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Literary Representations of Female Subjectivity and Space-Time, 1868-1915

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Literary Representations of Female Subjectivity and Space-Time, 1868-1915 A Space of Her Own: Literary Representations of Female Subjectivity and Space-Time, 1868-1915 Patricia Beesley Thesis submitted towards the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of English Literature, Language and Linguistics Newcastle University May 2019 Abstract This thesis begins with the premise that, in order to express their subjectivity, women need a space of their own. Teresa de Lauretis calls this space an ‘elsewhere’ space of discourse outside male narratives. Here I consider literary representations of different ‘elsewhere’ spaces with their own space-time which compromises notions of the gendering of space as female and time as male. Applying a theoretical framework based on the work of Luce Irigaray and Elizabeth Grosz, both of whom argue for a new space-time framework for women, I argue that by reading the selected texts through the lens of a non-gendered ‘elsewhere’ space, more nuanced and multi-dimensional expressions of female subjectivity emerge. A complex, and sometimes problematic, interaction between discourses on evolution, religion and gender is involved in finding women a space of their own and an active role in shaping history. Chapter 1 considers changing conceptions of space and time, and the contribution of Irigaray and Grosz to my thesis. Chapter 2 explores expressions of female subjectivity and feminism in the conceptual spaces of the spirit world and séance room in the Spiritualist novels of Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, The Gates Ajar (1868), Beyond the Gates (1883) and The Gates Between (1887), and Florence Marryat’s The Dead Man’s Message (1894) and There Is No Death (1891). My discussion of Marie Corelli’s A Romance of Two Worlds (1886) in Chapter 3 centres on celestial spheres as a conceptual space in which to re- imagine femininity combining genius and divinity. In Chapter 4, the hyperspatial world of Charles Howard Hinton’s Stella and an Unfinished Communication (1895) offers a representation of female subjectivity in which matter and spirit are reconciled. In Chapter 5, I explore the problem of freedom of expression in the feminist utopias of Mary Bradley Lane’s Mizora (1880-1), Elizabeth Corbett’s New Amazonia (1889) and Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s Herland (1915). I conclude by employing the idea of ‘positive negative space’ to re- emphasise changing conceptions of space and time in the nineteenth century and the continuing challenge for women to find a space to call their own. i ii Acknowledgements Firstly, I owe a huge debt of gratitude to my supervisors, Dr Ella Dzelzainis and Dr Kirsten Macleod, who have been unstinting in their encouragement, guidance, friendship and support through the six years of study for this PhD. Generous with their time, wisdom, incisive criticism and humour, they have made this journey a positive experience. I also want to thank those many members of the postgraduate community in the School of English who, over the years, have not only taken an interest in what I’ve been doing but have also been encouraging and supportive. Thanks also to Dr Michelle Miller from the Graduate School who provided invaluable assistance with technical difficulties. Last, but not least, thanks go to family and friends who, although often bemused and bewildered by the different directions my research has taken, have remained steadfast and have helped sustain me throughout. Thanks especially to John, Anna and Ellie, and to the pleasurable diversions the latter two have provided me in the form of grandchildren. iii Contents Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………... 1 Choice of Texts ………………………………………………………………………. 5 The Literary Context ………………………………………………………………... 10 Literary Critical Responses …………………………………………………………. 15 Chapter Summary ……………………………………………………………………17 Chapter 1 Space and Time ……………………………………………............................ 20 Space, Time and Gender ……………………………………………………………. 22 Reconfiguring Space and Time ……………………………………………………... 27 Irigaray, Space, Time and Sexual Difference ………………………………………. 30 Chapter 2 Spiritualism and Women’s Space ……………………………………………….. 34 Spiritualism in America and Britain …………………………………………………36 Elizabeth Stuart Phelps’s Spiritualist Novels ………………………………………. 40 The Gates Ajar and Beyond the Gates ……………………………………… 43 The Gates Between …………………………………………………………. 49 Florence Marryat’s Spiritualist Texts ……………………………………………..... 54 The Dead Man’s Message ………………………………………………….. 56 There Is No Death ………………………………………………………….. 60 Chapter 3 Marie Corelli’s Celestial Spheres ………………………………………………..76 Corelli’s Feminine Genius …………………………………………………………. 79 Feminine Genius Divinely Inspired ………………………………………………... 87 Genre, Form and Expressions of Femininity ………………………………………. 