byrnes for comments on earlier drafts.

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2 See E. Olssen, ‘God’s Own Country 1900–1906’, in J. Binney, J. Bassett and E. Olssen, The People and the Land: Te Tangata me Te Whenua—An Illustrated History of New Zealand 1820–1920, Allen and Unwin, Wellington, 1990, pp. 253–4; W. Pember Reeves, State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand, vol. 2, Grant Richards, London, 1902, chap. 1. 3 See M. Nolan, ‘The Reality and Myth of New Zealand Egalitarianism: Explaining the Pattern of a Labour Historiography at the Edge of Empires’, Labour History Review, vol. 72, no. 2, August 2007, pp. 113–34. 4 Burdon, ‘New Zealand Society’, pp. 675–6. 5 See M. Young, The Rise of the Meritocracy 1870–2033: an essay on education and equality, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1958; J. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1972. 6 J. Belich, Making Peoples: a history of the New Zealanders: from Polynesian settlement to the end of the nineteenth century, Allen Lane/Penguin, Auckland, 1996, pp. 409–10; J. Belich, Paradise Reforged: a history of the New Zealanders from the 1880s to the year 2000, Allen Lane/Penguin, Auckland, 2001, pp. 22–23; J. Graham, ‘Settler Society’, in G. Rice, ed., The Oxford History of New Zealand, 2nd edn, Auckland, 1992, pp. 134–35. 7 M. King, The Penguin History of New Zealand, Penguin, Auckland, 2003, p. 509; M. Sawer, The Ethical State: Social Liberalism in Australia, Melbourne University Press Carlton, Melbourne, 2003. 8 E. Olssen, ‘The Working Class in New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 8, no. 1, 1974, pp. 44–60; E. Olssen, ‘Social Class in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand’, in D. Pitt, ed., Social Class in New Zealand, Longman Paul, Auckland, 1977, pp. 22–41. 9 See New Zealand Listener, 28 May–3 June 2005, p. 10. 10 B. Easton, ‘Economy’, Te Ara—the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 9 June 2006, , accessed 1 April 2007; B. Easton, In stormy seas: the post-war New Zealand economy, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 1997. 11 New Zealand Census; P. Brosnan, D. Rea and M. Wilson, ‘Labour market segmentation and the state: the New Zealand experience’, Cambridge Journal of Economics, vol. 19, no. 5, October 1995, pp. 667–96. 12 J. E. Martin, The Forgotten Worker: The rural wage earner in nineteenth-century New Zealand, Allen and Unwin/Trade Union History Project, Wellington, 1990, pp. 1–6. 13 P. M. Meuili, ‘Occupational Change and Bourgeois Proliferation: A Study of New Middle Class Expansion in New Zealand 1896–1926’, Unpublished MA Thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 1977, p. 115. 14 M. Nolan, Breadwinning: New Zealand Women and the State, Canterbury University Press, Christchurch, 2000. 15 See Public Service Journal: vol. 3, no. 25, 1893, p. 2; vol. 3, no. 26, 1893, p. 8; vol. 5, no. 44, May 1895, p. 7; vol. 5, no. 44, July 1895, pp. 3–4; vol. 5, no. 60, September 1896, p. 5; vol. 5, no. 97, June 1896, p. 4, Alexander Turnbull Library (ATL). 16 G. Dunstall, ‘The Social Pattern’, in Rice, ed., Oxford History of New Zealand, pp. 452–81. 17 New Zealand Statistics, 2001. 18 New Zealand Census Report, 1896, pp. 59–60; New Zealand Census, 1996. 19 Derived from ‘Appendix Census Occupations from 1901, 1926 and 1936, organised by Class and Sector’, E. Olssen and M. Hickey, Class and Occupation. The New Zealand Reality, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2005, pp. 155–252. 20 New Zealand Statistics, 2001. 21 H. Perkin, The Rise of Professional Society: England Since 1880, Routledge, London and New York, 1989. 22 S. K. Morgan, ‘A History of General Practice in New Zealand 1955 to 1995’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 2006, pp. 12–65. 23 A. Abbott, The System of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1988, p. 320.

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24 Human Rights Commission and the New Zealand Centre for Women and Leadership, New Zealand Census of Women’s Participation in Governance and Professional Life, Wellington, June 2004, p. 6. 25 S. Chapple, ‘Maori socio-economic disparity’, Paper for the Ministry of Social Policy, Labour Market Policy Group, Department of Labour, Wellington, September 2000. 26 New Zealand Statistics, 2001. 27 R. Firth, Primitive Economics of the New Zealand Maori, 2nd edn, 1959, [first published 1929], p. 431 ff; P. Monin, This is my place: Hauraki contested, 1769–1875, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2001; H. Petrie, Chiefs of industry: Maori tribal enterprise in early colonial New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2006. 28 J. Harré, ‘Maori-Pakeha intermarriage’, in E. Schwimmer, ed., The Maori people in the nineteen- sixties: A symposium, London, C. Hurst; New York, Humanities P., 1968, pp. 118–31. 29 P. Callister, ‘Ethnicity Measures, Intermarriage and Social Policy’, Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, vol. 23, 2004, p. 109; T. Kukutai, ‘Maori Identity and “Political Arithmetick”: The dynamics of reporting ethnicity’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Waikato, 2001. 30 Olssen and Hickey, Class and Occupation, passim. 31 That is, classification according to the type of work or occupation usually ordered alphabetically and broad groupings of occupations according to industry, all those working in any capacity in manufacture or construction, even those working in offices attached to the industry. 32 1936–7 Dunedin Housing Survey, MS CE 18/1, Dunedin City Council Archives. 33 Olssen and Hickey, Class and Occupation, passim. 34 Olssen and Hickey, Class and Occupation, p. 17. 35 , accessed 26 June 2008. 36 P. Husbands, ‘The People of Freeman’s Bay 1880–1914’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 1992; M. Maclean, ‘Wellington’s Class Prison, Holloway Road, 1919–1939’, Unpublished MA Thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 1994. 37 Olssen and Hickey, Class and Occupation, pp. 95–7, 133. 38 M. Fairburn, ‘New Zealand Social Structure, 1911–1951: Did it become more middle class?’, New Zealand Sociology, vol. 20, no.1, 2005, pp. 385–416. 39 See R. Erikson and J. H. Goldthorpe, The Constant Flux: A Study of Class Mobility in Industrial Societies, Clarendon Press, New York and Oxford, 1992, pp. 231–77. 40 M. McClure, ‘Body and Soul: Heroic Visions of work in the late nineteenth century’, in B. Dalley and B. Labrum, eds, Fragments: New Zealand Social and Cultural History, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2000, pp. 97–117. 41 J. Goldthorpe, et. al., The Affluent Worker: political attitudes and behaviour, Cambridge University Press, London, 1968. 42 See E. O. Wright, ‘Class Boundaries in Advanced Capitalist Societies’, New Left Review, vol. 98, 1976, pp. 3–41. 43 F. D. Klingender, The Condition of Clerical Labour in Britain, Martin Lawrence, London, 1935, pp. xi–xvi; H. Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capitalism: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century, Monthly Review Press, New York and London, 1974, pp. 293–374. 44 C. Wright Mills, White Collar: The American Middle Classes, Galaxy Books, New York, 1951; D. Lockwood, The Blackcoated Worker: A study in class consciousness, Unwin University Books, London, 1958, pp. 87–9. 45 M. Nolan, ‘Uniformity and Diversity: A Case Study of Female Shop and Office Workers in Victoria, 1880 to 1939’, Unpublished PhD thesis, ANU, 1990. 46 D. G. Pearson, Johnsonville, continuity and change in a New Zealand township, George Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1980, pp. 109–12. 47 E. Olssen and H. James, ‘Social Mobility and Class Formation: The Worklife Social Mobility of Men in a New Zealand Suburb, 1902–1928’, International Review of Social History, vol. 44, 1999, pp. 419–49.

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48 Olssen and Hickey, Class and Occupation, p. 134. 49 F. L. Jones and P. Davis, Models of society: class, stratification, and gender in Australia and New Zealand, Croom Helm, Sydney, 1986. 50 E. Olssen, ‘“For Better or Worse”: Marriage Patterns in Dunedin’s Southern Suburbs, 1881–1938’, in E. Olssen and M. Fairburn, eds, Class, Gender and the Vote: Historical Perspectives from New Zealand, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2005, p. 98. 51 M. Nolan, ‘Gender and the Politics of Keeping Left: Wellington Labour Women and their Community 1912–1949’, in B. Brookes and D. Page, eds, Communities of Women: Historical Perspectives, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2002, pp. 147–61. 52 W. H. Oliver, ‘Reeves, Sinclair and the Social Pattern’, in P. Munz, ed., The Feel of Truth, Reed, Wellington, 1969, p. 165. 53 M. Fairburn, The Ideal Society and Its Enemies: the foundations of modern New Zealand society, 1850–1900, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1989. 54 A. de Tocqueville, The Old Regime and the Revolution, Anchor Books, New York, 1955; E. Durkheim, Suicide, Free Press, Glencoe, 1951. 55 K. Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, 1852. Frederick Engels to Florecen Kelly Wischnawetsky, 6 March 1886, in K. Marx and F. Engels, Selected Correspondence 1846–1895, New York, 1942, p. 449. 56 V. Pareto, Mind and Society, vol. 3, New York, 1963, pp. 1430–1. 57 P. Sorokin, Social and Cultural Mobility, Free Press, New York, 1959 [first published 1927]. 58 P. Blau and O. D. Duncan, The American Occupational Structure, Wiley, New York, 1967, pp. 433–4. 59 S. M. Lipset and R. Bendix, Social Mobility in Industrial Society, 2nd edn, 1992, p. xix. 60 M. McKinnon, ed., New Zealand Historical Atlas, Bateman, Auckland 1997, plate 51. 61 J. E. Martin, Holding the Balance: A history of New Zealand’s Department of Labour 1891–1995, Canterbury University Press, Christchurch, 1996, pp. 267–78, 319–25. 62 Fairburn, Ideal Society and Its Enemies. 63 New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 25, no. 2, 1991. 64 J. McAloon, ‘Class in Colonial New Zealand: Towards a Historiographical Rehabilitation’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 38, no. 1, 2004, pp. 3–21. 65 M. Fairburn, ‘Social Mobility and Opportunity in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 13, no. 1, 1979, pp. 43–63 (p. 60). 66 Fairburn, ‘Social Mobility and Opportunity in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand’, pp. 43–63; M. Fairburn, “‘Rural Myth and New Urban Frontier”: An Approach to New Zealand Social History, 1870–1940’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 9, no.1, 1975, pp. 3–21. 67 New Zealand Statutes, Factory Act 1894. 68 Olssen and Fairburn, eds, Class, Gender and the Vote, p. 14. 69 S. Eldred-Grigg, A southern gentry: New Zealanders who inherited the earth, Reed, Wellington, 1980; J. McAloon, No idle rich: the wealthy in Canterbury and Otago 1840–1914, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2002. 70 W. Ranstead, ‘The Socialist Canaan, Life and Laws in New Zealand’, Clarion, 6 January 1900. 71 E. Dieffenbach, Travels in New Zealand, January 1840, cited in B. Wells, The History of Taranaki, Edmundson and Avery, New Plymouth, 1878, p. 41; F. A. Carrington, The Land Question of Taranaki, New Plymouth, 1858, Hocken Pamphlets 244, p. 10. 72 K. Sinclair, ‘Te Tikanga Pakeke: The Maori Anti-Land-Selling Movement in Taranaki 1849–59’, in Munz, ed., The Feel of Truth, pp. 80–1; H. Riseborough, Days of Darkness: Taranaki 1878–1884, Wellington, 1989. 73 A. Ballara, Iwi: The dynamics of Maori tribal organisation from c.1769 to c.1945, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1998. 74 M. King, Moriori: A People Revisited, Viking, Auckland, 1989, pp. 57–61; E. Dieffenbach, Travels in New Zealand, cited in Wells, History of Taranaki, pp. 21, 26.

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75 D. Hamer, New Zealand Liberals, Auckland University Press, Auckland 1987, p. 52. 76 A. Metin, Socialism Without Doctrine, trans. Russel Ward, Alternative Publishing Co-operative, Chippendale, Australia, 1977 [first published 1901] p. 181; Fairburn, Ideal Society and its Enemies, pp. 42–59. 77 J. A. Dowie, ‘A Century-Old Estimate of the National Income of New Zealand’, Business Archives and History, vol. 6, no. 2, August 1966, pp. 117–31. 78 Belich, Making Peoples, pp. 376–410. 79 Jack McCullough, speech notes, ‘The Moral Aspects of Socialism’, delivered to the East Christchurch Brotherhood, 16 October 1911, McCullough Papers, folder 14, Canterbury Museum. 80 R. Dalziel, ‘Popular Protest in Early New Plymouth: Why did it Occur?’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 20, no. 1, 1994, pp. 3–26. 81 Reeves, State Experiments, vol. 1, p. 74. 82 H. Roth, Trade Unions in New Zealand: Past and Present, Reed, Wellington, 1973, pp. 11–12. 83 Lyttleton Times, 28 October 1889. 84 J. E. Jenkinson to J. A. McCullough, 28 July 1911, Box 1, Folder 1, H. A. Atkinson Papers, Christchurch Museum. 85 J. Wren, Woman’s Work and Destiny: Paper Read to the Thames Mutual Improvement Association, Thames, 1884, Alexander Turnbull Library. 86 J. Vogel, Anno Domini 2000: or, Woman’s Destiny, Hutchinson, London, 1889. 87 Reeves, State Experiments, passim. 88 W. B. Sutch, The Quest for Security in New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Wellington and New York, 1966. 89 J. MacGregor, Member for Otago, New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, vol. 79, 1893, pp. 10–11. 90 G. Blainey, ‘Dry and Drier’, The Australian, 30 December 2006. 91 M. Nolan and P. Walsh, ‘Labour’s Leg Iron? Assessing Trade Unions and Arbitration in New Zealand’, in P. Walsh, ed., Trade Unions, Work and Society. The Centenary of the Arbitration System, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1994, pp. 9–37. 92 Sawer, The Ethical State? Social Liberalism in Australia, citing T. H. Green. 93 Olssen and Hickey, Class and Occupation, p. 59. 94 M. N. Galt, ‘Wealth and Income in New Zealand c1870–1939’, Unpublished PhD thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 1985, p. 182. 95 A. A. Congalton and R. J. Havighurst, ‘Status ranking of occupations in New Zealand’, Australian Journal of Psychology, vol. 6, June 1954. 96 E. Olssen, Building the New World: Work, Politics and Society in Caversham, 1880s–1920s, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1995, p. 1. 97 E. Olssen, Building the New World, p. 246. 98 F. G. Castles, The working class and welfare: reflections on the political development of the welfare state in Australia and New Zealand, 1890–1980, Allen and Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, Wellington, 1985. 99 1871 Parliamentary Select Committee on Chinese Immigration. 100 S. A. Frogley, ‘“The Horrible Yellow Man from Far Cathay”: A Study of the Attitudes of the Europeans in New Zealand towards the Chinese in New Zealand 1880 to 1906’, Unpublished MA thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 1989. 101 See M. Nolan, Kin: A Collective Biography of a Working-Class New Zealand Family, Canterbury University Press, Christchurch, 2005. 102 D. Thomson, ‘Society and Social Welfare’, in C. Davis and P. Lineham, eds, The Future of the Past: Themes in New Zealand History, Massey University, Palmerston North, 1991, pp. 98–120. 103 T. Brooking, Lands for the People? The Highland Clearances and the Colonisation of New Zealand. A Biography of John McKenzie, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 1997.

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104 B. J. G. Thompson, ‘The Canterbury Farm Labourers’ Dispute 1907-1908’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 1967. 105 ‘Unemployment in New Zealand’, First Section of Report of Committee, AJHR, 1929, H-11B; ‘Unemployment in New Zealand’. Second Section of Report of Committee, AJHR, 1930, H-11B; Unemployment Act 1930. 106 T. Simpson, The Sugarbag Years: an oral history of the 1930s depression in New Zealand, Hodder and Stoughton, Auckland, 1984 [first published 1974]. 107 In those days: a study of older women in Wellington, Wellington Branch, Society for Research on Women in New Zealand, Wellington, 1982. 108 E. D. Simon, The Smaller Democracies, Gollancz, London, 1939, p. 172. 109 W. Rosenberg, ‘Full Employment: The fulcrum of social welfare’, in A. D. Trlin, ed., Social Welfare and New Zealand Society, Methuen, Wellington, 1977, pp. 45–60. 110 See Fraser’s comments on the Employment Act 1945, New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, September 1945. 111 L. Lipson, The Politics of Equality: New Zealand’s Adventures in Democracy, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1947, pp. 8–9. 112 Sutch, The Quest for Security in New Zealand, 1840–1966, p. xii. 113 Sutch, The Quest for Security in New Zealand, 1840–1966, passim. 114 K. Sinclair, A History of New Zealand, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1969 [first published 1959], pp. 284–6. 115 Sinclair, A History of New Zealand, pp. 284–6. 116 G. Ferguson, Building the New Zealand Dream, Dunmore/Historical Branch, Palmerston North, 1994; B. Schrader, We Call it Home: A History of State Housing in New Zealand, Reed, Auckland, 2005. 117 Nolan, Breadwinning, pp. 276-9. 118 S. Elworthy, ‘Social Change and the State: the emergency of a benefit for Unmarried Mothers in New Zealand’, BA Hons Essay, University of Otago, 1988. 119 B. Pearson, ‘Fretful sleepers: a sketch of New Zealand behaviour and its implications for the artist’, Landfall, vol. 6, no. 23, September 1952, pp. 201–30; R. M. Burdon, ‘The Rules of Conformity’, in McLintock, An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, pp. 673–4. 120 D. Pearson and D. Thorns, Eclipse of Equality: Social Stratification in New Zealand, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1983. 121 C. Wilkes, ‘Class’, in P. Spoonley, et al., New Zealand Society, 2nd edn, Dunmore, Palmerston North, 1994, p. 67. 122 D. Pitt, ‘Are there Social Classes in New Zealand?’, in D. Pitt, ed., Social Class in New Zealand, Longman Paul, Auckland, 1977, p. 5. 123 T. Hazledine and J. Siegfried, ‘How Did the Wealthiest New Zealanders Get So Rich?’, New Zealand Economic Papers, 31, 1997, pp. 35–47; S. Eldred-Grigg, Rich: A New Zealand History, Penguin, Auckland, 1996; P. Crampton, C. Salmond, R. Kirkpatrick with R. Scarborough and C. Skelly, Degrees of Deprivation in New Zealand: An Atlas of Socioeconomic Difference, David Bateman, Auckland, 2000. 124 ‘Our Labour market underclass’, Dominion Post, 4 September 2006, C3. 125 E. Olssen, T. Brooking, B. Heenan, H. James, B. McLennan and C. Griffen, ‘Urban Society and the opportunity structure in New Zealand, 1902-22: the Caversham Project’, Social History, vol. 24, no. 1, January 1999, pp. 39, 40, 54. 126 Olssen and Hickey, Class and Occupation, p. 50. 127 Sorokin, Social and Cultural Mobility, p. 18. 128 Erikson and Goldthorpe, The Constant Flux. 129 V. Krishnan and J. Jensen, ‘Trends in economic wellbeing: Changing patterns in New Zealand 1989 to 2001’, Working Paper 08/04, Ministry of Social Development, Wellington, 2004.

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130 School Roll in R. and W. B. Spence, Hukarere Centenary 1875–1975, Napier, 1975, pp. 59–63. 131 D. M. T. T. Hall and S. Leibowitz, ‘Hall, Mere Haana 1880/81-1966’, in The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Vol. 4, 1921–1940, Auckland, 1998, pp. 215–16. 132 M. P. K. Sorrenson, ‘Ngata, Apirana Turupa 1874–1950’, in The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Volume 3, 1901–1920, Auckland University Press/Department of Internal Affairs, Auckland, 1996, pp. 359–63; M. P. K. Sorrenson, ‘Modern Maori: The Young Maori Party to Mana Motuhake’, in K. Sinclair, ed., The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1990, pp. 323–51. 133 New Zealand Official Year-book, 1955, Wellington, 1955, p. 671. 134 Report of the Commission on , Wellington, 1962, p. 7000. 135 M. Bassett (with M. King), Tomorrow Comes the Song: A Life of Peter Fraser, Penguin, Auckland, 2000, p. 144. 136 M. Nolan, ‘Putting the State in its Place: the Domestic Education Debate in New Zealand’, History of Education, vol. 30, no. 1, 2001, pp. 13–33. 137 Reports of the Minister of Education, AJHR, E1, 1920–1950. 138 Department of Education, The Post-Primary School Curriculum: Report of the Committee Appointed by the Minister of Education in November 1942 (The Thomas Report), 2nd edn [first published 1944] Wellington, 1959, pp. 17–18. 139 C. Whitehead, ‘The Thomas Report—A Study in Educational Reform’, New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, vol. 9, no. 1, 1974, pp. 52–64. 140 J. Metge, A New Maori Migration: Rural and Urban Relations in Northern New Zealand, Athlone Press/Melbourne University Press, London and Melbourne 1964. 141 H. Holst. ‘The Maori Schools in Rural Education’, Education, Department of Education, vol. 7, March 1958, pp. 53–9. 142 I. Davey, ‘Capitalism, and the Origins of Mass Schooling’, History of Education Review, vol. 16, no. 2, 1987, pp. 1–12. 143 D. McKenzie, ‘The Growth of School Credentialing in New Zealand, 1878–1900’, in R. Openshaw and D. McKenzie, eds, Reinterpreting the Educational Past: Essays in the History of New Zealand Education, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, Wellington, 1987, pp. 82–121. 144 Kaa-Oldman, ‘A History of New Zealand Education from a Maori Perspective’, in W. Hirsh and R. Scott, eds, Getting it Right, Race Relations Office, Auckland, 1988, p. 24. 145 New Zealand Official Yearbook. 146 H. Lee, ‘The New Zealand Junior Civil Service Examination Reconsidered: A Study of the Changing Function of a Competitive Examination, 1900-1912’, History of Education Review, vol. 16, no. 2, 1987, pp. 57–68. 147 B. Karran, ‘“She Stoops to Conquer”: Feminisation of Clerical Workforce in New Zealand 1890 to 1935’, BA Hons Essay, University of Otago, 1991, pp. 79, 96. 148 S. Brown, ‘Female Office Workers in Auckland, 1891–1936’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Auckland, 1993, p. 106. 149 See Evening Accountancy Students Journal, August 1932, ATL. 150 R. Openshaw and D. McKenzie, Reinterpreting the Educational Past, p. 2. 151 A. G. Butchers, Education in New Zealand: an historical survey of educational progress amongst the Europeans and the Maoris since 1878, Coulls Somerville Wilkie, Dunedin, 1930, p. 5. 152 Cited by R. Opensha, G. Lee and H. Lee., Challenging the Myths, Dunmore, Palmerston North, 1993, p. 89. 153 P. Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron, Reproduction in Education, society and culture, Sage, London, 1977. 154 R. Shuker, The One Best System? A Revisionist History of State Schooling in New Zealand, Dunmore, Palmerston North, 1987, p. 7; R. Nash, ‘Education’, in P. Spoonley, et al., New Zealand Society: A Sociological Introduction, 2nd edn, Dunmore, Palmerston North, 1994 [first published 1990], pp. 173–4.

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155 T. McWhinnie, ‘Same Street, Different Worlds: Secondary School Years in Masterton, 1945–1960’, Unpublished MA thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 1995. 156 P. B. Hurricks, ‘Reactions to Urbanisation in New Zealand During the Nineteen-Twenties’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 1975. 157 Government Statistician, Population Estimates, 30 June 2002. 158 J. B. Condliffe, New Zealand in the Making, Allen and Unwin, London, 1930, pp. 11–20. 159 L. D. B. Heenan, ‘Population Redistribution and Internal Migration’, in ESCAP, ed., Population of New Zealand, ESCAP Country Monograph Series, vol. 1, no. 12, New York, 1985, pp. 90–117. 160 I. Pool, Te Iwi Maori: A New Zealand Population: Past, Present and Projected, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1991, p. 141. 161 New Zealand Census, 2001. 162 J. Forster and P. D. K. Ramsay, ‘Migration, Education and Occupation: The Maori Population 1936–66’, in J. Forster, ed., Social Processes in New Zealand, Longman Paul, Auckland, 1969, pp. 198–232; G. V. Butterworth, Nga Take I Neke Ai Te Maori: Maori Mobility, Manatu Maori Report, Wellington, 1991. 163 I am grateful to Malcolm McKinnon for this estimate: and . 164 R. D. Bedford and I. Pool, ‘Flirting with Zelinsky in Aotearoa/New Zealand: a Maori mobility transition’, in J. Taylor and M. Bell, eds, Population Mobility and Indigenous Peoples in Australasia and North America, Routledge, London, 2004, pp. 44–74. 165 See J. K. Hunn, ‘Report on Department of Maori Affairs with statistical Supplement’, AJHR, 1961, G 10. 166 B. Patterson, ed., Ulster-New Zealand migration and cultural transfers, Four Courts Press, Dublin, 2005. 167 Rehabilitation Board, AJHR, H-18, 1963. 168 J. V. T. Baker, The New Zealand People at War: War Economy, Historical Publications Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington 1965, pp. 518–19. 169 ‘Equal Pay in New Zealand’, ANZ Quarterly Survey, January 1973, pp. 22–4; New Zealand Manufacturer, 13 December 1971, 26–28 August 1972, p. 11, ATL. 170 Equal Pay Implementation in New Zealand: Report of a committee appointed by the Minister of Labour, June 1979’, AJHR, 1979. 171 J. M. Keenan, ‘Commissions of conscience? Governments, royal commissions and Maori land claims, 1920s–1940s’, Unpublished MA thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 2001. 172 J. C. Bellingham, ‘The Office of Treaty Settlements and Treaty History: A Historiographical study of the historical accounts, acknowledgements and apologies written by the Crown, 1992 to 2003’, Unpublished MA thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 2006, p. 51. 173 Baker, The War Economy, p. 77. 174 See Nolan, Breadwinning, pp. 230–66. 175 NZ Council of Trade Unions, Closing the Gap, Presentations to the Forum on Equal Pay, 13 June 1997, Wellington, 1997; ‘Election 1999: Closing social gaps “hardest challenge”’, New Zealand Herald, 22 December 1999; ACT Members of Parliament, Closing the gaps: policy paper by ACT, Wellington, 2001. 176 P. Walsh, ‘The Rejection of Corporatism: Trade Unions, Employers and the State in New Zealand 1960–1977’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Minnesota, 1984; P. Walsh, ‘An “unholy alliance”: The 1968 Nil Wage Order’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 20, no. 2, 1994, pp. 178–93. 177 New Zealand Official Yearbook, 1995, p. 487. 178 B. Dalley, Living in the 20th Century, Bridget Williams Books and Craig Potton Publishing, Wellington, 2000, pp. 142–71. 179 D. Thorns, ‘Housing Policy in the 1990s—New Zealand a Decade of Change’, Housing Studies, vol. 15, no. 1, 2000, pp. 129–38.

