AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
1 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Book-title: AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Editors: ELEONÓRA MARIŠOVÁ, JELENA MILOVANOVIĆ, SLAĐANA ĐORĐEVIĆ Authors: ELEONÓRA MARIŠOVÁ, JELENA MILOVANOVIĆ, ZUZANA JUREKOVÁ, GORDANA DRAŽIĆ, MARTIN HAUPTVOGL, MARTIN PRČÍK, MARTIN MARIŠ, MARIÁN KOTRLA, PETER FANDEL, ZUZANA ILKOVÁ, JÁN GADUŠ, VERA POPOVIĆ, JELA IKANOVIĆ, LJUBIŠA ŽIVANOVIĆ, SUZANA ĐORĐEVIĆ- MILOŠEVIĆ, UROŠ RADOJEVIĆ, MARIAN KOVÁČIK, KRISTÍNA MANDALOVÁ
Publisher: Faculty of Applied Ecology Futura Singidunum University Belgrade For Publisher: Prof. dr Jordan Aleksić
Reviewers: Prof. dr Edward Pierzgalski Forest Research Institute Warsaw, Poland
Prof. dr Eva Cudlinova Faculty of Economics of the University of South Bohemia Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
Prof. dr Mirjana Bartula Faculty of Applied Ecology Futura Singidunum University, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia
Technical editor: Slađana Đorđević
Print: ECOGRAF, Šabac Circulation: CD Rom Copy 300
ELECTRONIC EDITION Copyright © 2016, Faculty of Applied Ecology Futura, Belgrade
ISBN 978-86-86859-53-2
Reprint in whole or in parts, copying or disclosure in any way without permission and consent of the authors and publisher is prohibited, in accordance with the Law on Copyright and Related Rights of the Republic of Serbia
2 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
3 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
4 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
I CURRENT STATE AND PERSPECTIVES OF BIOMASS PRODUCTION IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT 09 1.1. Sustainable diversification of rural economy – the European Union 10 and Western Balkans approach
1.2. Biomass production as a driving force for rural development 12
1.3. Identification of sources providing biomass as a renewable energy source 13
1.4. Identification of marginal land suitable for biomass production: examples of Slovakia and 18 Serbia 1.4.1. Fast-growing energy crops grown in conditions of Slovakia in the context of the EU 18 energy policy 1.4.2. Comparison of energy sources grown on agricultural land 25 1.4.3. Identification of marginal land suitable for biofuel production in Serbia 30
1.5. Biomass production in international context: legislation and entrepreneurship support 40 1.5.1. Legislation, support and development of renewable energy resources and business 40 References 52
II PRODUCTION POTENTIALS OF ENERGY CROPS AND TREES 57
2.1. Production potential of field crops at the University Farm Ltd. in Kolíňany 62 References 71
2.2. Production potentials of perennial crops 72 2.2.1. Fast-growing perennial grass Miscanthus – results from Slovakia 72 References 89 2.2.2. Fast-growing perennial grass Miscanthus – results from Serbia 91 References 111
2.3. Sorghum for grains as an agro-energy crop 113 References 130
2.4. Plant species of genus Phalaris as an agro-energy crop 135 References 147
2.5. Production potentials of fast growing trees 149 2.5.1 Fast-growing energy trees of the genus Salix 149 References 162 2.5.2. Fast-growing energy woody crops of the genus Populus (poplar ) 165 References 174
5 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
III EXPLORING ENERGY POTENTIALS OF AGRICULTURAL “WASTE” 176
3.1. Analysis of present situation of exploiting renewable energy sources in Slovakia 177
3.2. Possibility of using agricultural “waste” for the energy production 188 References 195
IV RESEARCH OF BIOMASS BIOCHEMICAL CONVERSION USING DRY FERMENTATION 196 METHOD AT SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE IN NITRA
4.1. Introduction to the dry fermentation 199 References 205
V ESTIMATION AND MODELLING OF BIOMASS PRODUCTION ON THE FARM/SAMPLE 208 PLOT LEVEL
5.1. Model of revitalisation of agricultural land for biomass production as a renewable source 209 for sustainable development of agriculture in rural areas - evaluation of economic efficiency of short rotation coppice biomass production on agricultural land References 233
VI BUILDING PARTNERSHIPS AND NETWORKING FOR RURAL DIVERSIFICATION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT 235
6.1. Empowering rural partnerships and networks 236 References 242
6.2. Building partnerships in the value chain for rural diversification 243 References 249
6.3. Revitalization of small rural farms through partnerships and networking 250 6.3.1. Participatory Planning as an Engine for Revitalization of Small Rural Farms: An Overview on Local Action Groups in Slovakia and Serbia 250 6.3.2. Energy market and biorenewables 262 References 283
VII CONCLUSIONS 285
Annex 1. Compacted image of the spreadsheet efficiency evaluation model - Salix 287 Annex 2. Compacted image of the spreadsheet efficiency evaluation model – Miscanthus 288
6 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
This monograph was written by the team of based on examples in Slovakia and Serbia. authors from the Slovak University of Estimation of biomass production within case Agriculture and the Singidunum University in study of the farm Kolíňany (Slovakia) with Belgrade, which cooperated on Bilateral example of biogas use is included. The Slovak-Serbian project SK-SRB-2013-0031 economic part of the monograph is devoted “Revitalization of small agricultural farms to bioenergy on the energy market and to through energy crops cultivation and modelling of revitalisation of agricultural land biomass production” and on technological for biomass. Evaluation of economic efficiency development project “Ecoremediation of of woody plants /Salix/ and perennial crops degraded areas through agro-energy crops /Miscanthus/, cultivation of arable land of cultivation” (TR31078). The bilateral project farms in the conditions of Slovakia and Serbia has been implemented in the years 2015- provides applicable knowledge for practical 2016. The main objective of international growers. Overview on EU and national research was to create a baseline study legislation and entrepreneurship support for document on available natural and human biomass production is provided as well. capacities for local socio-economic development based on biomass production The monograph provides valuable emphasizing energy crops cultivation in information and an overview of current partner countries and a consistent program of knowledge and trends with a number of revitalization of agricultural farms with literature sources and their comparison with alternative use of agricultural land for short the results of the project team. It could serve rotation crops as renewable energy resources as guidelines for scientific and professional with minimalization of environmental impacts community, students, graduates, and other and economic efficiency. stakeholders. This work was supported by the Slovak Research and Development Agency The monograph contains the experimental and by the Ministry of Education, Science and results of quantitative and qualitative Technological Development of the Republic of properties of fast-growing willows and Serbia under the contract SK-SRB-2013-0031 perennial crop Miscanthus grown on and by the Ministry of Education, Science and agricultural land in south-west Slovakia and Technological Development of the Republic of Miscanthus, grain Sorghum and Phalaris Serbia in the frame of the TR31078 project. species in Serbia. Individual chapters are addressed to current state and perspectives of biomass production in rural development and Eleonóra Marišová, Jelena MILOVANOVIĆ marginal land suitable for biomass production
7 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
8 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
9 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
With a dramatic reduction in farm between the development of agriculture, employment, rural regions become other activities and services in rural areas, to dependent on a wide range of economic ensure a better quality of life and to improve engines for growth. Increasing globalization, the living standards of the people through improved communications and reduced the rational use of resources and also to transportation costs are additional drivers of maintain them for future generations. This economic change in rural areas. The theory integrated approach is a fundament of EU and practice of regional policy have rural development policy West Balkans recognized that financial redistribution and strives to. agriculture-based policies are not able to harness the potential of these economic In West Balkans, introduction of integrated engines. On the aggregate, rural regions face rural development policies is still just an problems of decline with out-migration, effort to be more close to EU policy patterns. ageing, a lower skill base and lower average True understanding of the concept, as much labor productivity that then reduce the as true devotion to it is actually lagging critical mass needed for effective public behind, although the need for a services, infrastructure and business multidisciplinary, multisectoral approach to development, thereby creating a vicious rural development, and application of the circle. However, there are many rural regions concept of multifunctional agriculture was that have seized opportunities and built on identified as the main prerequisite for the their existing assets, such as location, natural future sustainability. To be able to launch and cultural amenities, and social capital. The quality actions in rural development West success of such dynamic rural regions is Balkans require a fundamental change of evident in regional statistics (OECD, 2012). attitude towards rural. The peasant in majority of West Balkan countries remains an At the end of the last century, the concept of offensive word, and rural issues are too long rural development gained importance in the subject of ridicule. Decades and perhaps both developed and developing countries, hundreds of years, psychological barriers and the image of the politics of socio- were created, leading to the negative economic development as a whole is attitude towards everything labeled as rural. changing drastically. In its focus, it is not just The unsustainability of this relationship is overcoming regional disparities and urban- clear if we bear in mind that prosperity of rural development, but also coordination many European rural areas is based on just
10 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation the opposite - the glorification of rural however, seems to be the part of history. Small lifestyles and rural traditions (DJORDJEVIC- rural households are often alienated and MILOSEVIC, 2008). marginalized part of local communities, although they are not completely reluctant to Improving the quality of life in rural areas is this option (rather not well informed about closely linked with incentives for diversification possibilities rising from partnerships and and development of community infrastructure cooperation, models etc.). By contrast, small in rural areas, providing of increased farms owned by rural retired people make use employment possibilities for rural people on less often cooperatives and formal farms and elsewhere, higher inclusion of organisations. When looking at the willingness women and marginalized social groups in the to become organised, data show that more rural economy, development of small than 10% of households are interested in businesses, investments in equipment, becoming members in marketing or producer assistance in the promotion and similar organizations (ĐORĐEVIĆ-MILOŠEVIĆ and approaches. It also requires education and MILOVANOVIĆ, 2014). training for young people in traditional rural skills and crafts (supporting environmentally- On-farm, diversification is about reducing the friendly adding value to primary products), risk on market changes by dividing the increasing their quality and safety, as well as agriculture production or other non- the development of tourism, providing agriculture activities over a greater number of services to the environment. However, one sectors. Diversification actually requires common fact in West Balkan countries and engagement of all sources in the direction of other developing countries is that rural employment growth. It can support "part development policies do not yet involve time" type of employment and/or self- significant funding. Nevertheless, no matter employment on or off farm, for providing how small in quantities they do contribute to increased subsistency of small farming sector. important culture changes with respect to rural In the practice of rural development it happens development. that the rural economy becomes diversified when agricultural employment begins to drop. Income structure of small rural households Specialization, on the other hand, means could be improved according to the available giving priority to one comparative advantage resources yet certain changes to be introduced of the farm or area which is more suitable for will not encompass just investments in farming in more developed regions with production, but also in better organization, expanding markets within the industrial sector. community cooperation and partnerships, Specialization as a concept can lead to the improved marketing including creation of local employment reduction. In many European markets through direct marketing and tourism, areas there is a tendency of choosing to focus branding of products etc. The traditional the economic development in several sectors, cooperation between people in rural areas, which is considered to be a new way of
11 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation specialization (MILOVANOVIC, DJORDJEVIC- produce biomass is one of possible solutions MILOSEVIC, 2016). Organizing and directing to local development. the local capacity to develop entrepreneurship based on the cultivation of energy crops to
Valorization of biomass as a renewable and prevent social and environmental energy is related to traditional sources such degradation, measures to support the as woody biomass and agricultural residues. diversification of the rural economy in a way The reliance of the rural poor population in that is socially, economically and function of biomass is rarely measured and is environmentally sustainable are necessary. usually not included in the valuation of total Biomass production is one of the key sectors household resources for entrepreneurship, with significant potential for diversification of which may lead to the development of rural economy. inappropriate strategies that disregarding environmental protection in the fight against Gathering of stakeholders in local action poverty. Rural economy of Serbia face a groups (LAGs) with a shared vision, is one of number of challenges but also open the main goal of the EU LEADER approach, opportunities for the development of as a key instrument for the promotion of competitiveness, which is the requirement cooperation between the public, private and for balance between agricultural production civil sectors. European experience in the use and other economic activities, environmental of funds under the LEADER program and the protection and social development. Rural establishment of LAGs aimed at the development has typically focused on entrepreneurial potential of biomass is of improving agricultural production and great importance for the adjustment of promoting market orientation, however, as Serbia to EU. This issue is pointed out as a the examples of other countries in the EU possibility for rural livelihood diversification accession process has shown (e.g. Slovakia), with no negative influence on the such an approach could threaten the survival environment (ĐORĐEVIĆ-MILOŠEVIĆ and of the rural population. To improve the MILOVANOVIĆ, 2014). quality of life in rural areas, reduce poverty
12 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Biomass is the oldest source of renewable pruning horticulture, forestry residues, Short energy. Despite this, this term can mean Rotation coppice (SRC) and above all fast different materials. To obtain fuel growing forest, part of selected municipal and production of electrical and thermal waste, residues from wood processing energy, biomass, the biodegradable fraction industry, remains of primary and secondary of products, waste and residues from processing of agricultural products and biological origin from agriculture (including others. vegetal and animal substances), forestry and related industries, as well as the Box 1.3.1. Directive 2001/77 / EC biodegradable fraction of industrial and municipal waste were used. Biomass Directive 2001/77 / EC provides a definition includes: primary products - the result of of Biomass: Biomass is the biodegradable direct photosynthetic use of solar energy, fraction of products, waste and residues from including crop plants and wood, remains of agriculture (including vegetal and animal vegetable by-products and waste from substances), forestry and related industries, industry, above all, wood and agricultural as well as the biodegradable fraction of and secondary products - Indirect solar gain, industrial and municipal waste. the decomposition or conversion of organic matter (for example, animals) and include the entire plankton, manure and sewage. This definition of biomass given in the Directive at the level of the initial definition, Bioenergy can be obtained by direct expecting to Member States to define combustion of solid biomass (forest themselves more precise what is meant by biomass) or combustion of biofuels from the term biomass. Also, this directive biomass, namely: liquid bioethanol, recommends that the mix of urban waste is biomethanol and biodiesel) and gas (biogas, not meant by the term "biomass" for the landfill gas). purposes of this Directive.
According to the physical condition, with The biomass as a renewable energy source impact on the way energy use, biomass is usually involves materials made of plant divided into solid, liquid and gaseous. In material, including products, by-products, solid biomass are the remains of crop waste and residues, and plant mass, but production, agroenergy crops, remains without the harmful and hazardous
13 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation substances, which can be found in painted landfill gas, gas obtained by the treatment of and otherwise chemically treated wood, in sewage. processes in the wood processing industry. Biomass from forestry One fairly precise definition of what is below the biomass as a renewable energy source Biomass from forestry includes a spacious means, and what is not, prepared by and firewood, as well as residues and Germany, in its document BIOMASS waste originated in wood processing Ordinance on Generation of Electricity from (cutting, grinding, ...). The basic characteristics Biomass (Biomass Ordinance - Biomasse V) that affect the efficiency of the use of from June 2001 was done. Biomass incude: biomass as an energy source include: plants and plant parts, fuel made from plants chemical composition, thermal power, auto- and parts of plants which all components ignition temperature, combustion and intermediate products produced from temperature, the physical properties that biomass residues and by-products of plant influence the thermal power. The basic size and animal origin in agriculture, forestry and of the budget for the amount of energy commercial fish production of bio-waste as obtained from a certain amount of wood is biodegradable waste in the food industry, its thermal power. The biggest impact on the biodegradable waste from the kitchen, calorific value of wood has wood separated from biological waste households species, moisture content, chemical and firms, biodegradable waste from the composition, density and soundness of timber industry and maintenance of the wood. The most common woody biomass in natural environment, if it has a lower calorific the energy used in the form of pellets, value of at least 11.000 kJ/kg gas produced briquettes and wood chips. This method of from biomass gasification or burning wood biomass is particularly pyrolysis, alcohol produced from biomass, all suitable, because of the way the lighting of whose intermediate products produced pretty much automated and provides better from biomass wood waste from the wood combustion. Briquetted biomass is mainly processing industry, biogas produced used in industrial processes. anaerobic fermentation of biomass, which has no more than 10% by weight of sewage Agricultural biomass sludge. Agricultural biomass consists of the remains
of various crops straw, corn stalks, cobs, Biomass not include: fossil fuels, peat, mixed stalks, husks, seeds. This type of biomass has municipal waste, wood residues containing a lower heating value of firewood and a harmful substances are emitted during large proportion of moisture and various combustion than allowed, paper, cardboard, impurities. Agricultural biomass can have sewage, textiles, body parts of animals, multi-purpose use: for producing humus
14 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
(plowed), fodder (treated with chemicals, 1. the provision of new energy sources, mixing with proteins, etc.), Heat 2. the creation of new markets for the sale (combustion), building materials (various of secondary raw materials forestry and pressed plates), parts of furniture agriculture, (chipboard), alcohol (fermentation), 3. preservation of the environment biogas (anaerobic fermentation), paper and through prevention creating a packaging, cleaning of metallic greenhouse effect, surfaces, decorative items, as well as for 4. increasing the use of marginal land and many other purposes. Given that often occur 5. create new jobs. problems in practice with the use of agricultural biomass compromise tassel that Figure 1.3.1. Miscanthus x giganteus ¼ biomass plowed in order to improve soil fertility, ¼ used for the production of animal feed, ¼ for energy production and ¼ for other purposes, or in the alcohol industry, furniture, packaging, paper and the like. The production of energy from agricultural biomass would provide significant savings if this energy is used for heating in winter or for drying agricultural crops.
Plantations Plantations are planted with energy-rich plant with high contents of oil or sugar (carbon), such as fast-growing trees and Chinese cane, Miscanthus, with an annual yield of 17 tons per hectare, Eucalyptus with a yield of 35 tons of dry matter per hectare, green algae with a yield of 50 tons per hectare. On Serbia, the highest yields are achieved by growing willows and poplars. In addition to large yields, energy crops offer the possibility of using waste water as Some characteristics of energy crops are fertilizers. The most important effects of the presented in Table 1.3.1. production and use of biomass obtained in specialized plantations are:
15 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 1.3.1. Some characteristics of listed energy crops Crops Dry mass yield Lower heating Energy Water Ash tDM/ (ha year) value production content at content MJ/kgDM per ha (GJ/ha) harvest % Weight % Straw 2 - 4 17 35-70 14.5 5 Miscanthus 8 - 32 17.5 140-560 15 3.7 Hemp 10 - 18 16.8 170-300 n/a n/a Willow 8 - 15 18.5 280-315 53 2.0 Poplar 9 - 16 18.7 170-300 49 1.5 Giant reed 15 - 35 16.3 245-570 50 5 Reed canary 6 -12 16.3 100-130 13 4 grass Switchgrass 9-18 17 n/a 15 6 Black locust 5 -10 19.5 100-200 35 n/a Wood 3 - 5 18.7 74.8 50 1-1.5
Biomass from animal husbandry municipal waste could be included in the process of production of biogas which would Biomass from animal husbandry animal be used calorific value and at the same time, manure combined with agricultural biomass solve the problem of disposal of waste. is a very good source of energy use in the One of the main goals of processing biomass process of anaerobic digestion for biogas production of biofuels for heating, transport obtained it. For example, anaerobic manure and industrial use. According to the type of by digestion 110 t and 250 t of corn silage a biomass produced, biofuels can be divided year it is possible to get about 8 million kWh into groups: of electricity, which represents a saving of 16 - first generation produced from corn, 000 tonnes of lignite. wheat, sugar cane, sugar beet and plants that contain a higher percentage Municipal waste of starch or sugar (lack of these biofuels has a negative impact on production the Municipal waste is a green part of recycled price of staple foods and the country's household waste, biomass from economy); parks and gardens and sludge from the sewage treatment plant. Disposal of urban - second generation produced from waste requires high investment costs. On the lignocellulosic biomass such as wood, other hand, it represents a valuable fuel of used paper, reeds and grasses, as well as high calorific value. Certain fractions of agricultural residues (production is still
16 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
inefficient for commercial use, but some significant that this share is significantly countries are investing heavily in research higher in developing countries than in and development); industrialized countries. One of the most important factors that determine the - third generation produced from algae potential role of biomass in the energy or canola plants that do not threaten industry, is the strong competition that exists stocks of food (third generation biofuels between the values of biomass and land productivity is about 30 times greater per necessary for its cultivation, which is not the unit of surface area of the first or second case with other renewable energy sources. generation biofuels);
- fourth generation of products from raw The biomass potential in Serbia is estimated materials that have been genetically at 3.405 million toe (tonnes of oil equivalent), modified to provide higher energy yields of which: and / or their building macromolecules - the potential of timber 1.53 million toe; are subject to economical decomposition, - the potential of agricultural biomass a peculiar them and to absorb large 1.67 million toe; amounts of carbon dioxide from the - the potential primary biodegradable atmosphere. waste 205 thousand toe.
Biomass can be exploited in various ways. On Wood biomass is generally available in the other hand, the main source of biomass central Serbia, and has a high efficiency of of animal origin is a natural liquid 66.7%. Agricultural biomass in Vojvodina, a manure. Using biomass or fuels and waste percentage of its utilization is negligible and materials obtained from biomass as an amounts to only 2%, the potential of energy source requires their combustion and biodegradable municipal waste is still not release heat that drives a generator of exploits. Bioethanol can be produced from electricity. The energy in biomass is chemical cereals, potatoes, then there are Sorghum in nature; it does not suffer downtime, as is and Jerusalem artichoke, whose growing in the case with solar or wind energy. From this Serbia there are about 100.000 hectares of point of view, biomass has more marginal land. Biodiesel can be produced characteristics of fossil fuels rather than from oilseeds such as sunflower, soybean renewable sources, with understandable and rapeseed whose cultivation can be reason, because fossil fuels are actually carried out on 350.000 ha, which would fossilized forms of biomass. enable the annual production of about 220.000 tons of biodiesel. Nevertheless biomass now accounts for 15% of total energy consumption, and it is
17 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
1.4.1. Fast-growing energy crops grown in conditions of Slovakia in the context of the EU energy policy
The EU energy program by 2050 is based other plants). According to JUREKOVÁ et on the use of renewable energy sources al. (2011) and Demo et al. (2013a), (RES). Among the renewable sources, Slovakia has a potential and suitable bioenergy represents a high proportion. climate condition to grow fast-growing The term means energetic use of any kind trees (Salix sp., Populus sp. and Robinia of biomass to produce heat, electricity or sp.) and fast-growing plants (Miscanthus, transport fuels. According to the Panicum and Sorghum) (JUREKOVÁ et al., abovementioned energy program, 2012; PORVAZ and TÓTH 2013). bioenergy should be obtained through a more efficient use of resources, reduction Cultivation of energy crops requires of energy inputs for their production, and changes in structure of the arable land. In reduction of negative environmental this sense, there is a lack of statistical data impacts. In Slovakia, the RES were used at on areas of agricultural land used for a limited basis in recent decades. The EU growing fastgrowing trees and plants. In Member States committed to cover 20% this chapter, we give an overview of the of the energy consumption from current state of the existing data (the renewable sources by 2020. The share of Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic renewable energy on gross final energy (SO SR) (2013) and the Soil Science and consumption in Slovakia increased from Conservation Research Institute of the 6.7% in 2004 to 9.7% in 2011. The 2020 Slovak Republic (SSCRI SR) (2014)). We target for Slovakia included in National have focused on research of fast growing Renewable Energy Action Plan is 14% trees and plants since the last decade. (EUROSTAT, 2013). Biomass is considered to have the greatest potential from the The EU countries with the largest areas of renewables, particularly agricultural available land for bioenergy production biomass of plants grown on arable lands are Poland, Spain, Italy, the United for the energy purposes (agricultural Kingdom, Lithuania and Hungary. In crops, fast-growing trees, plants and Slovakia, the available arable land for grasses grown on agricultural land, dedicated bioenergy crop cultivation is freshwater cyanobacteria and algae and expected to rise from about 81,000 ha in 18 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
2010 to 213.000 ha in 2030 (EEA, 2006). Other agricultural lands that are Fast-growing trees, mainly willows and potentially suitable for fast-growing trees poplars, as well as energy grasses should include fallow lands and unused play an important role in Slovak agricultural soils. The area of the fallow renewable energy policy, due to the fact land in Slovakia is about 13.312,51 ha and that they are suitable to our agro- the unused agricultural soils represent ecological and economic conditions. The 15.575,85 ha (SO SR, 2013). The highest most suitable ecological conditions can share of both fallow and unused be found in lowlands and highlands agricultural areas can be found in the located in warmer climate conditions and Banská Bystrica Region (Figure 1.4.1.2. rather humid soils (SSCRI, 2014). and Figure 1.4.1.3.). Sensitive areas According to SO SR (2013), fast-growing (contaminated soils) are suitable for fast- trees currently cover about 676.01 growing plants, due to the fact that they hectares in Slovakia. However, the data are excluded from food production. The are not very reliable and more detailed sensitive areas of Slovakia are located in investigation should be made. The land the territory of Upper Nitra, Žilina, that is used for energy cropping is a Ružomberok, Banská Bystrica, Žiar, Jelšava natural resource, comprising of soil, and Hačava (Figure 1.4.1.4.). minerals, water and biota. It plays an important role in delivering valuable ecosystem services, such as supporting Figure 1.4.1.1. Banská Bystrica the cultivation of biomass for food, energy and other products, and regulating environment (EEA 2013).
Slovak legislation has set the conditions for cultivation of fast-growing plants on agricultural land. The plantation can be established on soil that is classified in 5 – 9 quality categories indicated by BPEJ code (number 1 represents the highest quality soil, number 9 the lowest); contaminated soil; soil classified in 3 or 4 quality categories if it is located in floodplain, the soil is waterlogged or exposed to wind erosion (Act No 34/2014 Coll.).