98 Chapter 4 Hinton’s Hyperspatial Feminine ………………………………………………110 Hinton’s Hyperspace Philosophy ………………………………………………….. 116 ‘Stella’ ……………………………………………………………………………... 120 Women’s Invisibility ………………………………………………………...124 Higher Consciousness …………………………………………………….. 127 v ‘An Unfinished Communication’ ………………………………………………….. 133 Nature and Spirit …………………………………………………………... 135 From Mathematics to a Feminist Dimension ……………………………………… 139 Chapter 5 Feminist Utopian Fiction and Female Subjectivity ……………………………. 146 The Cultural and Literary Context ………………………………………………… 148 The Fictional Utopias of Corbett, Lane and Gilman ………………………………. 152 The Re-configuring of Space in the Feminist Utopia …………………………....... 156 The Feminist Utopia and Evolution ……………………………………………….. 165 The Science and Nature of Motherhood ……………………………………..……. 170 Subjectivity in the Feminist Utopian World ………………………………………. 180 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………… 193 Bibliography ………………………………………………………………………………. 199 vi Figures Figure 1. Charles Howard Hinton, The Fourth Dimension (London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1906), p. 140 ………………………………………………………………………………..119 Figure 2. Two Faces ………………………………………………………………………...193 Figure 3. Alexander Archipenko, Woman Walking ………………………………………...194 vii viii INTRODUCTION Suppose that Truth is a woman – what then? Is there not ground for suspecting that all philosophers, in so far as they have been dogmatists, have failed to understand women – that the terrible seriousness and clumsy importunity with which they have usually paid their addresses to Truth, have been unskilled and unseemly methods for winning a woman? Certainly she has never allowed herself to be won; and at present every kind of dogma stands with sad and discouraged mien – if, indeed, it stands at all!1 This thesis is about female subjectivity – the quality or condition of experiencing life through the mind and body of a woman. It is about women in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth century seeking a space in which to explore the behaviour and qualities that contribute to a sense of identity, and that are characteristic of a self-prescribed femininity.2 As difficult to pin down as Nietzsche’s Truth, so the concept of femininity eludes being fixed in space and time, and evades definition. In what follows, I argue that for women to express their subjectivity they need a space they can call their own and, by situating women in imaginary conceptual spaces with their own space-time, new and diverse expressions of femininity and selfhood become possible. One of the central organising principles of my argument is the ‘elsewhere’ space of the literary imagination. I take the term ‘elsewhere’ from Teresa de Lauretis, who argues that women must find spaces of discourse outside male narratives in order to represent themselves: ‘I think of [elsewhere] as spaces in the margins of hegemonic discourses, social spaces carved in the interstices of institutions and in the chinks and cracks of the power- knowledge apparati’.3 The conceptual spaces of the spirit world, the celestial spheres, the fourth dimension and utopia are ‘elsewhere’ spaces that seek to exist outside the patriarchal framework of Victorian and early Edwardian life. They are all, in a way, hyperspatial or extra-dimensional spaces, existing in their own ungendered space-time, another central organising principle of this thesis. Taking a lead from Doreen Massey’s essay, ‘Politics and Space/Time’ (2007), I use the term space-time to confer a move away from thinking of the 1 Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future, trans. by Helen Zimmern (New York: Macmillan, 1907), p. 1. 2 I use the terms ‘femininity’ and ‘feminine’ to stand for meanings attributed to belonging to the female gender, differentiating between those expressions of femininity that arise from subjective experience and those that are socially constructed. 3 Teresa de Lauretis, Technologies of Gender: Essays on Theory, Film and Fiction (Bloomington and Indianopolis: Indiana University Press, 1987), p. 25. Rita Felski writes of romantic fantasy’s ‘elsewhere’ space which lies outside the consciousness central to modern experience, in The Gender of Modernity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), p. 131. Sarah Willburn refers to the ‘extra spheres’ of mystical visions that exist beyond the public and private spheres, in Possessed Victorians: Extra Spheres in Nineteenth-Century Mystical Writings (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006), p. 70. 1 world as three-dimensional to a world of four (possibly more) dimensions in which space and time are in active interrelationship with each other.4 This is a space-time that disavows the idea of space and time as separate modalities, with space gendered as female and time as male. Instead, space and time are fluid and intersecting, dissolving the gendered boundaries.
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