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180 M. Atterhog, Do Government Incentives Make More People Own their Own Homes? An International Survey and Analysis, Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 2004. 181 Dominion Post, 31 July 2006, p. A4; 1 August 2006, p. A7. 182 D. Thomson, Selfish generations? The ageing of New Zealand’s welfare state, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1991. 183 R. P. Hargreaves, T. J. Hearn and S. Little, ‘The State and Housing in New Zealand to 1919’, New Zealand Geographer, vol. 41, no. 2, 1985, pp. 46–55; Pearson, Johnsonville, pp. 110–14. 184 Strang, ‘Welfare in Transition’. 185 T. Brooking, ‘Economic Transformation’, in Rice, ed., Oxford History of New Zealand, p. 247. 186 Schrader, We Call it Home. 187 Ferguson, Building the New Zealand Dream. 188 Dunstall, ‘The Social Pattern’, p. 458. 189 A. Gregg, ‘Panic Attacks: The New Right, Media and Welfare Reform in New Zealand, 1987–1998’, Unpublished MA thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 2004. 190 Nolan, Kin, pp. 169–70. 191 L. Bloy, ‘“Class” in the Eye of the Beholder in 1930s and 1940s New Zealand Society’, in Olssen and Fairburn, eds, Class, Gender and Vote, pp. 175–91. 192 Pearson, Johnsonville, p. 145. 193 E. Rose, J. Huakau, P. Sweetsur and S. Casswell, Social Values A Report from the New Zealand Values Study 2005, Centre for Social and Health Outcomes Research and Evaluation and Te Ropu Whariki, Massey University, Auckland, 2005. 194 Ministry of Social Development, New Zealand Living Standards, Wellington, 2004; 2006 Social Report, Wellington, 2006. 195 Dominion Post, 9 August 2006, p. A2.

chapter 16: The Changing Meanings and Practices of Welfare, 1840s–1990s 1 J. Martin, ‘The Highway to Health and Happiness in the Government Court’, in W. Renwick, ed., Creating a National Spirit: Celebrating New Zealand’s Centennial, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 2004, pp. 54–64. 2 Martin, ‘The Highway to Health and Happiness in the Government Court’, p. 57. 3 J. Phillips, ‘Afterword: Reading the 1940 Centennial’, in W. Renwick, ed., Creating a National Spirit, pp. 280–1. 4 Martin, ‘The Highway to Health and Happiness in the Government Court’, p. 63. 5 J. Campbell, ‘Social Security and the Welfare State’, New Zealand’s Heritage, vol. 17, p. 2376, cited in M. Tennant, Paupers and Providers: Charitable Aid in New Zealand, Allen and Unwin/ Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1989, p. 6. 6 D. Thomson, A World without Welfare: New Zealand’s Colonial Experiment, Auckland University Press/Bridget Williams Books, Auckland, 1998, p. 2; M. McClure, A Civilised Community: A History of Social Security in New Zealand 1898–1998, Auckland University Press/Historical Branch Department of Internal Affairs, Auckland, 1998, p. 3; Tennant, Paupers and Providers, pp. 4, 6; M. Tennant, ‘History and Social Policy: Perspectives from the Past’, in B. Dalley and M. Tennant, eds, Past Judgement: History and Social Policy in New Zealand, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2004, pp. 9–22. 7 Exceptions include W. B. Sutch, Poverty and progress in New Zealand, Modern Books, Wellington, 1941; W. B. Sutch, Poverty and Progress in New Zealand: A Reassessment, Wellington, Reed, 1969; K. Sinclair, A History of New Zealand, Penguin, Harmondsworth [first published 1959];

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M. Bassett, The State in New Zealand, 1840–1984: socialism without doctrines?, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1998. 8 Tennant, ‘History and Social Policy’, pp. 9–10. 9 J. Belich, Making Peoples: a history of the New Zealanders from Polynesian settlement to the end of the nineteenth century, Penguin, Auckland, 1996; J. Belich, Paradise Reforged: a history of the New Zealanders from the 1880s to the year 2000, Penguin, Auckland, 2001; K. Sinclair, ed., The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1990; W. H. Oliver, with B. R. Williams, eds, The Oxford History of New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1981; D. Denoon and P. Mein-Smith, with Marivic Wyndham, A History of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, 2000; P. Mein-Smith, A Concise History of New Zealand, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005. 10 See Tennant, ‘History and Social Policy’, passim; M. Tennant, The Fabric of Welfare: Voluntary Organisations, Government and Welfare in New Zealand, 1840–2005, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, pp. 10–20. 11 J. Lewis, ‘Family Provision of Health and Welfare in the mixed economy of care in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries’, Social History of Medicine, vol. 8, no. 1, 1995, pp. 1–16. See also M. Tennant, ‘Mixed Economy or Moving Frontier? Welfare, the Voluntary Sector and Government’, in Dalley and Tennant, eds, Past Judgement, pp. 39–56; M. Tennant, The Fabric of Welfare, passim. 12 B. Labrum, ‘Family Needs and Family Desires: Discretionary State Welfare in New Zealand, 1920–1970’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 2000. 13 Tennant, Fabric of Welfare, p. 28. See also W. H. Oliver, ‘Social Policy in New Zealand: An Historical Overview’, New Zealand Today: Report of the Royal Commission on Social Policy, vol. 1, Government Printer, Wellington, 1988, pp. 4–5; Thomson, A World Without Welfare, p. 3. 14 See D. Janiewski and P. Morris, New Rights New Zealand: Myths, Moralities and Markets, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2005, esp. chap. 10; A. Gregg, ‘Panic Attacks: The New Right, Media and Welfare Reform in New Zealand, 1987–1998’, Unpublished MA Thesis, History, Victoria University of Wellington, 2004. 15 McClure, A Civilised Community, p. 83; Thomson, A World Without Welfare, p. 3. 16 See F. Iacovetta and W. Mitchinson, eds, On the Case: Explorations in Social History, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1998; Tennant, ‘History and Social Policy’, passim. 17 During the 1990s, 19 per cent of households (and around a third of children) lived below the poverty line. C. Waldegrave, R. Stephens and P. King, ‘Assessing the Progress on Poverty Reduction’, Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, Issue 20, June 2003, p. 197. 18 M. Nolan, Breadwinning: New Zealand Women and the State, Canterbury University Press, Christchurch, 2000, p. 29; L. Bryder and M. Tennant, ‘Introduction [to Special Issue on social welfare]’, NZJH, vol. 32, no. 2, 1998, p. 91. 19 See A. Harris, ‘Maori and the Maori Affairs’, in Dalley and Tennant, eds, Past Judgement, pp. 191–206; D. Keenan, ‘The Treaty is Always Speaking? Government Reporting on Maori Aspirations and Treaty Meanings’, in Dalley and Tennant, eds, Past Judgement, pp. 207–24. 20 Tennant, ‘Mixed Economy or Moving Frontier?’, p. 41. See also Oliver, ‘Social Policy in New Zealand: An Historical Overview’, pp. 4–5. 21 Tennant, ‘Mixed Economy or Moving Frontier?’, p. 18. 22 See I. Pool, Te Iwi Maori: A New Zealand Population Past, Present and Projected, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1991; A. Salmond, Between Worlds: Early Exchanges Between Maori and Europeans, 1773–1815, Viking, Auckland, 1977. 23 Carol Archie, ‘Maori concepts of philanthropy’, Philanthropy in New Zealand, Issue 2, 2001, pp. 4–5. 24 Cited in Tennant, Fabric of Welfare, p. 108. 25 Archie, ‘Maori concepts of philanthropy’, p. 5. 26 See P. Monin, This is My Place: Hauraki Contested, 1769–1875, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2nd edn, 2006.

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27 See Special Issue, NZJH, vol. 25, no. 2, 1991; C. Macdonald, ‘Too Many Men and Too Few Women: Gender’s Fatal Impact in Nineteenth-Century Colonies’, in C. Daley and D. Montgomerie, eds, The Gendered Kiwi, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999, pp. 17–36. 28 Thomson, World Without Welfare, p. 68. 29 See R. Arnold, New Zealand’s Burning: The Settlers’ World in the mid-1880s, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1994; R. Arnold, Settler Kaponga 1881–1914: A Frontier Fragment of the Western World, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1997; C. Daley, Girls & Women, Men & Boys: Gender in Taradale, 1886–1930, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999. 30 Tennant, Fabric of Welfare, pp. 32–3. 31 Tennant, Fabric of Welfare, p. 23. 32 J. Carlyon, ‘New Zealand Friendly Societies, 1842–1941’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Auckland, 2001. 33 H. Dollery, ‘Social Service, Social Justice or a Matter of Faith? The Palmerston North Methodist Social Service Centre 1963–2000’, Unpublished MA Thesis, Massey University, 2005, p. 32. 34 P. Lineham, ‘The Voice of Inspiration? Religious Contributions to Social Policy’, in Dalley and Tennant, eds, Past Judgement, pp. 60–1. 35 Tennant, Fabric of Welfare, p. 60. 36 J. McAloon, No Idle Rich: The Wealthy in Canterbury and Otago 1840–1914, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2002, p. 156. 37 Tennant, Fabric of Welfare, p. 43; R. Nicholls, ‘Elite Society’, in D. Hamer and R. Nicholls, eds, The Making of Wellington, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1990, p. 222. 38 Tennant, Paupers and Providers, pp. 12–14; Thomson, World Without Welfare, pp. 22–7. 39 C. Bayvel, ‘Destitution, Desertion and Illegitimacy: New Zealand’s Nineteenth Century Maintenance Legislation and its Operation in Dunedin Magistrate’s Court, 1890–1900’, BA Hons Thesis, University of Otago, 1994; F. Kean, ‘Illegitimacy, Maintenance and Agency: Unmarried Mothers and Putative Fathers in Auckland, 1900–1910’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Waikato, 2002. 40 Tennant, Paupers and Providers, p. 24. 41 A. Cooper and M. Horan, ‘Down and Out on the Flat: the Gendering of Poverty’, in B. Brookes, A. Cooper and R. Law, eds, Sites of Gender: Women, Men and Modernity in Southern Dunedin, 1890–1939, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2003, p. 193. 42 Tennant, Paupers and Providers, p. 156; B. Labrum, ‘Hand me downs and respectability: clothing and the needy’, in B. Labrum, F. McKergow and S. Gibson, eds, Looking Flash: clothing in Aotearoa New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2007, pp. 112–31. 43 Tennant, Paupers and Providers, pp. 19, 21. 44 Tennant, Paupers and Providers, p. 47. 45 Tennant, Paupers and Providers, p. 23. 46 P. Mein-Smith, Concise History of New Zealand, p. 96. 47 Cooper and Horan, ‘Down and Out on the Flat’, p. 192; Tennant, Paupers and Providers, passim; Thomson, World Without Welfare, passim; P. Husbands, ‘Poverty in Freeman’s Bay 1886–1913’, NZJH, vol. 28, no. 1, 1993, pp. 3–21. 48 Cooper and Horan, ‘Down and Out on the Flat’, p. 193. 49 See Cooper and Horan, ‘Down and Out on the Flat’, pp. 190–1. 50 Tennant, Paupers and Providers, p. 87. 51 Tennant, Fabric of Welfare, p. 35. 52 See B. Bradbury, ‘From Civil Death to Separate Property: Changes in the Legal Rights of Married Women in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand’, NZJH, vol. 29, no. 1, 1995, pp. 40–66. 53 Nolan, Breadwinning, pp. 69–70. 54 Fraser, New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, vol. 111, 1900, p. 506, cited in R. Atherton, ‘New Zealand’s Testator’s Family Maintenance Act of 1900—The Stouts, The Women’s Movement and Political Compromise’, Otago Law Review, vol. 7, no. 2, 1990, p. 220.

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55 M. Tennant, ‘New Zealand Federation of Home and Family Societies’, in A. Else, ed., Women Together: A History of Women’s Organisations in New Zealand/Nga Ropu Wahine o te Motu, Daphne Brasell and Associates/Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1993, p. 133; R. Dalziel, : The Auckland Home and Family Society, 1893–1993, The Society, Auckland, 1993. 56 McClure, A Civilised Community, p. 15. 57 McClure, A Civilised Community, p. 19. 58 G. Whyte, ‘Beyond the Statute: Administration of Old-age Pensions to 1938’, in Dalley and Tennant, eds, Past Judgement, pp. 125–40. 59 McClure, A Civilised Community, p. 24. 60 Whyte, ‘Beyond the Statute’, pp. 132–5. 61 See Oliver, ‘Social Welfare: Social Justice or Social Efficiency?’, NZJH, vol. 13, no. 1, 1979, pp. 5–33; Oliver, ‘Social Policy in New Zealand’, passim; Tennant, Paupers and Providers, p. 41. 62 E. Olssen, ‘Towards a New Society’, p. 263. 63 J. J. Matthews, Good and Mad Women: The Historical Construction of Femininity in Twentieth Century Australia, George Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1984, p. 74. 64 B. Dalley, Family Matters: Child Welfare in Twentieth-Century New Zealand, Auckland University Press/Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Auckland, 1998, pp. 51–2. 65 B. Dalley, ‘Criminal Conversations: Infanticide, Gender and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand’, in Daley and Montgomerie, eds, Gendered Kiwi, p. 76. 66 For more detail see L. Hood, Minnie Dean: Her Life and Crimes, Penguin Books, Auckland, 1994. 67 Dalley, Family Matters, p. 15. 68 P. Mein-Smith, ‘That Welfare Warfare: Sectarianism in Infant Welfare in Australia, 1918–1939’, in V. Fildes, L. Marks and H. Marland, eds, Women and Children First: International Maternal and Infant Welfare 1870–1945, Routledge, London and New York, 1992, p. 235. 69 See also M. Tennant, Children’s Health, The Nation’s Wealth: A History of Children’s Health Camps, Bridget Williams Books/Historical Branch, Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1994, pp. 14–24. 70 See P. Fleming, ‘ in New Zealand, 1900–1940’, Unpublished MA Thesis, Massey University, 1981. 71 P. Mein-Smith, ‘Mortality in Childbirth in the 1920s and 1930s’, in B. Brookes, C. Macdonald and M. Tennant, eds, Women in History: Essays on European in New Zealand, Allen and Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, Wellington, 1986, pp. 137–55; B. Brookes, ‘: The Debate over Abortion and Birth Control in the 1930s’, in Brookes, Macdonald and Tennant, eds, Women in History, pp. 119–36. 72 See Dalley, Family Matters, pp. 53–6. 73 On how North American practices influenced the development of penal policy in New Zealand, see Tennant, Fabric of Welfare, passim. 74 Nolan, Breadwinning, pp. 87–8. 75 M. Nolan, ‘Keeping New Zealand Home Fires Burning: Gender, Welfare and the First World War’, in J. Crawford and I. McGibbon, eds, New Zealand’s Great War: New Zealand, the Allies and the First World War, Exisle Publishing, Auckland, 2007, p. 504. 76 Tennant, ‘Mixed Economy or Moving Frontier?’, p. 48; S. Johnson, ‘The Home Front: Aspects of Civilian Patriotism in New Zealand during the First World War’, Unpublished MA Thesis, Massey University, 1975; S. J. Piesse, ‘Patriotic Welfare in Otago: A History of the Otago Patriotic and General Welfare Association 1914–1950 and the Otago Provincial Patriotic Council 1939—’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Otago, 1981; S. Luxford, ‘Partners in the Welfare of the Nation: The Involvement of Cambridge Women in Local Patriotic Organisations during the Great War’, BA Honours Research Exercise, Massey University, 2002. 77 Nolan, ‘Keeping New Zealand Home Fires Burning’, p. 515. 78 Nolan, Breadwinning, chap. 5. 79 Nolan, Breadwinning, p. 144.

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80 M. Belgrave, ‘Needs and the State: Evolving Social Policy in New Zealand History’, in Dalley and Tennant, eds, Past Judgement, p. 28. 81 Nolan, Breadwinning, p. 140–1; J. T. Strang, ‘Welfare in Transition: Reform’s Income Support Policy, 1912-1928’, Unpublished MA Thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 1992. 82 McClure, A Civilised Community, pp. 42–4. 83 G. Rice, Black November: The 1918 Influenza Epidemic in New Zealand, Allen and Unwin New Zealand Ltd/ Historical Branch, Departmental of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1988, p. 102. 84 See R. Meha, ‘Women’s Health League, 1937–’, in Else, ed., Women Together, pp. 30–3. 85 Director-General of Health to Under Secretary, Native Department, 19 August 1937, MA 1, 36/1, volume 1, Archives New Zealand (ANZ). 86 C. Orange, ‘An Exercise in Maori Autonomy: The Rise and Demise of the Maori War Effort Organisation’, NZJH, vol. 21, no. 2, April 1987, p. 163. 87 G. V. Butterworth and H. R. Young, Maori Affairs, Iwi Transition Agency/GP Books, Wellington, 1990, p. 74; Orange, ‘An Exercise in Maori Autonomy’, p. 165 (fn 42). 88 Native Minister to Mayor of Auckland, 2 August 1943, Maori Affairs Department files (MA), Series 1, 36/1, volume 1, ANZ, Wellington. 89 Orange, ‘An Exercise in Maori Autonomy’, p. 163; C. Orange, ‘A Kind of Equality: Labour and the Maori People 1935-1949’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 1977, chap. 3. 90 See R. Boast, Buying the land, selling the land: governments and Maori land in the North Island 1865–1921, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 2008, passim. 91 M. King, ‘Between Two Worlds’, in G. Rice, ed., The Oxford History of New Zealand, 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1992, pp. 292–3. 92 See McClure, A Civilised Community, pp. 48–58; E. Olssen, ‘Depression and War (1931–1949)’, in Sinclair, ed., Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand, pp. 211–18. 93 Thomson, Selfish Generations?, pp. 31–2. 94 Cited in Tennant, Fabric of Welfare, p. 110. 95 Thomson, Selfish Generations?, pp. 31–2. 96 McClure, A Civilised Community, p. 60. 97 For further detail see McClure, A Civilised Community, passim. 98 R. Chapman, ‘From Labour to National’, in Rice, ed., Oxford History of New Zealand, p. 352. 99 M. Thorn, Labour activist and MP’s wife, quoted in McClure, A Civilised Community, pp. 81–2. 100 McClure, A Civilised Community, p. 111. 101 King, Penguin History, p. 293. 102 R. Walker, Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou Struggle Without End, Penguin, Auckland, 1990, pp. 197–8; J. Metge, A New Maori Migration, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1964. 103 Orange, ‘An Exercise in Maori Autonomy’, pp. 159–60. 104 McClure, A Civilised Community, pp. 104, 105–6. 105 H. May, Minding Children, Managing Men: Conflict and Compromise in the Lives of Postwar Pakeha Women, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1992, p. 311. 106 Belgrave, ‘Needs and the State’, p. 30. 107 The classic discussion is in G. Esping-Anderson, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1990. 108 J. Belich, Paradise Reforged?, p. 474. 109 McClure, A Civilised Community, p. 154. 110 B. Gustafson, ‘The National Governments and Social Change’, in Sinclair, ed., Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand, p. 291. 111 McClure, A Civilised Community, p. 153. 112 See Esping-Anderson, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, passim.

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113 See B. Labrum, ‘Family needs and family desires’; B. Labrum, ‘Persistent Needs and Expanding Desires: Pakeha families and state welfare in the years of prosperity’, in B. Labrum and B. Dalley, eds, Fragments: New Zealand Social and Cultural History, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2000, pp. 188–210. 114 See P. Haveman, ed., Indigenous People’s Rights in Australia, Canada and New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1999; A. Haebich, Broken Circles: Fragmenting indigenous Families, 1800–2000, Arts Centre Press, Freemantle, 2001. 115 See B. Labrum, ‘Bringing families up to scratch: The distinctive workings of Maori state welfare, 1944–1970’, NZJH, vol. 36, no. 2, 2002, pp. 161–84; B. Labrum, ‘Developing “the essentials of good citizenship and responsibilities” in Maori women: family life, social change and the state in New Zealand, 1944–1970’, Journal of Family History, vol. 29, no. 4, 2004, pp. 446–65. 116 B. Labrum, ‘Negotiating an increasing range of functions: Families and the welfare state’, in Dalley and Tennant, eds, Past Judgement, pp. 157–74. 117 M. Woods, ‘Dissolving the frontiers: Single Maori women’s migration, 1942–1969’, in L. Fraser and K. Pickles, eds, Shifting Centres: Women and Migration in New Zealand History, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2002, pp. 117–34. 118 As the 1952 annual report noted, Appendices to the Journal of the House of Representatives, 1952, G-9, p. 7. See also ‘Historical background’, in A. Rogers and M. Simpson, eds, Te Timitanga Tatau Tatau: Early Stories from Founding Members of the Maori Women’s Welfare League/Te Ropu Wahine Maori Toko i Te Ora, as told to Dame Mira Szaszy, Maori Women’s Welfare League/ Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1993, p. xiv; ‘Charles Bennett’, in Rogers and Simpson, eds, Te Timitanga Tatau Tatau, p. 321. 119 A. Harris, ‘Maori and the Maori Affairs’, in Dalley and Tennant, eds, Past Judgement, pp. 190, 205. 120 See Tennant, Paupers and Providers, pp. 72–4; J. Munro, The Story of Suzanne Aubert, Auckland University Press/Bridget Williams Books, Auckland, 1996; M. Tennant, ‘Sisterly ministrations: The social work of protestant deaconesses in New Zealand 1890-1940’, NZJH, vol. 32, no.1, 1998, pp. 3–22 (p. 20); M. Tennant, ‘New Zealand Federation of Home and Family Societies 1893–’, in Else, ed., Women Together, p. 133. 121 See Tennant, Fabric of Welfare, pp. 74–83. 122 Tennant, Fabric of Welfare, parts two and three. 123 L. J. Gibson, A Stitch in Time, Methodist Social Service Centre, Palmerston North, 1999; H. Dollery, ‘Social Service, Social Justice, or a Matter of Faith? The Palmerston North Methodist Social Service Centre 1963–2000’, Unpublished MA Thesis, Massey University, 2005; Labrum, ‘Hand-Me-Downs and Respectability’, passim. 124 Tennant, Fabric of Welfare, p. 101. 125 Royal Commission of Inquiry into Social Security, Social Security in New Zealand: Report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry, Wellington, Government Printer, 1972, p. 65. 126 McClure, A Civilised Community, pp. 157–8. See also S. Elworthy, ‘Social Change and the State: The Emergence of a Benefit for Unmarried Mothers in New Zealand’, BA Honours Essay, University of Otago, 1988; Nolan, Breadwinning, chap. 9. 127 McClure, A Civilised Community, pp. 193, 210. 128 Dalley, Family Matters, pp. 261–2. 129 McClure, A Civilised Community, p. 211. 130 McClure, A Civilised Community, pp. 206–7. 131 Thomson, Selfish Generations?, passim. 132 Tennant, Fabric of Welfare, p. 193. 133 Belgrave, ‘Needs and the State’, p. 36; Janiewski and Morris, New Rights New Zealand, p. 155. 134 McClure, A Civilised Community, p. 227. 135 Janiewski and Morris, New Rights New Zealand, pp. 154, 158. 136 Belgrave, ‘Needs and the State’, p. 36. 137 Belgrave, ‘Needs and the State’, p. 35.