19 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Fgure 1.4.1.2. Area of fallow land in Slovak regions
Source: based on SO SR, 2013
Figure 1.4.1.3. Area of unused agricultural soils in Slovak regions
Source: based on SO SR, 2013
20 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 1.4.1.4. Location of sensitive areas in Slovakia
Source: based on VÚPOP, 2014
The highest biomass production potential in established in 2006. We have studied Central and Eastern Europe is in countries biomass production of five Swedish willow with the largest land areas, notably Poland varieties in the fourth growing seasons and Romania (van DAM et al., 2007). A (2010). The weight of the fresh matter of the study of potential biomass production of individual willow varieties varied from 12.43 Salix, Populus and Miscanthus in 10 eastern kg (Tora) to 9.90 kg (Gudrun). The highest European countries revealed that the potential yield (survival rate = 100%) of the highest Salix and Populus potential yields dry matter was provided by Tora (66.11 t are in the Czech Republic (35.7 t ha-1), and ha-1 3 yrs-1). The lowest yield was recorded from the former Soviet Union countries in in Inger (52.53 t ha-1 3 yrs -1). Content of dry Georgia (38.1 t ha-1). The highest potential matter varied from 48.47 to 51.02%. We yields of Miscanthus were determined in observed that even though Gudrun reached Slovenia (27.5 t ha-1) (Fischer et al, 2005). the lowest average weight, due to the highest content of dry matter, it provided Research on fast-growing plants does not higher average yield than Tordis and Inger have a long tradition in Slovakia compared (Table 1.4.1.1.). to the neighbouring countries. The research on Salix began in Krivá, Orava region, in 1994. Our research plantation was
21 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
However, there were no significant biomass on average (control variant, statistical differences in weight and yield 2009) (MIKÓ et al. 2014). We also studied among the willow varieties (Table 1.4.1.2.). biomass yield of four poplar varieties TRNKA (2009) recorded dry matter (Monviso, Pegaso, AF-2 and Sirio). The biomass ranging from 44.0 to 104.0 t ha-1 stand was established in 2008. The tables in 15 willow clones at the end of the six- provide yields obtained at the end of the year growing cycle in the microregion fourth growing season (first rotation Bystřice nad Pernštejnem (Czech cycle) in 2012. The weight of the fresh Republic). Annual yields of the five matter of the studied poplar varieties Swedish varieties (Sven, Gudrun, Tora, ranged from 15.83 kg (AF-2) to 21.16 kg Sherwood and Ulv) studied in the (Monviso). The average yield of biomass research plantation located in the at harvest moisture content (fresh matter) northern Slovakia varied from 11.1 to 15.2 ranged from 140.74 t ha-1 (AF-2) to 188.14 t ha-1 year-1 (DANIEL and MEDVECKÝ t ha-1 (Monviso). Content of dry matter 2010). ranged from 44.76 to 47.91%. Biomass yield of dry weight varied from 67.42 t In contrast, the varieties Sven, Tora, Tordis ha-1 3 yrs-1 (AF-2) to 87.16 t ha-1 3 yrs-1 and Inger grown in 2-year harvest cycle in (Monviso) (Table 1.4.1.3.). Hungary under unfavourable site conditions produced 38,6 t ha-1 of
Table 1.4.1.1. Biomass yield of the studied willow varieties in the fourth growing season (2010)
Varieties Fresh matter Fresh matter Dry matter Dry matter yield yield in % yield in kg plant-1 in t ha-1 in t ha-1 3 yrs-1 Tora 12.43 132.54 49.88 66.11 Gudrun 9.90 105.57 51.02 53.86 Tordis 10.41 110.98 48.47 53.79 Inger 10.09 107.59 48.82 52.53 Sven 11.68 124.53 49.76 61.96
22 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 1.4.1.2. Single-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the studied growth parameters among individual willow varieties Analysed parameter F P value F critical Significance Weight of the fresh matter 1.083741 0.37511 2.641465 n Yield of the matter 1.158701 0.345649 2.641465 n Level of significance is defined as: n – non-significant impact, + significant impact in P ≤0.05, ++ P ≤0.01 and +++ P ≤0.001
Table 1.4.1.3. Biomass yield of the studied poplar varieties in the fourth growing season (2012) Varietles Fresh matter Fresh matter Dry matter in Dry matter yield in yield in kg yield in t ha-1 % t ha-1 3 yrs-1 plant-1 Monviso 21.16 188.14 46.33 87.16 Pegaso 18.83 167.40 45.94 76.90 AF-2 15.83 140.74 47.91 67.42 Sirio 19.76 175.70 44.76 78.64
Table 1.4.1.4. Single-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the biomass yields among individual poplar varieties
Analysed parameter F P-value F critical Significance
Yield of the matter 1.622233 0.223663 3.238872 n
Table 1.4.1.5. Yield of the studied Miscanthus genotypes recorded in the research base in Kolíňany in the period of 2010–2013 Genotypes Dry matter yield of Miscanthus in t ha-1 year-1 2010 2011 2012 2013 Miscanthus x giganteus 11.10 18.10 27.10 30.30 GREEF et DEU Miscanthus sinensis 10.80 15.21 22.63 24.10 (Tatai)
23 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 1.4.1.6. Single-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the biomass yields between the Miscanthus genotypes in individual years (2010–2013) and between genotypes in each experimental year Analysed parameter F P-value F critical Significance Miscanthus x giganteus 494.2242 3.04E-40 2.769431 +++ GREEF et DEU-Years Miscanthus sinensis 391.1096 1.62E-37 2.769431 +++ (Tatai)- Years Genotypes and Years 393.7085 9.37E-76 2.092381 +++
TRNKA (2009) recorded, in eight poplar giganteus GREEF et DEU and Miscanthus clones of a six-year-old stand in the sinensis (Tatai), respectively (Table microregion of Bystřice nad Pernštejnem 1.4.1.5.). The difference of the obtained (Czech Republic), average biomass yield yield between the genotypes represents of dry matter ranging from 70.0 t ha-1 to 12.6% that is 11.17 t ha-1. 127.0 t ha-1 . A two-year old poplar stand grown in the soil-ecological conditions of The average weight of dry matter of the Northwest Hungary (Kapuvár – studied Miscanthus genotypes has been Kistölgyfapuszta) provided biomass yield increasing since 2010. There were of dry matter that varied from 18.06 t ha-1 statistically highly significant differences to 35.40 t ha-1 (NÉMETH, 2010). The between the genotypes in the observed economic threshold for the cultivation of years. Our findings were confirmed by willow and poplar, according to PORVAZ and TÓTH (2013), who studied LINDEGAARD et al. (2001) is 10–12 t ha-1 biomass production of Miscanthus in year-1 of dry matter. In our research, all Eastern Slovak Lowland (Eastern Slovakia). monitored willow and poplar varieties exceeded the economic threshold. There We can state that there are suitable were no significant differences in biomass conditions for growing energy crops in yield among the poplar varieties (Table Slovakia. There is potential for 1.4.1.4.). The total production of the establishment of energy plantations on aboveground biomass for the first four fallow, unused and contaminated years of the two studied genotypes of agricultural soil. Miscanthus reached 86.60 t ha-1 4 yrs-1 and 72.74 t ha-1 4 yrs-1 in Miscanthus ×
24 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
1.4.2. Comparison of energy sources grown on agricultural land
Biomass can be produced locally and thus The research of the fast-growing energy it is of great importance for rural tree species of the genus Salix and development, maintaining agricultural Populus began by establishing a willow production and hence employment plantation in 2007, later in 2009 a poplar opportunities in rural areas (BROZIO et al., plantation was established and in 2010 a 2007). Growing arable crops and energy plantation of perennial grass Miscanthus crops on agricultural land is influenced by sinensis was established at the research geographical, ecological and climatic site in Kolíňany. In the early years, the conditions, growing technologies and research focused on the cultivation intensification factors (Grundman et al., technologies, density and structure of the 2013). In recent years, the production is stands, planting methods and comparison also affected by increasingly occurring of the production potential of the species weather extremes (MIKÓ et al., 2014). and varieties (Jureková et al., 2011; DEMO Establishing plantations of energy crops et al., 2011; DEMO et al., 2013a; and their acceptance by population is MILOVANOVIĆ et al., 2012; KOTRLA and often controversial and leads to conflicts PRČÍK, 2013, DEMO et al., 2014). We of interests among food manufacturers compared biological yields of the so- and producers of biomass for energy called first generation energy resources purposes. Managers often ask how much represented by the dominant agricultural and what commodities they should crops (Table 1.4.2.1.). The yields of the produce, who would be the buyer and cereals reached the average value of what will be the profit. Economists are 10.72 t ha-1 (Tritticum aestivum), 10.97 t able to express the cost-effectiveness of ha-1 (Hordeum vulgare) and 20.75 t ha-1 production costs (GRAUSOVÁ and (silage corn) in 2007–2014. Compared ČIŽMÁRIK, 2007), but they it requires with that, the second generation of analyses of production from the energy resources (biomass of the woody biological perspective that predict certain crops and Miscanthus) provided natural values of yields. This chapter significantly higher average values during compares the biomass production of the studied period (Table 1.4.2.1.). The energy plants and selected crops grown energy crops can be grown on a low- on arable land in the south-western value agricultural soils with the Slovakia in 2007-2014, its energy value perspective of 20 years. The willow stand and the influence of decisive climatic established in 2007 maintained strong factors on the size of the production. growth activity throughout the entire studied period. A cutback (technical cut) was made in the winter of 2007. The
25 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation highest production of dry matter was varieties and the experimental year (Table 47.11 t ha-1 at the end of the first four- 1.4.2.4.). Based on these results and other year harvest cycle (2011) (Table 1.4.2.1.). findings published in a number of papers Similar results of Swedish willow varieties (DEMO et al., 2013b and 2014; PRČÍK et (Inger, Tordis and Sven) reported MIKÓ et al., 2014; PRČÍK and KOTRLA, 2015) it can al. (2014) with an average dry biomass be noted that the production process of yield of 38.6 t ha-1 year-1 in the control the fast-growing trees grown in the treatment and 50.8 t ha-1 year-1 in the conditions of southwestern Slovakia is fertilized treatment in a two-year harvest conditioned to species and genotype cycle. The first year of the second harvest heterogenity. In terms of biomass cycle (2012) was characterized by high production, the Miscanthus stand was productivity of the stand. The biomass studied in 2010– 2014 (Table 1.4.2.1.). The yield reached 29.65 t ha-1 year-1. In the highest biomass increases recorded both third year (2014), the average biomass Miscanthus genotypes in the third yield of the studied willow varieties was growing period (2012), when the average 53.17 t ha-1 year-1. In order to evaluate production reached 24.85 t ha-1, which differences in biomass quality of the was an increase by almost 60% compared grown crops, it is important to know their with 2011. After the fifth growing year energy values. It is expressed as gross (2014), the average production of the energy of a dry matter unit. The results stand was 28.60 t ha-1 of dry matter. are shown in Table 1.4.2.3. In order to During the years 2011–2014 (Table compare gross energy values of the 1.4.2.3.), studied a production of studied species, we focused on the results aboveground dry matter of Italian poplar obtained in 2008, when the stands of genotypes. The production value was willows began to grow after the cutback. converted into its energy value. We In this period, the energy value was compared the energy values of the higher in the arable crops, mainly winter produced biomass (dry matter) of the wheat and silage maize. In the second individual poplar genotypes. The studied and subsequent years, higher values were genotypes may be divided into two obtained from the silage maize. Italian groups, based on the average values. The varieties of poplars showed rapid growth first group includes genotypes Monviso and good adaptability to the (601.04 GJ ha-1) and Pegaso (611.09 GJ environment. They reached the maximum ha-1). They provided an approximately value of biomass in 2012 (the last year of even production of 600 GJ ha-1. The the first rotation cycle) (Table 1.4.2.1.). The second group that include genotypes AF- energy value of the biomass was 951.68 2 (560.64 GJ ha-1) and Sirio (594.17 GJ GJ ha-1 year-1. Analysis of variance ha-1) provided a production that is below confirmed that the biomass yield of 600 GJ ha-1. The difference between the poplars is highly significant between the highest (Pegaso) and the lowest average 26 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation energy value (AF-2) is 9.3% (50.43 GJ The statistical significance of the total ha-1). Differences in biomass production above-ground biomass production of of the Miscanthus genotypes were Miscanthus in the growing seasons is statistically highly significant in each shown in Figure 1.4.2.2. It can be stated studied growing period (Table 1.4.2.4.). that the statistical significance (R2 = Figure 1.4.2.2. shows a high statistical 0.9923) is high. Each year the tillering correlation (R2 = 0.9923) between the circle of the individuals increases, thus growing years and the production of the creating space for an increase of the total Miscanthus aboveground biomass. biomass production.
1.4.2.1. Yields of dry aboveground biomass of individual arable crops and energy species (t ha-1 year-1) grown in the research site in Kolíňany Crop 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Average Triticum 10.37 13.37 10.22 7.35 12.86 8.69 10.58 12.39 10.72 aestivum Hordeum 10.22 11.31 9.80 7.17 14.42 9.95 11.22 13.73 10.97 vulgare Zea mays ssp. 22.22 22.74 31.85 8.31 20.10 16.10 15.08 24.84 20.15 mays Salix 3.48 7.66 36.96 20.89 47.11 29.65 22.85 53.17 27.72 Populus - - - - 26.05 51.47 15.97 34.48 31.99 Miscanthus - - - 10.95 17.50 24.85 27.20 28.60 21.82
Table 1.4.2.2. Potential energy value of biomass of arable crops and energy plants (GJ ha-1 year-1) grown in the research site in Kolíňany Crop 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Average Triticum 179.39 231.29 176.76 127.87 222.64 150.43 183.15 214.37 185.74 aestivum Hordeum 164.58 182.11 157.78 107.33 148.84 157.42 193.20 195.35 163.33 vulgare Zea mays ssp. 380.18 389.08 544.95 142.18 343.91 275.47 258.02 425.01 344.85 mays Salix 63.96 140.79 679.32 383.96 865.88 544.97 419.98 977.26 509.52 Populus - - - - 485.31 951.68 294.81 637.54 592.34 Miscanthus - - - 186.15 297.50 422.45 462.40 486.20 370.94
27 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 1.4.2.3. Potential energy value of biomass of poplar genotypes (GJ ha-1) grown in the research site in Kolíňany Genotype 2011 2012 2013 2014 Average Monviso 537.12 1087.85 408.81 370.39 601.04 Pegaso 339.64 1065.32 257.42 781.96 611.09 AF-2 484.96 740.06 224.22 793.30 560.64 Sirio 569.08 917.22 293.14 597.24 594.17
Table 1.4.2.4. Single-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the biomass yields between the Miscanthus genotypes and each experimental year (2010–2014), between the poplar varieties and each experimental year (2011–2014) Analysed parameter F P-value F-critical Significance Miscanthus and years 158.0191 9.28E-69 1.947348 +++ Poplar and years 10.71837 1.51E-08 1.99199 +++
Figure 1.4.2.1. Differences in the production of dry aboveground biomass of Populus varieties and Miscanthus genotypes at the site in Kolíňany in the studied years (2010– 2014) MG - Miscanthus × giganteus, GT - Miscanthus sinensis TATAI
28 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 1.4.2.2. Polynomial trend function of Miscanthus biomass growth in the studied years
Table 1.4.2.5. Regression analysis of willow biomass production in dependence of selected climatic indicators Table 1.4.2.5. Regression analysis of willow biomass production in dependence of selected climatic indicators Regression Statistics Multiple R 0.173571 R Square 0.030127 Adjusted R Square -0.35782 Standard Error 20.53122 Observations 8 ANOVA df SS MS F Regression 2 65.46942 32.73471 0.077657 Residual 5 2107.655 421.5309 Total 7 2173.124 Coefficients Standard Error t Stat P-value Intercept -12.3405 167.5001 -0.07367 0.944126 X1 (mm) -0.00848 0.062938 -0.13481 0.898019 X2 (ºC) 4.069561 13.59681 0.299303 0.776751
29 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
At the same time, growth parameters such as temperatures in each growing period. height and thickness of the stems increase as Regression coefficient of the willow stand well. Subsequently, the growth culmination was 0.0301. The coefficient of other species and the stand production will be monitored. had similar trend. The energy value of the Miscanthus aboveground biomass (Table 1.4.2.3.) To sum up, comparison of the production achieved on average 486.20 GJ ha-1 year-1. A and energy values of biomass of arable crops Miscanthus stand in conditions of Northern and energy plants grown on agricultural land Ireland reached 12–25 t ha-1 with the total of the selected farm (SUA farm) has proven energy of 260 GJ ha-1 yr-1 (McKervey et al., that there are significant differences in 2008). In the second stage, the analysis productivity and energy value of the product. focused on selected climatic factors (annual The comparison of the productivity of rainfall and average annual air temperature) agricultural crops and energy trees and that are supposed to have crucial impacts on plants grown on agricultural land confirmed vegetation. that the fast-growing trees and plants provide high biomass yields and have high Regression analysis (Table 1.4.2.5.) of the values of gross energy with minimum inputs. created aboveground biomass of the studied They represent renewable resources with crops in the cadastre of Kolíňany long-term perspective and can be grown on unconfirmed statistical dependence on unused soils. annual precipitation and annual average air
1.4.3. Identification of marginal land suitable for biofuel production in Serbia Based on Radojević et al., 2015
As we have already mentioned in chapter absorbs as much carbon as burning 1.4.2., the use of biomass as a potential biomass releases. Also, some biomass crops energy source has both advantages and can be less damaging to soil and more disadvantages. Biomass as a potential suitable as habitats for biodiversity than source of fuel energy provides economic traditional agricultural crops. On the other and environmental benefits. Technology for side, critics point out that biomass crops will converting biomass into biofuel is more use land needed for food production and advanced with each passing year, thus that biomass production could push lands making biofuels production cheaper and currently under native cover into less energy demanding. production, resulting in a carbon debt. Currently, many countries and regions in Biomass could be considered as almost the world already feel pressure in land carbon neutral since growing biomass available for critical socioeconomic 30 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation activities, converting the existing cropland these. Due to their characteristics, marginal or developing new land for biofuel lands are typically associated with low production raises immediate concerns, productivity and reduced economic return, including the food versus fuel debate, they are, also, generally fragile and at high effects on the livelihoods of small-scale environmental risk. Potential using of farmers, pastoralists and indigenous people, marginal lands have also raised several threat to nature conservation, and possible concerns related to environmental impacts increase of carbon emissions, also, land use and ecosystem services (SEARCHINGER et change usually causes changes in water use, al., 2008). The discussion on marginal land and consequently, biofuel production may use is ongoing and posses a serious aggravate water stress, which is already a trilemma associated with food security, growing worldwide issue (SERVICE, 2007). bioenergy, and environmental concerns The question then remains whether it is (TILMAN et al., 2009). possible to use biomass for biofuel production but without or with minimal The concept of marginal land often includes negative impacts. More specifically, what waste lands, under-utilized lands, idle lands, types of land can be used for sustainable abandoned lands and/or degraded lands. biofuel production, how much of that land Abandoned agricultural land are primarily is available, where is the land spatially relate to lands where agricultural activities located, and what is the land that has have ceased. These lands are widespread in biofuel production potential currently used parts of North America and Europe for. Possible solutions for this problem (LAMBIN, 2011) and using at least some of include using marginal, degraded and/or these lands as a source of biomass for abandoned agricultural land as a source of biofuel production may help to reduce biomass for biofuel production. Although pressure on natural ecosystems. According the concept of marginal lands has evolved to CAMPBELL et al. (2008) abandoned land over time, this term most commonly refers globally available for the production of to land with low productivity in the context bioenergy crops varies between 385 and of crop production or use limitations mostly 472 Mha. due to reduced soil fertility, erosion, salinity, water excess or shortage (KANG et al., Land degradation is a widespread 2013). Marginal lands have received wide phenomenon. Degraded land, relevant to attention for their potential to biomass for biomass for biofuel production, is primarily biofuels production (ROBERTSON et al., related to land which has been degraded 2008). due to over intensified agricultural activities or some form of chemical pollution (like Since 1993 there have been an increasing heavy metals). In both cases the land is not number of papers addressing marginal suitable for further crop production, and lands, biofuels, GIS and any combination of could be potentially used for energy crops.
31 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
With this form of use the added value could done from multiple sources which include be the remediation of degraded land. relevant literature, data from the Statistical Degraded land, defined as “areas where Office of the Republic of Serbia, Corine Land human activities have induced soil and/or Cover data, remotely sensed data, field data vegetable degradation” (HOOGWIJK et al., and other. In 2012 the Statistical Office of 2003), is assumed to have a potential the Republic of Serbia conducted a major between 430 and 580 Mha. Waste lands, agricultural census which was done like various types of dumps, could also according to the world program of represent a potential source for bioenergy agricultural census (RZS, 2012). This census crops production. Ash dumps have been included agricultural lands owned by both proven as suitable for Miscanthus x private and legal entities. Data from this giganteus production (MILOVANOVIĆ et al., census were key in determining the amount 2012). Also, further possible locations of abandoned agricultural land. This was include sites of surface resource exploitation achieved by comparing data from previous which are mandatory to be re-naturalized, agricultural censuses. and this could be done by planting of energy crops. Quantifying the biomass Analysis of Corine Land Cover data was also potentials for biofuel production from used for determining the amount of degraded and/or abandoned land and abandoned agricultural land. Data for sizes estimating potential yields of energy crops and locations of land degraded through represents a challenging task. surface resource exploitation was obtained through remotely sensed data and with the Major problems include limited availability use of Google Earth. For every site where of data and not clearly defined and determining of the precise location was synonymously used land categories. possible all data were transferred in GIS Consequently, only few potential with ArcMap and different maps were assessments carried out the potential of created. Data for ash dumps was obtained biomass cultivation on degraded and/or though Electric Power Industry of Serbia abandoned land (WOLF et al., 2003; and Google Earth. HOOGWIJK et al., 2003; MOREIRA, 2006; SMEETS et al., 2007; CAMPBELL et al., 2008). For other types of land degradation and In this subchapter, we analyze the potential pollution data were obtained from Report of abandoned and degraded land in the on state of soil in the Republic of Serbia Republic of Serbia with the focus on conducted by the Ministry of Environment determining the quantity of such land. and Spatial Planning (MZSPP, 2009) and Degraded lands of Serbia project report Obtaining relevant data to assess the (FAKULTET ZA PRIMENJENU EKOLOGIJU presence of abandoned agricultural and FUTURA, 2010). degraded land in the Republic of Serbia was 32 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Data on total, used and unused agricultural On the other hand, municipalities in the land, as well as differences among different southern part of the country have a much parts of Serbia are shown in Table 1.4.3.1. higher percentage of unused agricultural and Table 1.4.3.2. A total of 424.054 ha, land. In the northern part of the country which is about 5% of the territory of Serbia, almost all municipalities have the represents agricultural land which currently percentage of unused agricultural land not being used. However, this is not relative to the total territory of available uniformly spread across the country. agricultural land below 10%, while in the Municipalities in the north part of the municipalities of eastern and southern part country have a high percentage of their of Serbia this percentage is between 20 and territory as agricultural land and most of it is 50%. The highest recorded percentage of being currently used for agricultural unused agricultural land relative to total purposes. agricultural land is 75% and it is found in the municipality of Crna Trava, located in the south of Serbia.
Table 1.4.3.1. Agricultural land usage in Serbia
Total Used Unused Area (ha) 3 861 477 3 437 423 424 054 Percentage 100 % 89 % 11 % Percentage of the territory of Serbia 49,8 % 44,3 % 5,5 %
Table 1.4.3.2. Unused agricultural land in different parts of Serbia
Region Unused Area (ha) Belgrade region 12 076 Vojvodina 72 313 Šumadija and Western Serbia 141 220 South and Eastern Serbia 198 445 Total 424 054
33 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 1.4.3.3. Corine land cover changes between 1990-2000 Land cover type Detected change Artificial areas Increase of around 4000 ha Agricultural areas Decrease of around 8000 ha Forests and semi-natural areas Increase of around 2000 ha
Comparing previous available data with Novi Sad and Niš. This increase is not data from the recent agricultural census caused by higher birth rate but rather by indicates that the percentage of unused the relocation of people from rural to agricultural land is rising. This is also urban areas. evident in data obtained from Corine land cover for year 1990 and 2000, (Table Locations of degraded land detected 1.4.3.3.). through remote sensing include ash dumps and surface resource exploitation Different causes, like remoteness, sites. There are 5 coal power plants in fragmentation, poor management, Serbia, mostly located near coal unprofitability and unfavorable excavation sites. Each year they generate demographic characteristics, can lead to around 6,5 million tons of ash and slag, abandonment of agricultural land. 80 to 85% is ash and 15 to 20% is slag. Data on different ash dumps is in Table In Serbia, the most common cause is 1.4.3.4. related to demographic reasons, since a lot of young people are leaving rural for Surface coal exploitation in Serbia is urban areas. According to the primarily done at two locations, Kolubara demographic data from population and Kostolac. Data on degraded areas census done in 2002 almost all rural associated with them is shown in Table municipalities have a decrease in 1.4.3.5. population while the increase is detected in urban areas of tree biggest cities Belgrade,
34 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 1.4.3.4. Ash dumps in Serbia
Power plant Yearly average of ash Year of Total area amount (t) formation (ha) TENT A 2.200.000 - 2.500.000 1974 400 TENT B 1.800.000 - 2.200.000 1984 600 KOSTOLAC 550.000 1977 246 KOLUBARA 1.500.000 1976 78 MORAVA 90.000 1968 45 KOLUBARA until 1976 40 JUNKOVAC Old ash dumps KOSTOLAC until 1976 85 TOTAL around 6.500.000 1.494
Figure 1.4.3.1. Locations of surface coal exploitation in Serbia
35 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 1.4.3.5. Degraded areas associated with surface coal exploitation
Area (km²) Perimeter (km) Kolubara 53.045 52.473 Kostolac 17.899 34.888 Total 70.944 87.361
Besides coal surface exploitation, 9 other and the degraded area associated with locations of surface resource exploitation them is smaller than for coal surface were detected, (Figure 1.4.3.2.). These are exploitation, data is shown in Table mostly related to different metallic ores 1.4.3.6.
Table 1.4.3.6. Degraded areas associated with surface mineral exploitation
Location Area (km²) Perimeter (km) Bela stena 0.132 4.435 Bor 9.669 39.398 Kadina luka 0.339 4.203 Krivelj 4.078 17.242 Lisa 0.17 3.725 Majdanpek 13.991 51.874 Negotin 0.167 3.396 Vencac 0.546 12.264 V. Majdan 0.134 2.641 Total 29.234 139.183
36 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 1.4.3.2. Locations of surface mineral exploitation in Serbia
Land degradation caused by reduction of from agricultural lands have at least one soil fertility and pollution was analyzed parameter of fertility reduced; 30% of based on data from different reports samples have high acidity, pH below 4,5; (МZSPP, 2009; FAKULTET ZA PRIMENJENU 29% of samples (mostly related to EKOLOGIJU FUTURA, 2010). Data from agricultural land) have very low humus 5000 samples across the central parts of content, below 3%. Presence of heavy the country was analyzed. 60% of samples metals is shown in Table 1.4.3.7.
37 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 1.4.3.7. Presence of heavy metals in soils of central Serbia
Heavy metal Amount detected Source Nickel (Ni) 20% of samples have mostly natural in origin concentrations above allowed limit of 50 mg/kg Copper (Cu) 2% of samples have concentrations mostly near copper excavation above allowed limit of 100 mg/kg sites
Chrome (Cr) 7,6% of samples have from natural and industrial concentrations above allowed limit sources of 100 mg/kg Cadmium (Cd) 1,3% of samples have mostly near industry and concentrations above allowed limit roads of 3 mg/kg Lead (Pb) 3,4% of samples have near roads concentrations above allowed limit of 100 mg/kg Arsenic (As) 5% of samples have concentrations mostly near mining sites above allowed limit of 25 mg/kg
Based on this data two maps were mostly located in the south of Serbia, with created in GIS. First is a map of soil the exception of two municipalities in fertility of central Serbia (Figure 1.4.3.3.), northwest part. and a map of soil contamination of central Serbia (Figure 1.4.3.4.). For soil For soil contamination map, also, 3 classes fertility map 3 classes were established: were created based on the number of optimal soil fertility, reduced soil fertility parameters that are above the permitted and degraded soil. Most of the limit. Classes include none, one and more municipalities have reduced soil fertility than one parameter above the permitted class. This is due to the reduction of one limit. Municipalities with one and more soil fertility parameter (pH, humus than one parameter above the permitted content, etc.). Degraded soils have more limit are mostly located in central and than one soil fertility parameter reduced southern part of the country. and municipalities within this class are
38 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 1.4.3.3. Soil fertility map of Figure 1.4.3.4. Soil contamination central Serbia map of central Serbia
To conclude the analysed results, we can from rural to urban areas. For this land to state that the largest identified areas be used as source of biomass for biofuels suitable for agro-energy crops in Serbia it is necessary to determine their spatial are unused agricultural land, the presence characteristics, more precisely their exact of degraded land, which could also be locations and sizes of specific sites. used as a source of biomass for biofuels is also present but in significantly lower This can be achieved through further and amount (Table 1.4.3.8.). There is also a more detailed remote sensing with field tendency of increase of unused validation. agricultural land, which can also be expected to continue in the future since more and more people are relocating
39 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 1.4.3.8. Total possible available land for agro-energy crops in Serbia
Type of land Area (ha) Unused agricultural land 424 054 Degraded land from surface exploitation 10 918 Ash dumps 1 494 Total 436 466
Despite the fact that degraded lands are The added benefit is the remediation of not significantly comparable in size to polluted soils and minimizing of unused agricultural land they can also be degradation caused by surface resource used for agro-energy crops cultivation. exploitation.
1.5.1. Legislation, support and development of renewable energy resources and business Based on Marišová et al., 2015
EU legislation share of energy from renewable sources in gross final consumption of energy and The use of energy from renewable for the share of energy from renewable sources in the EU is regulated by Directive sources in transport. It lays down rules 2009/28/EC of the European parliament relating to statistical transfers between and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the Member States, joint projects between promotion of the use of energy from Member States and with third countries, renewable sources and amending and guarantees of origin, administrative subsequently repealing Directives procedures, information and training, and 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC. access to the electricity grid for energy from renewable sources. It establishes This Directive establishes a common sustainability criteria for biofuels and framework for the promotion of energy bioliquids. from renewable sources. It sets mandatory national targets for the overall 40 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
According to Article 3, each Member The European Union support State shall ensure that the share of energy A working single market is necessary to from renewable sources, calculated in fully exploit synergies of generating accordance with Articles 5 to 11, in gross renewable electricity and producing final consumption of energy in 2020 is at biofuels. Directive 2001/77/EC on the least its national overall target for the promotion of electricity produced from share of energy from renewable sources renewable energy and Directive in that year, as set out in the third column 2003/30/EC on the promotion of the use of the Table in part A of Annex I. Such of biofuels or other renewable fuels for mandatory national overall targets are transport were the main legal acts, laying consistent with a target of at least a 20 % down the general conditions for share of energy from renewable sources developing the legal environment for in the Community’s gross final enterprising on the field of renewable consumption of energy in 2020. In order energy resources. The newest legal acts to achieve the targets laid down in this are The Renewable Energy Directive Article more easily, each Member State 2009/28/EC (RED) and the Fuel Quality shall promote and encourage energy Directive 2009/30/ EC (FQD) which lays efficiency and energy saving. down a sustainability scheme for biofuels used in transport and bioliquids used in Each Member State shall adopt a national electricity, heating and cooling. renewable energy action plan. The national renewable energy action plans The renewable energy policy was formally shall set out Member States’ national institutionalized by adopting the targets for the share of energy from documents “Energy efficiency action plan” renewable sources consumed in transport, in 2006 “Road map for renewable energy” electricity and heating and cooling in in 2007, “Energy 2020 a strategy for 2020, taking into account the effects of competitive, sustainable and secure other policy measures relating to energy energy” in 2010, and “a policy framework efficiency on final consumption of energy, for climate and energy in the period 2020 and adequate measures to be taken to to 2030” in 2014. The most complex achieve those national overall targets, document incorporating broad topics including cooperation between local, renewable energy policy included regional and national authorities, planned (resource efficient Europe initiative), statistical transfers or joint projects, focusing on economic growth and national policies to develop existing development is EUROPE 2020 strategy. biomass resources and mobilise new The overall goal of renewable energy biomass resources for different uses, and policy is to fulfil at least 20% of its total the measures to be taken to fulfil the energy needs with renewables by 2020 – requirements of Articles 13 to 19. to be achieved through the attainment of
41 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation individual national targets. All EU 2013 establishes the principles and countries must also ensure that at least procedure for the establishment of 10% of their transport fuels come from plantations of fast-growing trees on renewable sources by 2020. agricultural land and establishes a register area of plantation of these plants, which is Slovak National legislation and managed by the district office, land and support forest department. On the basis of the amended adjustment is no need to apply Slovak Republic is an integral part of the for a temporary withdrawal of agricultural European Economic Community and an land, the land that determines the active contributor to Europe 2020 founder of plantations for the cultivation strategy (resource efficient Europe of fast-growing trees, also there is no initiative included). Slovakia has taken in need to apply for a change of land type. part of resource efficient Europe initiative decisive steps. Several documents were However, must be complied with legal adopted. Broadly, the topic of the requirements specified in § 18a of the Act. renewable energy resources was The plantation of fast growing trees can integrated in Rural Development Program be based on the agricultural land area of 2014 – 2020. More specifically, Biomass more than 1000 m2 and is classified under Action Plan 2008-2013, Strategy of higher the code of valuated soil-ecological units use of the renewable energy resources in (BPEJ/VSEU) in the fifth to ninth Slovakia and Strategy of energy security qualitative group, or soil contaminated of Slovakia till 2030 have been adopted. hazardous substances or on land The overall strategic goal is to increase classified in accordance VSEU code to the the share of renewable energy resources third or fourth group, if the land is located on total gross energy consumption by on flood plains, is waterlogged, or 20% in EU countries. For Slovakia, the exposed to wind erosion. specific goal was set at 14% of the share (11,3% share in 2011) till 2020. The crop of fast growing trees cannot be based on the land that is in the third to Cultivation of fast growing trees on fifth degree of territorial nature and agricultural land is governed by Act No. landscape protection. A person who 220/2004 Coll. on the conservation and chooses to base crop, must apply for use of agricultural land and by Act No. registration Land and Forest Department 245/2003 Coll. concerning integrated of the relevant district office. pollution prevention and control and on the amendment of certain acts. The After fulfilment of requirements the amendment to this Act and the Act. No. certificate of registration area of a crop of 57/2013 Coll. with effect from 1 April fast growing trees is issued to the 42 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation founder. The certificate contains a According to the current legislation on registration number for each separate agricultural land may enterprise an area of a crop of fast growing tree individual self-employed farmer, whose species, date of establishment and legal status is governed by Act No. termination of fast growing tree species, 219/1991 Coll. Business of self-employed surface of proposed area for the farmer consists in carrying out of establishment of vegetation on the basis agricultural production, including forest of cadastral data identification, obligation and water management, personally or affecting agricultural land reclamation at through other persons. the latest during the last year of fast growing tree species and the obligation Self-employed farmer performs agricultural to ensure protection of surrounding production in their own name, on their own agricultural land against self-seeding from account and responsibility. A natural the area of fast growing trees. person who has decided to do business as a self-employed farmer should contact The species composition of plantations is local authority to report this activity. not defined by this law but may not Municipal office is issuing the certificate cultivate invasive species under the Act of registration of self-employed farmer No. 543/2002 Coll. on nature and then the entrepreneur has to apply landscape protection, as amended. statistical office for the allocation number and notify the business to a relevant tax The law also does not provide the legal authority, relevant social and health form of the person who chooses to found insurance companies. Legal relations of fast-growing plantation species. Law the self-employed farmer in the states a person or founder of the crop, implementation of agricultural production this implies that the person or founder of such as commercial contractual the crop may be a legal entity or natural relationships are governed by the person who has an interest extend the Commercial Code. scope of its business focused on growing plants or herbs intended for energy The advantage of this form of business is exploitation. Cultivation of fast growing easy way of obtaining business license, tree species can be interesting investment the disadvantage in our opinion, is the plan for large enterprises, but also responsibility of the entrepreneur for the opportunities for small and medium-sized results of business with all assets. businesses farming on agricultural land. In the cultivation as well as in the production Any natural person may associate with of energy materials - biomass of fast- another natural or legal person or persons growing trees the legal form of the for the purpose of joint ventures and grower, producer is not decisive. establish a legal person, trading company
43 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation or cooperative. The legal status of these 676.977,42 ha, cooperatives 700.102,44 legal persons is regulated by Act No. ha, joint stock companies 139.220,12 ha 513/1991 Coll. Commercial Code. and self-employed farmers 138.515,11 ha of agricultural land. According to results of agricultural surveys carried out by the Statistical Nowadays, the using rate of renewable Office of the Slovak Republic as part of energy resources in Slovakia is the European project of agricultural unfavourable. According the Rural statistics of the EU to 31.10.2013 in Development Program 2014 – 2020, the agriculture undertook in SR 2.618 self- situation is characterized by the low employed farmers, 3 public companies, production of renewable energy both in 1.833 limited liability companies, 3 limited agriculture (0,0756kT/1000 ha) and partnerships, 131 joint stock companies, forestry (0,382 kT/1000 ha) in 2010, well 567 cooperatives, five state-owned below the EU average (0,102 kT/ha) for enterprises. The largest group consists of agriculture and (0,4556 kT/1000 ha) for self-employed farmers (2618) who forestry, respectively. Particularly, for cultivate in average 52.95 hectares of instance the overall acreage of the fast agricultural land, the second largest growing plants for production of biomass group are the limited liability companies is insignificant (only 66 ha) in 2011 (Rural (1833) with an average area of 369.33 Development Program 2014 – 2020). hectares of cultivated land, and then cooperatives in the number of 567 with For 2030, Slovakia has set ambitious an average area of 1.234,75 hectares of goals. The overall strategic goal is to agricultural land, the legal form of joint significantly increase the share of all stock companies had 131 subjects with an potential sources of renewable energy on average area of agricultural land 1.062,72 the gross production of primary energy ha. From the survey follows that a limited and gross consumption of energy, liability companies cultivated in total respectively.
44 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 1.5.1.1. Amount of RES till 2030
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Biomass 31000 50000 74000 90000 120000
Solar energy 300 3000 12000 22000 37000
Geothermal energy 200 2000 7000 10000 14000
Water energy 18000 20000 22000 23000 24000
Wind energy 300 x x x x
Energy waste 200 x x x x
Total 50000 77000 120000 150000 200000 Share of renewable energy [%] 6,4 9,5 14,0 18,0 24,0 Source: The Ministry of economics of Slovak Republic, Strategy of energy security of Slovakia till 2030
The development of the RES is the object of Beneficients should be physical and legal the interest at the level of EU and national persons, enterprising in agriculture, possible level. Various support measures have been in relation with public partnership. adopted. Support policy became the part of the Rural Development Program 2014 – The basic rate of support is set at 50% of all 2020. Within this document, RES are the part eligible costs in the case of less developed of the second goal of Rural Development regions (without Bratislava region) and 40% Program 2014 – 2020: sustainable of all eligible costs in the case of Bratislava management of natural resources and region. The support should be raised by 20% adaptation on climate change, within the beside filling special conditions. scope of the second priority: increased proportion of biomass and waste, crop Another form of support are subsidies for residues, livestock excreta and other RES for already or newly established fast growing energy production. plants pastures. Applications for direct payments are submitted to the agricultural Concrete measures are related to payment agency who farms on arable land investments to tangible assets of agricultural (registered) in Slovak Republic. Applicant enterprises. Investments are directed to the should meet certain criteria according the production, processing and use of RES, Guidelines of Ministry of agriculture and rural particularly the establishment of fast growing development on regulation No.342/2014 plants pastures, etc. Type of support is based Coll. on grants, thus nonrefundable payments. acreage should be at least 1 ha
45 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
land should be occupied by eligible and unfair competition with other fuels, in species of trees (specified in Table 1.5.1.2) particular subsidies for fossil fuels and beneficient should keep maximal cycle of nuclear energy, the incomplete collection internalization of external cost and rigid fast growing trees should be planted in electricity system design inhibit the growth monocultures or in mix fast growing trees of renewable energy. number of plants should be at least 2000. To counter and correct such situations public The single payment area was set at authorities intervene. Public intervention at 205,57eur/ha in 2014 according the Journal regional, national or local level, can take of Ministry of agriculture and rural different forms. Examples include state aid to development on amount of additional direct certain sectors or companies in the form of payments in crop production no. 722/2014 - grants or exemptions from taxes and 100. charges, the imposition of public service obligations, and regulation through general The market does not provide the optimal measures. Assistance on the energy level of renewables in the absence of public renewable resources can be provided in the intervention. This is due to market and form of investments and operating regulatory failures: low levels of competition assistance.
Table 1.5.1.2. Aid intensities for investment aid as a part of the eligible costs Small enterprise Medium-sized enterprise Large enterprise Aid for undertakings going beyond 60% 50% 40% Union standards or increasing the 70 % if eco- 60 % if eco-innovation, 50 % if eco- level of environmental protection in innovation, 100 % if 100 % if bidding process innovation the absence of Union standards (aid bidding process 100 % if bidding for the acquisition of new transport process vehicles) Aid for environmental studies 70% 60% 50% Aid for early adaptation to future 20% 15% 10% Union standards
more then 3 years 15% 10% 5%
between 1 and 3 years before the entry into force of the standards Aid for waste management 55% 45% 35%
46 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Aid for renewable energies 65%, 55%, 45%, Aid for cogeneration installations 100% if bidding 100% if bidding process 100% if bidding process process Aid for energy-efficiency 50%, 40%, 30%, 100% if bidding 100% if bidding process 100% if bidding process process Aid for district heating and cooling 65%, 55%, 45%, using conventional energy 100% if bidding 100% if bidding process 100% if bidding process process Aid for remediation of contaminated 100% 100% 100% sites Aid for relocation of undertakings 70% 60% 50% Aid in the form of tradable permits 100% 100% 100% Aid for energy infrastructure 100% 100% 100% District heating infrastructure
Aid for CCS 100% 100% 100% The aid intensities mentioned in this Table may be increased by a bonus of 5% points in regions covered by Article 107(3)(c) or by a bonus of 15% points in regions covered by Article 107(3)(a) of the Treaty up to a maximum of 100% aid intensity. Source: Guidlines on State aid for environmental protection and energy 2014 - 2020
National legislation and support in Serbia In 2014 Serbia began a new phase of the government cannot avoid its leading role in European integration process; namely, socially responsible and structurally accession negotiations for the EU sustainable development (BOGDANOV and membership. In this process, Serbia will face RODIC, 2014). numerous challenges. The reform of the overall institutional arrangements and One of the major steps is the acceptance and agricultural, forestry and biomass production the implementation of the EU body of law policy will be of extreme importance for the (Acquis Communitaire), as for agriculture, sustained and accelerated development of rural development and related issues these areas, as well as preparing to absorb (fisheries, food safety, RES etc.) represent the pre-accession assistance from the EU. approximately 40 percent of the total Acquis. The complexity of these sectors and its Therefore, the biggest challenge in the multidimensional impact on social and negotiation process is Chapter 11 economic structures suggest that the (Agriculture and Rural Development),
47 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Chapter 12 (Fisheries), and Chapter 13 (Food Biomass Action Plan (APB) in 2005 was Safety) (EBERLIN et al. 2014). defined as a document that should specify measures to promote biomass in heat and In order to encourage investment in RES, electricity and transport, followed by the Republic of Serbia has adopted a number of subsequent actions related to common laws and documents. The White Paper on issues concerning biomass supply, financing Renewable Energy, as the first document and research. All these documents published in 1997, establishes the obligation established sustainability criteria for biofuels of share of renewable energy reaches 12% and liquid fuels. APB for Republic of Serbia by 2010 and pointed some very important was in accordance with its obligations under principles for the renewable energy usage, the Energy Community Treaty and in the such as: preventing climate change, reducing spirit of the Directive 2009/28/EC (JUREKOVA air pollution, security of energy supply, and DRAZIC (eds.) 2011). encouraging competition and encouraging industrial and technological innovation.
Table 1.5.1.3. Timeline of major national initiatives and adopted documents, which, directly or indirectly, relate to biomass production from RES 2004 Law on Energy 2005 Energy Development Strategy of the Republic of Serbia (RS) till 2015 2006 Strategy on Agriculture Development; Forestry Development Strategy 2007 Program for realization of the Energy Development Strategy of the RS till 2015, for period 2007-2012 2008 Decree on: - Amendments to the Regulation on the Implementation Program of the Energy Development Strategy of the RS by 2015., for the period from 2007 to 2012. - Incentives for the production of electricity using RES and co-generation of electricity and heat - Conditions for acquiring the status of privileged power producers and the criteria for assessing the fulfillment of these conditions 2009 Law on Agriculture and Rural Development 2010 Biomass Action Plan 2010-2012; Law on Forests 2012 National Strategy for Sustainable Use of Natural Resources 2013 National Action Plan for Renewable Energy Sources 2014 Law on Energy; Strategy on Agriculture and Rural Development 2014-2024; Energy Development Strategy till 2025 with projections till 2030 2015 Forestry Development Program (NFP) (drafting phase)
48 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The National Action Plan for Renewable entitled to guarantees of origin pursuant to Energy Sources of the Republic of Serbia this Law. The use of energy from renewable (2013) is a document that encourages sources is in the interest of the Republic of investment in RES, and which set the target Serbia.The objectives of the use of RES shall for use of RES by 2020, and the manner of be established on the basis of energy their implementation. The plan arose from needs, economic capacities and obligations the international commitments that the of the Republic of Serbia undertaken Republic of Serbia took over in 2006 pursuant to confirmed international through the Law on ratification of the treaty agreements. The Ministry shall prescribe the for establishing the energy community method of calculation of the share of between the European Community and the energy from renewable sources in the gross Republic of Albania, Bulgaria, Bosnia and final energy consumption, the method of Herzegovina, Croatia, the former Yugoslav calculation of the amount of electricity Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, generated from hydro power plants and Romania, Serbia and the United Nations wind power plants, the energy content of Interim Mission in Kosovo in accordance fuels used in traffic, the method of with resolution 1244 of the United Nations. calculation of the impact of biofuels, The Republic of Serbia has, by signing this bioliquids and their comparable fossil fuels agreement, adopted to implement various on greenhouse gas emissions, as well as the directives in the field of RES, and in method of calculation of the amount of accordance with Directive 2009/28/E3 energy from heat pumps. Serbia accepted binding targets for member states of the European Union to According to the new Energy Development ensure that renewable energy by 2020, Strategy till 2025 with projections till 2030, account for 20% of gross final consumption following priority related to RES is planned: at EU level; also, in the same period, Serbia “the establishment of sustainable energy, accepted to improve energy efficiency for through the implementation of energy 20%. The Republic of Serbia, in accordance efficiency measures, RES and the use of with Directive 2009/28/E3 and the Decision standards for the protection of the of the Ministerial Council of the Energy environment and reducing harmful impact Community (18/10/2012), has set itself the on the climate.” In order to develop the ambitious target of 27% RES in gross final energy system, the Strategy envisaged, energy consumption in 2020, and in relation among other mechanisms, increasing of the to that goal adopted significant number of share of energy from renewable sources in laws and administrative provisions. gross final energy consumption for 27%, with the efficient use of energy over a wide According to the Law on Energy (2014), range of applications. With the aim of producer from RES is an energy facility environmental protection, the Strategy generating electricity from RES and is recognizes the global tendency of the
49 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation energy industry which increasingly relies on of Education and Science; Ministry of renewable sources and less on exhaustible Finance resources. Based on the statistics of "green" 2. Provincial level - Provincial Secretariat for energy system in Serbia, hydropotentials Energy and Mineral Resources; Provincial are most commonly used renewable energy Secretariat for Agriculture, Water potentials while remaining renewables are Management and Forestry; Provincial still in the development stage. Strategic Secretariat for Finance; Provincial Secretariat national goals are to use available for Science and Technological renewable resources in the production of Development; Provincial Secretariat for electricity in power stations, final Urbanism, Construction and Environment consumption, as well as for traffic. This Protection. strategy emphasizes that sustainable 3. Operational level (regional and local) - energy, among other mechanisms, can be Local Government; Agricultural Extension reached through creating economic, Service; Public Forestry Enterprises: commercial and financial conditions for "Srbijašume“, "Vojvodinašume” and increasing the share of energy from RES. National Parks; Electric Power Industry of Serbia (EPIS); Private Forest Owners Unfortunately, the Strategy on Agriculture Associations (PFOA); Agricultural Holdings; and Rural Development 2014-2024 does Woody biomass Private companies/ not elaborate potentials from RES in Entreprenerships; Business Association agriculture and forestry in detail. The “ToplaneSrbije”. Strategy recognizes importance of public awareness raising related to RES usage and According to the Decision on setting the cultivation of energy crops as an Energy Balance of the Republic of Serbia for operational goal for the implementation of 2015, balancing energy from RES includes the priority area number 9: Environmental the production and consumption of protection and natural resources electricity from large and small water flows, conservation. wind and solar energy, biogas and the production and consumption of heat from Institutional framework that provides geothermal energy and biomass (firewood, support related, directly or indirectly, to RES pellets and briquettes). Planned production business development can be presented at of primary energy from RES in 2015 three important levels: amounted to 1.891 Mtoe which is almost 1. State level - Ministry of Mining and the same as the estimated production in Energy and Energy Agency; Ministry of 2014, which amounts to 1.913 Mtoe. In the Agriculture and Environmental Protection structure of the planned total domestic with Directorate of Forests, Rural production of primary energy in 2015, Development Sector and Serbian renewable energy accounts for 17.5%. In Environmental Protection Agency; Ministry this structure, the highest share has solid 50 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation biomass 59%, then 40% of the hydropower peripheral parts of suburban settlements potential, while biogas, wind, solar and will remain the same in the coming years. geothermal energy account for less than This is due to the low purchasing power of 1%. Production and consumption of solid the population on the one hand and the biomass includes the production and high cost of conventional fuels (heating oil, consumption of firewood, pellets and liquefied petroleum gas, coal), slow briquettes for energy purposes (for construction of gas distribution networks heating). In the framework of the Energy and expensive installation of gas Community in the field of RES and for installations on the other hand, as well as defining goals, research was carried out on lack of financial subsidies and favourable biomass consumption for all Parties to the credit conditions. Energy Community Treaty. Entrepreneurship based on RES lacks This study demonstrates the production appropriate financial support in Serbia. The and consumption of biomass for 2009 and Fund for Improving Energy Efficiency is a 2010. On the basis of these data, a goal in budgetary fund of the Republic of Serbia the field of RES that the Republic of Serbia envisaged for the efficient use of energy. It needs to reach in 2020 has been defined, started to operate in 2014, and the financial and it's 27% share of renewable energy in support from the fund is earmarked for gross final energy consumption. Planned projects to increase energy efficiency in the production of solid biomass in 2015 is 1.121 public sector, and projects of citizens and Mtoe. From this very small amount is the private sector in the same area. consumed by power stations, only 0,002 Unfortunately, the fund is aimed mostly for Mtoe which is at the same level as in 2014. energy efficiency improvement of buildings The planned final consumption of biomass through adaptation for energy saving. There amounts to 1.033 Mtoe. is no financial support for energy crops cultivation or biomass production through In the structure of consumption, industry establishment of fast growing trees accounts for 18%, households with 79%, plantations. Department for Forests within and other sectors with 3%. The the Ministry of Agriculture and consumption of solid biomass takes place Environmental Protection operates the predominantly within the household sector Budgetary fund for forests which supports for heating purposes. The use of firewood afforestation activities and establishment of for heating needs is characteristic of rural plantations which can be aimed for biomass areas and peripheral parts of the suburbs. production but there is no specific financial As a rule, rural areas gravitate to areas with support for energy crops and fast-growing high production of wood, so firewood has trees cultivation. the most acceptable price and there is no alternative. The use of firewood in the
51 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The reliance of the rural poor population in structure, small family farms are an function of biomass is rarely measured and is unavoidable part of the rural economy that usually not included in the valuation of total requires special attention. Their number is household resources for entrepreneurship, continually decreasing as the consequence which may lead to the development of of aging, migrations, the process of inappropriate strategies that disregarding globalization, concentration and environmental protection in the fight against centralization of capital in agriculture and poverty. Special attention should be paid to many others (DJORDJEVIC-MILOSEVIC and small scale farms. Owing to the fact that they MILOVANOVIC, 2014). account for the majority of the overall farm
Act No 34/2014 Coll. amending Act No 220/2004 Coll. on the protection and use of agricultural land and on amending Act No 245/2003 Coll. on integrated prevention and control of environmental pollution amending and supplementing certain acts. BOGDANOV, N. – RODIĆ, V. 2014. Agriculture and agricultural policy in Serbia. In Agriculture Policy and European Integration in Southeastern Europe, UN FAO: 153-171. BROZIO, S. – LAUFER, S. – PIORR, H.P. – ZEIDLER, M. – ZELLER, H. – LORENZ, K. – BROWER, J.E. – ZAR, J.H. 1984. Field and Laboratory Methods for General Ecology. W. C. Brown Company Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. CAMPBELL, J.E. – LOBELL D.B. – GENOVA R.C. – FIELD C.B. 2008. The global potential of bioenergy on abandoned agriculture lands. In Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 42, 2008, no. 15, pp. 5791–5794. COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE, THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS AND THE EUROPEAN INVESTMENT BANK. A Framework Strategy for a Resilient Energy Union with a Forward-Looking Climate Change Policy /* COM/2015/080 final */ DANIEL, J. – MEDVECKÝ, M. 2010. Vŕba košikárska (Salix viminalis) – produkčný potenciál nových odrôd. In Pestovateľské technológie a ich význam pre prax : zborník príspevkov z I. vedeckej konferencie. Piešťany: Centrum výskumu rastlinnej výroby Piešťany, 2010. s. 121–122. DEMO, M. – FAZEKAS, A. – HAUPTVOGL, M. – SKLADAN, B. – TÓTHOVÁ, M. 2013a. Produkčný a energetický potenciál švédskych odrôd rýchlorastúcej dreviny rodu Salix pestovanej v suchších pôdno-klimatických podmienkach juhozápadného Slovenska. Nitra : SPU, 2013. 110 s. ISBN 978- 80-552-1064-3. DEMO, M. – HÚSKA, D. – TÓTHOVÁ , M. 2013. Vŕba (Salix L.) ako zdroj biomasy pre energetické účely : pestovateľské technológie. Nitra : SPU, 59 s. ISBN 978-80-552-1021-6. DEMO, M. – PRČÍK, M. – TÓTHOVÁ , D. – HÚSKA, D. 2013b. Production and energy potential of different hybrids of poplar in the soil and climatic conditions of south-western Slovakia. In: Wood Research, vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 439–450. ISSN 1336-4561.
52 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
DEMO, M. et al. 2011. Produkčný a energetický potenciál švédskych odrôd rýchlorastúcej energetickej dreviny rodu Salix pestovanej v suchších pôdno-klimatických podmienkach juhozápadného Slovenska. Nitra : SPU, 110 s. ISBN 978-80-552-0577-9. DEMO, M. et al. 2013a. Biomass production potential of different willow varieties (Salix spp.) grown in soil-climatic conditions of South-Western Slovakia. In: Wood research, vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 651–662. ISSN 1336-4561. DEMO, M. et al. 2014. Comparison of production parameters of willow (Salix spp.) and poplar (Populus spp.) varieties in the last year of the first four-year harvest cycle. In: Wood research, vol. 59, no. 4, pp. 705–715. ISSN 1336-4561. DJORDJEVIĆ-MILOŠEVIĆ, S. – MILOVANOVIĆ, J. 2014. Linking Rural Livelihood Diversity and Sustainable Development. Faculty of Applied Ecology FuturaSingidunum University Belgrade: 1-193. ĐORĐEVIĆ-MILOŠEVIĆ, S. 2008. Agricultural and rural development in Republic of Serbia, Monitoring the Mediterranean strategy for sustainable development, Plan Bleu, Regional Activity Centre Sophia Antipolis EBERLIN, R. – LUDVIG, K. – DZIMREVSKA, I. – SPASOVSKA, K. – ERJAVEC, E. 2014. Objectives and Approach. In Agriculture Policy and European Integration in Southeastern Europe, UN FAO: 3-8 EEA. 2006. How much bioenergy can Europe produce without vharming the environment? EEA Report No 7/2006. EEA. 2013. EU bioenergy potential from a resource‑efficiency perspective. EEA Report No 6/2013. ISSN 1725-9177. EFRA – Vedecká agentúra pre lesníctvo a ekológiu, 253 s. EUROSTAT. 2013. Renewable energy. Share of renewable energy up to 13% of energy consumption in the EU-27 in 2011. [Retrieved 2014-11-27]. Retrieved from: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/ cache/ITY_PUBLIC/8-26042013-AP/EN/8-26042013-AP-EN.PDF. FAKULTET ZA PRIMENJENU EKOLOGIJU FUTURA 2010. Degradirani prostori Republike Srbije – sintezni elaborat, pp. 64–78. FISCHER, G. – PRIELER, S. – VAN VELTHUIZEN , H. 2005. Biomass potentials of Miscanthus, willow and poplar: results and policy implications for Eastern Europe, Northern and Central Asia. In Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 28, 2005, no. 2, pp. 119–132. ISSN 0961-9534. FUEL QUALITY DIRECTIVE 2009/30/ EC (FQD). Available at http://eur- lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:140:0088:0113:EN:PDF GRAUSOVÁ, G. – ČIŽMÁRIK, L. 2007. Význam využitia poľnohospodárskej pôdy na nepotravinárske účely vo vidieckej ekonomike. Bratislava : VÚEPaP. 41 s. ISBN 978-80-8058-460-3. GRUNDMAN, P. – KLAUSS, H. – PIORR, H.P. – BROZIO, S. – ZEIDLER, M. 2013. Regional potential analysis-biomass as energy feedstock in regional economic cycles in region Havelland-Flaeming. Report: Rural Biological Resources in Regions. 71 pp. [online][cit. 2015-23-06]. Dostupné na internete: http://www.central2013.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/Downloads/outputlib/ Rubires_wp3_regional_analysis_Haveland_uploaded.pdf Guidlines of Ministry of agriculture and rural development on regulation no. 342/2014. Available at http://www.apa.sk/index.php?navID=1&id=6473
53 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
HAUPTVOGL, M. 2011. Vplyv pôdno-klimatických a hydrologických podmienok juhozápadného Slovenska na vybrané produkčné ukazovatele rýchlorastúcej energetickej dreviny rodu Salix): PhD. thesis. Nitra : SPU, 2011. 119 s. HOOGWIJK, M. – FAAIJ, A. – BROEK, R. – BERNDES, G. – GIELEN, D. – TURKENBURG, W. 2003. Exploration of the ranges of the global potential of biomass for energy. In Biomass Bioenergy, vol. 25, 2003, no. 2, pp. 119–133. Journal of Ministry of agriculture and rural development no. 722/2014-100. Available at http://www.mpsr.sk/index.php?navID=126&year=2014 JUREKOVÁ , Z. – KOTRLA, M. – PAUKOVÁ , Ž. 2013. Life cycle of Miscanthus × giganteus (Greef et Deu) grown in Southwestern Slovakia. In Acta regionalia et environmentalica, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 40–43. ISSN 1336-5452. JUREKOVÁ, Z. – DRAŽIĆ, G. – KOTRLA, M., – MARIŠOVÁ, E. – MILOVANOVIĆ, J. – TÓTHOVÁ, M. – KONČEKOVÁ, L. 2011. Biological factors influencing the growth and biomass production of willows planted in Southern Slovakia 2011. In Acta regionalia et environmentalica, vol 8, no. 2, pp. 47–5. ISSN 1336-5452. JUREKOVA, Z. - DRAZIC, G. (eds.). 2011. External and internal factors influencing the growth and biomass production of short rotation woods genus Salix and perennial grass Miscanthus. Fakultet za primenjenu ekologiju Futura Beograd. 177p. JUREKOVÁ, Z. – KOTRLA, M. – PAUKOVÁ, Ž. – PRČÍK, M. 2012. The growth and yield of different Miscanthus genotypes in the conditions of South-Western Slovakia. In Acta regionalia et environmentalica, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 29–34. ISSN 1336-5452. JUREKOVÁ, Z. – MARIŠOVÁ, E. – KOTRLA, M. – KONČEKOVÁ, L. – TÓTHOVÁ, M. 2011. Comparative studies of adaptability and productivity of energy crops and plants grown on agricultural land of Southern Slovakia and Serbia. In Integrovaný rozvoj vidieka 2011. Nitra: Slovenskápoľnohospodárskauniverzita, 978-80-552-0574-8, s. 9-11. JUREKOVÁ, Z. – MARIŠOVÁ, E. 2008. Ecological limits and legal aspects of growing energy crops in Slovakia. In Actaregionaliaetenvironmentalica. ISSN 1336-5452.Roč. 5, č. 2, s. 46-50. KANG, S. – POST, W. – WANG, D. – NICHOLS, J. – BANDARU, J. – WEST, J. 2013. Hierarchical marginal land assessment for land use planning. In Land Use Policy, vol. 30, 2013, no. 1, pp. 106–113. KOTRLA, M. – PRČÍK, M. 2013. Environmental and socio-economic aspect of growing Miscanthus genotypes. In: Scientific papers, vol, 13, no. 1, pp. 201–204. ISSN 2247-3527. LAMBIN, E.F. – MEYFROIDT, P. 2011. Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity. In Proc. Natl Acad. Sci., 108 pp. 3465–72. LINDEGAARD, K. N. – PARFITT, R. I. – DONALDSON, G. –HUNTER, T. 2001. Comparative trials of elite Swedish and UK biomass willow varieties. In Aspects of Applied Biolog, vol. 65, 2001, pp. 183– 192. MAFWM. 2013. The Strategy of agriculture and rural development of the Republic of Serbia (2014–2024), The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management of the Republic of Serbia: 1-138. McKERVEY, Z. – WOODS, V. B. – EASSON, D. L. 2008. Miscanthus as an energy crop and its potential for Northern Ireland. A review of current knowledge. AFBI Occasional publication, no. 8, 80 p.