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138 D. Keenan, ‘The Treaty is Always Speaking? Government Reporting on Maori Aspirations and Treaty Meanings’, in Dalley and Tennant, eds, Past Judgement, pp. 212–16. 139 Belgrave, ‘Needs and the State’, p. 35. 140 Dalley, Family Matters, pp. 8, 264–5. 141 Janiewski and Morris, New Rights New Zealand, pp. 1, 153 ff. 142 Mein-Smith, Concise History of New Zealand, pp. 209–10. 143 A. Else, ‘History lessons: The public history you get when you’re not getting any public history’, in B. Dalley and J. Phillips, eds, Going Public: The Changing Face of New Zealand History, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2001, p. 135. 144 Cited in McClure, A Civilised Community, p. 243. 145 McClure, A Civilised Community, pp. 245–6. 146 M. McClure, ‘A badge of poverty or a symbol of citizenship? Needs, rights and social security, 1935-2000’, in Dalley and Tennant, eds, Past Judgement, pp. 141–56. 147 Tennant, ‘Mixed Economy or Moving Frontier?’, pp. 50–3; Tennant, Fabric of Welfare, part four. 148 M. Durie, Nga Tai Matatu: Tides of Maori Endurance, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2005, p. 50. 149 Thomson, World without Welfare, p. 165. 150 Belgrave, ‘Needs and the State’, p. 38.

chapter 17: Modernity, Consumption and Leisure 1 Thanks to David Braddon-Mitchell, Peter Gibbons and John Stenhouse for comments on this chapter. Recent general histories that have been written in the ‘producer mode’ include J. Belich, Paradise Reforged: A History of the New Zealanders From the 1880s to the Year 2000, Allen Lane The Penguin Press, Auckland, 2001; M. King, The Penguin History of New Zealand, Penguin, Auckland, 2003. The desire for a rural idyll is described in M. Fairburn, The Ideal Society and its Enemies: The Foundation of Modern New Zealand Society, 1850–1900, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1989. 2 See S. Toulmin, Cosmopolis: The Hidden Agenda of Modernity, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1990; A. Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age, Polity, Cambridge, 1991. For a critique see J. Goody, Capitalism and Modernity: The Great Debate, Polity Press, Cambridge, 2004. 3 A. Giddens and C. Pierson, Conversations with Anthony Giddens: Making Sense of Modernity, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1998, p. 94. 4 See P. Bailey, ‘The Politics and Poetics of Modern British Leisure: A late twentieth-century review’, Rethinking History, vol. 3, no. 2, 1999, pp. 131–75; V. de Grazia, with Ellen Fulough, ed., The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective, University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1996; L. B. Glickman, ed., Consumer Society in American History: A Reader, Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London, 1999; M. Kammen, American Culture American Tastes: Social Change and the 20th Century, Basic Books, New York, 1999; P. N. Stearns, American Cool: Constructing a Twentieth-Century Emotional Style, New York University Press, New York and London, 1994. For New Zealand see B. Brookes, E. Olssen and E. Beer, ‘Spare Time? Leisure, Gender and Modernity’, in B. Brookes, A. Cooper and R. Law, eds, Sites of Gender: Women, Men and Modernity in Southern Dunedin 1890–1939, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2003, pp. 151–89; J. Phillips, ‘Men, Women and Leisure Since the Second World War’, in C. Daley and D. Montgomerie, eds, The Gendered Kiwi, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999, pp. 213–33; C. Daley, Girls & Women, Men & Boys: Gender in Taradale 1886–1930, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999, pp. 91–157. 5 ‘Leisure’ comes from the Latin ‘licere’ meaning ‘to be free’. 6 Even Eldred-Grigg’s book is more about the puritan repressors than those who had fun: S. Eldred-Grigg, Pleasures of the Flesh: Sex and Drugs in Colonial New Zealand 1840–1915,

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Reed, Wellington, 1984. On temperance see A. R. Grigg, ‘Prohibition, the Church and Labour: a Programme for Social Reform, 1890–1914’, NZJH, vol. 15, no. 2, 1981, pp. 135–56; A. R. Grigg, ‘Prohibition and Women: The Preservation of an Ideal and a Myth’, NZJH, vol. 17, no. 2, 1983, pp. 144–65; C. Turney, ‘The New Zealand Alliance and Auckland, 1905–1920’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 1996; P. J. Christoffel, ‘Removing Temptation: New Zealand’s Alcohol Restrictions, 1881–2005’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 2006. On censorship see P. Christoffel, Censored: A Short History of Censorship in New Zealand, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1989; C. Watson and R. Shuker, In the Public Good? Censorship in New Zealand, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1998. 7 See Belich’s idea of the ‘tight society’—the notion that New Zealanders were morally repressed: Belich, Paradise Reforged, pp. 157–88. 8 John Norton, editor of the Sydney Truth, claimed to have coined the word ‘wowser’ to describe the religious, prudish people who disapproved of those who drank and engaged in other activities of which the censorious disapproved. See A. Clarke, ‘A godly rhythm: keeping the sabbath in Otago, 1870–1890’, in J. Stenhouse and J. Thomson, eds, Building God’s Own Country: Historical Essays on Religions in New Zealand, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2004, pp. 46–59 (p. 52). 9 M. Fairburn, ‘Is there a Good Case for New Zealand Exceptionalism?’, in T. Ballantyne and B. Moloughney, eds, Disputed Histories: Imagining New Zealand’s Pasts, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2006, p. 166. 10 See A. Gorringe, ‘Consol[ing] Vision? Aspects of early New Zealand television audiences 1960–75’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 2002. 11 Fairburn, ‘Is there a Good Case for New Zealand Exceptionalism?’, p. 150. 12 I. Hofmeyr, in C. A. Bayly, S. Beckert, M. Connelly, I. Hofmeyr, W. Kozol and P. Seed, ‘AHR Conversation on Transnational History’, American Historical Review, vol. 111, no. 5, 2006, p. 1444. 13 For a classic statement of this position see King, Penguin History, p. 518. 14 Kammen, American Culture American Tastes: Social Change and the 20th Century, p. 24. 15 See P. J. Gibbons, ‘The Climate of Opinion’, in G. Rice, ed., The Oxford History of New Zealand, 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1992, pp. 308–36. 16 See also J. Watson, ‘From the Frontier to Cyberspace: a History of Leisure, Recreation and ’, in H. C. Perkins and G. Cushman, eds, Time Out? Leisure, Recreation and Tourism in New Zealand and Australia, Longman, Auckland, 1998, pp. 16–33. 17 Trade Union History Project, Workers’ Holidays in New Zealand: A Brief History, Trade Union History Project, Wellington, 1997, p. 7. 18 ‘Sweating Commission’ (Report of the Royal Commission Appointed to Inquire Into Certain Relations Between the Employers of Certain Kings of Labour and the Persons Employed Therein), Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives (AJHR), H-5, 1890, pp. 28, 56. 19 Trade Union History Project, Workers’ Holidays in New Zealand, p. 18. 20 The Holidays Act 2003 increased the provision to four weeks paid annual leave from 1 April 2007. 21 ‘Returns on Expenditure by Working-Men’, AJHR, H–10, 1893, pp. 40–50. 22 S. Eldred-Grigg, A Southern Gentry: New Zealanders who inherited the earth, Reed, Wellington, 1980, pp. 20, 101. 23 H. Nicholson, The Loving Stitch: A History of Knitting and Spinning in New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1998, p. 32; S. A. G. M. Crawford, ‘A Social History of Nineteenth Century Sport in Otago’, in J. Hinchcliff, ed., The Nature and Meaning of Sport in New Zealand, Centre for Continuing Education, Auckland, 1978, p. 38; M. Bradbury, ed., A History of The Garden in New Zealand, Viking, Auckland, 1995, esp. chaps 4 and 5; L. Shaw, A History of the Dunedin Horticultural Society 1851–2001, The Dunedin Horticultural Society, Dunedin, 2000; K. Raine, ‘Domesticating the Land: Colonial Women’s Gardening’, in B. Dalley and B. Labrum, eds, Fragments: New Zealand Social & Cultural History, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2000, pp. 76–96. 24 For more on rational recreation, see C. Daley, Leisure & Pleasure: Reshaping & Revealing the New Zealand Body 1900–1960, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2003, esp. pp. 4–5.

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25 Bailey, ‘The Politics and Poetics of Modern British Leisure: A late twentieth-century review’, pp. 131–75. 26 D. Verran, ‘Mechanics’ Institutes in the Auckland Province, 1842 to the 1910s’, Auckland-Waikato Historic Journal, vol. 84, 2004, pp. 16–21. 27 See E. L. Ramsay, ‘Art and Industrial Society: The Role of the Toronto Mechanics’ Institute in the Promotion of Art, 1831–1883’, Labour, vol. 43, 1999, pp. 71–103; P. C. Candy and J. A. Laurent, eds, Pioneering Culture: Mechanics’ Institutes and Schools of Art in Australia, Auslib Press, Adelaide, 1994; R. Reinhardt, Four Books, 300 Dollars and A Dream: An Illustrated History of the First 150 Years of the Mechanics’ Institute of San Francisco, Mechanics’ Institute, San Francisco, 2005. 28 J. Rankin, ‘Science and Civic Culture in Colonial New Zealand’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 2006, pp. 109, 104. 29 J. Gifford, Centennial, 1877–1977: Wellington Working Men’s Club and Literary Institute, Wellington Working Men’s Club and Literary Institute, Wellington, 1977, p. 5; The Northern Club, The Northern Club Auckland 1869–, Auckland Star, Auckland, 1954, p. 15. 30 ‘Otago Women’s Club, 1914–1928’, Otago Daily Times, Dunedin, 1928, pp. 3, 8; S. Upton, ‘Women in the Club’, Women’s Studies Journal, vol. 12, no. 1, 1996, pp. 43–60. 31 D. J. Stafford, The Library From The Sea: Nelson Public Library 1842–1992, Friends of the Nelson Library, Nelson, 1992, pp. 3–4; G. Northey, ‘Accessible to All? Libraries in the Auckland Provincial Area, 1842–1919’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 1998. 32 R. Munn and J. Barr, New Zealand Libraries: A Survey of Conditions and Suggestions For Their Improvement, Libraries Association of New Zealand, Christchurch, 1934, p. 5. 33 Lady Barker, Station Life in New Zealand, McMillan and Co., London, 1883, p. 72. The reference to her book club comes from a letter she wrote in 1866. 34 Munn and Barr, New Zealand Libraries, p. 7. The census category changed after 1926. From 1938 separate censuses of libraries were taken. In that year there were 401 public libraries in New Zealand: Census of Public Libraries, 1949, Government Print, Wellington, 1951, p. 3. 35 M. K. Rochester, ‘American Philanthropy Abroad’, Libraries and Culture, vol. 31, no. 2, 1996, pp. 346–53. 36 B. McKeon, ‘The Development of Library Service in New Zealand’, in A. D. Richardson, ed., Library Service in New Zealand, 2nd edn, Wairarapa Education Resource Centre, Masterton, 1995, p. 22. 37 The Census of 1874 revealed that over 92 per cent of Europeans over the age of five years could read: G. T. Bloomfield, New Zealand: A Handbook of Historical Statistics, G. K. Hall and Co., Boston, 1984, p. 111. See also J. Curnow, N. Hopa and J. McRae, eds, Rere atu, taku manu! Discovering history, language and politics in the Maori-language newspapers, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2002; J. Curnow, N. Hope and J. McRae, eds, He Pitopito Korero no te Perehi Maori: Readings from the Maori-Language Press, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2006. 38 B. A. Wright, ‘Exhibiting Pakeha Social History at the Auckland Museum’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 2006, p. 1. 39 B. W. Smyth, The Role of Culture in Leisure , UNESCO, Paris, 1973, p. 22. 40 J. Buzard, J. W. Childers and E. Gillooly, eds, Victorian Prism: Refractions of the Crystal Palace, University of Virginia Press, Charlottesville, 2007. 41 See G. McLean, ‘The Colony Commodified: Trade, Progress and the Real Business of Exhibitions’, in J. M. Thomson, ed., Farewell Colonialism: The New Zealand International Exhibition Christchurch, 1906–07, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1998, p. 29. 42 Auckland Industrial & Mining Exhibition: Opened December 1st, 1898: Official Handbook & Catalogue, Geddis and Blomfield, Auckland, 1898, pp. il, lxxvii–lxxxiii. 43 J. M. Thomson, ‘Sight and Sound: Exhibitions & New Zealand Music 1865–1940’, Music in New Zealand, Autumn 1992, p. 35; A. Eccles, The First New Zealand Exhibition and Dunedin in 1865, Crown Print, Dunedin, 1925, p. 16. 44 Auckland Industrial & Mining Exhibition, p. lxii.

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45 T. Duval, ‘Arai-te-uru Pa 1906–07 N. Z. International Exhibition’, Te Karanga, vol. 2, no. 4, 1987, pp. 5–17; J. Cowan, Official Record of the New Zealand International Exhibition of Arts and Industries, Held at Christchurch, 1906–7—A Descriptive and Historical Account, Government Printer, Wellington, 1910, pp. 308–52. 46 E. Johnston, ‘Representing the Pacific at International Exhibitions 1851–1940’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Auckland, 1999. 47 The idea of a ‘national signature’ is taken from B. Dibley, ‘Telling Times: Narrating Nation at the New Zealand International Exhibition 1906–7’, Sites, no. 34, Autumn 1997, pp. 1–18 (esp. p. 7). See Johnston, ‘Representing the Pacific’, for a discussion of Native North Americans (p. 139) and Samoans (esp. pp. 91, 122–6) and on the representation of Maori, pp. 213–14, 232–46, 250–2, 257–68, 283–4, 290–306, 318–19. 48 See Thomson, ed., Farewell Colonialism; W. L. Renwick, ed., Creating a National Spirit: Celebrating New Zealand’s Centennial, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 2004. 49 Thomson, ‘Sight and Sound’, p. 34. 50 See P. Gibbons, ‘The Far Side of the Search for Identity: Reconsidering New Zealand History’, NZJH, vol. 37, no. 1, 2003, esp. p. 47. 51 Eccles, The First New Zealand Exhibition and Dunedin in 1865, p. 9. 52 P. Shaw, ‘“Supreme in All Its Towered Majesty of White and Gold”: The Exhibition Architecture’, in Thomson, ed., p. 45; W. Toomath, ‘New Zealand Displayed: Anscombe’s 1940 Exhibition Design’, in Renwick, ed., Creating a National Spirit: Celebrating New Zealand’s Centennial, p. 43. 53 See M. Law, On Parade: The First 100 Years of the Horowhenua Agricultural, Pastoral and Industrial Association, Horowhenua Agricultural, Pastoral and Industrial Association, Levin, 2006. 54 See Rev. J. Cocker and J. Malton Murray, eds, Temperance and Prohibition in New Zealand, The Epworth Press, London, 1930. 55 J. Phillips, A Man’s Country? The Image of the Pakeha Male—A History, rev. edn, Auckland, Penguin, 1996, p. 55. 56 J. Dannenbaum, ‘The Origins of Temperance Activism and Militancy among American Women’, Journal of Social History, vol. 15, no. 2, 1981, p. 235. 57 J. M. Freeland, The Australian Pub, Melbourne University Press, Carlton, 1966, pp. 173–4, 192; W. Phillips, ‘“Six O’Clock Swill”: The Introduction of Early Closing of Hotel Bars in Australia’, Historical Studies, vol. 19, no. 75, 1981, pp. 250–66. 58 For more on the ‘culture of constraint’ see Daley, Leisure & Pleasure, passim. 59 The City Band of Hope was formed in Auckland in 1859. The first temperance society founded in Dunedin, in 1864, was a Band of Hope: Cocker and Murray, Temperance and Prohibition in New Zealand, pp. 31, 44. 60 Bloomfield, New Zealand: A Handbook of Historical Statistics, p. 110. 61 See J. Stenhouse, ‘Darwinism in New Zealand, 1859–1900’, in R. L. Numbers and J. Stenhouse, eds, Disseminating Darwinism: The Role of Place, Race, Religion, and Gender, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999, pp. 61–89 (p. 62). 62 Parks Committee Minutes, 25 March 1930 and 17 December 1934, ACC 107, Auckland City Council Archives, Auckland. 63 Daley, Leisure & Pleasure, pp. 215–25. 64 For a discussion of physical education in schools see Daley, Leisure & Pleasure, pp. 197–215. 65 Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity, p. 15. 66 Giddens and Pierson, Conversations, p. 110. 67 See Daley, Leisure & Pleasure, pp. 204–15. 68 See S. Coney, Every Girl: A Social History of Women and the YWCA in Auckland 1885–1985, Auckland YWCA, Auckland, 1986; D. McCurdy, ‘Feminine Identity in New Zealand: The Girl Peace Scout Movement 1908–1925’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 2000; C. Taylor, Body, Mind and Spirit: YMCA Auckland: Celebrating 150 Years, 1855–2005, Reed, Auckland, 2005; S. Jones, Scouting in Otago: A Centennial History 1908–2007, Scouting Otago, Dunedin, 2007.

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69 Health and Physical Culture, 1 April 1937, p. 51. For an American discussion of ‘spectatoritis’ see Kammen, American Culture American Tastes, p. 89. 70 New Zealand Medical Journal, XXXV, June 1936, p. 144. 71 See Daley, Leisure & Pleasure, pp. 226–50. 72 Daley, Leisure & Pleasure, pp. 227–8. 73 D. Hastings, Over the Mountains of the Sea: Life on the Migrant Ships 1870–1885, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2006, p. 47. 74 D. Grant, On a Roll: A History of Gambling and Lotteries in New Zealand, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1994, pp. 18–19. 75 New Zealand Herald (NZH), 15 March 1890, p. 6. See also NZH, 24 May 1894, p. 4. 76 J. E. Martin, ‘The Highway to Health and Happiness in the Government Court’, in Renwick, ed., Creating a National Spirit: Celebrating New Zealand’s Centennial, pp. 58–9; G. McLean, ‘Hurrah for Playland!’, in Renwick, ed., Creating a National Spirit: Celebrating New Zealand’s Centennial, p. 89. 77 E. Ellison, ‘Maori Life and Leisure’, in N. J. Bethune, ed., Work ‘n’ Pastimes: 150 years of pain and pleasure, labour and leisure, New Zealand Society of Genealogists 1998 Conference Committee, Dunedin, 1998, pp. 65–81. 78 A. Clarke, Holiday Seasons: Christmas, New Year and Easter in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2007. 79 See A. Clarke, ‘“With one accord rejoice on this glad day”: Celebrating the Monarchy in Nineteenth-Century Otago’, NZJH, vol. 36, no. 2, 2002, pp. 137–60. 80 NZH, 3 February 1890, p. 6. 81 Auckland Industrial & Mining Exhibition, p. lxiv. 82 Phillips, A Man’s Country?, p. 57. 83 The Licensing Act was amended in 1889, 1893, 1899, 1902, 1904, 1908, 1910, 1914, 1917 and 1918. 84 NZH, 22 March 1890, Supplement, p. 1. For details of the law changes see Cocker and Murray, Temperance and Prohibition in New Zealand, pp. 144–54; C. Bollinger, Grog’s Own Country: The Story of Liquor Licensing in New Zealand, 2nd edn, Minerva, Auckland, 1967. 85 Bloomfield, New Zealand: A Handbook of Historical Statistics, p. 120. 86 Phillips, A Man’s Country?, p. 57. 87 See R. Hargreaves, Barmaids, Billiards, Nobblers & Rat-pits: Pub Life in Goldrush Dunedin, Otago Heritage Books, Dunedin, 1992; G. McLauchlan, The Story of Beer, A New Zealand History, Viking Penguin, Auckland, 1994. 88 P. Rowland, ‘Entrée: A History of the Restaurant in New Zealand From the 1860s to the 1960s’, Unpublished MA Thesis, The University of Auckland, 2008, p. 37. 89 Rowland, ‘Entrée: A History of the Restaruant in New Zealand From the 1860s to the 1960s’, p. 39. 90 Rowland, ‘Entrée: A History of the Restaruant in New Zealand From the 1860s to the 1960s’, p. 39. 91 P. Downes, ‘The Royal Victoria and Beyond: The Story of New Zealand’s First Purpose-Built Theatre’, Turnbull Library Record, 27, 1994, p. 31. See also P. Downes, Shadows on the Stage: Theatre in New Zealand: The First 70 Years, J. McIndoe, Dunedin, 1975. 92 A. Simpson, ‘Caterers to the public entertainment’, Turnbull Library Record, 27, 1994, p. 15. See also A. Simpson, Opera’s Farthest Frontier: A History of Professional Opera in New Zealand, Reed, Auckland, 1996. 93 Downes, ‘The Royal Victoria and Beyond’, pp. 36–7, 41; Simpson, ‘Caterers to the public entertainment’, p. 10. 94 Simpson, ‘Caterers to the public entertainment’, pp. 7–21. 95 Rowland, ‘Entrée: A History of the Restaurant in New Zealand From the 1860s to the 1960s’, pp. 48, 45.

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96 Downes, ‘The Royal Victoria and Beyond’, pp. 34–5. 97 Otago Witness, 27 December 1862, p. 7. 98 S. A. G. M. Crawford, ‘A History of Recreation and Sport in Nineteenth Century Colonial Otago’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Queensland, 1984, p. 100; Otago Witness, 27 December 1862, p. 7. 99 E. Dewson, ‘“Off to the Dance”: Romance in Rural New Zealand Communities, 1880s–1920s’, History Australia, 2, DOI: 10:2104/HA040005. 100 J. M. Thomson, ‘The indefatigable pursuit: Glimpses of the colonial ball in New Zealand’, Stout Centre Review, vol. 3, no. 1, 1992, p. 12. The reference to ‘fashionable Maories’ comes from the visiting Scottish singer, David Kennedy, quoted by Thomson. 101 Thomson, ‘The indefatigable pursuit’, p. 9. 102 J. Millen, Kirkcaldie & Stains: A Wellington Story, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2000, p. 13. 103 H. Laurenson, Going Up, Going Down: The Rise and Fall of the Department Store, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2005. 104 T. Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study of Institutions (1899), Allen and Unwin, London, 1925. 105 Laurenson, Going Up, Going Down, p. 26. 106 G. Crossick and S. Jaumain, eds, Cathedrals of Consumption: The European Department Store 1850–1939, Ashgate, Brookfield VT, 1999. 107 Laurenson, Going Up, Going Down, p. 29; Millen, Kirkcaldie & Stains, p. 19l; G. Ogilvie, Ballantynes: The Story of Dunstable House 1854–2004, J. Ballantyne & Co. Ltd, Christchurch, 2004, p. 30. 108 See V. de Grazia, ‘Introduction’, in V. de Grazia, with E. Fulough, ed., The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective, University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1996, p. 1. 109 Millen, Kirkcaldie & Stains, pp. 2, 14. 110 Jock Phillips’ 1987 monograph on Pakeha masculinity began this trend: Phillips, A Man’s Country? See also P. De Jong, Saturday’s Warriors: The Building of a Rugby Stronghold, Department of Sociology, Palmerston North, Massey University, 1991; F. Macdonald, The Game of Our Lives: The Story of Rugby and New Zealand—and how they’ve shaped each other, Viking, Auckland, 1996. 111 M. A. Swiencicki, ‘Consuming Brotherhood: Men’s Culture, Style and Recreation as Consumer Culture, 1880–1930’, in L. B. Glickman, ed., Consumer Society in American History: A Reader, Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London, 1999, pp. 207–40. 112 In the 1890s Kirkcaldies sold cricket flannels for 10 shillings and sports caps for two shillings sixpence. Millen, Kirkcaldie & Stains, p. 56. On men’s departments in New Zealand stores see Laurenson, Going Up, Going Down, pp. 36–48; D. Sprecher, ‘The Right Appearance: Representations of Fashion, Gender, and Modernity in Inter-war New Zealand’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 1997, pp. 34–41. 113 See J. Carlyon, ‘Friendly Societies 1842–1938: The Benefits of Membership’, NZJH, vol. 32, no. 2, 1998, pp. 121–42. 114 P. Newcomb, Challenging Brass: 100 years of brass band contests in New Zealand 1880–1980, New Zealand Brass Bands’ Association Inc., Christchurch, 1980, p. 26. 115 Daley, Leisure & Pleasure, esp. chap. 2. 116 Evening Post, 8 August 1901, p. 6. 117 S. A. G. M. Crawford, ‘“Muscles and Character Are There the First Object of Necessity”: An Overview of Sport and Recreation in a Colonial Setting—Otago Province, New Zealand’, British Journal of Sports History, vol. 2, no. 2, 1985, p. 111; L. Wevers, ed., Travelling to New Zealand: An Oxford Anthology, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 2000; L. Wevers, ed., Country of Writing: Travel Writing and New Zealand 1809–1900, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2002. 118 M. McClure, The Wonder Country: Making New Zealand Tourism, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2004, p. 2; A. M. Verry, ‘“I’m Going to See New Zealand Too!” The New Zealand

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Railways Publicity Branch and Family Holidays during the Interwar Period’, BA Hons Dissertation, University of Otago, 2004. 119 R. D. Arnold, ‘The Country Child in Later Victorian New Zealand’, Comment, 15, April 1982, p. 24. 120 Diary of Mrs J. D. Ormond, 3 March 1859, MS 1747, Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington. 121 See J. Simon, ed., Nga Kura Maori: The Native Schools System 1867–1969, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1998, pp. 102–5. 122 Diary of Mrs J. D. Ormond, 10 June 1859, MS 1747, Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington. 123 J. Malcolm, ‘Hato, Ana Matawhaura 1907–1953’, Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, updated 22 June 2007, . 124 W. Main, ‘“The lanthorn that shews tricks”: The Magic Lantern in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand’, Turnbull Library Record, 27, 1994, pp. 45–54, esp. pp. 48, 51. 125 G. Ingham, Everyone’s Gone to the Movies: The Sixty Cinemas of Auckland . . . And Some Others, The Author, Auckland, 1973; B. W. Hayward and S. P. Hayward, Cinemas of Auckland 1896–1979, Lodestar Press, Auckland, 1979; G. B. Churchman, Celluloid Dreams: A Century of Film in New Zealand, IPL Books, Wellington, 1997. See also . 126 N. Jeanie Elliott, ‘Anzac, Hollywood and Home: Cinemas and Film-Going in Auckland 1909–1939’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 1989. 127 S. Sigley, ‘Film Culture: Its Development in New Zealand, 1929–1972’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Auckland, 2003. 128 Elliott, ‘Anzac, Hollywood and Home’, p. 119; Sprecher, ‘The Right Appearance’, p. 94. Attendance figures for 1938–75 can be found in Bloomfield, New Zealand: A Handbook of Historical Statistics, p. 125. 129 Quote from 1915 WEA Pamphlet, cited in Roy Shuker, Educating the Workers? A History of the Workers’ Education Association in New Zealand, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1984, p. 12. 130 D. Cole, U3A in Auckland, 1989–2003, Auckland Network Trust, Auckland, 2003. 131 See H. C. McQueen, Education in New Zealand Museums: An Account of Experiments Assisted by the Carnegie Corporation of New York, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, Wellington, 1942. 132 F. Hall-Jones, The History and Activities of Rotary in New Zealand (1921–1971), Rotary International New Zealand, Wellington, 1971, p. 5; G. and S. Butterworth, Jaycee: Developers of people, Builders of Communities, Ngaio Press, Wellington, 2007, pp. 75–6, 105, 175–6, 211. 133 Butterworth, Jaycee, p. 10. 134 Butterworth, Jaycee, p. 10; Hall-Jones, The History and Activities of Rotary in New Zealand (1921–1971), p. 5. 135 Butterworth, Jaycee, pp. 140–5. 136 Butterworth, Jaycee, pp. 145–9 for a discussion of Maori and Jaycees. 137 B. Salkeld, ‘The dancing decade 1920–1930’, Stout Centre Review, vol. 2, no. 4, 1992, pp. 3–12. See also G. White, Light Fantastic: Dance Floor Courtship in New Zealand, HarperCollins, Auckland, 2007; C. Devliotis, Dancing with Delight: Footprints of the Past: Dace and Dancers in Early Twentieth Century Auckland, Polygraphia, Auckland, 2005. 138 B. Francis, ZB: The voice of an iconic radio station, HarperCollins, Auckland, 2006, pp. 11, 21. 139 C. Dorsey, Dance Bands of the 20th Century in North Otago, Brian Rigger, Tauranga, 2001, pp. 48–9. 140 See M. Peters with J. George, Showband! Mahora and the Maori Volcanics, Huia, Wellington, 2005. 141 N. Herriman, ‘The Air Down Here: Global and Local Interpretations of New Zealand Popular Music, 1955–1977’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Auckland, 2004, esp. chap. 1. Herriman’s work challenges works such as J. Dix, Stranded in Paradise: New Zealand Rock and Roll 1955 to the Modern Era, rev. edn, Penguin Books, Auckland, 2005. 142 See R. Watkins, When Rock Got Rolling: The Wellington Scene, 1958–1970, Hazard Press, Christchurch, 1989; G. Spittle, Counting the Beat: A History of New Zealand Song, GP Publications, Wellington, 1997; W. R. Churton, “Have You Checked the Children?” Punk and Postpunk Music in