54 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
MARIŠOVÁ, E., MILOVANOVIĆ, J., ILKOVÁ, Z., MARIŠ, M., PALŠOVÁ, L., MANDALOVÁ, K. (2015): Legislation, support and development of renewable energy resources and business. International Scientific Conference „Fast-growing plants and herbs in Slovakia“, Faculty of European Studies and Regional Development Slovak Agricultural University in Nitra, Slovakia. Economics of Agriculture 3/2015. p. 42-57. MIKÓ, P. – KOVÁCS , G.P. – ALEXA, L. – BALLA, I. – PÓTI , P. – GYURICZA, CS. 2014. Biomass production of energy willow under unfarouble field conditions. In Applied Ecology and Environmental research, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 1–11. ISSN 1589 1623. MILOVANOVIĆ, J. – DRAŽIĆ, G. – IKANOVIĆ, J. – JUREKOVÁ , Z. – RAJKOV IĆ, S. 2012. Sustainable production of biomass through Miscanthus giganteus plantation development. Annals of Faculty Engineering Hunedoara In International Journal of Engineering, vol. 10, no. 1, pp 79–82. ISSN 1584-2665. MILOVANOVIĆ, J., ĐORĐEVIĆ-MILOŠEVIĆ, S. (2016): Biodiversity and Rural Livelihood in the Western Balkans. Faculty of Applied Ecology Futura Singidunum University Belgrade. 244 pp. MINĎAS, J. – PÁLENÍK, V. – NEJEDLÍK, P. (Eds). 2011. Dôsledky klimatickej zmeny a možné adaptačné opatrenia v jednotlivých sektoroch. Záverečná správa. Zvolen, Bratislava : MOREIRA, J. 2006. Global biomass energy potential. In Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change, vol. 11, 2006, no. 2, pp. 313–333 MZSPP. 2009. Izvestaj o stanju zemljista u Republici Srbiji, pp. 1–10 NACIONALNI AKCIONI PLAN ZA KORIŠĆENJE OBNOVLJIVIH IZVORA ENERGIJE REPUBLIKE SRBIJE (NAPOIE) (National action plan for Renewable Energy Sources of the Republic of Serbia) (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia 53/2013). NÁVRH STRATÉGIE ENERGETICKEJ BEZPEČNOSTI SR DO ROKU 2030. Available at: NÉMETH, J. 2010. Monitoring of the experimental stands of willow variety Express. Final report. Silvanus Faiskola, Kapuvár. 89 p. ODLUKA O UTVRĐIVANJU ENERGETSKOG BILANSA REPUBLIKE SRBIJE ZA 2015.Godinu (Decision on setting the Energy Balance of the Republic of Serbia for 2015) (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia 147/2014). OECD (2012) Food and the Tourism Experience, The OECD-Korea workshop, OECD Studies on Tourism, OECD Publishing PORVAZ, P. – TÓTH, Ś. 2013. Ekonomická efektivita pestovania Miscanthus × giganteus v podmienkach východoslovenskej nižiny. In Zborník príspevkov z vedeckej konferencie Rýchloratsúce dreviny a byliny pestované na energetické účely v podmienkach Slovenska. Nitra : SPU, 2013. ISBN 978- 80-552-1098-8. PRČÍK, M. – KOTRLA, M. – HAUPTVOGL, M. 2014. Changes in production parameters of fast-growing energy grey poplar varieties (Populus x Canescens) in Slovakia. In: SGEM 2014. 1st ed. Sofia : STEP92 Technology, pp. 93–100. PRČÍK, M. – KOTRLA, M. 2015. Targeted cultivation of the energy plants in conditions of the Slovak regions. In Scientific papers. Management, economic engineering in agriculture and rural development, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 399–404. ISSN 2284-7995.
55 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
RADOJEVIĆ, U., NINKOVIĆ, M., MILOVANOVIĆ, J. (2015): Identification of marginal land suitable for biofuel production in Serbia. International Scientific Conference „Fast-growing plants and herbs in Slovakia“, Faculty of European Studies and Regional Development Slovak Agricultural University in Nitra, Slovakia. Acta Regionalia et Environmentalica 2/2015, p. 51-55. REPORT EUR'OBSERVEUR 2014. ROBERTSON, G. P. – DALE, V. H. – DOERING, O. C. – HAMBURG, S. P. – MELILLO, J. M. – … WILHELM, W. W. 2008. Sustainable biofuels redux. In Science, 322, pp. 49–50. RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM 2014 – 2020. Available at http://www.mpsr.sk/index.php?navID=935&navID2=935&sID=43&id=8644 RZS. 2012. Popis poljoprivrede 2012. godine u Republici Srbiji. SEACHINGER, T. – HEIMLICH, R. – HOUGHTON, R. A. – DONG, F. – ELOBEID, A. – FABIOSA, J. – … YU, T. 2008. Use of U.S. croplands for biofuels increase greenhouse gasses through land-use change. In Science, 319, pp. 1238–1240. SERVICE, R.F. 2007. Biofuel Researchers Prepare to reap a New Harvest. In Science 315, pp. 1488–1491. SMEETS, E.M. – FAAIJ, A.P. – LEWANDOWSKI, I.M. – TURKENBURG, W.C. 2007. A bottom-up assessment and review of global bioenergy potentials to 2050. In Prog Energy Combust Sci, vol. 33, 2007, no. 1, pp. 56–106.56 SO SR. 2013. Súpis plôch osiatych poľnohospodárskymi plodinami k 20. 5. 2013. Bratislava: Ústredie ŠÚ SR. ISBN 978-80-8121-265-9. SSCRI. 2014. Pôdy pre pestovanie rýchlorastúcich drevín. [Retrieved 2014-11-27]. Retrieved from: http://www.podnemapy.sk/portal/ verejnost/rr_dreviny/rr_dreviny.aspx. THE RENEWABLE ENERGY DIRECTIVE 2009/28/EC (RED). Available at http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32009L0028 TILMAN, D. – SOCOLOW, R. – FOLEY, J.A. – HILL, J. – LARSON, E. – LYND, L. – … WILLIAMS, R. 2009. Beneficial biofuels – the food, energy, and environment trilemma. In Science, 325, pp. 270-271. TRNKA, M. 2009. Experiences from growing of fast-growing woody crops in microregion Bystřice u P. In Proceedings from the scientific conference, 2009. 121 p. UNEP-BNEF: Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investments (Globálne trendy investícií do energie z obnoviteľnýchzdrojov) 2014. van Dam , J. – Faaij, A. P. C. – Lewandowski , I. – Fischer, G. 2007. Biomass production potentials in Central and Eastern Europe under different scenarios. In Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 31, 2007, no. 6, pp. 345–366. ISSN 0961-9534. VÁŇA, J. 2006. Strategie v biomase – situace, cíle, činnost. WOLF, J. – BINDRABAN, P.S. – LUIJTEN, J.C. – VLEESHOUWERS, L.M. 2003. Exploratory study on the land area required for global food supply and the potential global production of bioenergy. In Agric Syst, vol. 76, 2003, no. 3, pp. 841–861. ZAKON O ENERGETICI (Law on Energy) (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia 145/2014). http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-15-5358_sk.htm http://www.rokovania.sk/Rokovanie.aspx/BodRokovaniaDetail?idMaterial=14372
56 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation II
57 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The economic growth of the society in the in 2040. The increase represents 48%. Based last decades has been possible due to the on this context, it is necessary to look for fact that relatively cheap fossil energy other – complementary energy sources sources have been used virtually without namely from the category of renewable restrictions. The share of fossil fuels on the sources. One of such sources, in addition to total energy consumption was 76.8% in the hydropower, wind energy and solar energy European Union and 70 % in Slovakia. In the is biomass. Energy trends show that near future, economic development will be renewables are the fastest growing sources limited by higher energy demand, price of of energy (Figure 2.1). During the observed which increases while global sources period, renewables increased on average by decline. According to U.S. Energy 2.6% annually. However, the use of biomass Information Agency (EIA 2016), the total for energy purposes still remains very low, global energy consumption is expected to e.g. 7.2% in EU and 5.5% in Slovakia in 2009 increase from 549 quadrillion Btu (1 (Key World Energy Statistics 2011, Btu=1055 J) in 2012 to 815 quadrillion Btu OECD/EIA, 2011).
Figure 2.1. World energy consumption by energy (Source: EIA, 2016)
58 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
There are several reasons for using neutrality is the fact that the carbon that biomass as a renewable energy source. A is released during combustion in winter is serious argument is the climate change not received in the process of that is enhanced by growing shallow photosynthesis and accumulates in the rooting species of field crops with a short atmosphere. Therefore, the production of growing season that lose large amounts biomass and its use can also have of water and nutrients, especially in destabilizing consequences and effects on humid areas. This results in droughts and the environment and its components. environmental pollution. On the other hand, perennial species (feed crops, nuts, As part of the so-called Climate Program meadow vegetation, energy plants and Europe 2020, Slovak Republic has trees) retain water and improve its quality committed to increase the share of thanks to their excellent filtering, renewable sources in the total domestic remediation and buffering properties. It is energy consumption to 14%. The increase known that they also increase the carbon of biomass for energy production in sequestration, in the process of which the Slovakia is also incorporated in the residues of the above-ground biomass National Action Plan for Renewable and roots are involved in the carbon cycle Energy, 2010. National policies and as precursors of soil organic matter, programs that support new approaches of wherein the carbon is deposited obtaining energy from renewable sources (BRUNNER and GODBOLD 2007, have a great importance in their KANIANSKA, 2011). contribution to sustainable development and management of natural resources Accumulation of the so-called and with regard to the expected greenhouse gases in the air coming from consequences of climate change. various sources such as burning of fossil Currently, the agricultural science and fuels also contributes to the climate practice is intentionally engaged in change. There is an urgent need to multifunctional agriculture, although the replace a part of these resources by the idea is not new. There are data about the so-called carbon neutral and/or non- introduction of perennial plant species to carbon resources. The carbon balance crop rotations. For example, WALLACe from the combustion of biomass is not, (1944) and JACKSON (1980) supported however, neutral and it is necessary to ideas about the importance of growing calculate with the emissions that are different types of perennial plants as released during production and components of healthy agro-ecosystems processing (e.g. transport, production and already in the last century. Nowadays, processing of pellets, distribution and their integration into the agricultural handling of fuel and energy production). landscape becomes an essential strategy An argument suppressing ideas about C- for restoring health and function of agro-
59 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation ecosystems. It includes, in particular the The presented Slovak-Serbian project is restoration of meadows and pastures, focused on the use of elements of the establishment of agro-forest ecosystems Integrated Food-Energy Systems (IFES) (agroforestry), planting pome fruit suggested in 1991 by SACHS et al. and to orchards and establishing plantations of which FAO later (2010) provided an fast-growing plants. The aim is grow international technical consultation. IFES products and their use with the help of optimize the relationship (synergy) agro-industrial technologies such as among food crops and crops grown for gasification, anaerobic digestion and energy purposes, as well as substrates pyrolysis. derived from livestock production (eventually fish). The system also uses Introduction and use of perennial systems agro-industrial technologies (gasification in order to create multifunctional agro- and anaerobic digestion) enabling the ecosystems must be in accordance with processing of by-products, recycling and the interests of food producers, economical use of production residues. As circulation of nutrients, pest control and reported by BOGDANSKI et al. (2010), preservation of biodiversity in agro- individual components of food and systems as well as the impact on the energy may come from the same source, landscape in terms of recreational and such crop is e.g. Sorghum. The seeds are aesthetic services. used as food and straw for ethanol production. There may also be a situation Agricultural biomass has a huge potential, that the grown species are suitable for but its production and use shall be consumption as food and at the same governed by new principles implemented time have a high energy value and thus into a farm management in a particular are suitable for energy production. Some location. energy plant species have a very high energy value, e.g. millet (Panicum Concepts and models that are being virgatum) has a 15 times higher energy verified in Asia and Europe are based on value than corn (Zea mays) (Mc the abovementioned principle. They are LAUGHLIN and WALSH, 1998). In such known as the "Concept of Circulative cases, the farm management must decide Farming System" or "Biomass Town in what area should be designated for Japan" or "Cascade Systems in Germany" growing individual species according to and others. the technological and economic possibilities and local conditions. Common denominators of these systems According to the cited authors, the are: high productivity, optimum biomass integrated system can be complemented utilization and link between food by another local non-biological source production and energy. e.g. photovoltaic, solar, hydro, 60 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation geothermal, etc. Another example of IFES More than 50% of the land is included in use is a combined resource system. Inputs less-favoured areas. and additional energy for growing crops do not increase and crop rotations Crop production is based on the include catch crops, feed and energy cultivation of cereals, grains and oilseeds. crops. There is nothing considered as a Between 2014 and 2015, the acreage of waste in the system (a result of one corn silage and pumpkin increased by 15 process is the starting product of another and 52.94%, respectively. The acreage of process). clover-grass mixtures and grassland decreased. Cereals with the largest Our experiments focused on the growth acreage were winter wheat, spring barley and biomass production, its quality and maize seed. Oilseed crops, mainly characteristics and dependence on oilseed rape was grown on an area of climatic conditions were conducted at the 206.74 ha of the arable land. Vineyards University Farm in Kolíňany Ltd. The farm covered 14.49 ha, of which 8.50 ha were has an area of 2.127 ha of agricultural new plantings (www.registeruz.sk). land, 2038.37 ha of which is arable land.
Table 2.1. Arable land area and expected yields of the grown field crops (t ha-1) in the University Farm in Kolíňany in 2014 and 2015 Crops ha ha Yield 2014 2015 t. ha-1 Cereals 683.84 621.54 5.46 Grains 914.08 816.11 5.35 Oilseeds 254.11 206.74 3.27 Pumpkin 208.19 318.42 0.40 Silage corn 127.35 146.28 32.49 Clover-grass mixtures 3.62 0.60 20.00 Grassland 105.87 96.45 10.00
Livestock production is focused on cattle Biomass waste from livestock production and pigs. The number of cattle was 794 in (manure and liquid manure) supplemented 2014 and 791 in 2015. The number of pigs by preserved plant biomass (maize and slightly decreased to 363 in 2014 and 281 grass silage) is processed in a biogas in 2015. The number of sheep, goats and station to produce biogas. horses decreased as well (www.registeruz.sk).
61 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The biogas is then combusted in a gas water, soil and biota resources. Below are engine of a cogeneration unit to produce some determining characteristics and electricity and heat (see chapter 3 and 4). goals that are crucial for that approach. The production plan of the farm has Protection and sustainability of genetic implemented in 2007 the concept of bio- resources is a guiding principle. The energy that creates an integrated system, in crucial objective is to protect the structure which food and energy sources are and function of the ecosystem so that the produced simultaneously. Such production limits of their functionality are met. The method can be accepted positively, but it goals must be set for a long-term to fit may also encounter obstacles. Therefore, its the ecosystem processes. The ecosystem successful adaptation must be based on approaches take into account all forms of knowledge, technology and sustainability. relevant information, especially scientific, local and innovative knowledge and IFES aim at addressing these issues by practical experiences and therefore they simultaneously producing food and energy interact with the relevant scientific as a way to address the energy component disciplines. Ecosystem managers take into of sustainable crop intensification through account also the economic effects and an ecosystem approach. profits of the production to ensure the efficiency of the ecosystems. The ecosystem approach is a management strategy, which assumes responsibility for
2.1. Production potential of field crops at the University Farm Ltd. in Kolíňany
Brief description of the area The University Farm in Kolíňany is located Meteorological conditions were analysed in the cadastral area of the village based on the data obtained from the Slovak Kolíňany, in the Nitra district, 13 km from Hydrometeorological Institute (SHMI. 2015). Nitra. The main soil unit is gleyic fluvisol The evaluated meteorological data were located mostly in the alluvial plain. Terrain rainfall and average air temperature. The steepness and exposure: a plain without site characteristics and data on climatic signs of surface erosion (0–1°). The soil is conditions are shown in Table 2.1.3. In the deep (0.6 m or more) without skeleton. In studied years 2010–2015, the average air terms of particle size, the soil belongs to temperature and annual precipitation were moderate soils. above the long-term average.
62 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Production potential of field crops Internal statistical data of the farm field crops and selected species of energy (www.registeruz.sk) for the years 2010– plants in order to compare their 2014 and recent data on arable land and production performance. Table 2.1.1 yields of dominant field crops in 2015 shows that geographic morphological were used to address the objectives of the and climatic conditions of the region project (tab. 2.1.1). A great attention was allow growing relatively large range of given to the analysis of yields of individual field crops.
Table 2.1.1. Average yields of dominant crops (t ha-1) at University Farm in Kolíňany in 2011–2015 Crops 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Average 2011-2015 Cereals 5.63 3.09 5.45 5.85 5.74 5.15 Grains 5.91 4.03 5.04 5.82 4.02 4.96 Oilseeds 3.20 2.22 3.35 3.80 1.69 2.85 Pumpkin(seeds) 0.43 0.42 0.32 0.43 0.40 0.40 Silage corn 33.64 30.47 25.85 34.43 23.68 29.61 Clover-grass 30.51 4.42 7.15 9.39 - 12.86 mixtures Grassland 0.00 6.18 5.61 5.62 - 5.80
The results show that the average crop The study object of the research project yields were relatively high, e.g. cereals was agricultural biomass. Biomass is all reached 5.74 t ha-1 (2015) (Table. 2.1.2.). matter of biological origin, in our case If the results are compared with data of phytomass and animal biomass. The the National Agricultural and Food Centre phytomass is the result of growing arable (2015) that estimated the average yield of crops, crop, hay and straw residues. The winter wheat to 4.36 t ha-1 (integrated growing and production of field crops estimation method) and/or 4.28 t ha-1 requires energy inputs, particularly higher (method of satellite image interpretation), doses of nitrogen applied to the soil. On the difference is 19%. Nevertheless, the the contrary, energy crops (annual and total biological yield (biomass) is relatively perennial species) grown for biomass do low (Figure 2.1.1) and thus unprofitablefor not require large inputs of nitrogen, they energy production. manage them well and recycle nitrogen. A
63 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation good example is silvergrass (Miscanthus fossil energy and rotation cycles of the sinensis). grown woody crops and biomass energy values of the studied species. The data on biomass yields of dominant field crops and energy plants grown in The data on yields of the dominant crops the growing seasons 2007-2014 were grown in the farm in Kolíňany during collected. Table 2.1.2 shows the 2007–2014 were obtained from the characteristics of growing areas, inputs of internal statistics of the company.
Table 2.1.2. Characteristics of the studied area and the feedstock (Jureková et al. 2015) Area description GPS localization 48°21'20.7"N 18°12'24.5"E References altitude 180 m a.s.l. soil Moderate, loam Demo et al. (2013) Ø annual air temperature during the 11.02 °C SHMI (2015) last five years Ø air temperature during the 15.51 °C SHMI (2015) growing period annual precipitation 607.78 mm SHMI (2015) Inputs fertilization 100 kg N. 60 kg K. 30 kg P ha-1 before establishment of the experimental plantation Demo et al. (2013) irrigation not applied chemical plant protection not applied Feedstock Salix Varieties INGER. TORA. SVEN. TORDIS and GUDRUN Demo et al. (2013) Populus Varieties Monviso. Pegaso. AF-2 and Sirio Miscanthus genotypes Miscanthus × Jureková et al. (2012, giganteus and Miscanthus 2013) sinensis TATAI Rotation cycles / age of the stand Salix four-year rotation cycle/ 7-year-old stand Populus three-year rotation cycle/ 5-year-old stand Miscanthus One-year rotation cycle/ 5-year-old stand
64 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Outputs. energy value of the biomass Salix (willow) 18.38 MJ kg-1 Populus (poplar) Monviso 18.63 MJ kg-1 Demo et al. (2013) Pegaso 18.27 MJ kg-1
AF-2 18.17 MJ kg-1 Sirio 18.90 MJ kg-1 Miscanthus (silver grass) 17 MJ kg-1 McKervey et al. (2008) Triticum aestivum (winter wheat) 16.76 MJ kg-1 Hordeum vulgare L. (spring barley) 16.16 MJ kg-1 Váňa (2006) Zea mays ssp. mays (silage maize) 16.13 MJ kg-1
The experimental data of growth stand), which is expressed by the amount of parameters of different species the fast- the total dry matter, its accumulation and growing trees and plants were taken the production of biological yield. The term during 2007–2014 (willows), 2011–2014 potential yield and/or potential energy (poplars) and 2010–2014 (Miscanthus). describe yield (created energy) that corresponds to the maximum utilization of The aboveground biomass of willows was environmental factors. harvested in 2011 after the first (four- year) harvest cycle and poplars in 2013 The energy value of the biomass yield is after the first (three-year) harvest cycle. expressed by gross energy (calorific value) The aboveground biomass of Miscanthus of dry matter unit, the value of which is genotypes was harvested during 2010– relatively stable (depending on the 2014 each time in the early spring period content of fat and carbohydrates in the of the following year. The biomass dry matter). The unit was expressed in GJ harvesting was done manually, using a ha-1 and/or GJ t-1. brush cutter, pruning shears and/or a hand saw. The major growing period is defined according to MINĎAŠ et al. (2011) by the The biomass yield (BY) was calculated average daily air temperature T +10°C, as based on the following formula: a period of biomass production of crops BY = dry weight of the aboveground demanding higher air temperatures. The biomass (Dw) / the size of the large growing period (the period of the experimental site (ha) year-round biomass production of perennial crops) is defined by biological The biomass production is understood as temperature minimum, average daily air photosynthetic activity of plants (vegetation temperature T +5°C.
65 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
(silage corn) in 2007–2014. In comparison, We compared biological yields of the the energy resources of biomass Salix dominant agricultural crops. The yields of reached 34.73 t ha-1. Populus 32.00 t ha-1 the cereals reached the average value of and Miscanthus 21.82 t ha-1) provided 10.72 t ha-1 (Tritticum aestivum), 10.97 t significantly higher average values during ha-1 (Hordeum vulgare) and 20.75 t ha-1 the studied period (Figure 2.1.1).
Figure 2.1.1. Average yields of dry aboveground biomass of arable crops and energy species (t ha-1year-1) grown in the research site in Kolíňany 2007–2014 (Jureková et al. 2015
It is known that energy crops can be year harvest cycle in 2011 (JUREKOVÁ et grown on low-quality agricultural soils al., 2015) Similar results of Swedish willow with a perspective of 20 years. The willow varieties (Inger, Tordis and Sven) reported stand established in 2007 maintained a MIKÓ et al. (2014) with an average dry strong growth activity throughout the biomass yield of 38.6 t ha-1 year-1 in the entire studied period. A cutback (technical control treatment and 50.8 t ha-1 year-1 in cut) was made in the winter of 2007. The the fertilized treatment in a two-year highest production of dry matter was harvest cycle. 47.11 t ha-1 at the end of the first four- 66 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 2.1.2. Average energy value of biomass of arable and energy crops (GJ ha-1year-1) grown in the research site in Kolíňany 2007–2014 (Jureková et al. 2015)
The average energy values of biomass biomass yield (2010–2014) 21.82 t ha-1 were in the following order: willow 638.41 with energy value of 370.94 GJ ha-1. GJ ha-1 year-1 < poplar 592.34 GJ ha-1 year-1 < Miscanthus 370.94 GJ ha-1 year-1 In a more detailed study, we evaluated < silage corn 288.91 GJ ha-1 year-1 < four genotypes of Populus (see chapter winter wheat 179.69 GJ ha-1 year-1 < 2.3.2), five genotypes of willows (see barley 160.42 GJ ha-1 year-1. The results chapter 2.3.1) and two Miscanthus confirm that the energy crop biomass has genotypes (see chapter 2.3.3). The results significantly higher energy value than the confirmed that individual genotypes vary species of field crops (wheat. barley. corn greatly in terms of the biomass for silage). The energy value of the production. Jureková et al. (2015) aboveground biomass of Miscanthus was provided more detailed evaluation of studied by MCKERVEY et al. (2008) who Miscanthus and poplar genotypes using reported yields ranging from 12 to 25 t analysis of variance (ANOVA). The analysis ha-1 with energy value of 260 GJ ha-1 in confirmed highly significant differences conditions of Northern Ireland. Our among the studied species genotypes in experiments confirmed the average each of the growing years (Table 2.1.3.).
67 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 2.1.3 Single-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the biomass yields between the Miscanthus genotypes and experimental years (2010–2014) and between the poplar varieties and experimental years (2011–2014) (the level of significance is defined as: n: non-significant impact. +: significant impact in P ≤ 0.05. ++: P ≤ 0.01 and +++: P ≤ 0.001) (Jureková et al., 2015)
Analysed parameter F P-value F critical Significance
Miscanthus genotypes and Years 158.0191 9.28E-69 1.947348 +++
Poplar varieties and Years 10.71837 1.51E-08 1.99199 +++
The second stage of our analysis was In the period 2007–2014, winter wheat, focused on the essential climatic factors spring barley and corn for silage provided (precipitation and air temperature) that variable average biomass yields mass are presumed to have the most crucial from the lowest in 2010 to the highest in impact on the vegetation. The climatic 2011 and 2014. factors were analysed by a regression analysis of annual rainfall and average The highest energy value had corn for annual air temperature in relation to the silage: 400.66 GJ ha-1 in 2014. In the same biomass production of Salix. According to period, the winter wheat and spring the results (Table 1.4.2.5), the statistical barley had 207.65 and 229.97 GJ ha-1, significance of the dependence of the respectively. biomass production on The climatic factors in individual studied years was not Fast-growing Italian poplars provided confirmed. 51.47 t ha-1 of biomass with energy value The comparison of the biomass of 951.68 GJ ha-1 year-1 in the first three- production and energy values of field year-harvest cycle in 2012. Their biomass crops and energy crops grown on yield in the second year of the second agricultural land of the University Farm three-year-harvest cycle (2014) was 34.40 showed significant differences. t ha-1 with an energy value of 637.53 GJ ha-1 year-1.
68 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 2.1.3. Miscanthus sinensis varieties Figure 2.1.4. Italian poplar (Populus) in the growing year 2016 (Photo Húska) varieties in the planting year (photo: Húska)
As seen from the results, field crops impact on the landscape scenery. providing biomass that can be used for Growing of the so-called energy plants heat and electricity production have been contributes to diversified production on a grown on the agricultural land (of lower farm, increases employment and provides quality) for a long-term. However, due to additional income for a rural population. the low outputs in the form of the biomass energy values and the inputs of The biomass production of the perennial additional energy necessary for their grass Miscanthus sinensis in dependence growing, their production for energy use on the growing years can be expressed by is unprofitable. a parabolic trend function (Jureková et al. 2015). The highest increases of the The site in the southwestern Slovakia biomass production (both Miscanthus provides very good conditions for the genotypes) were recorded in the third cultivation of fast-growing plants and growing year (2012), were the average trees that provide high biomass yields production achieved 24.85 t ha-1. It was an with high energy and calorific value increase by almost 60% compared to compared with food crops. They are 2011. At the end of the fifth growing year suitable for processing in cogeneration (2014), the stand reached the production units. The energy stands also contributes of 28.60 t ha-1 of dry biomass. The energy to improving the circulation of water in value of aboveground biomass was the soil–plant–atmosphere system, 486.20 GJ ha-1 in 2014. increase biodiversity and have a positive
69 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 2.1.5 Swedish willow in the growing year 2016, two months after the harvest (photo: Húska)
The growth and production process of the minimum inputs. They represent selected tree and plant species reflects renewable resources with a long-term both the specifics of the soil and climatic perspective and can be grown on unused conditions in individual growing periods agricultural soils. and species and varietal conditionality of the biomass production in the given The research of fast-growing trees and conditions. plants grown in the conditions of the agricultural farm pointed out the fact that The comparison of the productivity of the quantity and quality of biomass is a agricultural crops and energy trees and result of complex ecophysiological plants grown on agricultural land interactions. Some ecophysiological confirmed that the fast-growing trees and properties and their relationships are plants provide high biomass yields and provided in more detail in the chapters have high values of gross energy with 2.2 and 2.3.
70 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
BOGDANSKI, A., DUBOIS, O., JAMIESON, C., KRELL, R. 2010. Making Integrated Food-Energy Systems Work for People and Climate. FAO, Rome 2010 BRUNNER I., GODBOLD D. L. 2007. Tree roots in a changing world. J. For. Res. 12 78–82. 10.1007/s10310-006-0261-4 DEMO, M., HÚSKA, D., TÓTHOVÁ, M. 2013 Vŕba (Salix L.) ako zdroj biomasy pre energetické účely, ISBN 978-80-552-1021-6 p.55 International Energy Outlook 2016 www.eia.gov.conference 2016 Investing in Sustainable Crop Investigation. Integrating Crop Management Vol.6-2008 JACKSON, W.1980 New Roots for Agriculture. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska JUREKOVÁ, Z., KOTRLA, M., PAUKOVÁ, Ž., PRČÍK, M. 2012 The growth and yield of different Miscanthus genotypes in the conditions of south-western Slovakia. Acta regionalia et environmentalica, 2012, No. 2, p.29-34. ISSN 1336-5452 JUREKOVÁ, Z., KOTRLA, M., PAUKOVÁ, Ž. 2013 Lify cycle of Miscanthus x Giganteus (Greef et Deu) grown In Southwestern Slovakia conditions. Acta regionalia et environmentalica 2013, No. 2 p.40-43, ISSN 1336-5452 JUREKOVÁ, Z., HÚSKA, D., KOTRLA, M., PRČÍK, M., HAUPTVOGL, M. 2015 Comparison of Energy Sources grown on Agricultural Land. Acta Regionalia et Environmentalica 2/2015 ISSN 1336- 5452 pp.37-43 KANIANSKA, R. 2011. Biomasa ako súčasť uhlíkového cyklu v manažmente prírodných zdrojov. Acta Universitathis Matthiae Belli, 2011, roč.XIII. č.2 Key world Energy Statistics 2011 MC LAUGHLIN, S.B., WALSH, M.E. 1998. Evaluating the environmental consequences of producing herbaceous crops for bioenergy. Biomass and Energy 14:317-324 MIKÓ,P., KOVÁCS, G.P., ALEXA, L., BALLA, I., PÓTI, P., GYUROCZA, CS. 2014 Biomass production of energy willow under unfarouble field conditions. In : Applied Ecology and Environmental research, vol.12, no.1,pp.1-11. ISSN 1589 1623 MINĎAŠ, J., PÁLENÍK, V., NEJEDLÍK, P./Eds/.2011. Dôsledky klimatickej zmeny a možné adaptačné opatrenia v jednotlivých sektoroch. Záverečná správa. Zvolen, Bratislava: EFRA – vedecká agentúra pre lesníctvo a ekológiu, 253 s. National Agricultural and Food Centre /2015/.Odhad úrody a produkcie pšenice letnej formy ozimnej, jačmeňa siateho jarného a kapusty repkovej pravej k 15.06.2015 SACHS, I., & SILK, D. 1991. Final Report of the Food Energy Nexus Programme of the United Nations University1983-1987. UNU-FEN. WALACE, H. A.1944. Democrasy Reborn. Reynal and Hichcok, New York www.registeruz.sk/cruz-public/domain www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2044e.pdf EIA. 2016. International Energy Outlook. www.eia.gov/todayinenergy
71 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
2.2.1. Fast-growing perennial grass Miscanthus – results from Slovakia
Growing of energy plants growing is agricultural crops grown primarily for characterized by certain features (Figure food production. 2.2.1.1) that differentiate them from
Figure 2.2.1.1. Characteristics of the energy plants
72 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Grasses from the genus Miscanthus adapt alternatives from fossil fuels, the most well to variable environmental conditions of important is to assess environmental Slovakia. Miscanthus is a perennial grass benefits and costs (externalities). One of the originating from East Asia. It was introduced tools that have been developed for this in Europe during the last century as an purpose is Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). LCA ornamental plant grown in gardens and studies suggest that lignocellulosic (LCM) parks. Individual species and their hybrids plant materials (grasses and woody crops) are characterized by rapid growth. They can bring significant economic and reach an average height of 3-4 meters and environmental benefits compared with the produce a robust biomass (> 20 t ha-1) with use of traditional crops such as cereals and a high content of cellulose and lignin some industrial crops. The use of (NIELSEN, 1987). In Europe and USA, lignocellulosic by-products can reduce the Miscanthus was identified as one of the best production of "waste" and ensure the use of options for growing energy biomass mainly the entire plant. Perennial grasses and due to low inputs (KHANNA et al., 2010). woody crops reduce application of fertilizers and pesticides compared with conventional From the botanical point of view, crops. Processes using lignocellulosic Miscanthus is characterized as a perennial materials as raw material and fuel at the grass of high growth, providing high yields same time could eliminate the need for of dry matter in favourable conditions, with fossil fuels, which would result in a much good use of solar energy, water and better carbon balance. nutrients and it is highly resistant to diseases and pests (JUREKOVÁ et al. 2015; Possibilities of using agricultural soils for CLIFTON-BROWN and LEWANDOWSKI, growing energy plants depend on the 2000). It belongs to plants with C4 type of characteristics and suitability of habitat for a photosynthesis that effectively utilize solar particular species. Due to the sufficient radiation and convert it in photosynthetic amount of soils for the food production in processes and distribute the formed organic Slovakia, a relatively large portion of matter preferentially to the aboveground agricultural soils can be used for the organs (LEWANDOWSKI et al., 2003, cultivation of fast-growing plants. The HEATON et al., 2010). As reported by cultivation of any crop is economically and ERICSSON et al. (2009), this perennial grass practically more favourable on good quality can have an important role in sustainable soils where greater natural and financial agricultural production of biomass energy benefits can be assumed. Such soils are in the near future due to the efficient located in lowlands, basins or south-facing biomass production. It uses water efficiently. gentle slopes. They are non-skeletal, deep From an environmental point of view, when soils with favourable water, air and nutrient comparing net balance of costs and regimes that are close to the potential benefits of biomass products with their
73 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation biomass processing facility (KOTRLA and belong to the first group and soils of the PRČÍK, 2011). lowest quality to the group no. 9. Soils suitable for growing energy plants in Due to the fact that large part of the Slovakia are included in 5-9 groups of soil agricultural soils in Slovakia is located in quality. areas not suitable for intensive use, there is a need to pay high attention to the As it can be seen in Figure 2.1.1.2, the soil cultivation of industrial and energy plants. quality groups 5-9 can be found in all The introduction of such crops into the regions of the Slovak Republic. The highest system of land management should be potential for growing energy crops, based regarded as one of the most important on the individual acreage of land at the innovations of crop production in the near regional level is in Prešov (99.95%), Žilina future and they should become a common, (99.89%), Košice (99.51), Banská Bystrica well supported and preferred part of the (98.94%) and Trenčín region (83.02%). The agrarian program. The potential for biomass regions where the area of soil quality and biogas production in Slovak agricultural groups 5-9 is below 50% of total enterprises is significant. Its use would be agricultural soil include Bratislava (46.35%), necessary not only for the energy Nitra (39.56%) and Trnava (32.7%) region. production and thus reduction of financial costs, but also for the disposal of In order to secure food self-sufficiency of agricultural waste that causes frequent Slovakia, at least 1.367,853 hectares of problems. Energy phytomass can be agricultural land is required, which obtained not only on surplus agricultural represents about 56% of currently land, but also other, in different ways registered agricultural land of Slovakia devastated soil. (VILČEK, 2011). Growing food crops on these soils provides the best economic Setting aside agricultural soils temporarily results. Therefore, it is important to leave for growing non-agricultural crops should them for direct agricultural use for be determined by elaboration and strategic reasons. It is the primary especially execution of a project for their re- agricultural land. Land resources further cultivation. consist of a secondary land, particularly arable land where growing agricultural According to the Act no. 220/2004, all crops is still assumed to be profitable. The agricultural soils are classified into 9 groups secondary land can be temporarily used of the soil quality. The highest quality soils for other than food production purposes.
74 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 2.2.1.2. Area of individual groups of soil quality (1–9) at the regional level in Slovakia
Source: Based on data from Soil Science and Conservation Research Institute – Soil Portal, Slovakia (2016)
Figure 2.2.1.3. Area of the agricultural land suitable for the cultivation of energy plants in Slovak regions
Legend: SAL – secondary agricultural land; OAL – other agricultural land Source: Based on data from Slovakia National Agriculture and Food Centre (2016)
75 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
This type of soil can be allocated for application of agrochemicals. According alternative agricultural uses such as to DEMO et al. (2013), one of the basic bioenergy production. Secondary environmental benefits of growing energy agricultural soil covers 696.038 ha, which plants is an increase of species diversity in represents about 29% of currently the agricultural landscape and they are of registered agricultural land of Slovakia great importance from a landscape (Figure 2.2.1.3). Agricultural land source formation point of view. Dependence of also includes the so called other soil that the energy plants on climatic and soil should be used primarily for alternative conditions of unused agricultural lands is agricultural use, growing energy plants a minor setback, particularly equal and various non-biological purposes distribution of precipitation during the (sport, tourism and recreation). The other growing season. agricultural land covers 368.587 hectares, which represents about 15% of currently / B / Socio-economic Aspects registered agricultural land of Slovakia. Biomass production improves social Besides the acreage of potential conditions of rural areas within the agricultural land, an important factor in agricultural transformation (shift of the the establishment of the energy food production to industrial production). plantations is climate parameters. Increasing use of biomass will increase Environmental and socio-economic employment in the process of growing, aspects of growing Miscanthus species in harvesting and processing, which can Slovakia: significantly contribute to alternative programs for agricultural businesses, rural / A / Environmental Aspects development and landscape protection. It Establishment of the plantations and the creates an attractive sphere for subsequent cultivation of energy grass international investments. The rising Miscanthus represent a renewable energy importance of RES in the energy economy source (as opposed to fossil fuels). provides an opportunity to develop new Nutrients are transferred from the industries focused on growing, harvesting aboveground parts of the plants into and processing of the biomass. The rhizomes – underground part at the end possible risks in the growing Miscanthus of the growing season. Miscanthus can be are the lack of finances, higher grown on unused agricultural land. It requirements for investment and contributes to the maintenance of a equipment, lack of long-term and reliable favourable microclimate in the landscape, domestic biomass supply and lack of the provides a protective function for the soil experience with the storage and and prevents soil erosion. The plants can processing of the biomass, the absence of be also grown on contaminated soils and a functioning market for biomass, the lack in areas with a reduced possibility for the of information on the cultivation, 76 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation marketing problems with the production selection of plants suitable for and the lack of the business infrastructure. phytoenergetics (JANDAČKA et al., 2011).
The ecological value of the energy Environmental factors plantations depends to a significant extent on the landscape, the size of the An important factor in the growth and growing area and specific regulatory production of the biomass is climate. The measures. According to WEIH et al. average daily temperatures and the (2003), the size of the growing area is precipitation are limiting factors for crucial. They confirmed an increase of the growing Miscanthus. Accumulated biodiversity in agricultural landscapes in efficient air temperatures with minimum the small-scale plantations of fast- above 10 °C are important for the growth growing willows and poplars. of Miscanthus species. The average monthly precipitation and the average In European conditions, plants are able to monthly air temperatures from the site in generate 1.2 to 1.4 g of dry matter of Kolíňany (Nitra region, Slovakia) are phytomass from 1 MJ of solar energy. shown in Table 2.3.3.1. The selected climatic parameters have been measured Plants with C4 type photosynthesis are more efficient. The production of 1.4 g of since the establishment of the energy dry weight from 1 MJ of solar energy is crop plantation in 2010. regarded as one of the criteria for the
Table 2.2.1.1 Average monthly precipitation and temperatures in the research site in Kolíňany Nitra region, Slovakia) in 2010-2014
5 year average / I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII month mm 44.44 31.76 33.84 34.67 73.63 65.63 60.62 52.68 55.42 38.88 40.54 36.42 °C -0.04 0.62 6.08 11.65 16.42 19.55 22.26 21.29 16.31 10.52 6.82 0.88 Source: Slovak Hydrometeorological Institute, own processing
77 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The planting material used in the 3.54 g), the length of rhizomes was 50-85 field experiments in Kolíňany mm (Figure 2.2.1.4 a).
Miscantus × giganteus (GREEF et DEUTER, Miscanthus sinensis (Tatai), triploid hybrid 1993) is a vital triploid hybrid (57 (57 chromosomes) was bred by cross chromosomes) often used in the field pollination of the Miscanthus sinensis experiments (WALSH, 1997). Planting genotypes. The planting material material consisted of rhizomes from consisted of seedlings grown in vitro in Hannes Stelzhammer Austria. The fresh Power-H Kft, Hungary. Seedlings were mass of rhizomes ranged from 1.67 g to individually planted in rooting containers with a soil substrate (Figure 2.2.1.4 b).
Figure 2.2.1.4. Planting material of the Miscanthus genotypes in the Kolíňany research site
Fig. 2.2.1.4. a) rhizome Fig. 2.2.1.4. b) seedling Photo: Kotrla, 2010
Dissimilarity of the planting material (Figure 2.2.1.4 b). During the growing (Figure 2.2.1.4.) is in the morphological period, they create besides the features. Rhizomes branch out and aboveground organs also rhizomes that sprawl under the soil surface. Roots and are important for the supply of building aboveground shoots are formed from materials and the production of roots the nodes. The seedlings have an and stalks from the nodes. established root system and few shoots
78 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Establishment of the plantation Optimal planting density of Miscanthus is spectrum herbicide (e.g. glyphosate). It is 10.000 plants per hectare, depending on good for regulating the occurrence of the abiotic conditions of the habitat – perennial weeds. The pre-planting soil temperature and water. Ideal conditions treatment can significantly affect mainly for planting is moist (not wet) and warm the first growing year that is crucial for soil (MAFF, 2001). Two genotypes of weed competition. Miscanthus were planted at the site in Kolíňany. Rhizomes were planted in Miscanthus preceding crop could be a moist soil in early May 2010 and crop with a short growing period. Such seedlings in the soil depth of 10 cm in crops usually require a little amount of early June 2010. Each genotype was water. planted in the spacing of 1.0 x 1.0 m on an area of 100 m2. Schematic The application of a broad-spectrum representation of the planting density of herbicide against perennial weeds should each Miscanthus genotype is shown in be followed by deep autumn tillage to a Figure 2.3.3.5. The same structure of the depth of 0.25 to 0.30 m and levelling of plantation establishment was used in the the soil surface. It will help to avoid research site in Serbia (JUREKOVÁ and unnecessary operations associated with DRAŽIĆ, 2011). levelling of the ridges in the spring prior to planting that could adversely affect The planting material requires thorough moisture conditions in the soil. Before the preparation of the planting bed for good tillage, potassium and phosphate -1 rooting and further growth during all fertilizers can be applied (50 kg ha K2O, -1 -1 -1 growing seasons, thus ensuring high 21 kg ha P2O5, 35 kg ha S, 13 kg ha biomass yields. Miscanthus can be grown Ca). Nitrogen fertilizer at a rate of 50 kg at one site for at least 15 years. The first ha-1 should be applied before planting in step after the harvest of the preceding the spring. crop is to spray the site with a broad
79 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Fig. 2.2.1.5. Planting design of the Miscanthus stand established at the research site in Kolíňany in 2010
Legend: A – Miscantus × giganteus (Greef et Deuter, 1993); B – Miscanthus sinensis (Tatai); A1 – control variant of Miscantus × giganteus (Greef et Deuter, 1993); B1 – Miscanthus sinensis (Tatai)
80 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 2.2.1.6 illustrates the growth cycle Work procedures of the study of the of Miscanthus × giganteus genotype at fast-growing grass Miscanthus the research site in Kolíňany. The diagram production process shows the flushing of shoots at the beginning of the growing period, growth Monitoring of climatic factors and subsequent recycling of nutrients in The monitoring of climatic factors is a the continuum soil – plant up to the prerequisite for the analysis of the eco- harvest period in the winter period of the physiological and production process of the following year. growth in field conditions. The microclimate
describes the climatic conditions near the Fig. 2.2.1.6. Growth cycle of Miscanthus ground, where the plants are located × giganteus at the research area in (ROSENBERG et al. 1983) and it is important Kolíňany for understanding the processes of living organisms. Physiological processes, such as the energy exchange, photosynthetic
assimilation of CO2, respiration and water loss by transpiration are tightly bound to airborne environmental conditions. The daily values of air temperature, humidity, precipitation and soil temperature of the substrate were monitored at the meteorological station located in the University farm in Kolíňany. The station was funded by project AgroBioTech ITMS 26220220180.
Methodology for determining the growth and production indicators Stem dynamics and their extension growth of perennial grass Miscanthus During the growing year (each year of the study), stem dynamics and their extension growth was investigated. Growth parameters were measured in interval of 14 days throughout the growing period. Plant height Photo: Kotrla, 2016 was determined as the distance from the soil
81 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation surface to the top of the longest stem. The Total dry biomass weight (Dw) is calculated stem height was measured by tape measure according to the formula: with a length of 5 m. The number of stems % Dw = (Dw / Fw). 100 per individual plants was investigated by (Dw is the dry weight, Fw is the fresh counting all of the stems within the clump weight,). during the growing period (n = 20 individuals). Growth and production analysis of the Attention was also paid to the root system. Miscanthus plantation The root system of grasses grows in an area The mortality of Miscanthus × giganteus referred to as tillering circle. The width of the in the year of the plantation tillering circle was assessed by direct establishment was relatively high (31% measurement in Miscanthus individuals mortality). The empty spaces left by the based on the circle area. This value was plants that died out were replanted by compared with the circle area reached at the new rhizomes at the beginning of the end of the previous growing period. second growing period in order to Evaluation of the tillering circle provides encourage full closed stand. information about an individual living space of a plant within the vegetation stand. The Miscanthus sinensis (Tatai) retained knowledge of the tillering circle dynamics complete closed stand after dormant within the growing period is an important period and there was no need to replant indicator of the planting distance in the any individuals at the beginning of the plantation establishment with regard to the second growing period. expected length of the growing period. Comparable results of Miscanthus × giganteus mortality were confirmed in the Destructive determination of the Czech Republic (Průhonice, Lukavec), where the mortality of individuals was 6- biomass production 25% (STRAŠIL, 2009). Determination of the biomass yield was carried out by the destructive method in the MAGA et al. (2008) state that non-growing period (during winter). The reproduction of Miscanthus for energy total above-ground biomass weight was use can be ensure only through planting determined after the cutting off the selected of rhizomes. Our research confirmed individuals. After drying of the biomass complete rootedness of Miscanthus samples in an oven at 105°C, the dry weight individuals using planting material in the was determined. Consequently, the form of seedlings produced by in vitro percentage of water content and dry matter method. After a year of growing the content was calculated. stands of the both experimental genotypes created a close canopy closure. 82 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The basic prerequisite for the efficient Slight differences in growth parameters of cultivation of plants for energy purposes the two Miscanthus genotypes were is the ability of the species and its hybrids observed. The individuals of Miscanthus to adapt to the given climatic area. sinensis (Tatai) produced slightly higher Miscanthus × giganteus produced clumps stems compared to the Miscantus × with the total average number of 26.07 giganteus individuals, as illustrated in the stems per clump and the biomass yield of Figure 2.2.1.7. Miscantus × giganteus 11.10 t ha-1 dry biomass at the research produced higher number of stems. The site (climatic conditions of the Southwest statistical evaluation did not confirm Slovakia) in the first year of cultivation. significant differences in the growth Miscanthus sinensis (Tatai) created on parameters between the both Miscanthus average 37.60 stems per clump and the genotypes in the studied years (Table biomass yield was 10.80 t ha-1. 2.2.1.2).
Figure 2.2.1.7. Comparison of the average height and number of stems of the Miscanthus genotypes (Prčík and Kotrla, 2016)
Legend: MG - Miscanthus × giganteus, MT - Miscanthus sinensis (Tatai)
83 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 2.2.1.2 ANOVA and Scheffe`s test of the plant height and number of stems (Prčík and Kotrla 2016)
Analysis of variance P ˂ 0.05 Sum of Degree of Mean F P Scheffe`s Significance squares freedom squares test P-value Plant 0.01 1 0.01 0.009431 0.431163 0.923341 n height Number 172.13 1 172.13 0.326591 0.572987 0.572987 n of stems Level of significance is defined as: n: non-significant impact, +: significant impact in P ≤ 0.05, ++: P ≤ 0.01 and +++: P ≤ 0.001
Dynamics of the aboveground dry matter The decrease of the dry weight at the end production of the Miscanthus genotypes of the growing period compared with the in the growing period 2013 (three years culmination of biomass production (late after the planting) are shown in Figure September) represents on average 17.5%. 2.2.1.8. The stand was analysed in the fourth year after planting. The canopy was Statistical evaluation did not confirm any fully closed. The largest increase in the significant differences in the dynamics of formation of the aboveground biomass the aboveground dry matter production was recorded in early summer (July). The between the Miscanthus genotypes in the total biomass weight culminated in late growing period 2013. The dependence of September 2013, when the values reached the aboveground dry matter formation on 2858.77 g DW in Miscanthus sinensis the plant height was statistically (Tatai) and 3348.31 g DW in Miscantus × significant (significance level α = 0.05). giganteus. The reduction of dry matter The dependence of the aboveground dry weight at the end of the growing period is matter formation on the number of stems related to the natural withering and was statistically significant (level of gradual leaf fall. At the end of the significance α = 0.05) (Figure 2.2.1.9). growing period, the dry weight of an individual of Miscanthus sinensis (Tatai) was 2411.32 g and 2702.03 g in Miscanthus × giganteus.
84 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 2.2.1.8. Dynamics of the above-ground dry matter of the Miscanthus genotypes in the growing period 2013
4000 T 3500 G 3000 2500 2000 1500
1000 Weight in grams of dry phytomass dry of grams in Weight 500 0
9.5. 8.7. 2.8. 9.9. 23.5. 10.6. 24.6. 16.7. 20.8. 23.9. 8.10. Date 25.10. Legend: T - Miscanthus sinensis (Tatai); G - Miscanthus × giganteus
Figure 2.2.1.9. Dependence of the aboveground dry weight (Dw) production on the average height of individual plants and the average number of stems of the Miscanthus genotypes in the growing season 2013
Dw vs. plant height Dw = -1371, + 1317,2 * plant height correlation : r = ,87763 3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
Dw
1000
500
0
-500 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,2 2,4 2,6 2,8 3,0 3,2 3,4 3,6 plant height 0.95 level confidence
85 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Dw vs. number of stems Dw = 6088,4 - 51,56 * number of stems correlation : r = -,8121 3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
Dw
1000
500
0
-500 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 number of stems 0.95 level confidence Kotrla and Prčík, 2014
Table 2.2.1.3. Above-ground dry biomass yields of the Miscanthus genotypes (t ha-1 year-1) grown at the research site in Kolíňany Energy plant / Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Miscantus × giganteus 11.10 18.10 27.10 30.30 30.90 Miscanthus sinensis (Tatai) 10.80 16.90 22.60 24.10 26.30 Miscanthus - average 10.95 17.50 24.85 27.20 28.60
Table 2.2.1.4. Single-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the biomass yields between the Miscanthus genotypes and individual experimental years (2010-2015), (level of significance is defined as: n: non-significant impact, +: significant impact in P ≤ 0.05, ++: P ≤ 0.01 and +++: P ≤ 0.001)
Analysed parameter F P-value F critical Significance
Miscanthus 158.0191 9.28E-69 1.947348 +++ genotypes and Years
86 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The biomass production of the Miscanthus BROSSE et al. (2012) found out that stand was observed annually since the Miscanthus production varies depending on establishment of the plantation in 2010 environmental conditions, time (Table 2.2.1.3). The moisture content of the management and harvesting. The results of harvested biomass ranged from 17 to 20%. studies on Miscanthus biomass production The average production of the above- in Europe and USA are presented by ground dry biomass of both genotypes HEATON et al. (2010b). The authors present reached 28.60 t ha-1 at the end of the fifth a range of utilizable production of 5-55 t growing year (2014) (Miscanthus × ha -1. In optimal conditions of the southern giganteus 30.9 t ha-1 and Miscanthus sinensis Europe, the production of dry biomass is (Tatai) 26.3 t ha-1). PORVAZ et al. (2008) about 25-30 t ha-1 (ANGELINY et al., 2009), recorded similar yields (36.54 t ha-1) of while irrigated conditions in Portugal Miscanthus sinensis Adress. in conditions of increased the production to 36 t ha-1 the Eastern Slovak Lowland. (CLIFTON-BROWN et al., 2001), 34-38 t ha-1 in Italy (ERCOLI et al., 1999; COSENTINO et The differences in biomass production of al., 2007) and 38-44 t ha-1 in Greece the studied Miscanthus genotypes are (DANALATOS et al., 2007). statistically highly significant in all growing periods (Table 2.2.1.4 and Figure 2.2.1.10).
Fig. 2.2.1.10. Linear trend function of the biomass growth of Miscanthus [t ha-1 year-1] in the studied years at the research site in Kolíňany
MG - Miscanthus × giganteus, MT - Miscanthus sinensis (Tatai)
87 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The dry matter yields gradually increased Miscanthus × giganteus had relatively high each growing year (2010 – 2014). Based on mortality (31%) in the year of the plantation the results, it can be stated that the two establishment of plantations. Miscanthus Miscanthus genotypes produced balanced sinensis (Tatai) was fully closed at the end of yields of dry matter each year in the given the growing period in 2010. There where conditions of the Nitra Region The genotype slight differences in the growth parameters Miscanthus × giganteus (GREEF et DEUTER) between the two Miscanthus genotypes. had slightly higher biomass production. Miscanthus sinensis (Tatai) produced slightly We can state that energy grass Miscanthus longer stems compared to the Miscantus × adapts well to variable environmental giganteus. The individuals of Miscanthus × conditions of Slovakia. It is a perennial grass giganteus had higher number of stems. The introduced to Europe from of East Asia. It differences in the growth parameters of both belongs to plants with C4 type of Miscanthus genotypes were not statistically photosynthesis that effectively utilize solar significant. radiation and convert it in photosynthetic processes and distribute the formed organic The average biomass production (both matter preferentially to the aboveground genotypes) was 24.85 t ha-1 DW in the third organs. It also uses water efficiently. Soils growing year (2012), which represent an suitable for growing energy plants in increase by almost 60 % in comparison with Slovakia are included in quality groups 5–9. 2011. At the end of the fifth growing year Due to the sufficient amount of soils for the (2014), the average dry biomass production food production in Slovakia, a relatively large was 28.60 t ha-1 (Miscanthus × giganteus 30.9 portion of agricultural soils can be used for t ha-1 and Miscanthus sinensis (Tatai) 26.3 t the cultivation of fast-growing plants. Two ha-1). The biomass yield gradually increased genotypes of Miscanthus – Miscantus × each growing year during the whole research giganteus (the planting material consisted of period (2010–2014). Both genotypes rhizomes) and Miscanthus sinensis (Tatai) provided each year a balanced biomass (planting material consisted of seedlings production that exceeded the economic produced in vitro) were included in the field threshold. The plantations of energy plants experiments established in Kolíňany, Nitra are able to create a positive agro-ecosystem Region (Slovakia) in 2010. The basic working in the agricultural landscape in Slovakia. They methods of the study included the provide wide range of ecosystem services. monitoring of climatic factors and the The main benefit of the energy plantations is selected methodology for determining the their production potential (provisioning growth and production indicators – ecosystem services) used in the bioenergy as dynamics of the number of stems and their an alternative source of energy. extension growth and destructive determination of biomass production.