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New Zealand, 1977–1981, Put Your Foot Down Pub., Christchurch, 1999; M. Bannister, Positively George Street: Sneaky Feelings and the Dunedin Sound: A Personal Reminiscence, Reed, Auckland, 1999; B. Staff and S. Ashley, For the Record: A history of the recording industry in New Zealand, David Bateman, Auckland, 2002; G. Shute, Hip Hop Music in Aotearoa, Reed, Auckland, 2004; L. Pritchard, Hotel Cabana: Thru the Decades, Lee Pritchard, Napier, 2007. 143 See Grant, On a Roll, esp. pp. 63, 222, 226; J. McCrystal, 100 Years of Motoring in New Zealand, Hodder Moa Beckett, Auckland, 2003; M. Wright, Cars Around New Zealand, Whitcoulls, Auckland, 2005. 144 T. Ballantyne and B. Moloughney, ‘Asia in Murihiku: towards a transnational history of colonial culture’, in T. Ballantyne and B. Moloughney, eds, Disputed Histories, pp. 75, 77. 145 I. Brailsford, ‘“If there’s not one near you now, there soon will be”: American Fast-Food Chains Come to New Zealand’, NZJH, vol. 39, no. 1, 2005, pp. 57–74. 146 See E. Joyce, ‘The Pursuit of Sun, Sand and Surf: Beach-going in New Zealand, 1910–1970’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Auckland, 2006. 147 C. Daley, ‘On the Beach: Or the “Unbearable Scandal” of Shrinking Swimwear’, in B. Labrum, F. McKergow and S. Gibson, eds, Looking Flash: Clothing in Aotearoa New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2007, pp. 154–67. 148 D. Grant, ‘The Nature of Gambling in New Zealand: A Brief History’, in B. Curtis, ed., Gambling in New Zealand, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 2002, p. 82; D. Grant, Two Over Three On Goodtime Sugar: The New Zealand TAB Turns 50, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 2000, p. 9. 149 The ‘They’re drinking our beer here’ campaign was launched in 1987. 150 Kammen, American Culture American Tastes, p. 53; Stearns, American Cool, p. 274. 151 R. Yska, All Shook Up: The Flash Bodgie and the Rise of the New Zealand Teenager in the Fifties, Penguin Books, Auckland, 1993; M. Ritchie ‘Shaken, but not Stirred? Youth Cultures in 1950s Auckland’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 1997. 152 P. Smith, Twist and Shout: New Zealand in the 1960s, Random Century, Auckland, 1991. Playboy began in 1953 but was not imported to New Zealand until the 1960s. 153 See J. Rorke, ‘A. H. Whitehouse—An Early Film Pioneer’, Historical Review: Bay of Plenty Journal of History, vol. 32, no. 1, 1984, pp. 17–23. 154 S. Gaitanos, Nola Millar: A Theatrical Life, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 2006, pp. 39, 63; C. Burgess, ‘Looking to the Heart: Young People, Romance and Courtship in Interwar New Zealand’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 2007, p. 43; S. Coney, Standing in the Sunshine: A History of New Zealand Women Since They Won the Vote, Penguin Books, Auckland, 1993, pp. 162–3; Sprecher, ‘The Right Appearance’, pp. 102–6. 155 Burgess, ‘Looking to the Heart’, p. 54. 156 G. Mirams, Speaking Candidly: Films and People in New Zealand, Paul’s Book Arcade, Hamilton, 1945, p. 25; Hirini Kaa, ‘“Te Wiwi Nati”: The Cultural Economy of Ngati Porou, 1926–1939’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 2000. 157 Mirams, Speaking Candidly, p. 33; E. M. Hart, ‘The Organised Activities of Christchurch Children Outside the School’, Unpublished MA Thesis, University of New Zealand, 1934, pp. 55–8. 158 Mirams, Speaking Candidly, p. 5. 159 Attendance peaked in 1943–44 (23.4 admissions per head of population). By the mid 1950s this was down to 17 (1956–57, 17.1) and decreased further after the introduction of television (1964–65, 10.0). Bloomfield, New Zealand: A Handbook of Historical Statistics, p. 125. 160 R. Boyd-Bell, New Zealand Television: The First 25 Years, Reed Methuen, Auckland, 1985, pp. 74–5. 161 See I. Carter, Gadfly: The Life and Times of James Shelley, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1993. 162 P. Day, The Radio Years: A History of Broadcasting in New Zealand, Volume One, Auckland University Press in association with the Broadcasting History Trust, Auckland, 1994, pp. 1, 94. 163 Day, The Radio Years, p. 2.

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164 Day, The Radio Years, p. 215. 165 Maud (Daisy) Basham was a popular daytime broadcaster, famous for beginning her show with a hearty ‘Good morning everybody’. She broadcast as ‘Aunt Daisy’ from 1930 to 1963. See Day, The Radio Years, pp. 239–41, 279–81; A. S. Fry, The Aunt Daisy Story, Reed, Wellington, 1957. 166 P. Day, ‘American Popular Culture and New Zealand Broadcasting: The Reception of Early Radio Serials’, Journal of Popular Culture, vol. 30, no. 1, 1996, p. 206; Day, The Radio Years, p. 305. 167 Day, ‘American Popular Culture and New Zealand Broadcasting’, p. 210. 168 See B. Staff and S. Ashely, For the Record: A History of the Recording Industry in New Zealand, David Bateman, Auckland, 2002. 169 Day, The Radio Years, p. 245. 170 R. Rondeau, Tinfoil Phonographs: The Dawn of Recorded Sound, The Author, Corte Madera, California, 2001, p. 11. Thanks to Peter Hoar for this reference. 171 G. Cushman, A. Laidler, D. Russell, N. Wilson and P. Heribson, Life in New Zealand Commission Report, Volume IV Leisure, Hillary Commission for Recreation and Sport, Wellington, 1991, p. 1. 172 Statistics New Zealand, Around the Clock: Findings from the New Zealand Time Use Survey 1998–99, Statistics New Zealand, Wellington, 2001, p. 71. The figures included watching videos. 173 Statistics New Zealand, Around the Clock, p. 73. In 2008–09 the next time use survey will be conducted. It will record information about new technology and leisure, particularly the popularity of playing computer games and time spent on the internet. Statistics New Zealand, Time Use Survey Scoping Paper, Statistics New Zealand, Wellington, 2007, p. 24. 174 Statistics New Zealand, ‘Household Access to the Internet’, Key Statistics: April 2004, Statistics New Zealand, Wellington, 2004, pp. 9–10. 175 J. Sullivan, One Hundred Years of Loyalty: The Story of Arthur Barnett Ltd., Arthur Barnett Ltd, Dunedin, 2003; D. Wood, A Tiger By the Tail: A Zoo, 1922–1992, Auckland City, Auckland, 1992. 176 T. Dunleavy, Ourselves in Primetime: A History of New Zealand Television Drama, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2005. 177 Recent surveys that have foregrounded matauranga Maori and visiting marae and wahi taonga, even though these remain minority activities, include: M. Donn and P. Ongley, A Measure of Culture: Cultural experiences and cultural spending in New Zealand, Statistics New Zealand, Wellington, 2003, pp. 11–25; Statistics New Zealand, Around the Clock, pp. 69–70.

chapter 18: Family, Community and Gender 1 J. Phillips, A Man’s Country: the image of the Pakeha male: a history, Penguin, Auckland, 1987; R. Law, H. Campbell and J. Dolan, eds, Masculinities in Aotearoa/New Zealand, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1999; B. James and K. Saville-Smith, eds, Gender, Culture and Power: challenging New Zealand’s gendered culture, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1989; B. Brookes, ed., At Home in New Zealand: history, houses, people, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2000. 2 C. Daley, Leisure and Pleasure: Reshaping and Revealing the New Zealand Body, 1900–1960, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2003; B. Dalley, ‘Criminal Conversations: Infanticide, Gender and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand’, in C. Daley and D. Montgomerie, eds, The Gendered Kiwi, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999, pp. 63–86; D. Montgomerie, The Women’s War: New Zealand Women, 1939–1945, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2001; H. M. Brown, ‘A Woman’s Right to Choose: second wave feminist advocacy of reform in New Zealand and New South Wales from the 1970s’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 2004; A. Kirkman and P. Moloney, eds, Sexuality down under: social and historical perspectives, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2005. 3 B. Brookes, A. Cooper and R. Law, ‘Situating Gender’, in B. Brookes, A. Cooper and R. Law, eds, Sites of Gender: Women, Men and Modernity in Southern Dunedin, 1890–1939, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2003, p. 4.

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4 C. Daley and D. Montgomerie, eds, The Gendered Kiwi, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999, pp. 10–11. 5 M. Gilson, ‘The Changing New Zealand Family: A Demographic Analysis’, in S. Houston, ed., Marriage and the Family in New Zealand, Sweet and Maxwell, Wellington, 1970, pp. 41–65; M. G. Vosburgh, ‘Some Social and Demographic Influences on New Zealand Family Structure from 1886’, Unpublished PhD thesis, Victoria University, 1971; G. A. Carmichael, ‘Aspects of ex-nuptiality in new Zealand: toward a social demography of marriage and the family since the Second World War’, Unpublished PhD thesis, Australian National University, 1982; I. Pool, A. Dharmalingam and J. Sceats, The New Zealand Family from 1840: A Demographic History, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2007. 6 E. Olssen, ‘Families and the Gendering of European New Zealand in the Colonial Period, 1840–80’, in Daley and Montgomerie, eds, The Gendered Kiwi, p. 37. 7 L. Tilly, ‘Women’s History and Family History: Fruitful Collaboration or Missed Connection?’, Journal of Family History, vol. 12, nos 1–3, 1987, pp. 303–15; B. Bradbury, ‘Feminist Historians and the Family in Canada in the 1990s’, Journal of Family History, vol. 25, no. 3, 2000, pp. 362–83. 8 P. Mein-Smith, Maternity in Dispute: New Zealand, 1920–1939, Historical Branch, Wellington, 1986; B. Brookes, ‘Reproductive Rights: The Debate over Abortion and Birth Control in the 1930s’, in B. Brookes, C. Macdonald and M. Tennant, eds, Women in New Zealand History, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1986, pp. 119–36; P. Fenwick, ‘Fertility, Sexuality and Social Control over Women in New Zealand’, in P. Bunkle and B. Hughes, eds, Women in New Zealand Society, Allen and Unwin, Auckland, 1980, pp. 77–98; Tim Frank, ‘“About Our Fathers’ Business”: Fatherhood in New Zealand, 1900–1940’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Auckland, 2004; Phillips, A Man’s Country; R. Phillips, Divorce in New Zealand: a social history, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1981; C. Toynbee, Her Work and His: family, kin and community in New Zealand, 1900–1930, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1995; D. MacDonald, ‘Children and Young Persons in New Zealand Society’, in P. Koopman-Boyden, ed., Families in New Zealand Society, Methuen, Wellington, 1978, pp. 44–57; R. Fry, It’s Different for Daughters: a history of the curriculum for girls in New Zealand schools, 1900–1975, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, Wellington, 1985; M. Tennant, Children’s Health, the Nation’s Wealth: a history of children’s health camps, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1994; R. Goodyear, ‘“Sunshine and fresh air”: an oral history of childhood and family in interwar New Zealand with some comparisons to interwar Britain’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Otago, 1998; B. Dalley, Family Matters: Child Welfare in Twentieth-Century New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1998. 9 E. Olssen, ‘Where To From Here? Reflections on the Twentieth-century Historiography of Nineteenth-century New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26, no. 1, 1992, p. 75. 10 J. Davidson, ‘The Polynesian Foundation’, in G. Rice, ed., The Oxford History of New Zealand, 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1995, p. 8. 11 See B. Heuer, ‘Maori Women in Traditional Family and Tribal Life, 1769–1840’, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 78, no. 4, 1969, pp. 448–94; K. Sinclair, ‘Mischief on the Margins: Gender, Primogeniture, and Cognatic Descent among the Maori’, in L. Stone, ed., Kinship and Gender, Westview Press, Boulder, 2001, pp. 156–74. 12 See B. Biggs, Maori Marriage: An Essay in Reconstruction, Polynesian Society, Wellington, 1960. 13 A. Anderson, The Welcome Of Strangers, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 1998; A. Wanhalla, ‘“one white man i like very much”: Intermarriage and the cultural encounter in southern New Zealand, 1829–1850’, Journal of Women’s History, vol. 20, no. 2, 2008. 14 J. M. R. Owens, ‘New Zealand before Annexation’, in Rice, ed., Oxford History of New Zealand, p. 30. 15 M. King, The Penguin History of New Zealand, Penguin, Auckland, 1993, pp. 122–3. 16 J. Belich, Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders from Polynesian Settlement to the End of the Nineteenth Century, Penguin, Auckland, 1996, pp. 152–3. 17 S. Van Kirk, Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur Trade Society, 1670–1870, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1980; S. Sleeper-Smith, Indian Women and French Men: Rethinking Cultural Encounter in the Western Great Lakes, University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, 2001.

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18 H. Petrie, Chiefs of Industry: Maori Tribal Enterprise in Early Colonial New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2006, p. 12. 19 Petrie, Chiefs of Industry, p. 48. 20 A. Anderson, Race against time, Hocken Library, Dunedin, 1991, p. 4; T. Bentley, Pakeha Maori, Penguin, Auckland, 1999, p. 62. 21 Bentley, Pakeha Maori, p. 197. 22 G. McLean, Moeraki: 150 Years of Net and Plough Share, Otago Heritage Books, Dunedin, 1986, p. 18. 23 V. Freeman, ‘Attitudes Toward “Miscegenation” in Canada, the United States, New Zealand and Australia, 1860–1914’, Native Studies Review, vol. 16, no. 1, 2005, pp. 41–69. 24 J. S. H. Brown, ‘Children of the Early Fur Trades’, in J. Parr, ed., Childhood and Family in Canadian History, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1982, p. 44. 25 Olssen, ‘Where to From Here?’, p. 66; L. A. Stoler, ‘Tense and Tender Ties: The Politics of Comparison in North American History and (Post) Colonial Studies’, Journal of American History, vol. 88, no. 3, 2001; T. Ballantyne and A. Burton, eds, Bodies in Contact: Rethinking Colonial Encounters in World History, Duke University Press, Durham, 2005. 26 Olssen, ‘Where To From Here?’, p. 66; Olssen, ‘Families and the Gendering of European New Zealand’, p. 40. 27 See A. Wanhalla, ‘Transgressing Boundaries’, and ‘Marrying “In”: The Geography of Intermarriage at Taieri, 1830s–1920s’, in T. Ballantyne and J. A. Bennett, eds, Landscape/Community: Perspectives from New Zealand History, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2005, pp. 73–94; Kate Riddell, ‘“Improving” the Maori: Counting the Ideology of Intermarriage’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 34, no. 1, 2000; D. Salesa, ‘Race mixing: a Victorian problem in Britain and New Zealand, 1930s–1870s’, Unpublished PhD thesis, Oxford University, 2000; J. Binney, ‘“In-Between” Lives: Studies from within a Colonial Society’, in Ballantyne and Moloughney, eds, Disputed Histories, pp. 93–118. 28 Harwood Journal, 4 December 1838 and 8 January 1839, MS-0438/59, Hocken Library. 29 Edward Weller to George Weller, 14 February 1839, MS-0440/05, Hocken Library. 30 Harwood Journal, 8 December 1840 and 9 December 1840. 31 D. H. Eber, When the Whales Were Up North: Inuit Memories from the Eastern Arctic, McGill- Queen’s University Press, Kingston, 1989, p. xii. 32 M. L. Campbell, ‘A Preliminary Investigation of the Archaeology of Whaling Stations on the Southern Coast’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Otago, 1992, pp. 203–4. 33 R. Palmer, ‘Moturata Island: site protection in action’, Archaeology in New Zealand, vol. 40, no. 3, 1997, p. 197. 34 Frederick Tuckett, cited in Campbell, A Preliminary Investigation of the Archaeology of Whaling Stations, p. 48. 35 P. Coutts, ‘Merger or Takeover: A Survey of the Effects of Contact Between European and Maori in the Foveaux Strait Region’, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 78, no. 4, 1969, p. 507. 36 See M. A. Bathgate, ‘Maori River and Ocean Going Craft in Southern New Zealand: A Study of Types and Change in Relation to the Physical, Social, and Economic Environment, 1773–1852’, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 78, no. 3, 1969, pp. 344–77. 37 Anderson, Race Against Time, p. 29. 38 Results of a Census of the taken for the Night of the 3rd April 1881, Government Printer, Wellington, 1882, p. 12. 39 Evidence of John Whitely before the Board of Inquiry, 7 April 1856, G 51/1, (ANZ-W). 40 Evidence of J. Wilson, 5 May 1856, G 51/1, (ANZ-W). 41 J. M. R. Owens, ‘New Zealand before Annexation’, in Rice, ed., Oxford History of New Zealand, p. 36. 42 Owens, ‘New Zealand before Annexation’, p. 49. 43 See M. Taylor Huber and N. C. Lutkehaus, eds, Gendered Missions: women and men in missionary discourse and practice, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1999; F. Bowie,

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D. Kirkwood and S. Ardner, eds, Women and Missions: Past and Present: anthropological and historical perceptions, Berg, Providence, 1993; P. Grimshaw, Paths of duty: American missionary wives in nineteenth-century Hawaii, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1989; S. Coleman, ‘“Come over and help us”: white women, reform, and the missionary endeavour in India, 1876–1920’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 2002; B. Whitelaw, ‘Message from the Missahibs: New Zealand Presbyterian Women Missionaries in the Punjab, 1910–1940’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Otago, 2001; R. Gillett, ‘Helpmeets and Handmaidens: the role of women in mission discourse’, BA (Hons) research essay, University of Otago, 1998. 44 See K. Rountree, ‘Re-making the Maori Female Body: Marianne William’s Mission in the Bay of Islands’, The Journal of Pacific History, vol. 35, no. 1, 2000, pp. 49–66; A. J. Ballantyne, ‘The Reform of the Heathen Body: CMS missionaries, Maori and sexuality’, in M. Reilly and J. Thomson, eds, When the Waves Rolled in Upon Us: Essays in Nineteenth Century Maori History, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 1999, pp. 31–41; V. Carson, ‘Submitting to Great Inconveniences: Early Missionary Education for Maori Women and Girls’, in R. Glen, ed., Mission and Moko: The Church Missionary Society in New Zealand, 1814–1882, Latimer Fellowship, Christchurch, 1992, pp. 56–72. 45 See F. Porter, ‘All That the Heart Does Bear: A reflection on the domestic life of missionary wives’, in R. Glen, ed., Mission and Moko, pp. 134–51. 46 S. Goldsbury, ‘Behind the Picket Fence: the lives of missionary wives in pre-colonial New Zealand’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Auckland, 1986. 47 See the entries on Elizabeth Colsenso and Eliza White in C. Macdonald, M. Penfold and B. Williams, eds, The Book of New Zealand Women, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1993; J. Cottier, ‘Elizabeth Fairburn/Colenso: Her Times’, Unpublished MA thesis, Victoria University, 2000, p. 131; F. Porter and C. Macdonald, eds, ‘My Hand Will Write What My Heart Dictates’: The unsettled lives of women in nineteenth-century New Zealand as revealed to sisters, family and friends, Auckland University Press/Bridget Williams Books, Auckland, 1996. 48 Willoughby Shortland to F. W. Whittaker, 6 May 1842, OLC 1/60 OLC 1323, (Archives New Zealand, Wellington, hereafter ANZ-W). 49 See D. Thorp, ‘Going Native in New Zealand and America: Comparing Pakeha Maori and White Indians’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, vol. 31, no. 3, 2003, pp. 1–23; J. Axtell, ‘The White Indians of Colonial America’, in P. C. Mancall and J. H. Merrell, eds, American Encounters: Natives and Newcomers from European Contact to Indian Removal, Routledge, London, 2000, pp. 324–50; L. Colley, ‘Going Native, Telling Tales: Captivity, Collaborations and Empire’, Past and Present, vol. 168, 2000, pp. 170–93. 50 J. M. Faragher, ‘The Custom of the Country: Cross-Cultural Marriage in the Far Western Fur Trade’, in L. Schlissel, V. L. Ruiz and J. Monk, eds, Western Women: Their Land, Their Lives, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1988, p. 208. 51 William Searancke to Donald McLean, 16 October 1858, OLC 1/71 OLC1374, (ANZ-W) 52 John Marmon to Governor Gore-Browne, 18 August 1856, OLC 1/317, (ANZ-W). 53 S. Coney, ed., Standing in the Sunshine, Viking, Auckland, 1993, p. 186; J. Metge and D. Durie-Hall, ‘Kua Tutu˜ Te Puehu, Kia Mau: Maori Aspirations and Family Law’, in M. Hanaghan and B. Atkin, eds, Family Law Policy in New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1992, p. 63; T. Bennion and J. Boyd, Succession to Maori Land, 1900–52, Waitangi Tribunal, Wellington, 1997, p. 6. 54 Binney, ‘“In-Between” Lives’, pp. 93–118. 55 A. McGrath, ‘Consent, Marriage and Colonialism: Indigenous Australian Women and Colonizer Marriages’, Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History, vol. 6, no. 3, 2005. 56 P. Grimshaw, ‘Interracial Marriages and Colonial Regimes in Victoria and Aotearoa/New Zealand’, Frontiers, vol. 23, no. 3, 2002, p. 25. 57 Herbert Leadham, ‘Report on Kenehuru’, 13 July 1872, OLC 1/60 OLC 1323, (ANZ-W). 58 Leadham, ‘Report on Kenehuru’. 59 Leadham, ‘Report on Kenehuru’. 60 Earl Grey to George Grey, 5 April 1851, OLC 1/60 OLC 1323, (ANZ-W). 61 Leadham, ‘Report on Kenehuru’.

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62 See The New Zealander, 25 August 1849, p. 2; Daily Southern Cross, 17 December 1852, p. 2; Daily Southern Cross, 23 May 1854, p. 2; Daily Southern Cross, 23 December 1853, p. 4. 63 Salesa, ‘Race Mixing’, p. 122; see Binney, ‘“In-between” lives’, passim; P. Spiller, J. Finn and R. Boast, A New Zealand Legal History, Brookers, Wellington, 1996, pp. 96–7. 64 Salesa, ‘Race Mixing’, p. 266. 65 See T. Bentley, Captured By Maori: White Female Captives, Sex and Racism on the Nineteenth- century New Zealand Frontier, Penguin, Auckland, 2005; M. Jacobs, ‘The Eastmans and the Luhans: interracial marriage between white women and Native American men, 1875–1935’, Frontiers, vol. 23, no. 3, 2002, pp. 29–54; K. Ellinghaus, Taking Assimilation to Heart: Marriages of White Women and Indigenous Men in the United States and Australia, 1887–1937, Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 2006. 66 E. Olssen, ‘“For Better or Worse”: Marriage Patterns in Dunedin’s Southern Suburbs, 1881–1938’, in M. Fairburn and E. Olssen, eds, Class, Gender and the Vote: Historical Perspectives From New Zealand, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2005, p. 75. 67 N. Cott, Public Vows: A History of Marriage and the Nation, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2000. 68 B. Brookes, ‘Taking Private Life Seriously: Marriage and Nationhood’, History Compass, vol. 1, 2003. 69 I. Pool, Te Iwi Maori: A New Zealand Population Past, Present and Projected, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1991, p. 61. 70 J. Graham, ‘Settler Society’, in Rice, ed., Oxford History of New Zealand, p. 119; C. Macdonald, A Woman of Good Character: Single Women as Immigrant Settlers in Nineteenth-century New Zealand, Allen and Unwin/Historical Branch, Wellington, 1990. 71 R. Dalziel, ‘Men, Women and Wakefield’, in Edward Gibbon Wakefield and the Colonial Dream: A reconsideration, GP Publications/Friends of the Turnbull Library, Wellington, 1997, pp. 77–88; E. Olssen and A. Levesque, ‘Towards a History of the European Family in New Zealand’, in P. Koopman-Boyden, ed., Families in New Zealand Society, Methuen, Wellington, 1978, pp. 1–26; Olssen, ‘Families and the Gendering of European New Zealand in the Colonial Period’, passim. 72 See Graham, ‘Settler Society’; R. Dalziel, ‘The colonial helpmeet: women’s role and the vote in nineteenth-century New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 11, no. 2, 1977, pp. 112–23; C. Macdonald, ‘Too Many Men and Too Few Women: Gender’s “Fatal Impact” in Nineteenth- Century Colonies’, in Daley and Montgomerie, eds, Gendered Kiwi, pp. 17–36. 73 D. Mackay, ‘The Orderly Frontier: The World of the Kauri Bushman, 1860–1925’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 25, no. 2, 1991, p. 147. 74 M. Fairburn, The Ideal Society and Its Enemies, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1989. 75 M. Molloy, Those Who Speak to the Heart: The Nova Scotian Scots at Waipu 1854–1920, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1991; L. Fraser, To Tara via Holyhead: Irish Catholic Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century Christchurch, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1997; L. Fraser and K. Pickles, eds, Shifting Centres: Women and Migration in New Zealand History, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2002. 76 R. Dalziel, ‘Emigration and Kinship: Migrants to New Plymouth, 1840–1843’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 25, no. 2, 1991, p. 113. 77 C. Daley, ‘Taradale Meets the Ideal Society and its Enemies’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 25, no. 2, 1991, pp. 130–1. 78 D. Thomson, ‘Marriage and Family on the Colonial Frontier’, in Ballantyne and Moloughney, eds, Disputed Histories, pp. 124–8; Macdonald, ‘Too Many Men and Too Few Women: Gender’s “Fatal Impact” in Nineteenth-Century Colonies’, pp. 17–36. 79 M. Kelm, Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia, 1900–50, UBC Press, Vancouver, 2001, p. 15. 80 I. Pool, Te Iwi Maori: A New Zealand Population Past, Present and Projected, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1991. 81 Pool, Te Iwi Maori, p. 59.