88 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
ANGELINY, L.G. – CECCARINI, L. – DiNASSO, N.N. – BONARI, E. 2009. Comparison of Arundo donax L. and Miscanthus × giganteus in a long-term field experiment in Central Italy: analysis of productive characteristics and energy balance. Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 33, pp. 635–643. ISSN 0961-9534. BROSSE, N. – DUFOUR, A. – MENG, X. – SUN, Q. – R GAUSKAS, A. 2012. Miscanthus: a fast-growing crop for biofuels and chemicals production. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining, 6 (5), 580– 598. DOI: 10.1002/bbb.1353 CLIFTON-BROWN, J.C. – Lewandowski, I. – Andersson, B. – Basch, G. –Christian, D.G. – Kjeldsen, J.B. – Jørgensen, U. – Mortensen, J.V. – Riche, A.B. – Schwarz, K.U. – Tayebi, K. – Teixeira, F.l. 2001. Performance of 15 Miscanthus genotypes at five sites in Europe. Agronomy Journal, vol. 93, pp. 1013–1019. ISSN 1435-0645. CLIFTON-BROWN, J.C. – LEWANDOWSKI. I. 2000. Water use efficiency and biomass partitioning of three different Miscanthus genotypes with limited and unlimited water supply, Annals of botany, Vol. 86, 2000a, p. 191-200. COSENTINO, S.L. – PATANÉ, C. – SANZONE, E. – COPANI, V. – FOTI, S. 2007. Effect of soil water content and nitrogen supply on the productivity of Miscanthus × giganteus, Greef and Deuter. in a Mediterranean environment. Industrial Crops and Products, vol. 25, pp. 75–88. ISSN 0926-6690. DANALATOS, N.G. – ARCHONTOULIS, S.V. – MITSIOS, I. 2007. Potential growth and biomass productivity of Miscanthus x giganteus as affected by plant density and N-fertilization in central Greece. Biomass and Bioenergy, 31, 145–152 DEMO, M. – HÚSKA, D. – JUREKOVÁ, Z. – MIKLÓS, N. 2013. Ozdobnica čínska (Miscanthus sinensis A.) ako zdroj biomasy pre energetické účely – pestovateľské technológie. [Chinese silvergrass (Miscanthus sinensis A.) as a source of biomass for energy purposes - growing technologies.] Nitra: Slovak University of Agriculture, 43. ISBN 978-80-552-0978-4. ERCOLI, L. – MARIOTTI, M. – MASONI, A. – BONARI, E. 1999. Effect of irrigation and nitrogen fertilization on biomass yield and efficiency of energy use in crop production of Miscanthus. Field Crops Research, 63 (1), 3–11. DOI: 10.1016/S0378-4290(99)00022-2 ERICSSON, K. – ROSENQVIST, H. – NILSSON, L.J. 2009. Energy crop production costs in the EU. Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 33, no. 11, pp. 1577- 1586. GREEF, J.M. – DEUTER, M. 1993. Syntaxonomy of Miscanthus × giganteus, GREEF et DEU. Angewandte Botanik, 67, 1993, p. 87-90. HEATON, E.A. – DOHLEMAN, F.G. – MIGUEZ, F.E. – LONG, S. P. 2010. Miscanthus: a promising biomass crop. Advances in Botanical Research, vol. 56, pp. 75–137. ISBN 978-0-12-800030-4. HEATON, E.A. – DOHLEMAN, F.G. – MIGUEZ, A.F. – JUVIK, J.A. – LOZOVAYA, V. – WIDHOLM, J. – ZABATINA, O.A. – MCISAAC, G.F. – DAVID, M.B. – VOIGT, T.B. – BOERSMA, N.N. – LONG, S.P. 2010b. Miscanthus: a promising biomass crop. Advances in Botanical Research, 56, 75–137. DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2296(10)56003-8 JANDAČKA, J. – PAPUČÍK, Š. – NOSEK, R. – HOLUBČÍK, M. – KAPJOR, A. 2011. Environmental and energy aspects of biomass combustion. Žilina : GEORG. 2011. 305 p. JUREKOVÁ, Z. – HÚSKA, D. – KOTRLA, M. – PRČÍK, M. – HAUPTVOGL, M. 2015. Comparison of energy sources grown on agricultural land. Acta regionalia et environmentalica 12, 1, p. 37--42. ISSN 1336-5452.
89 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
JUREKOVÁ, Z. – DRAŽIČ, G. – MILOVANOVIČ, J. – BABOVIČ, N. – SPASIČ, S. – MARIŠOVÁ, E. – KONČEKOVÁ, L. – KOTRLA, M. – TÓTHOVÁ, M. In JUREKOVÁ, Z. – DRAŽIĆ, G. (eds.): External and internal factors influencing the growth and biomass production of short rotation woods genus Salix and perennial grass Miscanthus. Belgrade : Universitet Singidunum 2011, 179 s. ISBN 978- 86-86859-26-6. KHANNA, M. – DHUNGANA, B. – CLIFTON-BROWN, J. 2010. Costs of producing Miscanthus and switchgrass for bioenergy in Illinois. Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 32, no. 6, pp. 482-493. KOTRLA, M. – PRČÍK, M. 2011. Možnosti využitia pestovania energetických rastlín na poľnohospodársky nevyužívanej pôde v podmienkach Slovenska: Possibilities of using energy crops grown on non- agricultural land in Slovakia. In Konkurencieschopnosť a inovácie na poľnohospodárskej pôde v SR. Nitra: Slovak University of Agriculture, p. 15--20. ISBN 978-80-552-0734-6 KOTRLA, M. – PRČÍK, M. 2014. Growth dynamics of perennial energy grass genus Miscanthus studied in Slovakia. In: 14th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM 2014, SGEM2014 Conference Proceedings, Book 4, Vol. 1, 253-260, 19-25 June 2014, Sofia, Bulgaria DOI: 10.5593/SGEM2014/B41/S17.033 LEWANDOWSKI, I. – SCURLOCK, J.M.O. – LINDVALL, E. – CHRISTOU, M. 2003. The development and current status of perennial rhizom at ous grasses as energy crops in the US and Europe. Biomas and Bioenergy, vol. 25, pp. 335-361. MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FISHERIES – MAFF, 2001. Planting and Growing Miscanthus – Best Practice Guidelines, DEFRA Publications, PB No. 5424, London, 20 p. MAGA, J. – NOZDROVICKÝ, L. – PEPICH, Š. – MARHAVÝ, Ľ. –, HAJDU, Š. 2008. Komplexný model využitia biomasy na energetické účely. [The comprehensive model of using biomass for energy purposes.] Nitra: Slovak University of Agriculture, 183. ISBN 978-80-552-0029-3. NIELSEN, P.N. 1987. Vegetativ formering at elehantgraes, Miscanthus sinensis „Giganteus“) (vegetative propagation of Miscanthus sinensis „Giganteus“). Tidsskrift Planteavl 91: 361-368 PORVAZ, P. – POLÁK, M. – STRIČÍK, M. 2008. Pestovanie ozdobnice čínskej (Miscanthus sinensis Anderss.) na energetické účely. Michalovce : SCPV – Ústav agroekológie. 32 p. ISBN 978-80-88872-93-1. PRČÍK, M. – KOTRLA, M. 2016. Different planting material for establishment of the Miscanthus energy grass plantation. Journal of Central European Agriculture, 2016, 17(3) … in press, manuscript acceptance on 26 June 2016 ROSENBERG, N.J. – BLAD, B.L. – VERMA, S.B. 1983. Microclimate. The Biological Environment. 2nd edn. New York : John Wiley and Sons. pp. 128-131. STRAŠIL, Z. 2009. Základy pěstování a možnosti využití ozdobnice (Miscanthus). [Basics of cultivation and possibilities for using of Miscanthus.] Prague : Crop Research Institute, 48. ISBN 978-80-7427- 006-2. VILČEK, J. 2011. Potential and quality parameters of farmland in Slovakia. Geographical Journal, 63 (2), 133-154. ISSN 0016-7193. WALSCH, M. 1997. Miscanthus handbook – EU project FAIR 3-CT96-1707.Cork: Hyperion WEIH, M. – KARACIC, A. – MUNKERT, H. – VERWIJST, T. – DIEKMAN, M. 2003. Influence of young poplar stands on floristic diversity in agricultural landscape (Sweden). Basic and Applied Ecology, vol. 4, pp. 149-156. ISSN 1439-1791. ACT No. 220/2004 Coll. on the protection and use of agricultural land
90 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
2.2.2. Fast-growing perennial grass Miscanthus – results from Serbia
In accordance with priorities of sustainable applied in improvements of degraded areas development in Serbia, production and use remediation through a cultivation of agro- of biomass are crucial for provision of energy crops. Comparing the production of annually renewable national sources of energy crops on fertile and degraded soils energy and for environmental quality with other agricultural and forest cultures conservation. Rural development has through determination of a) minimal typically focused on improving agricultural requirements to be met by soil in order to production and promoting market sustain energy, environmentally and orientation, however, as the examples of economically efficient production of agro- other countries in the EU accession process energy crops, b) minimal yields and techno- have shown (e.g. Slovakia), such an economic parameters for production of approach could threaten the survival of a agro-energy crops and c) realistic rural population. Biomass production is one possibilities for production of energy crops of the key sectors with significant potential in degraded areas, PE Electric Power for diversification of rural economy Industry of Serbia in focus. (DRAŽIĆ, et al., 2015). The results of multiannual research work supported by The research is mainly related to Miscanthus the Ministry of Education, Science and × giganteus GREEF et DEUTER. The Technological Development of the Republic production potentials of Miscanthus on of Serbia through national scientific projects fertile and degraded soils were investigated (NPEE 263003 “Ecological aspects of since 2009 in experimental plots as well as cultivation technology for highly-productive pot experiments established on moderate plant Miscanthus giganteus as a basis of and extremely degraded lands from Serbia, new bio-energy fuel” 2006-2009; TR20208 applying various agrotechnical measures in “Bio-rational use and eco-remediation of different ecological conditions (Group of soil through cultivation of industrial crops” authors, 2011, in JUREKOVÁ and DRAŽIĆ, 2009-2010; TR31078 “Ecoremediation of Group of authors, 2014, in MILOVANOVIĆ, degraded areas through agro-energy crops Eds.). The Research and Development production” 2011-2016) and several Centre of the Faculty of Applied Ecology international initiatives are summarized in formed the experimental fields of agro- this chapter. energy crop Miscanthus × giganteus. The goal of the research centre was the The aim of a current research was to formation of network of scientific polygons provide a scientific basis for development, which would carry out research on the application and long-term maintenance of cultivation possibility of Miscanthus as well eco-remediation technologies already as the induction of agricultural practices in
91 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation line with the objectives of the Strategy of municipality (44° 28´ 16.41‘‘ N, 20° 14‘ agriculture and sustainable development, to 59.62‘‘ E) coal mining overburden, last two ensure: improvement of the quality of life in belonging to PE Electric Power Industry of rural areas and poverty reduction; Serbia. In some experimental fields the sustainable resource management and canopy not established after planting due environmental protection; adaptation and to extremely soil and environmental mitigation of climate change impacts; conditions: native wetland in Platicevo raising awareness of the importance of (region Srem) because high competition of renewable energy and the production of native vegetation, meadow in Kozjak energy crops; efficient management of because low pH 4,2, arable soil after flood public policies and improvement of the two weeks after planting, ash and slag institutional framework for the development disposal after first year because of rabbit of agriculture and rural areas; diversification grazing. of rural economy; improvement of soil fertility; reduction of loss and land I Field experiment: Survival risk in degradation; permanent monitoring of soil the first year quality (DRAŽIĆ et al., 2015; DRAŽIĆ and MILOVANOVIĆ, 2010). Survival risk in the first year represents the total of risks associated with a degree of Experimental fields were established on emergency, risk from summer droughts fertile arable soil (chernozem) in Zemun and risk from winter frosts. In Zasavica municipality (44° 51‘ 14.20´´ N, 20° 22‘ experimental field, for the research 39.97‘‘ E) and Vrsac 44° 6‘ 18.44‘‘ N,21° 18‘ period, the nearest meteorological station 7.2‘‘ E); moderate degraded arable soil in didn’t record extreme frosts in the Kozjak, Loznica municipality 44° 35‘ 7‘‘ N, 2010/2011 winter, but a low frost incident 19° 17‘ 2‘‘ E and Zasavica / hydromorphic was recorded in March 2011. Also, there black soil, humogley (44° 57´38.73‘‘ N, 19° were no summer droughts, even more, 33‘ 2.68‘‘ E); industrial deposol TENT B, the experimental field was flooded in July Obrenovac municipality, ash and slag 2010 (DRAŽIĆ et al., 2012). disposal (44° 65‘ 49.78‘‘ N, 20° 00‘ 16.58‘‘ E) and Mining basin Kolubara, Lazarevac
92 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 2.2.2.1. Losses of Miscanthus plants in the first year Experimental site Degree of Summer Winter Late frost emergency damage freezing damage* % % damage*% % Zemun 92 (72-96) 5 (2-10) 5 (3-7) 14 (5-20) Ralja 90 (85-95) 5 (2-9) 10 (5-12) 12 (5- 15) Kozjak 86 (70-90) 7 (3-11) 2 (0-3) 3 (1-5) Zasavica 84 (80-92) 5 (3-12) 2 (0-3) 5 (0-11)
A date represents averages of 3 samples by significant impact on its survival rates. A 100 plants in field experiments, without reason for this most likely lies in the plant watering and fertilizer; an interval of biology since one of its parent plants is experimental data was done in parenthesis. Miscanthus sinensis which is characterized by high resistance to environmental conditions. Results show that there are no significant Weeds which appeared in large number, losses during the first vegetation season since there was no herbicide treatment in the even without application of agro-technical previous year, had no significant impact on measures (DRAŽIĆ et al., 2014) Miscanthus. Flooding in July was low so Miscanthus shoots, which are adapted to Table 2.2.2.2. shows that Miscanthus these conditions by its origin, remained in rhizomes survival rates are almost same in all contact with the atmosphere and there were examined cases. This means that neither no plant deaths. weeds nor meteorological conditions have a
Table 2.2.2.2. Miscanthus rhizomes survival rates Degree of emergency % Degree of emergency % Description September 2010 May 2011 Control 88 88 Fertilization 86 86 Mechanical weed control 84 83 Chemical weed control 80 80 Flooding 80 78 Late frost 86 83 Fire 85 82
93 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
A set of bio-morphological parameters 5. Width and length of the green part of was established and was monitored at all the leaf. experimental fields once a month (May to 6. Tillering. November): 1. Height of the crop. In Zasavica experimental field plant 2. Total number of leaves. viability was measured at 1st and 2nd year 3. Number of green leaves. of canopy and results are presented in 4. Number of dried leaves. Table 2.2.2.3.
Table 2.2.2.3. Values of measured key parameters for Miscanthus biomass development Damage Damage Tillering Tillering Height cm Height cm Description % % 1st year 2nd year 1st year 2nd year 1styear 2ndyear Control 14 39 4 5 130 250 Fertilization 12 36 2 7 126 240 Mechanical weed 11 30 2 4 132 266 control Chemical weed 5 22 4 5 140 278 control Flooding 6 26 18 5 115 233 Late frost - 26 43 6 121 246 Fire - 42 - 8 - 252
Experimental conditions had the biggest significant impact on plant height and leaf influence on tillering in the first vegetation damage. However, weeds significantly period. Maximal values are from the control reduced tillering in the following vegetation sample plots with all agro-technical period. measures applied. The application of fertilizer is most relevant for the number of shoots Summer flooding also had a major impact which are developed from a single rhizome, on tillering, with a reduction of over 50%, however, the number of shoots can be and also caused leaf damage to appear on reduced due to weed presence and flooding. already developed leaves and slight plant Mechanical weed removal had better results. height reduction in the first year. In the In control sample plots weed control was second year, the impacts of flooding are also conducted by both mechanical and chemical present with a significant tillering reduction. measures. Weed emergence didn’t have a 94 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Late frost had an impact on tillering in the in the first year of the development had a second year since it damaged already different influence on the crop height. developed leaves which led to a month later Different amounts of nitrogen did not have start of vegetation. an influence on stem height (CHRISTIAN et Fire in the February 2011 destroyed all the al. 2008; CLIFTON-BROWN et al., 2001). aboveground shoots which would be Miscanthus reaches its maximum height in harvested, so it hadn’t caused rhizome the first part of September, and in October it damage or reduced tillering and plant height finishes its vegetation cycle and the height of in the following year. the stem gradually decreases due to the climate factors (DRAŽIĆ et al., 2010). The The specific conditions on the location of the crop reached the biggest height in the experimental field impede the conduction treatment with the lowest density of 1 agro-technical measures, crop care and rhizome/m² of 90-147 cm, and the lowest in harvest. Due to its unfavorable properties the treatment with 3 rhizomes/m² 68-120 and agro-ecological conditions, the soil on cm. the location represents a bad environment for agriculture crop growth. On the other With the increase in the amount of used hand, these conditions are similar to the nitrogen, the increase of the % of leaves in natural environment at Miscanthus origine the total biomass yield is noticed, which is (DRAŽIĆ et al., 2012). especially noticeable during the beginning of the winter. In December, in the treatment II Field experiment: development without using nitrogen there is a significant decrease in the percentage of the leaves in of aboveground biomass the total biomass. Experiment treatments The influence of weed control, planting with used amount of nitrogen of 50-100 density, mineral fertilizer application and kg/ha keep their leaves longer on the stems watering was investigated at beginning of and by that they increase the percentage of Miscanthus canopy development by the share of leaves in the total biomass of monitoring of bio-morphological yield. Tillering intensity, new stems formation parameters. from a single vital rhizome (stems/1 rhizome) increases with the increase of the amount of In all investigated locations plant height and used nitrogen. With the increase of the tillering were more or less influenced by plantation density, the dynamics of tillering applied agro-technical measures while decreases. The most intense tillering of 19 number and dimension of leaves had no stems/1 rhizomes until the end of vegetation significant differences. But stem/leaves ratio cycle is noticed in the fields with the depends on applied fertilizer /Table 1.4. plantation density of 2 rhizomes/m² and (MITIĆ et al., 2012; DRAŽIĆ et al., 2010; amounts of used nitrogen of 50-100 kg/ha. DŽELETOVIĆ et al., 2009). Plantation density
95 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Experiment treatment with the biggest yield in the beginning of October, and until plantation density without used nitrogen had harvest in February the average decrease in the lowest average number of a stems/1 yield varies from 31,7 to 38,5% depending rhizome. In the first year, there wasn’t on experiment treatment. An increasing noticed significant influence on the tillering amount of nitrogen increases in all intensity with the amounts of 50-100 kg/ha, plantation densities. In the fields with a and the most significant variations were bigger amount of used nitrogen leaves noticed between the treatment without stayed on the stems for a longer period of nitrogen and the amount of 50 kg/ha. time which decreases pre-harvest losses Miscanthus achieves its maximum biological (MITIĆ et al., 2012).
Table 2.2.2.4. Percentage of leaves in the total biomass of yield - the first year
Date Treatment Leaves Stems kgN/ha upper lower top bottom part ∑ ∑ 0 38,4 20,3 16,1 25,2 41,3 29 June 58,7 50 41,0 19,0 18,7 22,3 40,0 60,0 100 37,0 16,1 17,2 29,7 46,9 53,1 0 42,7 9,8 22,3 25,2 47,5 3 November 52,5 50 44,1 12,9 20,9 22,1 43,0 57,0 100 46,4 9,2 25,0 19,4 44,4 55,6 0 29,0 4,7 26,1 40,2 66,3 33,7 50 33,6 7,2 24,4 34,8 59,2 19 December 40,8 100 31,2 6,9 23,9 38,0 61,9 38,1 0 24,7 2,8 20,7 51,8 72,5 23 February 27,5 50 29,8 5,1 22 ,8 42,3 65,1 34,9 100 27,4 3,9 21,6 47,1 68,7 31,3
96 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Productivity The investigations of biomass production Soil type is humogley and the level of the were conducted at wetland ecosystem ground water is very high. The land is near protected natural reserve of Zasavica divided by a meliorative canal on which in Srem region, near Nocaj village banks wild cane (Phragmites) grows which (DRAŽIĆ et al., 2012). A part of natural is being repressed by mechanical wetland ecosystem was used for methods to clear the land for arable agricultural production (crop farming), crops. Parts that are not cleared are under and a part stayed in natural condition. In wild willow (Salix). 2010 field experiment was established with fast growing crop Miscanthus x Yields measured in October present giganteus in two variations: application of maximum yields for the whole research basic agrotechnical measures and year and they ranged from 0.520 kg/m2 application of complete agrotechnical (5.2 t/ha) for Miscanthus without measures. agrotechnical measures and from 0.745 kg/m2 for willow. Real yields were Biomass production (kg/m2) was measured in the early spring and they measured in terms of maximal ranged from 0.322 kg/m2 for Miscanthus production, in October 2011 and without agrotechnical measures to 0.484 recommended harvest time in February kg/m2 for Miscanthus grown with 2012 for Miscanthus I (with complete agrotechnical measures (Figure 2.2.2.1). agrotechnical measures), Miscanthus II As the samples contained different (just basic treatment), natural vegetation amounts of moisture, values are common reed (Phragmites communis) and calculated to a technological moisture natural vegetation of willow (Salix sp.) level of 15% and dry matter. The way of (DRAŽIĆ et al., 2012). Experiment field is results presentation did not affect the located in the area of Nocaj village, ratio of measured biomass so Miscanthus municipality of Sremska Mitrovica, near without agrotechnical measures achieved Special reservation of nature of Zasavica. similar yields as a cane which was lower compared to Miscanthus with Natural vegetation is characterized as a agrotechnical measures and willow (which swamp, but the soil is used for agricultural are closely related). production of arable crops (mostly corn).
97 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 2.2.2.1. Comparative review of yield
The second experimental field was nutrients contents and poor structure, but established on the dumps of lignite mine good water balance. In 2014, there was high tailings of the MB Kolubara. Variants of the precipitation in this region during whole experiment were two doses of NPK fertilizer, vegetative period caused strong two terms of fertilization and two planting increasements of yield (Figure 2.2.2.4). One densities. The yields (Figure 2.2.2.2) were not year after, the high yield was stable reaching in the function of these variants but in the to 9.200 kg/ha of technically dry mass function of competition with the native (DRAŽIĆ et al., 2014). vegetation. The experimental parcel was formed just before an establishment of the The yield on experimental field Zasavica in experiment so that a spontaneous 2014. (harvested at February 2015) was up to development of pioneering vegetation 9 times bigger than in previous years (Figure occurred there. In this case, the plantings of 2.2.2.3) The same shape of yield change Miscanthus not only that did not have a during several years was for all experimental negative effect on the spontaneous fields indicate that climate characteristics vegetation but they are in a strong have the strongest impact on biomass competition so that he even their future production while a ratio for differences development is challenged (STEFANOVIĆ et obtained in accordance of agro-technical al., 2016). Overburden soil in mining basin measurements was the same during whole Kolubara belongs to deposol type and it is investigated period (STEFANOVIĆ et al., characterized with low organic matter, low 2016). 98 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 2.2.2.2. Yields during three years on the overburden soil from Mining Basin Kolubara
Figure 2.2.2.3. Miscanthus in Zasavica, Figure 2.2.2.4. Miscanthus in Kolubara, November, 2014 November, 2014
99 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
III field experiment: development increase of shoots with the age of plants of nursery was recorded at all examined locations.
Miscanthus biomass yield can be limited At Zasavica location (humogley) there was by poor rhizome establishment and this is the largest number of shoots (70) with the linked to rhizome age and storage application of agrotechnical measures conditions prior to planting. To avoid and the age of 3 years, while the smallest poor establishment, best practice number was found at the Kolubara recommends field planting directly after location without agrotechnical measures rhizome division. Operations avoiding application and age of 1 year. By rhizome storage, and utilizing favorable comparing locations, it is noticeable that climatic conditions at planting, may be Miscanthus on humogley in Zasavica climatologically and logistically develops similar number in shoots as the challenging when large areas are planted benchmark, fertile chernozem in Vrsac. at high rhizome densities (DAVIES et al. 2011). Clump diameter is a biometric characteristic that shows coverage of the area of land Our aim is to evaluate impacts of nursery and it is important for research of the age and soil type to produce and optimal planting density as well as in maintain rhizome viability when planted closing structure and weed resistance. For under conditions of fertile (Vrsac) and clump diameter in the same field degraded soil (Zasavica and Kolubara). experiments as tillering the slowest Chosen locations are different primarily development is found at deposol in by soil characteristics. Biometric Kolubara (24 cm) without application of characteristics in Figure 1. show the state agrotechnical measures, and the largest of growth of Miscanthus at the on chernozem in Vrsac with care and experimental fields in the conditions protection (66 cm) in the third vegetation. where no measures of care were applied Based on the examined biometric (A) and for the field experiment in which characteristics, we can notice that there was fertilization directly before previous Miscanthus development was planting, watering right after the planting quite similar to the locations Zasavica and and two more times during the first Vrsac, while it is significantly less at the summer and mechanically removing weed Kolubara location (deposol). On the three times during the first year of contrary, the effect of agrotechnical development and once during the second measures is the most significant at the year (B). The number of steams per location with the lowest quality soil, rhizome (tillering) is an indicator deposol (DRAŽIĆ et al., 2014). aboveground biomass development in the previous vegetative period. The 100 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
At all three locations, the biggest Pot experiment: phytoremediation production of rhizomes was from three of heavy metals years old nursery, and the lowest from the one from the last year, including There are many locations where soil agrotechnical measures. In the experiment quality improvements would be beneficial without agrotechnical measures, the because of contamination, erosion, biggest development of biomass above flooding, or past human activities. ground and underground was recorded in Miscanthus grows well in mildly Vrsac which was expected considering soil contaminated soil and on sites where soil fertility. Namely, at that location, quality is poor, particularly with respect to measured content of humus was 1.71% nitrogen. Because of its high biomass which is significantly more than at other yield, it is of interest as an energy crop, locations (Zasavica 0.60% and Kolubara and as a plant to use for simultaneous 0.64%). With the application of crop production and phytoremediation agrotechnical measures parameters of (PIDLISNYUK et al., 2014). Miscanthus development at the Phytoremediation is considered an experimental field Zasavica is getting environmentally friendly and potentially close to the values of the experimental economical approach, well suited for field in Vrsac, especially for rhizomes large areas, which have relatively low produced from three-year plants. levels of contamination. Having a safe,
marketable product of the The results of the experiment in Kolubara phytoremediation process can greatly show that the Miscanthus development is enhance the benefits in the overall significantly limited without agrotechnical economic balance. By use of a perennial measures even though the canopy energy crop that shows low accumulation survives in these extreme conditions. With of contaminants, one both manages the irrigation, fertilization and weed removing, contamination and receives a cash return results are becoming comparable with the on the use of the land. Forest products ones acquired in other locations. All three may be comparably effective and may locations show that rhizomes are mostly show a net economic gain, but the return viable from over 50% of rhizomes from of most timber crops is low on an the nursery at Kolubara to almost 95% for annualized basis. rhizomes produced from three-year nursery at Zasavica with measures To characterize Miscanthus potentials of (ARANĐELOVIĆ et al., 2014). phytoremediation process on industrial disposals contaminated with heavy metals we conduct the research on degraded soil belonging PE Electric Power Industry of Serbia. Chemical analyze of Cd and Ni
101 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation content in ash from termo-energetic plant It has been reported a reduction in height TENT B and overburden of coal mine of steams by 30% on average, in the open pits in Kolubara shows that contents presence of heavy metals in the substrate, of plant available heavy metal not the other parameters were not reached MDK limits (DRAŽIĆ et al., 2014). significantly changed. The presence of So, the experiment was done in pots with heavy metals in the fertile soil did not adding Cd + Ni. affect negatively the growth of Miscanthus, some steams have reached a The experiment is based on 05.05.2012. height of one meter which was not the year by planting 54 rhizomes to the pots case in the courts where they are applied with 10 l of a substrate. Rhizomes at the only to fertilization treatments and time of planting were two years old, stimulation (control group). The Number originally from experimental plots in the of leaves is slightly smaller in the pots Zasavica (founded in 2010). Substrates: with cadmium and nickel. In addition of Ash from disposal of TENT B; Fertile soil heavy metals, there has been a greater as a control; Overburden from Kolubara yield reduction, while the intensity of Basin. Fertilization was applied in 36 pots tillering is even higher in the pots with with the defined treatments. Heavy metals heavy metals. The length of leaves and were added in 18 pots, 250 ml solution their number remained unchanged cadmium chloride concentration 228.4 (ARANĐELOVIĆ et al., 2014). ppm (57.1 mg CdCl2) (DRAŽIĆ et al., 2004; DRAŽIĆ et al., 2006) and 250 ml of nickel Miscanthus on the ashy substrate absorbs chloride concentration of 518.8 ppm three times higher amount of Cd than (129.7 mg NiCl2) (MIHAJLOVIĆ and Miscanthus on the soil and about 200% DRAŽIĆ, 2011). Treatment of rhizome with more than that one on the overburden. growth stimulator is performed by adding the 90 ppm acetylsalicylic acid (DRAŽIĆ and The stimulator of grown was significantly MIHAJLOVIĆ, 2005; REF SA 1,2,). contributed increasing amounts of Cd in Measurement of bioproduction Miscanthus the soil and overburden (Figure 2.2.2.5). and Heavy metal contents was made The maximum amount of Ni adsorbed 27/09/2012. Measurements of Miscanthus onto the overburden without growth included the monitoring: 1. Height of the stimulant. Ni is increased by the adding of crop, 2. The total number of leaves - the growth stimulator on the soil and ashes number of green leaves, the number of while on the overburden rate of the nickel dried leaves, the width of the green part is decreasing (Figure 2.2.2.6). of the leaf and the length of the green part of leaves and 3. Tillering.