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82 G. W. Rice, Black November, Historical Branch, Wellington, 1988. 83 R. Lange, May the People Live: A History of Maori Health Development, 1900–1920, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999; Pool, Te Iwi Maori, passim; A. Wanhalla, ‘Housing Un/healthy Bodies: Native Housing Surveys and Maori Health, 1900–35’, Health and History, vol. 8, no. 1, 2006. 84 C. Orange, ed., The Turbulent Years, 1870–1900: the Maori Biographies from the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Volume 2, Department of Internal Affairs/Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1994; J. Binney and G. Chaplin, Nga Morehu—The Survivors, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1986; J. Simon and L. Tuhiwai Smith, eds, A civilising mission? Perceptions and representations of the Native Schools system, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2001. 85 M. P. K. Sorrenson, ‘Land Purchase Methods and their Effect on Maori Population, 1865–1901’, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 65, no. 2, 1956, pp. 191–2. 86 P. Hohepa and D. V. Williams, The Taking into Account of Te Ao Maori in Relation to the Reform of the Law of Succession, Waitangi Tribunal, Wellington, 1996, p. 29. 87 See B. Bradbury, ‘From Civil Death to Separate Property: Changes in the Legal Rights of Married Women in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 29, no. 1, 1995, pp. 40–66. 88 See Brookes, et al., Sites of Gender. 89 P. G. Koopman-Boyden and C. D. Scott, eds, The Family and Government Policy in New Zealand, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1984; V. Adair and R. Dixon, eds, The Family in Aotearoa New Zealand, Longman, Auckland, 1998. 90 M. Nolan, Breadwinning: New Zealand Women and the State, University of Canterbury Press, Christchurch, 2000; B. Dalley and M. Tennant, eds, Past Judgement: Social Policy in New Zealand History, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2004; M. McClure, A Civilised Community: a history of social security in New Zealand, 1898–1998, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1998. 91 Evidence of Isabel Howlett before the Committee of Inquiry into Mental Defectives and Sexual Offenders in New Zealand 1924, Transcript of Evidence, H 3/13, p. 629, (ANZ-W). See P. Fleming, ‘Eugenics in New Zealand, 1900–1940’, Unpublished MA thesis, Massey University, 1981; S. Griffiths, ‘Feminism and the Ideology of Motherhood in New Zealand, 1896–1930’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Otago, 1984; S. Robertson, ‘“Production not Reproduction”: The Problem of Mental Defect in New Zealand, 1900–1939’, Unpublished MA thesis: University of Otago, 1989; M. Tennant, ‘Disability in New Zealand: an historical survey’, New Zealand Journal of Disability Studies, vol. 1, 1995, pp. 9–28; A. Wanhalla, ‘“To better the breed of men”: Women and Eugenics in New Zealand, 1900–1935’, Women’s History Review, vol. 16, no. 2, April 2007, pp. 163–82. 92 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, vol. 217, 1928, p. 607. 93 L. Mahood and B. Littlewood, ‘The “Vicious” Girl and the “Street-Corner” Boy: Sexuality and the Gendered Delinquent in the Scottish Child-saving Movement, 1850–1940’, Journal of the History of Sexuality, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 558–9. 94 H. C. Mathew, The Institutional Care of Dependent Children in New Zealand, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, Wellington, 1942, p. 27; B. Dalley, Family Matters; W. Brunton, ‘“A Choice of Difficulties”: National Mental Health Policy in New Zealand, 1840–1947’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Otago, 2001. 95 R. Winterbourn, Educating Backward Children in New Zealand, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, Wellington, 1944, p. 302. 96 Winterbourn, Educating Backward Children in New Zealand, p. 302. 97 Evidence of Isabel Howlett, p. 627. 98 J. Styles, ‘Men and the Development of Psychiatry in New Zealand in the 1920s and 1930s’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 1997, p. 68. 99 Claims of abuse surfaced in national newspapers during the protracted debate over the closure of the Templeton Centre: The Christchurch Press, 20 April 1995, p. 5; The Christchurch Press, 26 June 1995, p. 5; The Christchurch Press, 25 September 1995, p. 10; The Christchurch Press, 15 December 1995, p. 1; The Christchurch Press, 8 February 1997, p. 4; The Christchurch Press, 15 February 1998, p. 1; The Christchurch Press, 16 February 1998, p. 2; The Dominion, 20 April 1999, p. 9.

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100 See M. Tennant, ‘The Decay of Home Life? The Home in Early Welfare Discourses’, in B. Brookes, ed., At Home in New Zealand: history, houses, people, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2000, pp. 24–40. 101 A. Perry, On the Edge of Empire: Gender, Race and the Making of British Columbia, 1849–1871, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 2001, p. 7. 102 J. O. Ifekwunigwe, ‘Re-Membering “Race”: On Gender, “Mixed Race” and Family in the English- African Diaspora’, in D. Parker and M. Song, Rethinking ‘Mixed Race’, Pluto Books, London, 2001, pp. 42, 55. A. L. Stoler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2002, p. 19.

chapter 19: Sexuality, Morality and Society 1 H. Barraclough, ‘Human Instincts, Normal and Pathological’, New Zealand Medical Journal (NZMJ), vol. 4, no. 16, July 1905, pp. 199–213. 2 See G. Hawkes and J. Scott, eds, Perspectives in Human Sexuality, Oxford, Melbourne, 2005; K. Phillips and B. Reay, eds, Sexualities in History: A Reader, Routledge, New York, 2002; A. Kirkman and P. Moloney, eds, Sexuality Down Under: Social and Historical Perspectives, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2005; H. Worth, A. Paris and L. Allen, eds, The Life of Brian: Masculinities, Sexualities and Health in New Zealand, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2002. 3 C. Brickell, ‘The Sociological Construction of Gender and Sexuality’, Sociological Review, vol. 54, no. 1, 2006, pp. 87–113; C. Vance, ‘Social Construction Theory: Problems in the History of Sexuality’, in P. Nardi and B. Schneider, eds, Social Perspectives in Lesbian and Gay Studies, Routledge, London, 1998. 4 K. Plummer, ‘Symbolic Interactionism and Sexual Conduct: An Emergent Perspective’, in C. Williams and A. Stein, eds, Gender and Sexuality, Blackwell, Malden, 2002. 5 J. Belich, Paradise Reforged: A History of the New Zealanders, Penguin, Auckland, 2001, pp. 121–5. 6 C. Daley, ‘Puritans and Pleasure Seekers’, in Kirkman and Moloney, eds, Sexuality Down Under, pp. 47–62. 7 See S. Eldred-Grigg, Pleasures of the Flesh: Sex and Drugs in Colonial New Zealand 1840–1915, Reed, Wellington, passim; M. Gillingham, ‘Sexual Pleasures and Dangers?: A History of Sexual Cultures in Wellington 1900–1920’, Unpublished MA thesis, Massey University, 1998, passim. 8 S. Jackson, Heterosexuality in Question, Sage, London, 1999, chap. 9. 9 B. Brookes, ‘A Weakness for Strong Subjects: The Women’s Movement and Sexuality’, New Zealand Journal of History (NZJH), vol. 27, no. 2, 1993, pp. 140–56. 10 B. Brookes, ‘“When Dad Was a Woman”: Gender Relations in the 1970s’, in C. Daley and D. Montgomerie, eds, The Gendered Kiwi, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999, pp. 235–49. 11 B. Brookes, ‘Annemarie Anon’, in C. Macdonald, M. Penfold and B. Williams, eds, The Book of New Zealand Women, Bridget Williams, Wellington, 1991, pp. 14–15; B. Dalley, ‘From Demi-Mondes to Slaveys: Aspects of the Management of the Te Oranga Reformatory for Delinquent Young Women, 1900–1918’, in B. Brookes, C. Macdonald and M. Tennant, eds, Women in History 2, Bridget Williams, Wellington, pp. 148–67. 12 M. Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, Penguin, London, 1990 [1976]; S. Garton, Histories of Sexuality, Routledge, New York, 2004, pp. 10–19. 13 A. Ryan, ‘From Dangerous Sexualities to Risky Sex: Regulating Sexuality in the Name of Public Health’, in Hawkes and Scott, Perspectives, pp. 203–17. 14 C. Brickell, Mates and Lovers: A New Zealand Gay History, Random House, Auckland, 2008; C. Brickell, ‘A Symbolic Interactionist History of Sexuality?’, Rethinking History, vol. 10, no. 3, 2006, pp. 461–78. 15 See B. Brookes, A. Cooper and R. Law, ‘Situating Gender’, in Brookes, Cooper and Law, eds, Sites of Gender, pp. 1–14.

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16 New Zealand Truth (NZT), 22 May 1909, p. 1. 17 NZT, 8 June 1907, p. 1. 18 NZT, 25 May 1912, p. 1; 18 August 1906, p. 5; 13 October 1906, p. 4. 19 NZT, 11 July 1914, p. 6. 20 NZT, 11 July 1914, p. 6. 21 Brookes, ‘Weakness’, p. 146. 22 NZT, 1 July 1911, p. 4; 30 May 1908, p. 1; 23 February 1907, p. 5. 23 For a background discussion on the Truth newspaper, see Belich, Paradise Reforged, p. 179. 24 Criminal Code, New Zealand Statutes 1893, p. 349. Almost all New Zealand convictions entered between 1872 and 1910 involved sex that was not consented to; see T. Tulloch, ‘State Regulation of Sexuality in New Zealand 1880–1925’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Canterbury, 1997, pp. 304, 311. 25 Brookes, ‘Weakness’, p. 145. 26 Brookes, ‘Weakness’, p. 152. 27 Brookes, ‘Weakness’, p. 150. 28 P. Christoffel, Censored: A Short History of Censorship in New Zealand, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1989. 29 Eldred-Grigg, Pleasures, p. 159; C. Macdonald, ‘The “Social Evil”: Prostitution and the Passage of the Contagious Diseases Act (1869)’, in Brookes, Macdonald and Tennant, eds, Women in History, pp. 13–34; F. Mort, Dangerous Sexualities: Medico-moral Politics in England Since 1830, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1987, p. 69. 30 Tulloch, ‘State Regulation of Sexuality in New Zealand 1880–1925’, chap. 1. 31 Brookes, ‘Weakness’, p. 156. 32 P. Fleming, ‘Fighting the “Red Plague”: Observations on the Response to Venereal Disease in New Zealand 1910–1945’, NZJH, vol. 22, no. 1, 1998, pp. 56–64. 33 NZT, 3 April 1915, p. 3. 34 J. Tolerton, Ettie: A Life of Ettie Rout, Penguin, Auckland, 1992, chap. 10. 35 Tolerton, Ettie, p. 166; Brookes, ‘Weakness’, p. 143. 36 Mort, Dangerous Sexualities, p. 122. 37 H. Stace, ‘Gene Dreaming: New Zealanders and Eugenics’, PHANZA E-journal, . 38 Tolerton, Ettie, pp. 175–6. 39 A. Wanhalla, ‘To “Better the Breed of Men”: Women and Eugenics in New Zealand, 1900–1935’, Women’s History Review, vol. 16, no. 2, 2007, pp. 163–82. 40 Belich, Paradise Reforged, pp. 184–5. 41 Barraclough, ‘Human Instincts’, p. 205; W. A. Chapple, The Fertility of the Unfit, Whitcombe and Tombes, Melbourne, 1903, pp. 69–71, 105. 42 W. H. Triggs, et al., ‘Venereal Diseases in New Zealand’, AJHR, 1922, H-31A, pp. 20–2. 43 V. Rosario, The Erotic Imagination: French Histories of Perversity, Oxford University Press, New York, 1997, p. 77. 44 E. Rout, Safe Marriage: A Return to Sanity, Heinemann, London, 1922, pp. 19, 23. 45 Chapple, Fertility, pp. 69–71, 105. 46 S. Robertson, ‘“Production Not Reproduction”: The Problem of Mental Defect in New Zealand 1920–1935’, in B. Brookes and J. Thomson, eds, Unfortunate Folk: Essays on Mental Health Treatment 1863–1992, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2001, p. 203. 47 See the official correspondence in J W2304 12/17/1, Archives New Zealand (ANZ). 48 Robertson, ‘“Production Not Reproduction”, p. 213. 49 C. Brickell, Mates and lovers: a history of gay New Zealand, Godwit, Auckland, 2008, chap. 3.

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50 M. Tennant, Children’s Health, the Nation’s Wealth: A History of Children’s Health Camps, Wellington, Bridget Williams, 1994, p. 20. 51 See R. Nicholls, The Women’s Parliament: The National Council of Women of New Zealand, 1896–1920, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1996, p. 59. 52 Wanhalla, ‘To “Better the Breed of Men”’, p. 178. 53 Alexander Turnbull Library, The Hun’s Ally in Our Camps, pamphlet, c. 1918, 95–017–04/1. 54 NZT, 7 August 1915, p. 3; NZT, 4 August 1917, p. 2. 55 NZT, 19 February 1916, p. 6. 56 NZT, 3 September 1931, p. 3. 57 B. Dalley, ‘“Fresh Attractions”: White Slavery and Feminism in New Zealand, 1885–1918’, Women’s History Review, vol. 9, no. 3, 2000, pp. 588–90. 58 Nicholls, Women’s Parliament, pp. 72, 110. 59 Mirror, 1 May 1928, p. 6. 60 J. Cochran, Meeting and Mating, Reed, Wellington, 1944, p. 107. 61 B. Brookes, ‘Housewives’ Depression: The Debate Over Abortion and Birth Control in the 1930s’, NZJH, vol. 15, no. 2, 1981, p. 122. 62 NZT, 25 May 1912, p. 1. 63 Daley, ‘Puritans’, p. 52. 64 Brookes, ‘Housewives’ Depression’, p. 117; H. Smyth, Rocking the Cradle: Contraception, Sex and Politics in New Zealand, Steele Roberts, Wellington, 2000, p. 45. 65 Rout, Safe Marriage, p. 22. For a discussion see Brookes, ‘Housewives’ Depression’, pp. 127–8. 66 Brookes, ‘Housewives’ Depression’, p. 124. 67 Brookes, ‘Housewives’ Depression’, pp. 125, 131; Smyth, Rocking the Cradle, p. 45. 68 Smyth, Rocking the Cradle, pp. 43–4. 69 M. Manse (‘Purity’), Needful Knowledge on Social and Sexual Hygiene, Whitcombe and Tombs, Wellington, 1941, p. 6. 70 J. Cochran and B. Cochran, Sex, Love and Marriage, Reed, Wellington, 1943, p. 13; E. A. Gornall, Biosex A: A Digest of Sex Instruction for Adults, Auckland, 1945, p. 63; C. T. Symons, The Teaching of Sex, Wellington, 1944, p. 11. 71 B. Brookes, E. Olssen and E. Beer, ‘Spare Time? Leisure, Gender and Modernity’, in Brookes, et al., eds, Sites of Gender, p. 180. 72 NZT, 5 Feb 1931, p. 7. 73 Cue, vol. 32, 1945, pp. 13–14; NZT, 31 July 1930, p. 15; J. Robb, The Life and Death of Official Social Research in New Zealand 1936–1940, Department of Sociology and Social Work, Victoria University, Wellington, 1987, p. 31. 74 C. Brickell, ‘The Politics of Postwar Consumer Culture’, NZJH, vol. 40, no. 2, 2006, pp. 133–55. 75 Korero, vol. 3, no. 12, 1945, p. 11; see also Korero, vol. 3, no. 11, 1945, pp. 7–10. 76 O. C. Mazengarb, et al., ‘Report of the Special Committee on Moral Delinquency in Children and Adolescents’, AJHR, 1954, H-47, p. 7. 77 Mazengarb, ‘Special Committee’, p. 18; Brookes, ‘Weakness’, p. 144. 78 Mazengarb, ‘Special Committee’, p. 21. 79 M. L. D., ‘The Roots of Delinquency’, Here and Now, October 1954, pp. 12–13; Alexander Turnbull Library, Youth Committee of Presbyterian Church of New Zealand, submission to Government Commission on Adolescent Immorality, MS-Papers-2384–06, 1954, p. 5. See also M. Molloy, ‘Science, Myth and the Adolescent Female: The Mazengarb Report, the Parker-Hulme Trial and the Adoption Act of 1955’, Women’s Studies Journal, vol. 9, no. 1, 1993, pp. 1–25. 80 R. Yska, All Shook Up: The Flash Bodgie and the Rise of the New Zealand Teenager in the Fifties, Penguin, Auckland, 1993, p. 10. 81 See Brickell, ‘Politics’, passim.

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82 F. Wertham, Seduction of the Innocent, Rinehart, New York, 1954. 83 A. E. Manning, The Bodgie: A Study in Psychological Abnormality, Reed, Wellington, 1958. 84 Manning, Bodgie, p. 88. 85 Jim Robb, interview with Chris Brickell, 29 July 2005. 86 D. Ausubel, The Fern and the Tiki, Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1960, pp. 114, 131–6; K. Sinclair, ‘The Historian as Prophet’ (1963), reprinted in R. Brown, ed., The Great New Zealand Argument, Activity Press, Auckland, 2005, p. 100. 87 C. McGeorge, ‘ in 1912’, New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, vol. 12, no. 2, 1977, pp. 133–41. 88 NZT, 6 April 1912, p. 5. 89 F. Martyn-Renner, ‘White Cross League: Its Relation to Education and Public Health’, New Zealand Times, 4 June 1924, p. 10. 90 On both sides of the debate see McGeorge, ‘Sex Education’, passim; submissions to the Inquiry into Mental Defectives and Sexual Offenders (1924), Archives New Zealand, H1 54/79 (11305) and H3 W1628 13. 91 Cochran and Cochran, Sex, Love, pp. 6–10; Department of Health, Sex and the Adolescent Boy, Wellington, p. 7; Symons, Teaching, p. 30. 92 Cochran and Cochran, Sex, Love, p. 10. 93 P. Clennell Fenwick, ‘Urethral Neurosis’, NZMJ, vol. 3, no. 12, 1904, pp. 394–5. 94 Fenwick, ‘Urethral Neurosis’, p. 394; W. Edward Lush, A Waybook for Youth: A Book for Fathers to Give Their Sons, Auckland, 1917, p. 14. 95 The Human Touch, June 1936, pp. 20–2. 96 Gornall, Biosex A, p. 108; Manse, Needful Knowledge, p. 10; Department of Health, Sex and the Adolescent Girl, Wellington, 1955, passim. 97 Department of Health, Adolescent Boy, p. 7. 98 See Gornall, Biosex A, p. 108. 99 M. Horn, Digest of Hygiene for Father and Son, Wellington, Hallmark Publications, 1947, p. 70. 100 For a more detailed analysis see C. Brickell, ‘Sex Instruction and the Construction of Homosexuality in New Zealand, 1920–1965’, Sex Education, vol. 5, no. 2, 2005, pp. 123–40. 101 A. Laurie, ‘Lesbian Worlds’, in S. Cox, ed., Public and Private Worlds: Women in Contemporary New Zealand, Allen and Unwin, Wellington, 1987, p. 143. 102 C. Brickell, Mates and Lovers, passim; A. Laurie, ‘Lady-husbands and Kamp Ladies: Pre-1970 Lesbian Life in Aotearoa/New Zealand’, Unpublished PhD thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 2003, passim. 103 Eli G., tape recorded interview with Chris Brickell, 12 September 2005. 104 C. Brickell, ‘The Emergence of a Gay Identity’, in Kirkman and Moloney, eds, Sexuality Down Under, p. 75. 105 P. Higgins, Heterosexual Dictatorship: Male Homosexuality in Post-war Britain, Fourth Estate, London, 1996, passim. 106 Smyth, Rocking the Cradle, pp. 94–5. 107 Smyth, Rocking the Cradle, pp. 106–7. 108 Thursday, 23 January 1969, p. 29. 109 Smyth, Rocking the Cradle, p. 112. By this time about 12 per cent of births were to unmarried mothers. 110 NZT, 12 January 1971, p. 8. 111 Smyth, Rocking the Cradle, p. 103. 112 M. Kurlansky, 1968: The Year That Rocked the World, Ballantine, New York, 2004, passim. 113 B. Thornberry, et al., The Little Red School Book, Alister Taylor, Wellington, 1972, p. 108.

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114 F. Tuohy and M. Murphy, Down Under the Plum Trees, Alister Taylor, Martinborough, 1976, esp. pp. 7–9. 115 NZT, 5 April 1977, p. 52. 116 Itch, vol. 49, no. 7, 1974, p. 7. 117 Smyth, Rocking the Cradle, chap. 17; P. Gow, ‘Sex Education: Who’s Responsible?’, Post Primary Teachers’ Association Journal, March, 1971, pp. 39–41. 118 B. Brookes, ‘A Germaine Moment: Style, Language and Audience’, in T. Ballantyne and B. Moloughney, eds, Disputed Histories: Imagining New Zealand’s Pasts, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2006, pp. 191–214. 119 S. Kedgley and S. Cederman, Sexist Society, Alister Taylor, Wellington, 1972, pp. 11, 13. 120 See National Council of Women, ‘Report of the Subcommittee Set Up to Study Moral Welfare’, Auckland, 1960, MS-Papers-1371–326, Alexander Turnbull Library. 121 B. Brookes, ‘“When Dad Was a Woman”: Gender Relations in the 1970s’, in C. Daley and D. Montgomerie, eds, The Gendered Kiwi, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999, pp. 235–49, esp. p. 244. 122 For example, Thursday, 9 January 1969, p. 43, and various issues of Forum. On feminists’ involvement in the New Zealand edition of Forum see Brookes, ‘“When Dad Was a Woman”’, p. 244. 123 Up From Under, number 7, n.d., n.p. 124 See C. Wren, ‘The Synthetic Woman in a Plastic World [1972]’, in C. Macdonald, ed., The Vote, the Pill and the Demon Drink: A History of Feminist Writing in New Zealand, 1869–1993, Bridget Williams, Wellington, 1993, pp. 168–71. 125 Brookes, ‘“When Dad Was a Woman”’, passim. 126 A. Laurie, ‘The Aotearoa/New Zealand Homosexual Law Reform Campaign, 1985–1986’, in L. Alice and L. Star, eds, Queer in Aotearoa/New Zealand, Dunmore, Palmerston North, 2004, pp. 13–34. 127 Christchurch Gay Liberation Front Newsletter, August/September, 1973, p. 9. 128 A. Kirkman, ‘Propriety Promoted: Patricia Bartlett and the Society for the Promotion of Community Standards’, in M. Hill, S. Mast, R. Bowman and C. Carr-Gregg, eds, Shades of Deviance: A New Zealand Collection, Dunmore, Palmerston North, p. 34; C. Moynihan, A Stand for Decency: Patricia Bartlett and the Society for Promotion of Community Standards, 1970–1995, Society for Promotion of Community Standards, Wellington, 1995, passim. 129 Section 2 of the enshrined the notion of the ‘unborn child’ in law: see Wayne Facer, ‘Abortion Law in New Zealand’, Forum, vol. 2, no. 4, 1974, pp. 27–33. 130 A. Ryan, ‘Remoralising Politics’, in B. Jesson, A. Ryan and P. Spoonley, eds, Revival of the Right: New Zealand Politics in the 1980s, Heinemann Reed, Auckland, 1988, p. 57. 131 See Facer, ‘Abortion Opponents’, Forum, vol. 2, no. 8, 1974, pp. 30–7. 132 See S. Coney, ‘The Abortion Protagonists’, Broadsheet, December 1976, pp. 24–7. 133 Royal Commission of Inquiry, Contraception, Sterilisation and Abortion in New Zealand, Government Printer, Wellington, 1977. 134 Department of Education, Human Development and Relationships in the School Curriculum, Department of Education, Wellington, 1973, p. 26; Committee on Health and Social Education, Growing, Sharing, Learning: The Report of the Committee on Health and Social Education, Department of Education, Wellington, 1977, p. 37; J. Clark, ‘Sex Education in the New Zealand Primary School: A Tangled Skein of Morality, Religion, Politics and the Law’, Sex Education, vol. 1 no. 1, 2001, pp. 25, 27. 135 See M. Hill and W. Zwaga, ‘Religion and Deviance’, in P. Green, ed., Studies in New Zealand Social Problems, Dunmore, Palmerston North, 1990, p. 184. 136 C. Young, ‘Queers Versus the New Christian Right, 1985–1998’, in Alice and Star, eds, Queer, pp. 47–56. 137 Laurie, ‘Law Reform Campaign’, passim.

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138 Ryan, ‘Remoralising’, passim; C. Atmore, ‘Drawing the Line: Issues of Boundary and the Homosexual Law Reform Bill Campaign in New Zealand (Aotearoa) 1985–6’, Journal of Homosexuality, vol. 30, no. 1, 1995, pp. 23–52. 139 D. Janiewski and P. Morris, New Rights, New Zealand: Myths, Moralities and Markets, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2005, pp. 123–5. 140 For example, Lesbian and Gay Archive of New Zealand, Alexander Turnbull Library, Associated Pentecostal Churches, Submission to the Statutes Revision Committee of Parliament, 1985, p. 3. 141 C. Matthewson, New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 7807, 1985, vol. 467. 142 D. Janiewski and P. Morris, New Rights, New Zealand, p. 126; C. Pritchard, ‘The Discourses of Homosexual Law Reform’, in Kirkman and Moloney, eds, Sexuality, pp. 79–96. 143 C. Burke, ‘Diversity or Perversity? Investigating Queer Narratives, Resistance, and Representation in Aotearoa/New Zealand, 1948–2000’, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Waikato, 2007, chap. 2. 144 P. Treichler, How to Have Theory in an Epidemic, Duke University Press, New York, 1999, chap. 1; Pritchard, ‘Discourses’, pp. 89–95. 145 S. Gilman, ‘AIDS and Syphilis: The Iconography of Disease’, in D. Crimp, ed., AIDS: Cultural Analysis, Cultural Activism, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1988, pp. 87–107. 146 B. Lichtenstein, ‘Creating Icons of AIDS: The Media and Popular Culture’, in P. Davis, ed., Intimate Details and Vital Statistics, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1996, pp. 66–80. 147 H. Worth, ‘Jungle Fever: AIDS and the Peter Mwai Affair’, in M. de Ras and V. Grace, eds, Bodily Boundaries, Sexualised Genders, and Medical Discourses, Dunmore, Palmerston North, 1997, pp. 52–65. 148 Janiewski and Morris, New Rights, New Zealand, p. 127. 149 C. Brickell, ‘Whose “Special Treatment”? Heterosexism and the Problems With Liberalism’, Sexualities, vol. 4, no. 2, 2001, pp. 211–36. 150 For a detailed account, see Janiewski and Morris, New Rights, New Zealand, passim. 151 N. Fraser and L. Gordon, ‘A Genealogy of Dependency: Tracing a Keyword of the U.S. Welfare State’, Signs, vol. 19, no. 2, 1994, pp. 309–34. 152 K. Johnstone and I. Pool, ‘Family Demographic Change: 1. Two-parent Families’, Butterworths Family Law Journal, vol. 2, no. 1, 1996, p. 298; Stace, ‘Gene Dreaming’, passim. 153 D. Green, From Welfare State to Civil Society, New Zealand Business Roundtable, Wellington, 1996, pp. 130–3; S. St John, ‘Sins of the Fathers’, New Zealand Political Review, vol. 6, no. 1, 1997, pp. 34–7. 154 Nicholls, Women’s Parliament, p. 59. 155 D. Welch, ‘Not a Love Story’, New Zealand Listener, 28 June 2003, pp. 16–23. 156 See Welch, ‘Not a Love Story’, pp. 16–23; B. Brookes, ‘Sex Work Not Consistent with Other Work’, Otago Daily Times, 25 March 2003, p. 15; M. Farley and J. Jordan, ‘Prostitution Debate’, Dominion Post, 25 June 2003, p. B5; J. Robinson, ‘The Oldest Profession’, in Cox, ed., Public, pp. 177–91. 157 A. Laurie, ‘Report on the Written Submissions to the Justice and Electoral Select Committee on the Civil Union Bill and Relationships (Statutory References) Bill’, Victoria University, Wellington, 2004. 158 Laurie, ‘Report’, passim; Pritchard, ‘Discourses’, p. 96. 159 Janiewski and Morris, New Rights, New Zealand, p. 120. 160 Dominion Post, 24 August 2004, p. 1; Nelson Mail, 18 September 2004, p. 3. 161 See C. Brickell, ‘Deregulating the Heterosexual Imagination: Liberalism, “Political Correctness” and the Denial of Domination’, Unpublished PhD thesis, Victoria University, Wellington, chap. 4. 162 J. Wane, ‘Thanks, But No Thanks’, Sunday Star-Times, 13 June 2004, p. C3. 163 R. Laugeson, ‘This Advert Isn’t Sexist: Yeah Right’, Sunday Star-Times, 25 February 2007, p. C1. 164 K. Gray, ‘Teens Still Loving Dangerously’, , 8 June 2005, p. A15.

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chapter 20: Health and Illness, 1840s–1990s 1 See D. Denoon and P. Mein-Smith, A History of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific, Blackwell, Oxford UK, 2000; P. Gibbons, ‘The Far Side of the Search for Identity: Reconsidering New Zealand History’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 37, no. 1, 2003, p. 43; A. Curthoys, ‘We’ve Just Started Making National Histories, and You Want Us to Stop Already?’, in A. Burton, ed., After the Imperial Turn: Thinking with and through the Nation, Duke University Press, Durham and London, 2003, p. 86. 2 See A. Burton, ed., After the Imperial Turn; R. C. Young, Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford and Malden, MA, 2001; A. Bashford, ‘Medicine, Gender, and Empire’, in P. Levine, ed., Gender and Empire, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004, p. 133; W. Anderson, ‘Postcolonial Histories of Medicine’, in F. Huisman and J. H. Warner, eds, Locating Medical History: The Stories and Their Meanings, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 2004, pp. 289, 295. 3 L. Bryder, A Healthy Country?: Essays on the Social History of Medicine in New Zealand, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1991, p. 5. See also R. Lange, May the People Live: A History of Maori Health Development 1900–1920, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999; R. Lange, ‘“The Revival of a Dying Race”: A Study of Maori Health reform, 1900–1918, and its Nineteenth-century Background’, Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of Auckland, 1972; D. Dow, Maori Health and Government Policy 1840–1940, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1999; D. Dow and L. Bryder, eds, Health and History, vol. 3, no. 1, 2001; C. Jeffrey, ‘Maori Women’s Experiences of Childbirth at National Women’s Hospital, 1950–2000’, Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of Auckland, 2005; H. M. Harte, ‘Home Births to Hospital Births: Interviews with Maori Women who had their Babies in the 1930s’, Health and History, vol. 3, no. 1, 2001, pp. 87–108; M. Durie, Mauri Ora: The Dynamics of Maori Health, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2001; D. Dow, ‘“To set our medical history into order”: A Historiography of Health in New Zealand’, Archifacts, 1996, pp. 15–40; L. K. Gluckman, Tangiwai: a medical history of 19th century New Zealand, Whitcoulls Ltd, Auckland, 1976; D. Arnold, ‘Medicine and Colonialism’, in W. F. Bynum and R. Porter, eds, Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, vol. 2, Routledge, London and New York, 1997, pp. 1393–1416. 4 B. Brookes, ‘The Risk to Life and Limb: Gender and Health’, in B. Brookes, A. Cooper and R. Law, eds, Sites of Gender: Women, Men and Modernity in Southern Dunedin, 1890–1939, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2003, p. 287; R. D. Apple, ed., Women, Health and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, Garland Publishing, London and New York, 1990. 5 R. Porter, ‘The Patient’s View: Doing Medical History from Below’, Theory and Society, vol. 14, 1985, pp. 193–4; C. Rosenberg and J. Golden, eds, Framing Disease: Studies in Cultural History, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1992, p. xxi; J. Walzer Leavitt, ‘Medicine in Context: a review essay of the history of medicine’, in American Historical Review, vol. 95, no. 5, December 1990, pp. 1471–84. 6 See A. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492, Greenwood Press, CT, 1972; W. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples, Anchor Press, New York, 1976. 7 B. Labrum, ‘Looking Beyond the Asylum: Gender and the Process of Committal in Auckland, 1870–1910’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26, 1992, pp. 125–44, republished as B. Labrum, ‘The Boundaries of Femininity: Madness and Gender in New Zealand, 1870–1910’, in W. Chan, D. E. Chunn and R. Menzies, eds, Women, Madness and the Law: A Feminist Reader, Glasshouse Press, London, Sydney and Portland Oregon, 2005, p. 77; B. Brookes, ‘Women and Madness: A case-study of the Seacliff Asylum, 1890–1920’, in B. Brookes, C. Macdonald and M. Tennant, eds, Women in History 2, pp. 129–47; B. Brookes, ‘Men and Madness in New Zealand, 1890–1916’, in L. Bryder and D. Dow, eds, New Countries, Old Medicine, pp. 204–10; L. Burke, ‘“The voices caused him to become porangi”: Maori Patients in the Auckland Lunatic Asylum, 1860–1900’, Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of Waikato, 2005; C. Coleborne, Reading ‘Madness’: Gender and difference in the colonial asylum in Victoria, Australia, 1848–1880s, Perth, Western Australia, Australian Public Intellectual Network, 2007. 8 Lange, May the People Live, p. 7. 9 R. Walker, Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou, Struggle without End, rev. edn, Auckland, Penguin Books, 2004, p. 80.

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10 Lange, May the People Live, p. 3. See also D. Stannard, American Holocaust: the conquest of the New World, Oxford University Press, New York, 1993. 11 Walker, Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou, p. 80. 12 Denoon and Mein-Smith, A History of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific, p. 74. 13 Lange, May the People Live, p. 4. See also Te Rangi Hiroa, The Coming of the Maori, Whitcombe and Tombs, Wellington, 1974, p. 412. 14 Lange, May the People Live, p. 7; p. 2; Walker, Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou, p. 76; J. Belich, Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders from Polynesian Settlement to the End of the Nineteenth Century, Penguin, Auckland, 2001 [first published 1996], pp. 173–5. 15 Denoon and Mein-Smith, A History of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific, pp. 80–1. 16 Lange, May the People Live, pp. 58–9; T. Damon Salesa, ‘“The Power of the Physician”: Doctors and the “Dying Maori” in early Colonial New Zealand’, Health and History, vol. 3, no. 1, 2001, p. 40. 17 Lange, May the People Live, p. 64. 18 Dow, Maori Health and Government Policy, 1840–1940, pp. 23, 18–19. 19 Gluckman, Tangiwai, p. 58. 20 Dow, Maori Health and Government Policy, 1840–1940, p. 20. See letter from Jane Williams to Catherine Heathcote, Turanga, 19 August 1842, in F. Porter, eds, The Turanga Journals 1840–1850: Letters and Journals of William and Jane Williams Missionaries to Poverty Bay, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1974, p. 210. See also J. Munro, The Story of Suzanne Aubert, Auckland University Press/Bridget Williams Books, Auckland, 1996. 21 Gluckman, Tangiwai, pp. 59, 70. This spelling is in the text presented by Gluckman. 22 See P. Grimshaw, et al., Creating a Nation, 1788–1990, Penguin, Ringwood Victoria, 1996 [1994], pp. 7–26; Gluckman, Tangiwai, p. 174. See also H. M. Harte, ‘Maori Childbirth in the 1930s’, in L. Bryder and D. Dow, eds, New Countries and Old Medicine: Proceedings of an international Conference on the History of Medicine and Health, Auckland Medical Historical Society, Auckland, 1995, pp. 361–5. 23 See A. T. Ngata, Ngã Mõteatea: The Songs Part One, first published by the Polynesian Society in 1959, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2004. 24 F. Porter and C. Macdonald, eds, My heart will write what my hand dictates: the unsettled lives of women in nineteenth-century New Zealand revealed to sisters, family and friends, Auckland University Press/Bridget Williams Books, Auckland, 1996, p. 265. 25 See C. J. Jaenen, ‘Thoughts on Early Canadian Contact’, in C. Martin, ed., The American Indian and the Problem of History, Oxford University Press, New York, 1987, pp. 55–66. 26 L. Gluckman, A. Gluckman and M. Wagg (eds), Touching on Deaths: A Medical History of Early Auckland Based on the First 384 Inquests, Doppelganger, Auckland, 2000, p. 41. The newspaper report was 25 March 1845. 27 L. Burke, ‘Military Medicine and Colonial Attitudes to Indigenous Medicine: The Provision of Medical Services during the New Zealand Wars’, in ‘Health, History and Culture Group’, Body Language: Framing Subjects of Medical Knowledge, Department of History, University of Waikato, 2004, p. 135. 28 Dow, Maori Health and Government Policy, pp. 40–1. 29 J. H. Pope, Health for the Maori: A Manual for Use in Native Schools, 3rd edn, John McKay Government Printer, Wellington, 1901 [published as Te Ora Mo Te Maori: He Pukapuka Mo Nga Kura Maori in 1884]. 30 Dow, Maori Health and Government Policy, p. 90; Lange, May the People Live, pp. 77–79. 31 F. Harsant, They Called me Te Maari, Whitcoulls, Christchurch, 1979, p. 38. 32 Walker, Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou, pp. 66–7. 33 M. Belgrave, ‘Medicine and the Rise of the Health Professions’, in Bryder, ed., A Healthy Country?, pp. 9–10. 34 Lange, May the People Live, pp. 242–3. Te Rangi Hiroa argued that Maori had begun to reject superstitious practices; see The Coming of the Maori, pp. 409–13.

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35 See J. Binney, G. Wallace and C. Chapman, Mihaia: The Prophet Rua Kenana and his community at Maungapohatu, Oxford University Press, Wellington, 1979. 36 Walker, Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou, pp. 180–1; Dow, ‘“Pruned of its Dangers”: The Tohunga Suppression Act 1907’, Health and History, vol. 3, no. 1, 2001, pp. 41–64. 37 Belgrave, ‘Medicine and the Rise of the Health Professions in New Zealand, 1860–1939’, p. 16; Dow, ‘“Pruned of its Dangers”’, pp. 58–9. 38 R. E. Wright-St Clair, ‘A View of New Zealand Medicine and the Characters who Shaped it: Up to the 1920 Health Act’, Unpublished manuscript, [n.d.], pp. 66, 41–50; R. E. Wright St-Clair, A History of the New Zealand Medical Association: The first 100 Years, Butterworths, Wellington, 1987, p. 39. 39 Dow, Safeguarding the Public Health, p. 39. Also note F. S. MacLean, Challenge for Health: A History of Public Health in New Zealand, R. E. Owen, Government Printer, Wellington, 1964; R. E. Wright-St Clair, ‘A View of New Zealand Medicine’, p. 67. See also A History of the New Zealand Medical Association for a discussion of the medical journals on pp. 67–79. 40 See N. Theriot, ‘Negotiating Illness: Doctors, Patients and Families in the Nineteenth Century’, Journal of the History of Behavioural Sciences, vol. 37, no. 4, 2001, pp. 349–68. 41 Belgrave, ‘Medicine and the Rise of the Health Professions’, p. 13; see also J. M. O’Donnell, ‘Female Complaints: Women’s Health in Dunedin 1885–1910’, Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of Otago, 1991, esp. chap. 2. 42 M. Fairburn, Nearly out of heart and hope: The puzzle of a colonial labourer’s diary, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1995, p. 49. 43 B. Brookes, ‘Health, Hygiene and Bodily Knowledge, 1880–1940: A New Zealand Case Study’, Journal of Family History, vol. 28, no. 2, April 2003; J. Raftery, ‘Keeping Healthy in Nineteenth- Century Australia’, Health & History, vol. 1, 1999, p. 285. 44 C. Daley, Girls and Women, Men and Boys: Gender in Taradale 1886–1930, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999, pp. 17, 61. 45 Brookes, ‘The Risk to Life and Limb’, p. 292; Brookes, ‘Hygiene, Health, and Bodily Knowledge’, p. 300; Daley, Girls and Women, p. 47. 46 Dow, Maori Health and Government Policy, p. 23. 47 P. Mein-Smith, ‘Health’, in G. Davison, J. Hirst and S. Macintyre, eds, The Oxford Companion to Australian History, Oxford University Press, Oxford, Auckland and New York, 1998, p. 304. 48 Dow, Maori Health and Government Policy, pp. 28, 32; Dow, Safeguarding the Public Health, p. 12. 49 Belgrave, ‘Medicine and the Rise of the Health Professions’, p. 20. 50 E. Papps, ed., Nursing in New Zealand: Critical issues and different perspectives, Pearson Education, Auckland, 2002, p. 2; H. Maclean, Nursing in New Zealand: History and Reminiscences, Wellington, 1932; J. O. C. Neill, Grace Neill: The Story of a Remarkable Woman, Christchurch 1961; P. A. Sargison, ‘Essentially a Woman’s Work: A History of General Nursing in New Zealand, 1830–1930’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Otago, 2001. 51 J. McCalman, Sex and Suffering: Women’s Health and a Women’s Hospital, The Royal Women’s Hospital, Melbourne 1856–1996, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1998, p. 77. 52 P. Mein-Smith argues that relatively high rates of maternal mortality persisted into the twentieth century, with 6.48 deaths per 1000 live births in 1920; see P. Mein-Smith, ‘Mortality in Childbirth in the 1920s and 1930s’, in B. Brookes, C. Macdonald and M. Tennant, eds, Women in History: Essays on European Women in New Zealand, Allen and Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, Wellington 1987, p. 137. 53 See L. Bryder, A Voice for Mothers: The Plunket Society and Infant Welfare 1907–2000, Auckland, Auckland University Press, 2003, p. 1. 54 Brookes, ‘Aspects of Women’s Health’, pp. 150, 156–7; R. Brown, ‘Private tragedies made public: A study of maternal mortality in New Zealand 1890 to 1915’, Unpublished Honours Dissertation, Victoria University of Wellington, 1998, p. 28. 55 Denoon and Mein-Smith, A History of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific, p. 261; McCalman, Sex and Suffering, p. 117; P. Mein-Smith, Maternity in Dispute: New Zealand 1920–1939,

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Historical Publications Branch/Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington 1986, pp. 1, 23–40; C. M. Parkes, ‘The Impact of the Medicalisation of New Zealand’s Maternity Services on Women’s Experience of Childbirth, 1904–1937’, in Bryder, ed., A Healthy Country, p. 166; J. Donley, Save the Midwife, New Women’s Press, Auckland, 1986, pp. 24–38. 56 Dow, Safeguarding the Public Health, p. 40; W. Anderson, The Cultivation of Whiteness: Science, Health and Racial Destiny in Australia, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2002, p. 4. 57 J. McCalman, ‘Mothers’ Health and Babies’ Weights: The Biology of Poverty at the Melbourne Lying-in hospital, 1857–83’, Social History of Medicine, vol. 16, no. 1, 2003, p. 40. Also note D. Dyason, ‘The medical profession in colonial Victoria, 1834–1901’, in R. Macleod and M. Lewis, eds, Disease, Medicine and Empire: Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion, Routledge, London and New York, 1988, pp. 194–216. 58 M. A. Crowther and M. W. Dupree, Medical Lives in the Age of Surgical Revolution, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK, 2007, pp. 294–302, 272–9. 59 See D. Page, ‘The First Lady Graduates: Women with Degrees from Otago University, 1885–1900’, in B. Brookes, C. Macdonald and M. Tennant, eds, Women in History 2: Essays on Women in New Zealand, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1992, pp. 98, 120–1; M. D. Maxwell, Women Doctors in New Zealand: An Historical Perspective 1921–1986, IMS (NZ) Ltd., Auckland, 1990. 60 See F. Porter and C. Macdonald, eds, My hand will write, pp. 84, 390–17, 461. 61 W. Brunton, ‘Colonies for the Mind: The Historical Context of Services for Forensic Psychiatry in New Zealand’, in W. Brookbanks, ed., Psychiatry and the Law: Clinical and Legal Issues, Brookers, Wellington, 1996, pp. 7–8. 62 Brookes and Thomson, ‘Unfortunate Folk’, pp. 10, 15. 63 Labrum, ‘The Boundaries of Femininity’, p. 77. 64 C. Coleborne and D. MacKinnon, ‘Psychiatry and its institutions in Australia and New Zealand: An overview’, International Review of Psychiatry, vol. 18, no. 4, August 2006, pp. 371–80. See also A. Atkinson, The Europeans in Australia, vol 2, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2004, p. 283; S. Swartz, ‘The Black Insane in the Cape, 1891–1920’, Journal of Southern African Studies, vol. 21, no. 3, 1995, pp. 399–415; W. Ernst, ‘Idioms of Madness and Colonial Boundaries: The Case of the European and “Native” Mentally Ill in Early Nineteenth-Century British India’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 39, no. 1, 1997, pp. 153–81; J. Leckie, ‘Modernity and the management of madness in colonial Fiji’, Paideuma, vol. 50, 2004, p. 257. 65 See also M. Tennant, Paupers and Providers: Charitable aid in New Zealand, Allen and Unwin/ Historical Branch, Wellington, 1989, pp. 13, 22, 40. 66 M. Finnane, ‘Asylums, Families and the State’, History Workshop, vol. 20, 1985, p. 144. 67 See M. Thompson, ‘Scientific Pastors: The Professionalization of Psychiatry in New Zealand 1877– 1920’, in B. Brookes and J. Thomson, eds, ‘Unfortunate Folk’: Essays on Mental Health Treatment 1863–1992, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2001, pp. 185–99; P. Cody, ‘Women Psychiatrists in New Zealand 1900–1990: An Oral History’, in Brookes and Thomson, eds, ‘Unfortunate Folk’, p. 215. 68 N. M. Theriot, ‘Negotiating Illness: Doctors, Patients, and Families in the Nineteenth Century’, Journal of the History of Behavioural Sciences, vol. 37, no. 4, 2001, p. 352; C. Coleborne, ‘“His brain was wrong, his mind astray”: Families and the language of insanity in New South Wales, Queensland, and New Zealand, 1880s–1910’, Journal of Family History, vol. 31, no. 1, 2006, pp. 45–65. 69 National Archives, New Zealand (NANZ) Carrington Hospital, YCAA 1048/11, Patient Casebooks, folio 10. Surnames of psychiatric patients are usually obscured. NANZ, YCAA 1026/12, Case 4112, Letter from sister dated 5 January 1913; NANZ, YCAA 1026/12, Case 4112 Letter from Beattie dated 7 January 1913. See also Coleborne, ‘“His brain was wrong”’. 70 A. Bashford and C. Hooker, eds, Contagion: historical and cultural studies, Routledge, London, 2001, p. 39. 71 Brookes, ‘Health, Hygiene and Bodily Knowledge’, p. 298. 72 Lange, May the People Live, p. 58; A. K. Newman, ‘Is New Zealand a Healthy Country?—An Enquiry’, in J. Hector, ed., Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute 1882, vol. xv, Lyon and Blair, Wellington, 1883, p. 510.

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73 Lange, May the People Live, pp. 58–9. 74 See J. Beattie, ‘Tropical Asia and Temperate New Zealand: Health and Conservation Connections, 1840–1920’, in B. Moloughney and H. Johnson, eds, Asia in the Making of New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2007, pp. 36–57. 75 L. Erson, ‘The Sanitary Condition of New Zealand’, Intercolonial Medical Congress of Australasia, Second Session, Section of Hygiene, 1889, pp. 485–9. 76 Intercolonial Medical Congress, 1889. 77 H. N. MacLaurin, ‘Comparative View of the Mortality of the Different Colonies from Certain Diseases’, Section of Hygiene, President’s Address, Intercolonial Medical Congress of Australasia, 1889, p. 404. 78 MacLaurin, ‘Comparative view of the Mortality’, pp. 411–12; Dow, Maori Health and Government Policy, pp. 140–1; D. Colquhoun, ‘Phthsis in New Zealand’, Intercolonial Medical Congress, 1889, pp. 79–87. 79 See H. E. Duff, ‘“The Cult of Cleanliness”: Discourses of “Domestic Hygiene” in 1920s New Zealand’, Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of Waikato, 2006. 80 D. Anderson, ‘“Armed with power for preventing the spread of infectious disease”: The making of the Public Health Act 1872 and its implementation in Auckland Province, 1870–1876’, Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of Waikato, 2002, p. 4; A. Bashford, Purity and Pollution: Gender, Embodiment and Victorian Medicine, St Martins Press and Macmillan Press, Houndmills Basingstoke UK and New York, 1998, p. 3. 81 P. Wood, Dirt: Filth and Decay in a New World Arcadia, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2005, p. 3; Mein-Smith, ‘Health’, p. 304. 82 E. Olssen, ‘Towards a New Society’, in G. Rice, ed., The Oxford History of New Zealand, p. 258. 83 P. Levine, Prostitution, Race and Politics: Policing Venereal Disease in the British Empire, Routledge, London and New York, 2003; C. Macdonald, ‘The “Social Evil”: Prostitution and the Passage of the Contagious Diseases Act (1869)’, in B. Brookes, C. Macdonald and M. Tennant, eds, Women in History: Essays on European Women in New Zealand, Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, Wellington and Sydney, 1986, p. 13. 84 This phrase is borrowed from L. Finch’s book, The Classing Gaze: Sexuality, class and surveillance, Allen and Unwin, St Leonards, NSW, 1993. 85 Dow, Safeguarding the Public Health, pp. 17, 25, 38; Anderson, ‘Armed with power for preventing the spread of infectious disease’, p. 39; G. Rice, ‘Public Health in Christchurch, 1875–1910: Mortality and Sanitation’, in Bryder, ed., A Healthy Country?, pp. 88, 92–100; Maclean, Challenge for Health, p. 121. 86 Appendix of the Report of the Department of Public Health, Appendices to the Journal of the House of Representatives, , Government Printer, Wellington, 1901, p. 1; A. Deason, ‘“A Nation’s Health is a Nation’s Wealth”: Perceptions of “Health, 1890–1914’, Unpublished MA thesis, Massey University, 2004. 87 Dow, Safeguarding the Public Health, p. 47. The Bubonic Plague Prevention Act was also passed into law in 1900. 88 See Mein-Smith, ‘Health’, p. 305; Bryder, ed., A Healthy Country? p. 5. 89 Denoon and Mein-Smith, A History of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific, p. 211; A. L. Stoler, ‘Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers: European Identities and the Cultural Politics of Exclusion in Colonial Southeast Asia’, in F. Cooper and A. L. Stoler, eds, Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World, University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1997, p. 226; P. Gibbons, ‘The Climate of Opinion’, in G. Rice, ed., The Oxford History of New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1992, p. 310. 90 Brown, Private Tragedies made Public, p. 10; Olssen, ‘Towards a New Society’, p. 257; Denoon and Mein-Smith, A History of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific, p. 256; Duff, ‘The modern scourge’, p. 15; A. Bashford, Imperial Hygiene: A Critical History of Colonisation, Nationalism and Public Health, Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire and New York, 2004, p. 4; Bryder, A Voice for Mothers, p. 1. 91 L. Bryder, A Voice for Mothers, pp. 19, 17; see also L. Giddings, ‘Royal New Zealand Plunket Society 1907–’, in A. Else, ed., Women Together: A History of Women’s Organisations in

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New Zealand, Historical Branch/Daphne Brasell Associates Press, Wellington, 1993, pp. 257–61; L. Bryder, ‘“Plunket’s Secret Army”: The Royal New Zealand Plunket Society and the State’, in B. Dalley and M. Tennant, eds, Past Judgement: Social Policy in New Zealand History, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2004. 92 See E. Spooner, ‘Digging for the Families of the Mad: Locating the Family in the Auckland Asylum Archives 1870–1911’, Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of Waikato, 2006, esp. chap. 2. 93 Salesa, ‘“The Power of the Physician”’, p. 14. 94 See Arnold, ‘Medicine and colonialism’, pp. 1401–3. 95 Rosenberg, ‘Framing Disease’, passim. 96 L. Bryder, ‘“If preventable, why not prevented?”: The New Zealand Response to Tuberculosis, 1901–1940’, in Bryder, ed., A Healthy Country?, pp. 109, 110–11, 121; H. Duff, ‘“The Modern Scourge”: The Framing of Tuberculosis in Government Reports, 1901–1910’, in Body Language, pp. 12–13; Dow, Maori Health and Government Policy, p. 145; R. Patrick, ‘Tuberculosis in Wellington: A Case Study, 1890–1920’, Unpublished Honours Dissertation in History, Victoria University of Wellington, 2004, p. 10; pp. 36–7. 97 Dow, Maori Health and Government Policy, pp. 110–17; K. F. Tyro and K. G. Scarlett, eds, Te Aute College 125th Anniversary, 1854–1979, Te Aute College, 1980; P. Buck, ‘The Taranaki Maoris: Te Whiti and Parihaka’, in Papers and Addresses read before the Second Conference of the Te Aute College Students’ Association, December 1897, Daily Telegraph, Napier, 1898, p. 9; Te Rangi Hiroa, The Coming of the Maori, pp. 410–11; P. Buck, ‘The Taranaki Maoris: Te Whiti and Parihaka’, in Papers and Addresses read before the Second Conference of the Te Aute College Students’ Association, December 1897, Daily Telegraph, Napier, 1898, p. 9. 98 See Dow, Maori Health and Government Policy, p. 124. 99 A. McKegg, ‘“Ministering Angels’: The Government Backblock Nursing Service and the Maori Health Nurses, 1909–1939’, Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of Auckland, 1991, p. 54. 100 Harsant, They Called me Te Maari, pp. 98, 102; Dow, Maori Health and Government Policy, pp. 55, 139. 101 G. Rice, Black November, Allen and Unwin/Historical Branch, 1988. See also G. Rice, with L. Bryder, Black November: The 1918 Influenza Pandemic in New Zealand, Canterbury University Press, Christchurch, 2005; H. Phillips and D. Killingray, eds, The Spanish Influenza Pandemic of 1918–19: New Perspectives, Routledge, London and New York, 2003, p. 4. 102 Rice, Black November, 1998, p. 63. Rice speculates that men were likely to move in public places where infection took place; Black November, 1988, pp. 221–3; see also Phillips and Killingray, The Spanish Influenza Pandemic, pp. 8–9. 103 Rice, Black November, 1988, p. 221. See also 2005 edn, p. 18. 104 Rice, Appendices, Black November, 2005, p. 286; S. Matthews, ‘“Enemy Within Our Gates”: The 1918–1919 Influenza Epidemic in the Waikato’, Unpublished Masters Dissertation, University of Waikato, 2001, p. 9. 105 Cited in M. King, Te Puea: A Biography, Hodder and Stoughton, Auckland, 2003, p. 101; Matthews, ‘Enemy Within Our Gates’, pp. 36–7; Rice, Black November, 2005, pp. 287. 106 Rice, Black November, 2005, p. 242. 107 Two of the latter division’s Directors were women: Ada Paterson from 1923 and Elizabeth Gunn from 1937 to 1940. 108 Rice, Black November, 1988, p. 240; Dow, Safeguarding the Public Health, p. 247. 109 Tennant, ‘Missionaries of Health’, pp. 129–31, 134, 144. See also B. Dalley, Family Matters: child welfare in twentieth-century New Zealand, Auckland University Press and Historical Branch, Auckland, 1998; M. Tennant, Children’s Health, the Nation’s Wealth: A History of Children’s Health Camps, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1994; S. Coney, ‘Health and beauty movement, 1937–’, in A. Else, ed., Women Together, pp. 267–9. 110 Mein-Smith, Maternity in Dispute, p. 1; Denoon and Mein-Smith, A History of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific, pp. 298, 297–301. 111 Olssen, ‘Towards a New Society’, p. 254; Brookes, ‘Aspects of Women’s Health, 1885–1945’, in Bryder, ed., A Healthy Country?, p. 162.