102 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 2.2.2.5. The content of the cadmium in the dry residue
Figure 2.2.2.6. The nickel content in the dry residue
The results indicated that production of plant growth regulator may provide an Miscanthus as biofuel of a second opportunity to manage the generation on locations contaminated by phytoremediation process according to its Cd and Ni is possible, but with slowed goal: produce biomass without heavy growth and reduced yield. Salicylate as
103 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation metals for fuel or remediate contaminated measures is similar to willow production soil by phyto-extraction of heavy metals. and that it is bigger than natural reed production (DRAŽIĆ et al, 2012). The Energy balance heating value, ash content and moisture content are determined in accordance Potential energy yield per unit of a soil with standards ÖNORM EN 14918, DIN surface in Zasavica experimental field was 51719, ÖNORM EN 14775 and ÖNORM calculated based on determined EN 14774 after preparation of pellets parameters with a requirement of similar from the total sample of Miscanthus, conditions. The results show that Common reed and Willow from the early Miscanthus production with the spring harvest (Table 2.2.2.5). application of complete agrotechnical
Table 2.2.2.5. Energy values in Zasavica Sample Upper Heatin Ash Ash Upper Moisture content heating g content content heating value value (815°C) (550°C) value Unit MJ/kg MJ/kg % (dry) % (dry) MJ/m2 % Miscanthus I 18,88 17,6 5,22 5,28 7,10 7,72 Miscanhtus II 18,83 17,55 5,30 5,29 5,10 8,09 Willow 19,79 18,51 3,50 4,02 4,86 6,64 Common 18,98 17,70 4,78 4,97 6,85 7,2 reed
The results presented in Table 1, showed that ash content in pellets not met pellet A comparative analysis of results obtained fuel standard requirements (<1,5%) of by the combustion of pure Miscanthus German standard DIN 51731. In general, cane briquettes, cane briquettes mixed the leaf material has more ash content with poplar (Populus nigra) and softwood than the grass stems, so agricultural and a mixture of only poplar and strategies like a choice of soil type for softwood were performed for Miscanthus producing crops, selection of mechanical crop produced in Vršac. Through analysis harvesting techniques and reducing the of energy technical characteristics of leaf component by delaying the harvest briquettes originating from the hybrid may considerably improve the suitability species Miscanthus × giganteus, it was of biomass for combustion plants concluded that a large biomass (POČUČA and DRAŽIĆ, 2012). production per unit area of 10-30 104 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation t/ha/year can make up for the calorific value, as evidenced by mixing shortcomings reflected in a higher ash Miscanthus with poplar and softwood in a (3.30%) and coke (18.34%) content, and in mass ratio of 50:25:25. It can also be a somewhat lower calorific value (16.08 concluded that it is ecologically and MJ/kg) in relation to wood biomass economically more profitable to produce briquettes. A production of briquettes briquettes that have a higher content of which are a mixture of Miscanthus and Miscanthus and a lower content of wood some other kind of biomass is proposed, biomass, whose period of growth and in which Miscanthus would have a higher development is much longer (DRAŽIĆ et percentage. This would ensure compact al., 2016). Briquettes meet the EU briquettes with a low percentage of standards for biofuels (Table 2.2.2.6) moisture, ash and coke residue and a high
Table 2.2.2.6. Technical characteristics of briquettes compared to EU standards Austrija Measured value Germany Specification ÖNORM DIN 51731Drvni briketi M 1735 M MTČ Briquets: 5 clases (cm) Ø: 40 – lenght Ø 120 mm HP1 >30 >10 Dimensions Max. HP2 15 – 30 6 – 10 8,5 -12 cm 8,5 -12 cm lenght: HP3 10 – 15 3 – 7 8,5 -12 cm 8,5 -12 cm 400 HP4 <10 1 – 4 mm HP5 <5 0,4 – 1 Specific 0.8-1.2 ≥1kg/dm3 1-1,4 g/cm3 0.8-1.2 g/cm3 density g/cm3 Water content ≤18% ≤12% 8,30% 11,67 Ash content ≤6% * ≤1,5% 3,30% 2,34%
≥18MJ/kg 16,08 Energy value 17,5MJ/kg–19,5MJ/kg 16,17MJ/kg * MJ/kg
* dry mass, M Miscanthus; MTČ Miscanthus 50%+ Poplar 25%+softwood 25%
Energy balance (energy output – energy 211,86 (A) i 145,96 (B) GJha-1, and for input) were calculated for chernozem humogley 235,80 (A) i 247,30 (B) GJ
105 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation ha-1 after 3 years (A: watering+fertilizing; diesel fuel 50L ha-1 for the preparation to B: without watering and fertilizing) the grounds, and 40L ha-1 for the harvest, (DRAŽIĆ et al., 2015). cutting and removal of biomass from the When calculating the energy input has field (1 km). been taken into account consumption of
Table 2.2.2.7. Net energy yields MJ ha-1 Development Chernozem Humoglej years A B A B 2nd 60945 31564 145362 122498 3rdcutings 211858 145956 235803 247297 3rd pelets 197613 136026 235442 230486
If the calculation is applied to subsequent very suitable for combustion and years in which the yield was significantly briquette. higher energy yields would be at the level of literature data for arable soil Establishment of Miscanthus plantation (MILOVANOVIĆ et al., 2012). has been considered at partially degraded land and biomass processing into pellets Economy (briquettes). Calculations have been based on realistic prices of raw material and Based on the own researches done with services, realistically expected yield of Miscanthus, basic techno-economic technologically dry biomass of Miscanthus analysis has shown that production of (10 to 30 t/ha/year) and current prices of Miscanthus is possible in Serbia at a conventional and alternative energy technological level, respecting ecosystem sources and electricity prices defined by limitations and application of appropriate the Regulation on incentives for agro-technical measures. production of electricity from renewable
sources. The greatest investments in the Biomass of Miscanthus possesses to an plantation establishment process are upper calorific value of more than 16 made in the first year, while later МЈ/kg. The yield of technologically dry maintenance of crops requires minimal biomass ranges between 15 and 20 funds. It is planned to exploit the t/ha/year. Biomass is characterized by low plantation for 20 years at least, where at level of nitrogen and chlorine and a high the first year does not provide any yield share of holo-cellulose, which makes it 106 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation and stable biomass yield is expected after herbicides. On the other hand, developed three yeas of development. The above- plantations become habitats for some ground part of the plant is harvested important animal species, thus every year from the same area; it is then contributing to biodiversity conservation either baled or cut, transported, stored (BABOVIĆ et al., 2012). and compressed into briquettes as a final product. The estimates are made for From this aspect, it should be borne in plantations of 1, 10 and 100 ha. (DRAŽIĆ mind that there are indirect benefits et al., 2010; MILOVANOVIĆ et al., 2012) reflected through ecosystem services whose scope should be further defined,
The results of static economic analysis: especially the removal of CO2 from the • Total investment return is Т = 4 years atmosphere in the light of obligations • Accumulation in full year is А = 0.61 emanating from the Kyoto Protocol. In • Cost-effectiveness of the project is Е = addition, material and energy balances of 6.53 production of energy crops are far more • Project safety degree is 81% favorable in comparison to conventional • From the above mentioned, it may be technologies of production of agricultural stated that overall projects estimates are and forest cultures. satisfying Miscanthus can be used for purposes Special attention is paid to ecological other than bioenegy crop of 2nd aspects of production and use of generation: primarily in the processes Miscanthus biomass. From the aspect of ecoremediation arable and marginal land reduction of climate change risks: net (DRAŽIĆ et al., 2015), in the building as carbon balance in production and well as structural and insulation material combustion of Miscanthus biomass is 0; (JELIĆ et al., 2016). Researches into sulfur emissions are negligible, as well as Miscanthus can be used for purposes nitrogen oxides emissions (POČUČA and other than bioenegy crop of 2nd DRAŽIĆ, 2012). From the aspects of generation: primarily in the processes conservation of soil fertility and ecoremediation arable and marginal land protection of water against pollution, (DRAŽIĆ et al., 2015), in the building as characteristic of nitrogen recycling and well as structural and insulation material high energy and water efficiency of the (JELIĆ et al., 2016). Researches into plant itself enable cultivation of the plant environmental and economic aspects of with minimal consumption of water, alternative ways to use Miscanthus are mineral fertilizers, pesticides and ongoing.
107 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
CONCLUSIONS
Agro-energy crops, such as Miscanthus, Systematic collection and critical analysis are inexhaustible biological resource with of the results obtained in experimental a very efficient application in the field measurements of biomass production was ecoremediation while providing gained from agro-industrial crops significant potential in the production of through field tests from the biomass for energy purposes. environmental, energy and economic efficiency aspects. The first category Biomass of Miscanthus is characterized by includes field tests previously established, high energy contents (about 16 GJ/t) and currently in their development phase. The low production of ash and nitrogen second one includes target tests which oxides after combusting. The disclosed were established at the beneficiary’s yield greatly varies depending on climate research grounds and in other degraded and agro-ecological conditions, as well as areas. The third one includes pot tests genotypes, so efforts are made to adapt which established in order to investigate the existing cultivation technology to remediation potential of agro-energy local conditions. Investments into the crop Miscanthus. The data collected production of biomass of perennial grass through analyses performed by are limited to the first year (establishment accredited laboratories with regard to of a plantation is the most expensive: field tests were compared with literature preparation of land, protection against data and other data obtained in the weed, procurement of seedling material analyses of biomass from harvest remains and planting of rhizomes, irrigation, when and agricultural waste. necessary). Once planted it provides yield over the next twenty years with virtually The beneficiary is provided with specific no further investments (annual harvesting results related to production of agro- for perennial grass, every 3 years for fast- energy crops in degraded areas and growing willows). Preliminary analyses agricultural land: the areas needed for show that it is necessary to achieve yield achievement of biomass production of of technologically dry mass of 10-15 10% of fossil fuels consumption with t/ha/year in order to make production measured yields in the own tests for cost-effective. Energy generation from Miscanthus. this biomass is still considerably more expensive than energy generation from Special attention is paid to socioeconomic fossil fuels, but ecological parameters are aspects of agro-energy crops production far more favourable for biomass. through the analysis of energy, ecological and economic incoming and resulting parameters through application of 108 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation adequate methods. This analysis should country specific conditions. Very serve to assist a decision-maker in important precondition for sustainable estimating further development of production of Miscanthus briquettes is production and use of agro-energy crops that processing capacities have to be from the aspect of natural resources close to the plantation, because high management in accordance with national transport costs can jeopardize economic and international standards in place. efficiency of the production process. Also, the production process has to be fulfilled Bearing in mind that this is a brand new with appropriate storage capacities close area of study in Republic of Serbia, it is to the plantation equipped with electricity also necessary to implement general and water. awareness raising campaign about the necessity of energy crops production. However, if all these preconditions are With regard to that, it is planned to fulfilled there is still a question on viability establish a network of institutions of Miscanthus production in the absence (scientific and educational) which will of energy crop subsidies on national level. serve as consultants to the economic Strong linkage between scientific- subjects that decide to produce and research and energy sectors is necessary process biomass and energy crops and through project activities and applications they will actively participate in adoption for investment funds, such as the case of and harmonization of standards in this Miscanthus experimental researches in area. Serbia where the scientific institutions cooperate with public enterprise for Experimental conditions and long‐term electricity production with the aim of monitoring research results on Miscanthus renewable energy sources usage production in Serbia show that this kind improvement of production is possible in country specific conditions. Miscanthus yield The fertile agricultural land as well as depends on agri‐environmental for moderate degraded areas provide experiments established on arable and suitable conditions for Miscanthus degraded soil is necessary for decision biomass and viable rhizomes production making process in sustainable biomass for energy and ecoremediation purposes. production using this perennial grass. Production of agro-energy crops may improve the quality of life in rural areas, Energy balance values have to be reduce poverty and prevent social and calculated for a decade at least to environmental degradation supporting establish a database which can be the diversification of rural economy. supportive tool for biomass production best practice guidelines development for
109 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
ARANĐELOVIĆ, M., DRAŽIĆ, G., MILETIĆ, S., GAVRIĆ, M. 2013: Potentials of Miscanthus giganteus production on ash landfills and mulloc of EPS, XXI International Scientific and Professional Meeting „Ecological truth“, University of Belgrada-Technical Faculty Bor, 978-86-6305-007-5, Srbija, od: 04.06.2013, do: 07.06.2013 od str. 243, - str. 249 ARANĐELOVIĆ, M., DRAŽIĆ, G., MILOVANOVIĆ, J., ALEKSIĆ, S. 2014: Miloproduction of viable Miscanthus giganteus rhizomes at fertile and degraded soil. Bulgarian Jurnal of Agricultural Science, 20: 1189-1194 ARANĐELOVIĆ, M., DRAŽIĆ, G., VITAS, A., TOMIĆ, V., PETROVIĆ, N. 2014: Analysis of the possibilities of heavy metals extraction with Miscanthus x giganteus, Proceedings International conference “Ecological improvement of devastated locations for sustainable development” Publisher Faculty of Applied Ecology Futura, Belgrade. Editor Gordana DRAŽIĆ, Belgrade, ISBN: 978-86-86859- 39-6, pp 140/145 BABOVIĆ, N., DRAŽIĆ, G., ĐORĐEVIĆ, A. 2012: Mogućnosti korišćenja biomase poreklom od brzorastuće trske Miscanthus×giganteus, Hem. Ind. 66 (2) 223–233 CLIFTON-BROWN, J. C. and LEWANDOWSKI, l. 2002. Screening Miscanthus genotypes infield trials to optimise biomass yield and quality in southern Germany. European Journal of Agronomy, 16 (2): 97–110. CHRISTIAN, D. G.,. RICHE, A.B., and YATES, N.E. 2008. Growth, yield and mineral content of Miscanthus×giganteus grown as a biofuel for 14 successive harvests. Industrial Crops and Products, 28: 320–327. DRAŽIĆ, G. MIHAILOVIĆ, N., STOJANOVIĆ, Z. 2004: Cadmium toxity: the effects on macro-and micro- nutrient contents in soybean seedlings. Biologia Plantarum, 48 605-607. DRAŽIĆ, G., MIHAILOVIĆ, N. 2005: Modification of cadmium toxicity in soybean seedlings by salicylic acid. Plant Science 126, 511-517. DRAŽIĆ, G., MIHAILOVIĆ, N., LOJIĆ, M. 2006: Cadmium accumulation in Medicago sativa seedlings treated with salycilic acid. Biologia Plantarum 50, 239-244. DRAŽIĆ, G., MIHAILOVIC, N. 2009: Salicylic acid modulates accumulation of Cd in seedlings of Cd- tolerant and Cd-susceptible soybean genotypes, Archives of Biological Sciences, 61(3):431-439 DRAŽIĆ, G., MILOVANOVIC, J. 2010: Forest lands valorization possibility through fast growing energy crop Miscanthus giganteus cultivation. International scientific conference »Forest ecosystems and climate changes«. Institute of Forestry Belgrade, IUFRO, EFI. Belgrade. 9-10 March. Proceedings Pp. 303-308. ISBN 978-86-90439-23-5 DRAŽIĆ, G., MILOVANOVIC, J., IKANOVIĆ J., GLAMOČLIJA, Đ. 2010: Uticaj agroekoloških činilaca na produkciju biomase Miscanthus giganteus, Arhiv za poljoprivredne nauke, YU ISSN 0354 5695, UDC 63, vol 71, no 253, pp 81-85
110 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
DRAŽIĆ, G., SEKULIĆ, S., MILOVANOVIC, J., ALEKSIĆ, J. 2010: Master plan plantaže energetskog useva Miscanthus x giganteus. Energija, ekonomija, ekologija, ISSN 03548651, UDK 620.9, br. 2. pp. 96- 99. DRAŽIĆ, G., ĐORĐEVIĆ, A. ARANĐELOVIĆ, M., MITIĆ, N., BABOVIĆ, N.2012. Biomass production in cultivated wetland ecosystems. International Scientific Conference „Forest in Future-Sustainable Use, Risks and Challenges“ Oktober 4-5., Proceedings pp 1111-1115 DRAZIC, G., MILOVANOVIC, J., RADOJEVIC, U. 2012: Risks associated with Miscanhtus giganteus plantation establishment with the aim of intensive biomass production. Biomasa a rizika pri jej spracovani, 13.-14. Jun Zvolen Zbornik vedeckych prac, ISBN: 978-80-228-2365-4 pp. 244-252 DRAŽIĆ, G., KUKOBAT, T., POPOVIĆ, H. 2014: „The environmental performance of bioenergy – case of Miscanthus giganteus“, XXII International Conference „Ecological Truth“ Eco-Ist’14, 10-13.june 2014, Bor Lake, Bor, Proceedings pp 317-323. Eds R.V. Pantović and Z. S. Marković, ISBN 978- 86-6305-021-1, Organizator University of Belgrade – Technical Faculty in Bor. DRAŽIĆ, G., MILETIĆ, S., POPOVIĆ, H., ARANĐELOVIĆ, M., ALEKSIĆ, S. 2014: Potential of degraded soils for production of agroenergy crops, Integrated meeting „Planing and land use and landfills in terms of sustainable development and New remediation technologies“ „Soil 2014“, Zrenjanin, Proceedings, Publisher Association for the development and use soil and landfills, Eds prof dr Miroslav Vrvić, Zorica Cokić, Ljiljana Tanasijević, ISBN 978-86-80809-85-4, pp. 112-118. DRAZIC, G., MILOVANOVIC J., ARANDJELOVIC, M. 2014: Biomass as a driving force for rural development – Miscanthus best practices., Agriculture and Forestry, Vol. 60. Issue 2: 115-124, Podgorica, UDC (UDK) 577.337:502.174.2, pp DRAŽIĆ, G, VITAS, A., IKANOVIĆ, J. 2014:„Energetski bilans produkcije agroenergetskog useva Miscanthus giganteus na plodnom i degradiranom zemljištu“,; Energija, ekonomija,ekologija br. 1-2 mart., pp 224-230. DRAŽIĆ, G., ARANĐELOVIĆ, M.; POPOVIĆ, V., IKANOVIĆ, J. 2015: Ecoremediation – the concept of sustainable management of natural resourses in agriculture. Proceedings of XXIII International Conference Ecological Truth, ECOIST 15, Hotel Putnik, Kopaonik, 17-20 June, Ed R.V. Pantović & Z.S. Marković, Univerzitet U beogradu Tehnički Fakultet u Boru, ISBN 978-86-6305-032-7, pp486-491 DRAŽIĆ,G., ARANĐELOVIĆ,M., MILOVANOVIĆ, J., JUREKOVÁ,Z., MARIŠOVÁ, E. 2015: Potential for agroenergy crops production example of Miscanthus cultivation in Serbia. Acta Regionalia et Environmentalica 2/2015, pp. 29–36. DOI: 10.1515/aree-2015-0007 DRAŽIĆ,G., RAJIĆ, Z., IKANOVIĆ,J., POPOVIĆ, V. 2015: Bioenergetski izazovi i efikasno korištenje resursa zemljišta, Energija, Ekonomija I Ekologija, Savez Energetičara Ed N. Đajić, 1-2. Godina XVII, mart 2015, ISSN 0354-8651, pp 96-102 DRAŽIĆ, G, OPRIČIĆ, M., SPASOJEVIĆ-ŠANTIĆ, T, MILOŠEVIĆ, D. 2016: Energetske karakteristike briketa od biomase Miskantusa, Energija, Ekonomija, Ekologija br 1-2god XVIII/ mart, UDC 6209, ISSN 0354-8651, st. 74-80. DŽELETOVIĆ, Ž., MIHAILOVIĆ, N., GLAMOČLIJA, Đ., DRAŽIĆ, G. 2009: Odložena žetva Miscanthus giganteus – uticaj na kvalitet i količinu obrazovane biomase. PTEP – časopis za procesnu tehniku i energetiku u poljoprivredi (Novi Sad), Vol. 13, No. 2: 170-173.
111 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Group of authors, 2011: External and internal factors influencing the growth and biomass production of short rotation woods genus Salix and perennial grass Miscanthus, Eds: ZUZANA JUREKOVÁ, GORDANA DRAŽIĆ, Publisher: Faculty of Applied Ecology FUTURA, Singidunum University Belgrade, ISBN 978-86-86859-26-6, COBISS.SR-ID 188489484, CIP 630*286/287(0.034.2), pp 176 Group of authors, 2014: Ekoremedijacija degradiranih prostora plantažiranjem Miskantusa, Urednik Jelena MILOVANOVIĆ, Izdavač Fakultet za primenjenu ekologiju Futura Univerzitet Singidunum Beograd, CIP 630*286/287, 502.174:627.533, ISBN 978-86-86859-30-3, COBISS.SR-ID 20529740, pp. 16-91 JELIĆ, I., , ANTONIJEVIĆ, D., DRAŽIĆ, G, ALEKSIĆ, J, PETRIĆ, I., 2016: Utilization of Miscanthus giganteus as a thermal insulation material. Međunarodna konferencija ECOIST 2016 (12-15 jun). Proceedings (R. Pantovic, Z. Markovic Eds.) publ. Universty of Belgrade- Technical Faculty Bor, ISBN 978-86-6305-043-3, pp 507-514 JEŻOVSKI, S., K. GLOWACKA and Z. KACMAREK, 2011. Variation in biomass yield and morphological traits of energy grasses from the genus Miscanthus during the first years of crop establishment. Biomass Bioenerg., 35: 814-821 MILOVANOVIĆ, J., DRAŽIĆ, G., IKANOVIĆ, J, JUREKOVÁ Z, RAJKOVIĆ, S. 2012: Sustainable production of biomass through Miscanthus giganteus plantation development. Annals of Faculty Engineering Hunedoara International Journal of Engineering 10 (1) ISSN 1584-2665, pp 79-82. MIHALOVIC,N., DRAZIC, G. 2011: Incomplete alleviation of nickel toxicity in bean by nictric oxide supplementation. Plant soil Environ. 57 (8) 396-401, 2011 MITIĆ, N., ĐORĐEVIĆ, A., DRAŽIĆ, G., MILOVANOVIĆ, J.2012 Morpho-physiological characteristics of Miscanthus X giganteus in first two years of development. International Scientific Conference „Forest in Future-Sustainable Use, Risks and Challenges“ Oktober 4-5., Belgrade. Book of abstracts pp 205. Publisher Institute of Forestry, Belgrade, Proceedings, pp 995-1000 PIDLISNYUK, V., STEFANOVSKA, T., LEWIS, E., ERICKSON, L., DAVIS, L. 2014: Miscanthus as a Productive Biofuel Crop for Phytoremediation. In Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, vol. 33, pp.1–19. POČUČA, N., DRAŽIĆ, G. 2012: The production and burning of biomass as an option to the reduction of energy-dependent CO2 emission. Power Plants 2012 Međunarodna konferencija o elektranama, Zlatibor novembar. Društvo termičata Srbije, , str. 1029-1036 STEFANOVIĆ, S., KOSTIĆ, M., MILOŠEVIĆ, D., DRAŽIĆ, G. 2016: Uticaj korovske vegetacije na prinos Miskantusa (Miscanthus x giganteus) na jalovini RB Kolubara Tamnava istok, ECOLOGICA, Vol. 23, No 81 UDC:504.53.062:622, st. 106-111
112 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Mitigation of the effects of long-term use is lagging behind in terms of production of fossil fuels as well as need to ensure and application of clean energy sources, energy independence as they are these although it can not be denied the fact that energy sources are limited, encouraged the we have the natural resources that should research and implementation of alternative be used for the purpose of generating forms of energy OLJAČA et al., (2007); energy (DRAŽIĆ, 2010; 2014) . DRAŽIĆ, et al (2011). Struggling with the current problems, this year, within 21 Land resources are certainly limited, so it Climate Change Conference held in Paris, must be used rationally for the purposes of adopted a new global agreement, which food production, bio-energy and other raw has a lot more ambitious plan than the materials (DRAŽIĆ et al., 2014). A previous. On imperative to reduce compromise can be achieved by selecting greenhouse effect gas emissions, and the the appropriate species (IKANOVIĆ et al., permissible temperature rise to 1.5°C, 2013). Decision producers to produce starting from 2020 with the entry into energy products instead of food depends force, committed themselves 196 Member primarily on their prices, and achieved States, including the Republic of Serbia. revenue, capacity at the farm and of course The obligation of our country is that by the state subsidies for such production 2030 reduce emissions by 9.8% compared (OLJAČA et al., 2007). In addition to with 1990 DRAŽIĆ et al., (2014). economic benefits, it is estimated that the production of energy by growing the Agroenergy biomass combustion plant appropriate bioenergy crops will emissions into the atmosphere is lower significantly contribute to the than that of fossil fuels. Land on which to multifunctionality of agriculture Sorghum could be grown are areas of (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2011; 2015), a the municipal landfills, industrial areas, main motive for the future use of these wetlands, etc. By applying the correct crops in Serbia, the possibility of to ensure production technology, a form of sweet a high level of energy autonomy of Sorghum could become an energy source agricultural holdings (GLAMOČLIJA et al., suitable for power plants of small villages 2015). and towns (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2010; IKANOVIĆ et al., 2011; IKANOVIĆ et al., They just mentioned problems force the 2015, SIKORA et al, 2016). man to return to the use of agricultural crops and crop residues as renewable As economically much weaker country, energy sources (ŽIVANOVIĆ et al., 2014). compared to developed European, Serbia Products of combustion of biomass are
113 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation cleaner compared to the products of Botanical classification and combustion of fossil fuels, while the cycle economic importance of Sorghum of crop cultivation consumes CO2 during photosynthesis, which is the advantage of Sorghum is representative of the order using biomass as an energy source Poales, Poaceae family, genus (BABOVIĆ et al., 2012). In recent decades, Andropogon Brot. According to another due to the increase in demand for classification of this genus is called renewable energy and Sanation of the Sorghum L. genus is characterized by degradation soils, there is great interest in high polymorphism and according to still plant species that have a big annual incomplete regulated classification has 34 production of biomass that are tolerant to species. Most species are annual or biotic and abiotic stress and which require perennial wild plants that often occur as a minimal investment in agricultural dangerous weeds in the fields technology (IKANOVIĆ et al., 2015). (GLAMOČLIJA, 2010; RAKIĆ et al., 2013). Of the total number of breeding that are In addition to the fact that fossil fuels have interesting only two one-year type, limited liquid reserves, biofuel production (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015): becomes interesting for all countries 1. Andropogon Sorghum Brot. (Sorghum importers of crude oil. Therefore, the bicolor L. Moench.) - Sorghum bicolor production of plants for technical and processing has very good prospects in 2. Andropogon sudanense Pers. (Sorghum Serbia, which has great market and natural sudanense L.) - Sudan grass. resources, good geographic location and In addition to these two species on arable significant human resources, most of land as a dangerous quarantine weeds whom depend on success in plant occurring wild perennial Sorghum production, and the production of sweet Sorghum halepense L. This species, Sorghum and canary grass should be given despite the fact that it is a pernicious priority when it comes the annual weed, has a number of good biological agroenergy crops. With a stronger properties, and is interesting for the connection to our agricultures like we can cultivation onto the eroded soils for through joint ventures and performances binding sands. In Australia on more than on the world market significantly improve 200.000 hectares in production is a the economic stability of the countries of perennial species Sorghum almum X. South East Europe as a whole, because representing excellent pasture plants food and energy products of plant origin suitable for growing on sandy soils. This are now the most sought after commodity species cultivated a close relative of the on the world market (IKANOVIĆ et al., wild grass. 2010; 2011).
114 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
In the production practice, the individual broomcorn, mainly in small areas with characteristics of Sorghum called individual farmers. Sorghum for grain according to the use (GLAMOČLIJA et al., production and green biomass farmers 2010). So varieties and hybrids to the cultivate less even though the conditions exploitation carry following names: in the arid areas of eastern Serbia and the Sorghum for grain production, technical Deliblato Sands suitable for growing Sorghum, Sorghum for the production of these plants than any other. Less white voluminous animal feed, Sorghum for hay area under Sorghum white seeds in our and grazing and sweet corn Sorghum are mostly at producers of this quality to (BERENJI et al., 2006). sow seed of the house that deal prepare food for pets. Production of Sorghum Areas under all Sorghum, according to the whose seeds are used for the production International Organization for Food and of pet food does not yet satisfy the needs Agriculture - FAO in 2013, the world was of domestic processors, so they are forced around 44.5 million hectares. After the to import the seed. It is worth mentioning areas sown Sorghum occupies the third the fact that the average environmental place among the millet cereals. The conditions and with relatively small largest area under Sorghum in the investment all the characteristics of countries of Africa and Asia. So in India Sorghum provide exceptionally high yields under Sorghum is 13.1 million ha. In per unit area (IKANOVIĆ et. al. 2010). second place in Asia is China with 2.5 Therefore be in the following period the million ha, followed by African countries, production of Sorghum should expand, Nigeria (6.8 million ha) and Sudan (6.4 mainly on individual sectors and in areas million ha). Significant areas under where corn does not provide stable yields. Sorghum are in the USA and Mexico, In this way be the small rural farms could while the area in Russia only about produce a significant amount of quality 200.000 ha (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015). green and concentrated feed of good quality. Particularly interesting is the According to the Statistical Yearbook of production of broomcorn because with the past six years the area under Sorghum growing on rural household on a small in Serbia were at the level of about 2.170 manufacturing plant in private, we can hectares, mainly in the lowland areas of organize the production of brushes and northern and central Serbia. brooms.