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112 C. E. Rosenberg, ‘The Therapeutic Revolution: Medicine, Meaning, and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century America’, in M. J. Vogel and C. E. Rosenberg, eds, The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1978, p. 21. 113 A. Macdonald, On My Way to the Somme: New Zealanders and the Bloody Offensive of 1916, Harper Collins, Auckland, 2005, pp. 143–4; J. Weaver and D. Wright, ‘Shell Shock and the Politics of Asylum Committal in New Zealand, 1916–22’, Health and History, vol. 7, no. 1, 2005, p. 35. 114 Weaver and Wright, ‘Shell Shock’, pp. 17–40. 115 T. D. M. Stout, War Surgery and Medicine, War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1954. 116 D. Brown, ‘“Stepping-stone to cretinism”: Goitre in New Zealand 1920–1950’, Unpublished Honours Dissertation, University of Otago, Dunedin, 2000; H. Anderson, ‘Hydatids: A Disease of Human Carelessness: A History of Human Hydatid Disease in New Zealand’, Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of Otago, Dunedin, 1997. 117 See B. Brookes, ‘Health Education Film and the Maori: Tuberculosis and the Maori People of the Wairoa District (1952)’, Health and History, vol. 8, no. 2, 2006, pp. 45–68; D. Dunsford, ‘“Don’t Spit!” The New Public Health Education in Post-war New Zealand’, Unpublished conference paper, New Zealand Historical Association Biennial Conference ‘Conversations across time and place’, University of Auckland, 26 November 2005; Harold Turbott’s 1940s radio talks on health, and other media work are valuable sources. 118 See M. Tennant, ‘Disability in New Zealand: A Historical Survey’, New Zealand Journal of Disability Studies, 2, 1996; ‘Shirley’s Story: Rough Road’, in K. P. Butterworth, ed., Mind over Muscle: Surviving polio in New Zealand, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1994, pp. 41–3. The Salk polio vaccine was not used in New Zealand until the late 1950s. 119 S. Davies, Bread and Roses, David Bateman/Fraser Books, Auckland, 1993 [1984], p. 66. 120 J. Frame, cited in M. King, Wrestling with the Angel: A life of Janet Frame, Penguin, Auckland, 2000, p. 97. 121 See C. Prebble, ‘Ordinary Men and Uncommon Women: A History of Psychiatric Nursing in New Zealand Public Mental Hospitals, 1939–1972’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Auckland, 2007. 122 W. H. Williams, Out of Mind, Out of Sight: The Story of Porirua Hospital, Porirua Hospital, Porirua, 1987, p. 208. 123 See J. Dowland and R. McKinlay, ‘New Zealand Psychiatric hospitals: What Are We Leaving and Where Are We Going’?’, Community Mental Health in New Zealand, vol. 3, no. 1, November 1986, pp. 4–10; R. McKinlay and J. Dowland, ‘The Descriptive Study of Psychiatric Hospitals: Some Policy Implications’, Community Mental Health in New Zealand, vol. 3, no. 1, November 1986, pp. 11–18. J. Stacey, ‘Hospital Closure and the Reality of Community Care: Decanting or Decentralising?’, Community Mental Health in New Zealand, vol. 4, no. 1, June 1988, pp. 5–12; W. Brunton, ‘Out of the Shadows: Some Historical Underpinnings of Mental Health Policy’, in Dalley and Tennant, eds, Past Judgement, p. 89; D. MacKinnon and C. Coleborne, Special Issue of Health and History, vol. 5, no. 2, ‘Deinstitutionalisation in Australia and New Zealand’. 124 Dow, Safeguarding the Public Health, p. 117–19; A. Braren, Mapping Out the Venereal Wilderness: Public health and STD in New Zealand 1920–1980, LIT Verlag, Berlin, 2007, pp. 67–89. 125 See L. D. Strathern, ‘“Much Remains to be Done”: The Changing Health Profile in the Urban region of South Auckland, 1956–1972’, Unpublished Masters Dissertation, University of Waikato, 2003, p. 21; R. J. Rose, Maori-European Standard of Health: Special Report No. 1, Medical Statistics Branch, Department of Health, Wellington, 1960; E. W. Pomare and G. M. de Boer, Hauora Maori Standards of health: A study of the years 1970–1984, Special Report Series 78, Department of Health/Medical Research Council, 1988, p. 141. 126 S. Coney, ‘Health Organisations’, in A. Else, ed., Women Together, p. 242; C. Dann, Up from Under: Women and Liberation in New Zealand 1970–1985, Allen and Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, Wellington, 1985, pp. 81–3.

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127 S. Coney, The Unfortunate experiment: The Full Story Behind the Inquiry into Cervical Cancer Treatment, Penguin, Auckland, 1988; S. Cartwright, The Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Allegations Concerning the Treatment of Cervical Cancer at the National Women’s Hospital and into Other Related Matters, Auckland, 1988. 128 See D. Dow, ‘Driving Their Own Health Canoe: Maori and Health Research’, in Dalley and Tennant, eds, Past Judgement, pp. 91–107; Ministry of Health, Te Puãwaitanga Maori Mental Health National Strategic Framework, Wellington, Ministry of Health, 2002, p. 4; P. Diamond, ‘Whanau healing: How can Maori culture improve mental health?’, The Listener, 24, September 2005, p. 32. 129 D. Porter, Health, Civilisation and the State: A History of Public Health from Ancient to Modern Times, Routledge, London and New York, 1999. 130 Mein-Smith, ‘Health’, p. 306.

chapter 21: Maori and State Policy 1 I would like to warmly thank the anonymous reviewer of the initial draft of this chapter. See further R. S. Hill, Policing the Colonial Frontier: The Theory and Practice of Coercive Social and Racial Control in New Zealand, 1767–1867, Historical Publications Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Government Printer, Wellington, 1986, chap. 1. 2 A. Salmond, Two Worlds: first meetings between Maori and Europeans, 1642–1772, Viking, Auckland, 1991. I use the term ‘the Crown’ as the legal–constitutional expression for the various manifestations, through time, of the state. 3 J. Belich, Paradise Reforged: A History of the New Zealanders From the 1880s to the Year 2000, Penguin, Auckland, 2001, pp. 189–91. 4 See ‘Introduction’ to R. S. Hill, State Authority, Indigenous Autonomy, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 2004. 5 A. Frame, Salmond: Southern Jurist, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1995, p. 138. 6 The Waitangi Tribunal has examined the concept of tino rangatiratanga closely over the years, and its reports show variations consequent upon many factors, including scholarly fashion. 7 C. Orange, An Illustrated History of the Treaty of Waitangi, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2004, p. 34. 8 See R. S. Hill and V. O’Malley, The Maori Quest for Rangatiratanga/Autonomy, 1840–2000, Wellington, 2000. 9 Many historians have stressed ‘humanitarian’ influence in British governing circles at the time; see W. H. Oliver, The Story of New Zealand, Faber and Faber, London, 1960, pp. 50–2; K. Sinclair, A History of New Zealand, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1959, pp. 60–7. 10 Hill, Policing the Colonial Frontier, p. 89. 11 M. P. K. Sorrenson, ‘Treaties in British Colonial Policy: Precedents for Waitangi’, in W. Renwick, ed., Sovereignty and Indigenous Rights, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1991. 12 I. Wards, The Shadow of the Land, Historical Publications Branch/Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1968 was received with hostility by many scholars for its argument about the importance of coercion vis-ã-vis ‘enlightenment’; for a more recent ‘act of state’ argument, see F. M. Brookfield, Waitangi and Indigenous Rights: Revolution, Law and Legitimation, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999. 13 A particularly persistent version has New Zealand enjoying ‘the best race relations in the world’; see M. King, The Penguin History of New Zealand, Penguin, Auckland, 2003, pp. 468–9. 14 Hill, Policing the Colonial Frontier, pp. 1–25. 15 See A. Ward, A Show of Justice: racial ‘amalgamation’ in nineteenth century New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1995 rev. edn, [first published 1974]; N. L. Green, ‘Time and the Study of Assimilation’, Rethinking History, vol. 10, no. 2, 2006, pp. 239–58.

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16 Waitangi Tribunal, The Taranaki Report: Kaupapa Tuatahi, GP Publications, Wellington, 1996, p. 6. 17 L. Cox, Kotahitanga, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1993. 18 Ward, Show of Justice, chap. 9; Hill, Policing the Colonial Frontier, chap. 10. 19 J. Belich, The New Zealand Wars and the Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1986. 20 P. Clark, Hauhau: The Pai Marire Search for Maori Identity, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1975; J. Binney, Redemption Songs, Auckland University Press/Bridget Williams Books, Auckland, 1995. 21 See D. V. Williams, ‘Te Kooti Tango Whenua’: The Native Land Court 1864–1909, Huia Publishers, Wellington, 1999. 22 K. Sinclair, Kinds of Peace: Maori People after the Wars, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1991; R. S. Hill, The Iron Hand in the Velvet Glove: the modernisation of policing in New Zealand, 1886–1917, Dunmore Press in association with the and with the assistance of Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Palmerston North, 1995, pp. 1–2. 23 D. Scott, Ask That Mountain: The Story of Parihaka, Heinemann/Southern Cross, Auckland, 1975; D. Scott, The Parihaka Story, Southern Cross Books, Auckland, 1954; D. Scott, A Radical Writer’s Life, Reed, Auckland, 2004, chaps 18 and 23, esp. pp. 296–7; H. Riseborough, Days of Darkness, Allen and Unwin/Historical Branch, Wellington, 1989. 24 G. W. Rusden, History of New Zealand, Vol II, Chapman and Hall Limited, Melbourne, 1883, p. 13. 25 V. O’Malley, Agents of Autonomy: Maori Committees in the Nineteenth Century, Huia Publishers, Wellington, 1998, chaps 6 and 7. 26 See Hill, State Authority, Indigenous Autonomy, chap. 1, for a summary of late-nineteenth-century unity momentums. 27 T. Brooking, ‘“Busting up” the Greatest Estate of All: Liberal Maori Land Policy, 1891–1911’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26, no. 1, 1992, pp. 78–98. 28 J. A. Williams, Politics of the New Zealand Maori: Protest and Cooperation, 1891–1909, Oxford University Press, Seattle, 1969, chap. 8; D. M. Loveridge, Maori Land Councils and Maori Land Boards: A Historical Overview, 1900 to 1952, Rangahaua Whanui National Theme K, Waitangi Tribunal, Wellington, 1996; B. Gilling, ‘The Mana of Their Own Land’: Rangatiratanga and the Origins and Operation of the Maori Land Council Regime, 1900–1905, Treaty of Waitangi Research Unit, Stout Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, 2004. 29 Hill, State Authority, Indigenous Autonomy, chap. 3. 30 R. Lange, A Limited Measure of Local Self-Government: Maori Councils, 1900–1920, Treaty of Waitangi Research Unit, Stout Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, 2004; R. Lange, In an Advisory Capacity: Maori Councils, 1919–1945, Treaty of Waitangi Research Unit, Stout Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, 2005; R. Lange, May the People Live, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999. 31 R. J. Walker, Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle Without End, rev. edn, Penguin, Auckland, 2004. One can debate just how collectivist the Maori world view was. 32 J. Binney, G. Chaplin and C. Wallace, Mihaia: The Prophet Rua Kenana and his Community at Maungapohatu, Oxford University Press, Wellington, 1979; P. Webster, Rua and the Maori Millennium, Price Milburn for Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1979; P. Baker, King and Country Call: New Zealanders, Conscription and the Great War, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1988. 33 R. J. Walker, He Tipua: The Life and Times of Sir Apirana Ngata, Viking, Auckland, 2001. 34 R. S. Hill, Settlements of Major Claims in the 1940s: A Preliminary Assessment, Department of Justice, Wellington, 1989; R. S. Hill, Enthroning ‘Justice Above Might’? The Sim Commission, Tainui and the Crown, Treaty of Waitangi Policy Unit, Department of Justice, Wellington, 1989. 35 R. N. Love, ‘Policies of Frustration: The Growth of Maori Politics: The Ratana/Labour Era’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 1977; B. Gustafson, From the Cradle to the Grave: A Biography of , Reed Methuen, Auckland, 1986; M. Bassett, with M. King, Tomorrow Comes the Song: A Life of Peter Fraser, Penguin, Auckland, 2000.

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36 A. T. Ngata, The Price of Citizenship, Whitcombe and Tombs, Wellington, 1943. 37 Hill, State Authority, Indigenous Autonomy, chap. 7; C. Orange, ‘An Exercise in Maori Autonomy: The Rise and Demise of the Maori War Effort Organisation’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 21, no. 1, 1987, pp. 156–72. 38 See M. King, Te Puea: A Biography, Hodder and Stoughton, Auckland, 1977, chap. 13. 39 For the MWO, see Hill, State Authority, Indigenous Autonomy, chaps 8 and 9. 40 Scholarship on such subjects is scarce, but see various works by J. Metge, The Maoris of New Zealand: Rautahi, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1976, rev. edn; A. Harris, ‘Maori and “the Maori Affairs”’, in B. Dalley and M. Tennant, eds, Past Judgement: Social Policy in New Zealand History, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2004. 41 L. M. Kenworthy, T. B. Martindale and S. M. Sadaraka, Some Aspects of the Hunn Report: A Measure of Progress, School of Political Science and Public Administration, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, 1968, p. 6. 42 J. K. Hunn, Report on Department of Maori Affairs with Statistical Supplement [24 August 1960], Government Printer, Wellington, 1961, p. 15. 43 Hunn, Report; see also J. K. Hunn, Not Only Affairs of State, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1982, pp. 136ff. 44 R. S. Hill, ‘Autonomy and Authority: Rangatiratanga and the Crown in Twentieth century New Zealand: An Overview’, a report for the Crown Forestry Rental Trust, Wellington, 2000, chap. 6. See also files at Archives New Zealand covering 1940s–1970s, esp. MA1 and MA 28 series, and issues of Te Ao Hou. 45 Walker, Ka Whawhai, chap. 10ff; see also R. J. Walker, ‘Maori People since 1950’, in G. Rice, ed., The Oxford History of New Zealand, 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1992 for a summary of the postwar experience from a Maori perspective. 46 K. M. Hazelhurst, Political Expression and Ethnicity: Statecraft and Mobilisation in the Maori World, Praeger, Westport, CT, 1993. 47 J. Kelsey, A Question of Honour: Labour and the Treaty, 1984–1989, Allen and Unwin, Wellington, 1990. 48 Department of Justice, Principles for Crown Action on the Treaty of Waitangi, Department of Justice, Wellington, 1989. 49 G. V. Butterworth and H. R. Young, Maori Affairs: A Department and the People who made it, Iwi Transition Agency, Wellington, 1990, p. 3. 50 C. Williams, The Too-Hard Basket: Maori and Criminal Justice Since 1980, Institute of Policy Studies, Wellington, 2001, p. 21. 51 C. Orange, An Illustrated History of the Treaty of Waitangi, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2004, chap. 8. 52 These need to take into account ethnicities and cultures from other than the two major ethno- cultures, a quest that forms part of the ‘Treaty discourse’.

chapter 22: The New Zealand Economy, 1900–2000 1 See P. Ehrensaft and W. Armstrong, ‘Dominion Capitalism: A First Statement’, Australia and New Zealand Journal of Sociology, vol. 14, no. 3, part 2, October 1978, pp. 352–63. 2 D. Acemoglu, S. Johnson and J. A. Robinson, ‘Reversals of Fortune: Geography and Institutions in the Making of the Modern World Income Distribution’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 117, no. 4, November 2002, pp. 1231–94. 3 D. Rodrik, A. Subramanian and F. Trebbi, ‘Institutions Rule: The Primacy of Institutions over Geography and Integration in Economic Development’, Journal of Economic Growth, vol. 9, no. 2, June 2004, pp. 131–65; K. L. Sokoloff and S. L. Engerman, ‘Institutions, Factor Endowments and Paths of Development in the New World’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 14, no. 3,

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Summer 2000, pp. 217–32; R. Hall and C. I. Jones, ‘Why Do Some Countries Produce So Much More Output per Worker than Others?’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 114, 1999, pp. 83–116; M. Lange, ‘British Colonial Legacies and Political Development’, World Development, vol. 32, no. 6, June 2004, pp. 905–22; J. D. Sachs, Tropical Underdevelopment, NBER Working Paper 8119, February 2001; J. Frieden, Global Capitalism: Its Fall and Rise in the Twentieth Century, Norton, New York, 2006, chap. 4. 4 A. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: the Biological Expansion of Europe 900–1900, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986; D. Acemoglu, S. Johnson and J. A. Robinson, ‘The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation’, American Economic Review, vol. 91, no. 5, December 2001, pp. 1369–401; W. Easterly and R. Levine, Tropics, Germs and Crops: How Endowments Influence Economic Development, NBER Working Paper 9106, August 2002. 5 A. Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics, OECD Development Centre, Paris, 2003, chap. 2. 6 A. Maddison, Monitoring the World Economy 1820–1992, OECD, Paris, 1995, Table 1–3, pp. 23–4; Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics, Table 5, pp. 160–88, Table 7c, p. 234. 7 A. Maddison, The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, OECD Development Centre, Paris, 2000, Table 3-1B, p. 126. 8 Maddison, The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, Table A2-c, p. 195. 9 J. Belich, Paradise Reforged: A History of the New Zealanders from the 1880s to the Year 2000, Allen Lane/The Penguin Press, Auckland, 2001. 10 Maddison, The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, p. 71. 11 This figure refers to the income of the white-settler component of the population. 12 J. D. Gould, The Rake’s Progress? The New Zealand Economy Since 1945, Hodder and Stoughton, Auckland, 1982; P. Dalziel, ‘New Zealand’s Economic Reforms: An Assessment’, Review of Political Economy, vol. 14, no. 10, 2002, pp. 31–46; B. H. Easton, In Stormy Seas: the Post-War New Zealand Economy, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 1997, pp. 22–7. 13 W. B. Sutch, The Quest for Security in New Zealand, 1840–1966, Oxford University Press, Wellington, 1966, pp. ix, xi; P. Briggs, Looking at the Numbers: a View of New Zealand’s Economic History, NZIER, Wellington, 2003, Figure 29, p. 61. 14 Briggs, Looking at the Numbers, Figure 29, p. 61. 15 G. T. Bloomfield, New Zealand: A Handbook of Historical Statistics, G. K. Hall, Boston MA, 1984; Briggs, Looking at the Numbers: A View of New Zealand’s Economic History, passim; P. Dalziel and R. Lattimore, The New Zealand Macroeconomy: A Briefing on the Reforms, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1991, 1996, 1999; D. Thorns and C. Sedgwick, Understanding Aotearoa/ New Zealand: Historical Statistics, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1997. 16 . 17 Sutch, Takeover New Zealand, pp. 50–1. 18 Belich, Paradise Reforged, pp. 46–51; D. Greasley and L. Oxley, ‘Regime Shift and Fast Recovery on the Periphery: New Zealand in the 1930s’, Economic History Review, vol. 55, no. 4, 2002, pp. 697–720; G. R. Hawke, Between Governments and Banks: A History of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, Government Printer, Wellington, 1973. 19 K. Sinclair, ‘The Great Anzac Plant War: Australia-New Zealand Trade Relations, 1919–39’, in K. Sinclair, ed., Tasman Relations: New Zealand and Australia 1788–1988, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1987, pp. 124–41. 20 S. Edwards and F. Holmes, CER: Economic Trends and Linkages, National Bank of New Zealand and Institute of Policy Studies, Wellington, 1994, chap. 1. 21 P. A. Cashin, ‘Economic Growth and Convergence Across the Seven Colonies of Australia: 1861–1991’, The Economic Record, vol. 71, no. 213, 1995, pp. 132–44; D. Greasley and L. Oxley, ‘Growing Apart? Australia and New Zealand Growth Experiences, 1870–1993’, New Zealand Economic Papers, vol. 33, no. 2, December 1999, pp. 1–14; P. Dalziel, ‘New Zealand’s Economic Reforms: An Assessment’, Review of Political Economy, vol. 14, no. 10, 2002, pp. 31–46.

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22 G. R. Hawke, The Making of New Zealand, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985, p. 124. 23 K. Rankin, Unemployment in New Zealand at the Peak of the Great Depression, Working Paper 144, University of Auckland Economics Department, Auckland, 1995, Table 2. 24 S. Chapple, Full Employment: Whence It Came and Where It Went, NZIER, Wellington, 1996. 25 See A. McCarthy, ‘“For Spirit and Adventure”: Personal Accounts of Scottish Migration to New Zealand, 1921–1961’, in T. Brooking and J. Coleman, eds, The Heather and the Fern: Scottish Migration and New Zealand Settlement, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2003, chap. 7, Table 1, p. 119. 26 M. Akoorie, ‘The Historical Role of Foreign Investment’, in P. Enderwick, ed., Foreign Investment: The New Zealand Experience, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1998, chap. 2, pp. 67–92. 27 J. D. Gould, The Rake’s Progress? The New Zealand Economy Since 1945, Hodder and Stoughton, Auckland, 1982, pp. 51–3. 28 R. S. Deane, Foreign Investment in New Zealand; An Economic Policy Dilemma: The Case of Foreign investment in New Zealand, Research Paper No. 18, Reserve Bank of New Zealand, Wellington, April 1975. 29 G. Bertram, ‘Overseas Debt as a Constraint on Alternative Policies for New Zealand’, Victoria Economic Commentaries, vol. 9, no. 1, March 1992, pp. 31–46. 30 G. Bertram, ‘Factor Income Shares, the Banking Sector, the Exchange Rate, and the New Zealand Current Account Deficit’, New Zealand Economic Papers, vol. 36, no. 2, 2002, pp. 177–98, Figure 1, p. 178. 31 J. Holt, Compulsory Arbitration in New Zealand: The First Forty Years, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1986. 32 Chapple, Full Employment: Whence it Came and Where it Went, pp. 110–11; T. Hazledine, Taking New Zealand Seriously: The Economics of Decency, Harper Collins, Auckland, 1998, chaps 11 and 16. 33 J. Boston, ed., Reshaping the State: New Zealand’s bureaucratic revolution, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1991; J. Martin, A Profession of Statecraft? Three Essays on some Current Issues in the New Zealand Public Service, Institute of Policy Studies, Wellington, 1988; A. Ladley and J. R. Martin, eds, The Visible Hand: The Changing Role of the State in New Zealand’s Development: Essays for Sir Frank Holmes, Institute of Policy Studies, Wellington, 2005; J. Kelsey, Rolling Back the State: Privatisation of Power in Aotearoa/New Zealand, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1993. 34 P. Conway and A. Orr, ‘The Process of Economic Growth in New Zealand’, Reserve Bank of New Zealand Bulletin, vol. 63, 2000, pp. 4–20; J. Quiggin, ‘Social Democracy and Market Reform in Australia and New Zealand’, in A. Glyn, ed., Social Democracy in Neoliberal Times: The Left and Economic Policy Since 1980, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001, chap. 4. 35 B. Jesson, Only their Purpose is Mad: The Money Men Take Over New Zealand, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1999; J. Kelsey, The New Zealand Experiment: A World Model for Structural Adjustment?, Auckland University Press/Bridget Williams Books, Auckland, 1995; G. Bertram, ‘New Zealand Since 1984: Elite Succession, Income Distribution and Economic Growth in a Small Trading Economy’, Geojournal, vol. 59, no. 2, February 2004, pp. 93–106. 36 Sutch, The Quest for Security in New Zealand 1840 to 1966, p. ix. 37 Belich, Paradise Reforged, passim. 38 B. H. Easton, ‘Has New Zealand an Economic History?’, paper presented to New Zealand Historical Association Conference, Hamilton, December 1999, p. 3. 39 J. D. Gould, ‘The Twilight of the Estates, 1891–1910’, Australian Economic History Review, vol. 10, no. 1, 1970, pp. 1–26; W. J. Gardner, A Pastoral Kingdom Divided: Cheviot, 1889–94, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1992; D. B. Waterson, ‘The Matamata Estate 1904–1959: Land Transfers and Subdivision in the Waikato’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 3, no. 1, April 1969, pp. 32–51. 40 T. Brooking, ‘“Busting Up” the Greatest Estate of All: Liberal Maori Land Policy, 1891–1911’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 26, no. 1, April 1992, pp. 78–98 (p. 78).

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41 I. Pool, The Maori Population of New Zealand 1769–1971, Auckland University Press and Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1977, p. 27. 42 Brooking, ‘“Busting Up” the Greatest Estate of All’, p. 78; Belich, Paradise Reforged, p. 44. 43 Armstrong, ‘New Zealand: Imperialism, Class and Uneven Development’, pp. 300–1. 44 M. Lloyd Prichard, An Economic History of New Zealand to 1939, Collins, Auckland, 1970; G. R. Hawke, The Making of New Zealand: An Economic History, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985. 45 J. Singleton, ‘An Economic History of New Zealand in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries’, EH.Net Encyclopedia, 2005, , p. 4. 46 J. V. T. Baker, The New Zealand People at War: War Economy, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1965. 47 See W. B. Sutch, The Policy of Import Selection: Its Philosophy and the Present Position, Wellington Cooperative Book Society, reprinted from New Zealand Financial Times, May 1939. 48 Greasley and Oxley, ‘Regime Shift and Fast Recovery’, pp. 21, 23, 31. 49 Gould, The Rake’s Progress, pp. 69–70. 50 M. Guest and J. Singleton, ‘The Murupara Project and Industrial Development in New Zealand 1945–65’, Australian Economic History Review, vol. 39, no. 1, March 1999, pp. 52–71; J. D. Gould, The Rakes’s Progress, pp. 75–80; G. T. Bloomfield, New Zealand: A Handbook of Historical Statistics, G. K. Hall and Co, Boston, 1984, pp. 273–4. 51 W. D. Rose, ‘Manufacturing Development Policy in New Zealand 1958–1968’, Pacific Viewpoint, vol. 10, no. 1, May 1969, pp. 57–77; R. S. Deane, Foreign Investment in New Zealand Manufacturing, Sweet and Maxwell, Wellington, 1970. 52 Rose, ‘Manufacturing Development Policy’, passim; T. R. O’Malley, C. Gillion and W. D. Rose, Farming and Inflation: a report to the and the New Zealand Meat Producers’ Board, Contract Research Unit, NZ Institute of Economic Research, 1973, pp. 74–83. 53 R. G. Lattimore, New Zealand Economic Development: a Brief Overview of Unbalanced Industry Growth, AERU Discussion paper 94, Lincoln University, June 1985, Table 2A, p. 38. 54 G. Bertram, ‘The New Zealand Tariff Between the Wars’, paper presented to New Zealand Association of Economists Conference 1988, Economics Group, Victoria University of Wellington, 1988. 55 P. G. Elkan, Industrial Protection in New Zealand, 1952 to 1967, Technical Memorandum No. 15, New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, Wellington, 1972; The Meaning of Protection, Research Paper No. 21, New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, Wellington, 1977, p. 80. 56 Lattimore, New Zealand Economic Development, p. 38. 57 Rose, ‘Manufacturing Development Policy’, p. 67. 58 Elkan, The Meaning of Protection, Table 9, p. 84. 59 B. H. Easton, In Stormy Seas: The Post-War New Zealand Economy, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 1997, pp. 48–9. 60 Briggs, Looking at the Numbers: A View of New Zealand’s Economic History, pp. 61–2; J. D. Gould, The Muldoon years: an essay on New Zealand’s recent economic growth, Hodder and Stoughton, Auckland, 1985, pp. 36–43. 61 W. J. Rosenberg, Aotearoa/New Zealand: Sovereignty versus the Transnationals, Gondwanaland Press, Wellington, 1996; W. J. Rosenberg, ‘Foreign Investment in New Zealand: The Current Position’, in P. Enderwick, ed., Foreign Investment: the New Zealand Experience: Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1998, pp. 23–66. 62 F. W. Holmes, et al., New Zealand at the Turning Point: Report of the Task Force on Economic and Social Planning, Task Force on Economic and Social Planning, Wellington, 1976. 63 National Development Conference, Recommendations Approved: The National Development Conference Second Plenary Session 5–9 May 1969, NDC 19, Rev. 1, p. 77. 64 S. Goldfinch, ‘Treasury and Public Policy Formation’, in B. Roper and C. Rudd, eds, The Political , Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1997, chap. 4; J. Boston, J. Martin,

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J. Pallot and P. Walsh, eds, Reshaping the State: New Zealand’s Bureaucratic Revolution, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1991. 65 For example S. Collins, : Is There a Better Way?, Pitman Publishing, Wellington, 1987; B. H. Easton, The New Zealand Economic Experiment, Research Paper No. 174, University of Melbourne Economics Department, 1987; B. Easton, In Stormy Seas: The Postwar New Zealand Economy, passim; B. H. Easton, The Commercialisation of New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1997; B. H. Easton, The Whimpering of the State: Policy After MMP, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999. 66 G. Bertram, ‘New Zealand Since 1984: Elite Succession, Income Distribution and Economic Growth in a Small Trading Economy’, GeoJournal, vol. 59, 2003, pp. 93–106, Table 1, p. 97. 67 J. D. Gould, ‘The Narrowing Gap’, Metro Magazine, no. 113, November 1990, pp. 142–9. 68 M. King, The Penguin History of New Zealand, Penguin, Auckland, 2003, chap. 17; M. King, Te Puea: A Biography, Hodder and Stoughton, Auckland, 1977. 69 J. D. Gould, The Rake’s Progress? chap. 7; Coleman, et al., Maori Economic Development, Table 4, p. 33. 70 See King, Penguin History, chap. 28; W. B. Sutch, The Maori Contribution Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow, Dept of Industries and Commerce, Wellington, May 1964. 71 S. Chapple, ‘Explaining Patterns of Disparity between Maori and Non-Maori Employment Chances’, Labour Market Bulletin, 1999, pp. 70–100; S. Chapple, ‘Maori Socio-Economic Disparity’, Political Science, vol. 52, no. 2, December 2000, pp. 101–5; J. D. Gould, ‘The Facts and Figures on the Ethnic Divide’, Metro Magazine, no. 112, October 1990, pp. 106–16; Coleman, et al., Maori Economic Development pp. 17–18. 72 New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, Maori Economic Development: Te Õhanga Whanaketanga Mãori, Report for Te Puni Kõkiri, Wellington, 2003, pp. 17–18, 21. 73 NZIER, Maori Economic Development, p. 2; NZIER, Maori Economic Development, p. 9 (see Table 1). 74 S. Chapple, ‘Maori Socio-economic Disparity’, pp. 101–15; J. D. Gould, ‘Closing the Gaps?’, Political Science, vol. 52, no. 2, December 2000, pp. 116–24; S. Chapple, ‘Explaining Patterns of Disparity Between Maori and Non-Maori Employment Chances’, Labour Market Bulletin, 1999, pp. 70–100; Coleman, et al., Maori Economic Development—Glimpses from Statistical Sources, MOTU Working Paper 05–13, Wellington, September 2005; NZIER, Maori Economic Development. 75 Frieden, Global Capitalism, passim. 76 R. Thorp, Progress, Poverty and Exclusion: An Economic History of Latin America in the Twentieth Century, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1998, chaps 7 and 8; G. Esping-Andersen, Welfare States in Transition: National Adaptations in Global Economies, UNRISD and SAGE Publications, London, 1996. 77 Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA), The Economic Development of Latin America and its Principal Problems, E/CN.12/89/Rev.1, New York, , 1950; P. Baran, The Political Economy of Growth, Monthly Review Press, New York, 1956; S. Amin, Unequal; Development, Monthly Review Press, New York, 1976. 78 Sutch, The Quest for Security in New Zealand, 1840–1966, passim; W. B. Sutch, Takeover New Zealand, Reed, Wellington, 1972, p. 27; K. Sinclair, A History of New Zealand, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1969. 79 W. Armstrong, ‘New Zealand: Imperialism, Class and Uneven Development’, in W. E. Wilmott, ed., New Zealand and the World: Essays in Honour of Wolfgang Rosenberg, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, 1980, p. 298. 80 W. Armstrong, ‘New Zealand: Imperialism, Class and Uneven Development’, passim; W. Armstrong, ‘Land, Class, Colonialism: the Origins of Dominion Capitalism’, in W. E. Wilmott, ed., New Zealand and the World: Essays in Honour of Wolfgang Rosenberg, passim; P. Ehrensaft and W. Armstrong, ‘Dominion Capitalism: A First Statement’, Australia and New Zealand Journal of Sociology, vol. 14, no. 3, October 1978, Part 2, pp. 352–63. 81 D. Denoon, Settler Capitalism: The Dynamics of Dependent Development in the Southern Hemisphere, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1983.

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82 D. Senghaas, The European Experience: A Historical Critique of Development Theory, trans. K. H. Kimmig, Berg Publishers, Leamington Spa and Dover, New Hampshire, 1985, pp. 26–37. 83 Senghaas, The European Experience, pp. 122–7. 84 Senghaas, The European Experience, pp. 124, 126. 85 B. P. Philpott, B. J. Ross, C. J. McKenzie, C. A. Yandle and D. D. Hussey, Esimates of Farm Income and Productivity in New Zealand 1921–65, Publication No. 30, Agricultural Economics Research Unit, Lincoln College, 1967; Hawke, Making of New Zealand, p. 234. 86 Briggs, Looking at the Numbers, p. 71. 87 See Statistics New Zealand, Tourism Satellite Account: Revised Treatment of International Students, Wellington, 17 November 2003. 88 Greasley and Oxley, ‘Globalization and Real Wages’, p. 34. 89 Greasley and Oxley, ‘Globalization and Real Wages’, p. 23. 90 Greasley and Oxley, ‘Regime Shift and Fast Recovery’, p. 697; Maddison, Monitoring the World Economy, pp. 195–7. 91 J. M. Keynes, ‘Review of Report of the Monetary Committee 1934’, Economic Journal, March 1935, pp. 194–5. 92 See O’Malley, et al., Farming and Inflation, esp. chap. 8. 93 See R. E. Rowthorn, Capitalism, Conflict and Inflation, Lawrence and Wishart, London, 1980; G. Bertram and G. Wells, ‘The Real Wage Controversy’, in R. A. Buckle, ed., Inflation and Economic Adjustment: Proceedings of a Seminar, Economics Department, Victoria University, Wellington, 1983, pp. 68–117. 94 R. A. Buckle and M. Pope, ‘Inflation and an Evaluation of Recent New Zealand Exchange Rate Policy’, in R. A. Buckle, ed., Inflation and Economic Adjustment, pp. 25–67. 95 D. Denoon, ‘Settler Capitalism Unsettled’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 29, no. 2, October 1995, pp. 129–41. 96 See Frieden, Global Capitalism, passim. 97 Greasley and Oxley, ‘Regime Shift and Fast Recovery’; J. B. Condliffe, The Welfare State in New Zealand, Allen and Unwin, London, 1959, p. 144. 98 G. Bertram and D. Twaddle, ‘Price-Cost Margins and Profit Rates in New Zealand Electricity Distribution Networks since 1994: the Cost of Light-Handed Regulation’, Journal of Regulatory Economics, vol. 27, no. 3, 2005, pp. 281–307. 99 Sutch, Quest for Security, passim. 100 Denoon, Settler Capitalism, pp. 133, 137.

chapter 23: New Zealand and the World: Imperial, International and Global Relations 1 See M. Templeton, ed., An Eye, An Ear and a Voice: 50 Years in New Zealand’s External Relations 1943–93, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Wellington, 1993; M. Templeton, Standing Upright Here: New Zealand in the Nuclear Age 1945–1990, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 2007; M. Templeton, Ties of Blood and Empire: New Zealand’s Involvement in Middle East Defence and the Suez Crisis 1945–57, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1994; G. Laking, ‘The Evolution of an Independent Foreign Policy’, in J. Henderson, K. Jackson and R. Kennaway, eds, Beyond New Zealand: The Foreign Policy of a Small State, Methuen, Auckland, 1980, pp. 10–15 (see also chapters by Frank Corner and Tom Larkin in the same volume); B. Brown, New Zealand Foreign Policy in Retrospect [1947–54 and the 1960s], Institute of International Affairs, Wellington, 1970; B. Harland, On Our Own: New Zealand in an Emerging Tripolar World, Institute of Policy Studies, Wellington, 1992; D. McLean, The Prickly Pair: Making Nationalism in Australia and

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New Zealand, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2003; F. Wong, ‘Environment and Conservation’, in R. Alley, ed., New Zealand in World Affairs, Volume IV, 1990–2005, Victoria University of Wellington Press, Wellington, 2007, pp. 278–301. 2 J. Henderson, ‘The Foreign Policy of a Small State’, in Henderson, et al., Beyond New Zealand; D. J. McCraw, ‘New Zealand Foreign Policy Under Labour and National: Variations on the “Small State” Theme?’, Pacific Affairs, vol. 67, no. 1, 1994, pp. 7–25. 3 J. O. C. Phillips, ‘Of Verandahs and Fish and Chips and Footie on a Saturday Afternoon: Reflections on 100 Years of New Zealand Historiography,’ in J. Binney, ed. The Shaping of History: Essays from the New Zealand Journal of History, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2001, p. 332. The period 2001–07 is the author’s own calculation. Three out of a total of 72 articles examined foreign or foreign economic policy. 4 Notable exceptions include M. McKinnon, ‘New Zealand in the World (1914–51)’, in K. Sinclair, ed., The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2nd edn, 1997; F. L. W. Wood, New Zealand in the World, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1940; R. Dalziel, The Origins of New Zealand Diplomacy, Price Milburn for Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1975. 5 A. D. McIntosh, et al., New Zealand in World Affairs, Volume I, 1945–57, New Zealand Institute for International Relations, Wellington, 1977; M. McKinnon, ed., New Zealand in World Affairs, Volume II, 1957–72, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, Wellington, 1991; B. Brown, ed., New Zealand in World Affairs, Volume III, 1972–1990, Victoria University of Wellington Press, Wellington, 1999; R. Alley, ed., New Zealand in World Affairs, Volume IV, 1990–2005, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 2007. 6 J. Henderson, et al., Beyond New Zealand: The Foreign Policy of a Small State, pp. 16–22. 7 M. McKinnon, Independence and Foreign Policy: New Zealand in the World Since 1935, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1993, p. 1; J. Belich, Paradise Reforged: A History of the New Zealanders from the 1880s to the Year 2000, Allen Lane/The Penguin Press, Auckland, 2001, p. 29. 8 Cited in E. Olssen, ‘From where to here? Reflections on the twentieth century historiography of nineteenth century New Zealand’, in J. Binney, ed., The Shaping of History: Essays from the New Zealand Journal of History, p. 342; J. C. Beaglehole, ‘The Development of New Zealand Nationality’, Journal of World History, vol. 2 [1954–55], pp. 106–23. 9 Sir A. McIntosh, ‘Origins of the Department of External Affairs and the Formulation of an Independent Foreign Policy’, in New Zealand in World Affairs, Volume I: 1945–57, 11; see also J. C. Beaglehole, ‘The Development of New Zealand Nationality’, pp. 106–23. 10 See, for example, K. Sinclair, Imperial Federation: A Study of New Zealand Policy and Opinion, 1880–1914, Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London, London, 1955. 11 E. Olssen, ‘The Shaping of a Field’, interview with Brian Moloughney and Tony Ballantyne in T. Ballantyne and B. Moloughney, eds, Disputed Histories: Imagining New Zealand’s Pasts, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2006, p. 67. 12 W. H. Oliver, with B. R. Williams, eds, The Oxford History of New Zealand, Clarendon Press, Oxford/Oxford University Press, Wellington, 1981, pp. viii–ix. 13 K. R. Howe, ‘Two Worlds?’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 37, no.1, 2003, pp. 50–61; D. Denoon and P. Mein-Smith, with M. Wyndham, A History of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific, Blackwell, Oxford, 2000. 14 McKinnon, Independence and Foreign Policy, p. 82. 15 McKinnon, Independence and Foreign Policy, pp. 300–1. 16 Belich, Paradise Reforged, p. 30. 17 Mein-Smith, A Concise History of New Zealand, pp. 96–9. 18 T. Ballantyne and B. Moloughney, ‘Asia in Murihiku: towards a transnational history of colonial culture’, in H. Johnson and B. Moloughney, eds, Asia in the Making of New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2006, pp. 66. 19 Gibbons, ‘The Far Side of the Search for Identity’, p. 41. See also McKinnon, Independence and Foreign Policy, pp. 12–13.

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20 Gibbons, ‘The Far Side of the Search for Identity’, p. 47. 21 M. Hogan, ‘SHAFR Address’, Diplomatic History, January 2004, pp. 1–21, 14. 22 A. Curthoys and M. Lake, ‘Introduction’, in A. Curthoys and M. Lake, eds, Connected Worlds: History in Transnational Perspective, ANU, Canberra, 2005, pp. 12–14. 23 Harlow, cited in T. Ballantyne, Orientalism and Race: Aryanism in the British Empire, Palgrave, London, 2002, p. 18. 24 Belich, Making Peoples, p. 129. 25 Belich, Making Peoples, p. 144. 26 H. Petrie, ‘Colonisation and the Involution of the Maori Economy’, paper for the XIII World Congress of Economic History, Buenos Aires, July 2002, p. 2. 27 Belich, Making Peoples, p. 144. 28 Belich, Making Peoples, p. 141; see also J. Binney, ‘Tuki’s Universe’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 38, no. 2, October 2004, pp. 215–32, 217–19. 29 T. Ballantyne, ‘Teaching Maori about Asia: Print Culture and Community Identity in Nineteenth Century New Zealand’, in H. Johnson and B. Moloughney, eds, Asia in the Making of New Zealand, p. 18. 30 H. Petrie, ‘Colonisation and the Involution of the Maori Economy’, p. 2; Mein-Smith, Concise History of New Zealand, p. 29. 31 J. McAloon, ‘New Zealand on the Pacific Frontier: Environment, Economy and Culture,’ History Compass, vol. 4, no. 1, 2006, pp. 36–42. 32 T. Ballantyne and B. Moloughney, ‘Asia in Murihiku: towards a transnational history of colonial culture’, in H. Johnson and B. Moloughney, eds, Asia in the Making of New Zealand, p. 71. 33 Ballantyne and Moloughney, ‘Asia in Murihiku’, p. 71. 34 Belich, Making Peoples, p. 128. 35 Ballantyne and Moloughney, ‘Asia in Murihiku’, p. 74. 36 Ballantyne and Moloughney, ‘Asia in Murihiku’, p. 74. 37 Ballantyne and Moloughney, ‘Asia in Murihiku’, p. 76. 38 Ballantyne and Moloughney, ‘Asia in Murihiku’, p. 77. 39 D. McLean, The Prickly Pair, p. 44. 40 H. Petrie, Chiefs of Industry: Maori tribal enterprise in early colonial New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2006, p. 67. 41 Belich, Paradise Reforged, p. 138. 42 Belich, Making Peoples, p. 138. 43 Ballantyne, ‘Teaching Maori about Asia’, p. 18. 44 Ballantyne and Moloughney, ‘Asia in Murihiku’, p. 71. 45 McLean, The Prickly Pair, p. 55. 46 Petrie, Chiefs of Industry, p. 74. 47 K. Sinclair, ‘Australasian inter-government negotiations 1865–80: ocean mails and tariffs’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1970, pp. 151–76, 156. 48 Goldwin Smith, Professor of Modern History at Oxford, cited in K. Sinclair, A Destiny Apart: New Zealand’s Search for National Identity, Allen and Unwin, Wellington, 1986, p. 16. 49 McGibbon, The Path to Gallipoli, p. 21. 50 Sinclair, A Destiny Apart, p. 20. 51 R. Dalziel, Julius Vogel: Business Politician, Auckland University Press and Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1986, p. 118. 52 R. Dalziel, The Origins of New Zealand Diplomacy: the Agent-General in London, 1870–1905, Price Milburn for Victoria University Press, Wellington, 1975, p. 25. 53 F. L. W. Wood, New Zealand in the World, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1940, p. 61.

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54 Dalziel, The Origins of NZ Diplomacy, passim. 55 Dalziel, The Origins of New Zealand Diplomacy, p. 75. 56 D. Bell, ‘Victorian Ideas of the Global State’, in D. Bell, ed., Victorian Visions of Global Order: Empire and International Relations in Nineteenth Century Political Thought, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007, pp. 172–6. 57 I. McGibbon, The Path to Gallipoli: defending New Zealand, 1840–1915, GP Books, Wellington, 1991, p. 64. 58 Belich, Paradise Reforged, p. 60. 59 Belich, Paradise Reforged, p. 68 [emphasis in the original]. 60 M. Fairburn, ‘New Zealand and Australian Federation 1883–1901: Another View’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 4, no. 2, October 1970, pp. 138–59, 152. 61 M. McKinnon, ‘New Zealand in the World’, in K. Sinclair, ed., The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1997, p. 237. 62 D. Bell, ‘The Victoria idea of a global state’, pp. 172–6. 63 P. J. Gibbons, ‘The Climate of Opinion’, in W. H. Oliver, with B. R. Williams, eds, The Oxford History of New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Wellington, 1981, p. 303. 64 Sinclair, A Destiny Apart, p. 101. 65 D. Hamer, ‘Centralization and Nationalism’, in K. Sinclair, ed., The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1997, p. 147. 66 Cited in D. McIntyre, ‘The Development and Significance of Dominion Status’, paper presented to the Dominion Status Symposium, Legislative Council Chamber, Parliament Buildings, 26 September 2007. 67 G. Byrnes, ‘Rethinking Identity in New Zealand’s History’, paper presented to the Dominion Status Symposium, Legislative Council Chamber, Parliament Buildings, 26 September 2007. 68 McKinnon, ‘New Zealand in the World’, in K. Sinclair, ed., The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand. 69 Wood, New Zealand in the World, pp. 94–5. 70 McKinnon, Independence and Foreign Policy, p. 6. 71 Belich, Paradise Reforged. 72 Mein-Smith, Concise History, p. 145; F. Steel, ‘‘New Zealand Is Butterland’: Interpreting the Historical Significance of a Daily Spread’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 39, no. 2, October 2005, pp. 179–94. 73 Wood, New Zealand in the World, pp. 118–19. 74 McKinnon, ‘New Zealand in the World’, p. 247. 75 McKinnon, ‘New Zealand in the World’, p. 248. 76 G. Hawke, ‘Economic Trends and Economic Policy 1938–1992’, in G. Rice, ed., The Oxford History of New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Auckland, 2nd edn, 1992, p. 413. 77 Mein-Smith, Concise History of New Zealand, p. 174; F. L. W. Wood and R. Alley, ‘New Zealand Foreign Policy’, in W. Livingstone and W. R. Louis, Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands Since the First World War, Australian National University Press, Canberra, 1979, pp. 62–81 (p. 63). 78 McKinnon, ‘New Zealand in the World’, pp. 250–1. 79 McKinnon, ‘New Zealand in the World’, passim. 80 Belich, Paradise Reforged, p. 287. 81 J. G. A. Pocock, The Discovery of Islands: Essays in British History, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, pp. 193–4. 82 Citation to Doidge, in McIntyre, Background to the ANZUS Pact. 83 Cited in M. Templeton, Ties of Blood and Empire: New Zealand’s Involvement in Middle East Defence and the Suez Crisis 1947–57, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1994, p. 224.

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84 Frank Corner cited in M. Bell, ‘New Zealand’s Contribution to the Early Post-War Development of International Human Rights’, Unpublished paper, December 1998, available at . 85 M. Bassett, with Michael King, Tomorrow Brings the Song: A Life of Peter Fraser, Penguin, Albany, 2000, p. 291. 86 Frank Corner, cited in I. McGibbon, ed., Unofficial Channels: Letters between Alister McIntosh and , and Frank Corner, 1946–1966, Victoria University Press/Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade and the Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1999, p. 138. 87 I. McGibbon, ‘Forward Defence: the Southeast Asian Commitment’, in M. McKinnon, ed., New Zealand in World Affairs, Volume II, 1957–72, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, Wellington, 1991, pp. 9–39. 88 Memorandum of Conversation between John Allison and Frank Corner, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1949, pp. 1117–18. 89 R. Rabel, New Zealand and the Vietnam War: Politics and Diplomacy, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2005, p. 14. 90 Ralph Mullins cited in Rabel, New Zealand and the Vietnam War, p. 275. 91 Clements, ‘The Influence of Individuals’, pp. 127–28. Rabel argues the anti-war movement had little influence on the policies of the Holyoake government towards the Vietnam War, see Rabel, New Zealand and the Vietnam War, passim. 92 Rabel, New Zealand and the Vietnam War, p. 361. 93 E. Locke, Peace People: A History of Peace Activities in New Zealand, Hazard Press, Christchurch, 1992, pp. 173–83. 94 R. Alley, ‘That Awesome Glow’, in M. McKinnon, ed., New Zealand in World Affairs, Volume II, 1957–72 , p. 78. 95 McKinnon, Independence and Foreign Policy, p. 185; B. Gustafson, Kiwi Keith, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2007. 96 Belich, Paradise Reforged. 97 McKinnon, Independence and Foreign Policy, p. 99. 98 Hawke, ‘Economic Trends and Economic Policy 1938–1992’, p. 424. 99 Belich, Paradise Reforged, pp. 431–2. 100 E. Olssen, ‘The Shaping of a Field’, in conversation with T. Ballantyne and B. Moloughney, eds, Disputed Histories, p. 228. 101 Juliet Lodge’s report cited in Belich, Paradise Reforged, p. 433. 102 McKinnon, Independence and Foreign Policy, pp. 206–7. 103 P. Mein-Smith, ‘Did Muldoon Really “go too slowly” with CER?’, New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 41, no. 2, 2007, pp. 161–79. 104 Mein-Smith, Concise History, p. 203. 105 D. Capie, ‘Gone by Lunchtime? The Foreign Policy Consensus and the 2005 election’, in S. Levine and N. S. Roberts, ed., The Baubles of Office: The New Zealand General Election of 2005, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 2007, pp. 317–27. 106 M. Rolls, ‘New Zealand and Asia: an area of priority’, in R. Alley, New Zealand in World Affairs, vol. 4, pp. 203–4. 107 Mein-Smith, Concise History, p. 246. 108 D. Welch, ‘Where Asia goes, we go’, New Zealand Listener, 10–16 June, 1995. 109 K. Howe, ‘New Zealand’s Twentieth Century Pacifics: Memories and Reflections’, Journal of New Zealand History, vol. 34, no. 1, April 2000, pp. 4–19 (p. 19). 110 C. James, ‘The Pacification of New Zealand,’ speech to the Sydney Institute, 3 February 2005. 111 Belich, Paradise Reforged, p. 534.

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112 B.Easton, Globalisation and the Wealth of Nations, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2007, pp. 2–9 113 J. Haywood and J. Randal, ‘Give me a break? New Zealand visitor arrivals and the effects of 9/11’, MCS online paper, 14 December 2005. 114 L. Te Ata o Tu MacDonald and P. Muldoon, ‘Globalization, Neo-liberalism and the Struggle for Indigenous Citizenship’, Australian Journal of Political Science, vol. 41, no. 2, 2006, pp. 209–23 (p. 213). 115 M. McKinnon, ‘New Zealanders and Japan, 1998–2008, in global context’, Paper presented to the meeting of the Japan Society for New Zealand Studies, Waseda University, Tokyo, 14–15 September 2008, p. 40. Thanks to Malcolm McKinnon for sharing a draft of this paper with me. 116 P. Mein-Smith, P. Hempenstall and S. Goldfinch, Remaking the Tasman World, University of Canterbury Press, Christchurch, 2009.

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