The natural conditions for growing Grain Sorghum used in animal nutrition Sorghum in Serbia in the lowland areas for the preparation of concentrated feed. are very favorable, although still On the African continent, in the northern underutilized (IKANOVIĆ et al., 2011), regions of China and in India, where dominated by the production Sorghum of Sorghum per planted area comes after
115 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation rice and wheat, by people directly used as continent, in the northern regions of food. Grain Sorghum is an important raw China and in India, where Sorghum per material for the food industry and planted area comes after rice and wheat processing get starch, glucose, oil, gluten, by people directly used as food. syrup and alcohol, and in the chemical industry, a series of semi-finished Grain Sorghum is an important raw products which were further used in the material for the food processing industry textile, pharmaceutical, construction and and get starch, glucose, oil, gluten, syrup other industries (McLAREN et al., 2003). and alcohol, and in the chemical industry, Preliminary tests carried out on this a series of semi-finished products which species have shown that seed contains were further used in the textile, significant amounts of a wide spectrum of pharmaceutical, construction and other polyphenolic compounds (DYKES and industries (McLAREN et al., 2003 ). ROONEY, 2006). Preliminary tests carried out on this species have shown that semen contains Sorghum thanks to the large polymorphism significant amounts of a wide spectrum of of cultivated quality has versatile polyphenolic compounds (DYKES and applications. Today in the world there are ROONEY, 2006). a number of Sorghum varieties and hybrids that are grown for different Agrotechnical Sorghum importance is potrebe. When talking about higher food character reflected in the fact that he production, both for the domestic market belongs to a group of lush plants and for export, priority should be given to covering the row crop area and prevent exports of finished agricultural products. the growth of weeds and plant asimilative Only in this way on the world market can well exploited by preceding crops are not be competitive (RAKIĆ et al., 2013). In an used. effort to provide basic food, many African farmers are turning to the production of In Serbia, the selection of Sorghum deal traditional cereals such as Sorghum. These with the scientists of the Institute for plant species thrive in a well dry plains of Alternative plant species, Institute of Field sub-Saharan Africa. World Humanitarian and Vegetable Crops in Novi Sad. The organizations help African developing work of our scientists is directed towards countries, by introducing higher quality the creation of Sorghum genotypes with varieties of Sorghum for grain, ensuring greater yield, or with genetic resistance to their nutritional needs and reduce the agents of viral and fungal diseases dependence on imports of other cereals (Colletrotrichum graminicola Ces. G. W. (JANKOVIC et al., 2012). The grain used in Wils and Fusarium sp). The work the animal nutrition for the preparation of selection of Sorghum for grain production concentrated feed. On the African basic task of is the creation of simple F1 116 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation hybrids of high yield and quality of grain. contains up to 17% of total sugars, mostly The result of this research was obtained sucrose. Technological procedure for increasing number of local genotypes of obtaining sucrose from the stem sweet Sorghum for various uses (IKANOVIĆ et Sorghum is not yet fully elaborated al., 2015, SIKORA et al, 2016). because we can not crystallize saccharose from syrup, so that in this way we do not In a world in most countries there are get crystal sugar. Certainly the one of the Agricultural institutes involved in the important articles, for which there is a study Sorghum his selection, studying permanent trend of increasing demand, agricultural technology and utilization are technical oil (IKANOVIĆ et al., 2015, methods in the diet of people, domestic (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015). animals and the processing industry. The most important global institute for the Special technological process (similar to the study of Sorghum (and other field crops) sugar cane) from the stem stands sugar for the arid areas of the ICRISAT syrup. After refining the syrup (sugar (International Crops Research The Institute molasses) is used directly for human for the Semi-Arid Tropics). This regional consumption, or in the food industry as a and global concern for Sorghum has its sweetener. The characteristics of this programs in India and South Africa, but Sorghum are upright tall trees that can also includes over 66.000 branches of grow up to 6 meters, but varieties that are Sorghum worldwide. Varieties and hybrids interesting for the of production average that scientists in this institution created height of 3 meters. are intended for cultivation in many countries that are interested in Sorghum. Some varieties of the a stem are up to These are mainly African and Asian 18% of soluble sugars. According to the countries tropical and subtropical aridnog morphological characteristics of varieties belt. ICRISAT scientists institute special and hybrids of these are similar to attention to obtaining new genotypes of Sorghum forage Sorghum, while the wiper early maturation that manufacturers use predominantly compacted as in Sorghum to produce quality flour suitable for for grain production. However, the finer human consumption. Breeders are also the grain with a high share of chaff and concerned with obtaining genotypes of chaff is difficult to shall exercise so there Sorghum that would be genetically is no great nutritional value. Sorghum, resistant to fungal diseases. sweet corn can be grown as a forage plant, but overground biomass is used for The characteristics of sweet Sorghum is animal feed ruminants as fresh or making that the the stem have a high percentage high-quality haylage or silage that is rich of sugar soluble in water. Industrial in sugars (IKANOVIĆ et al., 2015). processing trees get sugar syrup that
117 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The third way of using sweet Sorghum is 2013). In this way be the small rural processing of biomass in bioethanol. In households could produce a significant some countries, such as India, countries of amount of quality voluminous and the Near East and the USA, the concentrated feed of good quality. production of bioethanol from sweet Sorghum (Figure 2.3.1) has reached Origin and geographical significant level. The advantage of using distribution of Sorghum sweet Sorghum for biofuel production compared to other crop plants are higher The first traces of growing Sorghum are yield and greater amount of fuels linked to the African continent, where obtained per unit area and, on the other they are used by people in the diet of sides does not reduce the world's food before the 5000-7000 years. Today is very production, because this kind of a little widespread plant Sorghum arid areas of participates of the total world needs food Africa, Asia, America and Australia. of plant origin. Biological traits Figure 2.3.1. Sorghum corn Sorghum sweet corn is one-year-old plant, spring crop sowing. According to the length of the vegetation period differ early varieties (90-110 days), middle early (111-130 days) and late (over 130 days). For our environmental conditions are the most favorable of middle genotypes. Various forms of Sorghum well managed on different soil types, including the soils decreased production traits (IKANOVIĆ et Source: https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com al., 2010). Particularly noteworthy is the fact that it applies to degraded lands. It is worth mentioning the fact that the During the evolution of Sorghum average environmental conditions and genetically adapted to a variety of with relatively small investment all the growing conditions. This is indicated by characteristics of Sorghum provide its morphological structure - a strong root exceptionally high yields per unit area. system, waxy coating on the leaves, Therefore be in the following period the bending coots, and biological properties, production of Sorghum should expand, and these are the ability to interrupt the mainly on individual sectors and in areas process of growth in the period where corn does not provide stable yields unfavorable environmental conditions, (BERENJI et al, 2006; IKANOVIĆ et al., and when they continue to improve. 118 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
is successfully grown in areas with annual Species of the genus Sorghum crop plants rainfall of 400-600 mm. The plants is well are highly drought tolerant at all stages of tolerated drought in almost all stages of growth so that they become a very growth. Maximum development of plants important plant crops in semi-arid areas on land whose supply of water in the of the continental climate. Climate values of 60-80% of the maximum water change, disposition of precipitation and capacity, so Sorghum responds well to an increase in average temperature have irrigation in periods of highest water an increasing influence on cultivated consumption. plants. In the center of the continent is increasingly present a classic continental 2. Relationship to the heat. Sorghum is climate with large fluctuations in a plant of tropical and subtropical areas temperature between seasons a poor during ontogenesis adopts a lot of heat. disposition of precipitation are already For Sorghum growing period required seriously endangers the cultivation a thermal conditions that have bezmrazni number of important agricultural plants period of 130 days and the July average (IKANOVIĆ et al., 2010). This species may temperature of 21 0C. For the germination represent the most important energy and emergence of plants the minimum crop for a large geographic area, from temperature is 10-12 0C, while tropical to temperate continental climate, conditionally-optimal 15-180C. On especially as it does not take a significant miminalnoj temperature germination and place in world production of food of plant emergence is patchy and lasts a long origin. time. Sprung up plants suffer in the short frosts of -2 0C. The optimum temperature 1. Relationship toward the water. for the development of vegetative organs 0 Sorghum has the less need water. are 20-25 C, and for the development of Dynamics of consumption of water generative organs 27-300 ºC. The sum of indicates moderate needs of plants active temperatures for the growing 0 during the germination – panicles period of early varieties is 3.000-3.300 C, 0 formation. Most water plants adopt the a late maturing to 3.500 C. High and very most intense period of growth of high temperature plant is well tolerated, 0 vegetative biomass, followed by flowering so that the temperature of 45 C Sorghum and at the stage of forming panicle of continues its further development. At 50 0 Sorghum. Sorghum extremely well C approximately 30% dying out tissue or economize adopted water as shown by stomin cell can preserve the ability to the value of of the coefficient of regulate water-air regime (GLAMOČLIJA transpiration, which, depending on the et al., 2015). growth stages, weather and soil conditions in the range 114-235. Sorghum
119 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
3. Relationship to the luminosity. Per animal feed of good quality. Compared to photoperiodic reaction Sorghum is a plant other types of annual Sorghum sweet of short day, so in terms of a long day of corn per unit area gives the highest yield extend the, as vegetative development of of biomass suitable for the processing of the plants, as well as the process of sugar, as well as solid and liquid fuels. fruiting. Therefore be in the selection of When Sorghum sweet corn grown for the genotypes of Sorghum should take care production of bio-fuels (ethanol), of his origin. The varieties the field of harvesting must be perform Lactic or wax short day is best grown as a forage plant maturity seeds. After mowing whole stem, because the long day to give a higher cut off just above the surface of land, yield of above-ground biomass. If the separated and panicles leaves. Sugars, Sorghum is grown like grains, should be which are the raw material for ethanol decide for genotypes originating from production, stand out from the prepared agricultural conditions similar to our own. stem pressed. Residual biomass (leaves, It is worth mentioning the fact that it the panicle and drained stem) can be used of average environmental conditions and as tight bio-fuel. Late harvest (Phase wax with relatively small investment all the maturity) into the stems reducing the characteristics of Sorghum give content of total sugar, or to give the 2-3 t outstanding high yields per unit area. In ha-1 of grain, which can be used for the favorable agro-ecological conditions and production of technical alcohol with the application of modern agro- (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015). technical measures, the yield fresh stem can amount 45-50 t ha-1, and in the 4. Relationship to the soil. Thanks to the irrigation system up to 100 t ha-1 as a strong and well-developed root system confirmed by previous work in which the Sorghum can be grown on land small subject of the morphological, productive natural fertility and unfavorable physical and chemical properties of the biomass of properties. In a world often grown on different genotypes of Sorghum (RAKIC et podzolic, clayey, sandy, wetland, newly al., 2013; JANKOVIC et al., 2012, SIKORA conquered lands and drained the ponds et al, 2016). and forest clearings, or land which the reaction solution within a wide range (pH Therefore be in the following period the 5 to 8.5). On soils where corn production production of Sorghum should expand, is not safe, it should be grown Sorghum. primarily on individual sectors and in Of course, the best results are achieved areas where corn does not provide stable by growing these plants in deep, fertile yields (IKANOVIĆ et al., 2013). In this way soils favorable physical properties, such be the small rural households could as chernozem, humogley or fertile forest produce a significant amount of high- soil (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015). quality voluminous and concentrated 120 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Sorghum sweet corn is very interesting for breeding have produced genotypes growing in warm areas of continental and suitable for growing in areas subtropical climates, because it is tolerant (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015) where few to drought and high air temperatures plants can give a satisfactory yield in from corn. In addition, plants can under rainfed conditions. regenerate well after mowing, so that the year can be obtained at least two swath Produce bioethanol from sweet of biomass in terms of irrigation and Sorghum three harvests. It grows well on lighter, sandy and saline soils, but does not One of the uses of sweet Sorghum is the tolerate wet and cold spring, so it should processing of biomass in bioethanol be sown later, after corn (GLAMOČLIJA et (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2012). The energy al., 2015). crisis of the 70s of the last century, turned the special attention of the power, but How the Western Balkans to who belongs also manufacturers of agro-energy crops to our country, is increasingly taking on to be more attention paid to these crops the character of semi-arid climate with and to improve research how big the very hot and dry summers, very possibility of bio-ethanol as a motor fuel unfavorable distribution of rainfall, in a market that is becoming more growing corn becomes uncertain due to selective (OLJAČA et al., 2007). Barriers to the high sensitivity of plants to drought in biomass production and use agro-energy the phenophases highest water crops as fuel is insufficient investment in consumption. Sorghum are more tolerant the plant, insufficient investment in the to drought than maize and in recent the country to develop renewable energy times become popular as a feed as sources and the lack incentive measures, energy crops (IKANOVIĆ et al., 2013). the price of electricity, lack of information Thanks to its adaptability on arid to the local population and cooperation continental climate and high above of local governments with public ground biomass production this plant is institutions (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2012, becoming more interesting for cultivation. 2015). Selecting from wild populations and their
121 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 2.3.1. Ethanol production by various types of cereals (BEKRIĆ, 1997) Type of grain The yield of ethanol Yield per hectare lit. per ton of grain Tonnes of grains Ethanol lit. Corn 360 5.4 1.950 Wheat 340 3.1 1.054 Barley 250 2.5 625 Rice 430 5.0 2.200 Sorghum 350 3.7 1.300 Oats 240 2.4 580
They just mentioned problems specified than petrol), and the one obtained from man to return to the use of agricultural sugar cane 1.07% (56% less than petrol). crops and crop residues as renewable energy sources (Figure 2.3.2). Products of The energy crisis of the 70s of the last combustion of biomass are cleaner century, drew special attention of the compared to the products of combustion power, but also a manufacturer of fossil fuels, and the cycle of crop agroenergy crops to be more attention cultivation consumes CO2 during paid to these crops and to improve photosynthesis, which is the advantage of research how big the possibility of bio- using biomass as an energy source ethanol as a motor fuel in a market that is (BABOVIĆ et al., 2012). The advantage of becoming more choosy (OLJAČA et al., using sweet Sorghum for biofuel 2007) the barriers for the production and production compared to other crop use of biomass as an energy crop plants are higher yield and greater agroenergy insufficient investment in amount of fuels obtained per unit area facility, lack of state investment in the (Table 2.3.1). development of renewable energy sources and the lack of incentives, price Biofuels are becoming important because electricity to insufficient informing the of the need to secure energy source, local population and self-government concerns about emissions of greenhouse cooperation with local public institutions gases. Bioethanol produced from (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2011, 2015). Sorghum emitted 1.30 kg CO2 l-1 (22% less
122 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 2.3.2. Sorghum corn as a feedstock for bioethanol production
Source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com
Counting on out of every ton of Sorghum it is grown with minimum dimensions of current technology, fermentation and establishing and maintenance. distillation, can get 350 liters of anhydrous The methane content in biogas varies alcohol, and that it should not be ignored, between 50–75% according to fermented and the activities within the current material and its physical and chemical technological development project TR characteristics (STRAKA and CIAHOTNÝ 31078 "Ecoremediation degraded areas 2010). The methane content in biogas of agro-energy crop production", supported by evaluated Sorghum cultivars varied from the Ministry of Education, Science and 47% to 68%. Determined percentage of technological development of Republic of methane was influenced significantly by Serbia, refer to the examination of the inter-row distance, cultivar and year. impact of the immediate environment on production of biomass for energy, as well as Although the processing of sweet the production of animal feed. The strategy Sorghum, Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench, is always followed in the study of this focused primarily on the improvement of problem is that quality bioenergy crops such plants for human and animal should be developed and provide a greater nutrition, lately it is obtaining on energy yield per unit area of land on which genotypes which are suitable for the production of fuels (ZHENG et al., 2011).
123 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Trends of which this is achieved include of the first type, and species of the order increasing yields of plant mass (stems), Poales, which include sweet Sorghum, obtaining a higher content of sugar and forming another type of cell wall satisfactory grain yield, improving the (CARPITA and GIBEAUT, 1993; CARPITA, structure of the cell wall and finishing on 1996). Genetic improvement of the corresponding physiological properties. composition and architecture of the cell wall are important for two reasons: the Sorghum sweet corn is a plant with C4 cell wall determines the shape and size of metabolism, which means that the cells and thus plays an important role in intensive embedded carbon in sugars and the growth of plants and yield formation quickly formed a large biomass. Sweet of biomass, and which contradicts the Sorghum biomass production can be degradation under the action of micro- increased by changing the architecture of organisms to liberate sugars like plants, intensive tillering, formation of a fermentation and thus affects the quality larger struggle buds, adopting more of biomass (CARPITA and McCANN, efficient nutrient and water, as well as the 2008). The high sugar content which is accumulation of reserve matter suitable for fermentation, and means a (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015). higher content of the fermented ethanol.
In order to Sorghum, sweet corn used for Regarding the processing on physiological obtaining bio-fuels, genotypes must meet characteristics and ecological adaptation of the following requirements: it is necessary sweet Sorghum, it must be noted that its that the dry matter content is 25-28%, important advantage compared to other and dry matter yield will be above 25-30 bioenergy crops that can withstand high t/ha. It was found that the fermentation of temperatures and it is resistant to drought. ligno-cellulosic biomass sweet Sorghum This allows the poor countries of the tropical (structural carbohydrates) obtained a climate that produces sweet Sorghum obtain greater amount of energy per hectare raw materials for own source of bio-fuels, but than from its sugar and starch (non- is also important in terms of climate change, structural carbohydrates) (MURRAY et al., accompanied by an increase in global 2008). temperature. The production of bio-fuels from sweet Sorghum reduces greenhouse In sweet Sorghum is extensively studied gases (ALMODARES and HADI, 2009). the structure of the cell wall because it However, there is a more current line helps create a desirable genotypes for processing sweet Sorghum to create production of bio-fuels. It is known that varieties adapted to lower temperatures flowering plants form two different types in order to Sorghum, corn spread to areas of primary cell wall. All dicotyledons and above 40 degrees latitude. Such breeding monocots form about half of the cell wall work resulted in the creation of new 124 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation varieties of Sorghum NS SEED and KWS Expressed the role of non-additive gene (Sorghum broomcorn: Reform, Prima, effects were found for plant height, stem Sorghum for grain: Alba, and Gold and volume of the total dry matter content, Sorghum NS sweet (NS šećerac), KWS the yield of soluble sweet stems and the Freya) adapted to bio-fuel production in yield extracting juice, with these northern Europe. For these varieties of properties is recorded demonstration of sweet Sorghum ethanol yields up to 5.000 the high degree of heterosis in relation to l/ha. the parents. For the purpose of cheapening production of F1 hybrid seeds As far as starting material for processing of sweet Sorghum in the fields of applied sweet Sorghum as a bioenergy crop, there sowing maternal components that are are very many and diverse populations characterized by cytoplasmic male that are the source of genes for useful sterility. Recurrent selection is used to traits because Sorghum is grown in a large develop and restorer lines on areal in the the world. Some populations maintenance. In scientific terms, the are a source of genes for high content of Sorghum (with corn) considers genetic carbohydrates in the tree, and some model for studies on yield and quality of others are for production on modest soils biomass, which serves as a source of bio- or saline soils (ALMODARES and HADI, energy (CARPITA and McCann, 2008). 2009). In the world today there are about Sequencing the genome of Sorghum is 4.000 varieties of Sorghum (GRASSI et al., fully completed (PATERSON et al., 2009). 2004). From the agriculture Serbia is expected to The methods that enrich the corn contribute significantly to economic Sorghum for bioethanol production development, and the possibilities of should be sorted out as the most increased exploitation of natural conventional selection and application of resources for agricultural production are heterosis. These methods and in modern cited as sufficiently utilized development conditions allow an increase in sugar potential. content, dry matter yield and biomass sweet Sorghum, and that doing so does Production technology of sweet not lead to a reduction in yield. In order Sorghum to obtain new varieties of the most used methods of pedigree selection, while the Crop rotation production of F1 hybrids weight that The best preceeding crop for Sorghum are parents have good combining ability for annual and perennial legumes, winter large biomass, high sugar content, dry cereal, sugar beet, potatoes and grass- matter content and other characteristics legume mixtures, or Sorghum can be (SELVI and PALANISAMY, 1990).
125 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation sown in the newly conquered lands, as and planned yield, according to current well as deposols. Growing in monoculture knowledge (SMITH and FREDERIKSEN, should be avoided because the plants 2000). For optimal plant nutrition sweet from the soil assimilate draw large Sorghum is necessary to 25-30 t ha-1 amounts of water, as well as the mass manure, 80-90 kg ha-1 nitrogen and at appearance of weeds wild grass. As a 100-110 kg ha-1 phosphorus and preceeding crop, Sorghum is not suitable potassium (IKANOVIĆ et al., 2010). With for winter cereals for the spring crop is basic processing in land are entered good only if it is carry out after the manure and half mineral nutrients, and harvest quality basic tillage to plow and the other half with seedbed preparation. good harvest residues and roots Supplemental feeding is effective, if after (POPOVIĆ et al., 2013; GLAMOČLIJA et al., each swath the crop is irrigated. In this 2015). case leaves a third of the required nitrogen, which will be after mowing Land cultivation spread over the surface and well watered in order to speed up the regeneration of Time, manner and depth of the basic plants (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015). processing depend on the crop, climate and soil conditions. On lands in the plains Choice of variety it is performed during the autumn to a depth of 20-25 cm, the best plow. If the In the world there are a number of scientific Sorghum is grown on slopes or near institutes dealing with breeding Sorghum to rivers, priority should be given to early create genotypes suitable for different spring conservation tillage in order to purposes in the diet of humans, domestic mitigate the adverse effects of erosion animals, industrial processing, and more from winter rainfall and flooding. With soil recently for the production of bioenergy. preparation begins after primary processing of to the surface leveled The sowing (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015) and For sowing to use physiologically mature comminuting larger snowballs of soil. and healthy seed evenly according to its
size, with at least 90% germination and Sorghum sweet corn for the formation of 99% purity. Before sowing must be done large biomass consumes significant disinfection of seeds in order to protect amounts of plant asimilativa that can be crops from pathogens in the early stages adopted from the deeper soil layers. The of growth and destruction of insects in required quantities of the main elements order to control soil pests. Disinfection is of nutrition (NPK) are determined based performed combined with fungicides such on the natural fertility of the soil, the as Dividend star 036-FS, Maxim XL 035- coefficient of utilization of these nutrients FS, Temetid great Vitavax FF-200, F-Vincit 126 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation and other. For disinfection use insecticides the spring period without rainfall). combined Force 20 CS, Furadan 35-ST, Protecting crops from weeds is performed Gaucho 500 FS, Montur FS-190, Transport using the herbicide mixture Galolin van, 400-CS, ST Posse, or Raxil Vital Scoreboard Kombik, Trophy-EC, Surpass 6.7-E, which 20 ST. To accelerate germination, soak the are applied after planting and before the seeds can be four or five minutes in water emergence of Sorghum, and Axiom WG- heated to 700C to begin the swelling. 68, motive, plus Tarot WG, which crop Treatment of a solution of trace elements treated during the growing season. and phosphorus is also a positive effect on Sorghum sweet corn attack a large germination energy and total germination. number of pests (GLAMOČLIJA et al., Seeds can be treated and strain of non- 2015). symbiotic bacteria that develop on roots and actively participate in the synthesis of Harvesting and storage nitrogen salts. The optimum time for Sweet Sorghum harvest time depends on planting sweet Sorghum is when you land the objective of biomass production. If in the surface layer is heated at 12 150C. grown for animal feed, mowing should be In plain areas to the second decade of done silo-combines initially tasseling, a April. Sowing is carried out in broadcast cut from biomass stored silage. When seed drills on 70 cm row spacing and Sorghum sweet corn grown for the spacing of 12-15 cm in the row to achieve production of bio-fuels (ethanol), crop density from 80.000 to 100.000 harvesting must be perform Lactic or wax plants per hectare. The amount of pure maturity seeds. crop seed sowing is 10-15 kg ha-1, and the depth of sowing is 3-5 cm To extract the sugar from the tree (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015). harvesting is carried out in the test phase
maturity of fruits. During this period, Care of crops leaves are dried and can be easily In the period from sowing to germination detached from stem. The harvest can be of Sorghum may be formed a strong manual or sickle mowers. The average surface crust. It needs to be countered yield of grain Sorghum in the conditions ribbed rollers or dams - weaponry that of modern production technologies vary, does not penetrate the layer of planting depending on the hybrid and weather seedlings and will not hurt you. After the conditions, from 4.500 to 8.000 kg ha-1. emergence of the plants surface layer of the soil between the rows hoeing and cultivating maintains nezakorovljenim and loose. Other measures of care they recharge (if necessary) and irrigation (if
127 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Survey results production if sweet height, mass of stem, leaf mass on stem Sorghum in Serbia and panicle length samples were taken from freshly mown biomass. Since the Tests were carried out in the period of statistical parameters used the mean, and 2014. Is set factorial field experiment in significance of differences between mean Stara Pazova on chernozem soil, values was determined by LSD -test. according to a randomized block design with 5 replications. Basic plot size was 10 Meteorological data m2 (5 m x 2 m). The subject of research are examples of two genotypes of sweet Meteorological data is very variability Sorghum Dale and Sorghum NS sweet (NS (POPOVIC et al, 2012a, 2012b, 2013a, šećerac in Serbian), developed at the 2013b, 2014, 2015). Meteorological data Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops in were obtained from the meteorological Novi Sad. Sowing was done in the third station Stara Pazova. Total rainfall in the decade of April. Using traditional cultural examined vegetation period amounted to practices for cultivation grass. Mowing 406 mm while the average temperature of plants was carried out at the stage start 21.67 0C , Table 2.3.2. tasseling in the second decade of July. For the analysis of morphological traits (plant
Table 2.3.2. The total rainfall and temperature in the vegetation period
Month Year Parameter Average IV V VI VII VIII IX
Temperature 15 22 25 27 25 16 21.67 2014. Rainfall 44 79 108 48 92 35 406
Sorghum as a crop of tropical origin has throughout the growing season (SIKORA certain physiological predisposition for et al. 2016). Yield components of sweet tolerance to unfavorable environmental Sorghum biomass. The genotype had a conditions. Stress caused by lack of statistically significant effect on the tested moisture is the most important abiotic parameter primarily to ground staff, Table influence coma plants can be exposed 2.3.3.
128 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 2.3.3. The morphological traits of the genotypes of Sorghum, at the locality of Stara Pazova, 2014 Tested parameters
Plant Number Mass of Panicle Genotype height (cm) of leaves stems (g) length NS šećerac 232 8.8 170.18 16.2 Dale 240 9.6 196.24 18.8 Average 240.8 9.2 183.21 17.5
LSD Plant height Number of Mass of stems Panicle leaves length 0.5 23.17 2.06 16.43 3.48 0.1 33.71 3.01 23.90 5.07
The average plant height was 240.8 cm. Table 1, graph 3. average weight stable Greater plant height had Dale (240 cm) was 183.21 g. Dale had a higher stable compared to Sorghum NS sweet (NS weight 26.1 g compared to NS sweet. šećerac in Serbian), (232 cm), but the Average panicle length was 17.5 cm. difference was not statistically significant, Longer wiper blades had Dale (18.8 cm) Table 2.3.3. More sheets had Dale (9.6) with respect to NS sweet (16.2 cm), Table compared to NS corn (8.8) but the 2.3.3. difference was not statistically significant,
Table 2.3.4. Correlations of tested traits Variable Plant Number of Mass of Panicle Temperatu Precipitation height leaves stems length re Plant 1.00 -0.10 0.03 0.23 0.31 0.22 height Number -0.10 1.00 0.87** 0.48 -0.65** 0.31 of leaves Mass of 0.03 0.87** 1.00 0.62 -0.71** 0.28 stems Panicle 0.23 0.48 0.62 1.00 -0.06 0.51 length
129 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
There is an evident correlation between The mass of stems is positively correlated the components of morphological with the length of the blades and characteristics: mass stem, panicle length, temperature and weak negative correlation and environmental conditions. with rainfall Table 2.3.4
CONCLUSIONS
As economically much lower country, can be used for different purposes. Also compared to developed European these plants can be regarded as an countries, Serbia is lagging behind in energy-future but also as an alternative terms of production and application of "agricultural" plant species (the a habitat clean energy sources, although one can poor), thanks to the great production of dispute the fact that it possesses natural biomass as a renewable resource in the resources that should be used in order to energy sector in terms of environmental obtaining energy. The main function is protection. the production of Sorghum biomass that
ALMODARES, A. AND HADI, M. R. (2009): Production of bioethanol from sweet Sorghum: A review. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 4, pp. 772-780. BABOVIĆ, N.V., DRAŽIĆ, G.D., ĐORĐEVIĆ, A.M., (2012): Possibilities of using biomass originating from the fast-growing cane ( Miscanthus x giganteus) Chemical industry 66: 223-233 . BERENJI, J. i V. SIKORA (2006): Production of grain Sorghum. Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops , Novi Sad. DYKES, L. and ROONEY, L.W. (2006): Sorghum and millet phenols and antioxidants. Journal of Cereal Science, 44, pp. 236-251. DRAŽIĆ, G. (2010): Biodegradation and ecoremediation of soil in Serbia – project activities of the faculty „Futura“. In International conference „Degraded areas & Ecoremediation“, ISBN 978-86- 86859-23-5, pp. 245-259. DRAŽIĆ, G. (2011): Ecoremediation. Singidunum University, Faculty of Applied Ecology Futura , Belgrade , pp .162. DRAŽIĆ, G., MILOVANOVIĆ, J., BABOVIĆ, N., ĐORĐEVIĆ, A., SPASIĆ, S. (2014): Ecoremediation degraded area by establishing plantations of Miscanthus. University Singidunum, Futura, pp . 208. DRAŽIĆ, G., IKANOVIC, J., VITAS, A. (2014): The energy balance of crop production agroenergetskog Miscanthus giganteus on the fertile and degraded land. XXX International Conference, Energy
130 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
2014, Proceedings, Zlatibor 25-28.03.2014 , p . 224-229 UDC 620.9 , ISSN 0354-8651 , Association of Energy Sector . DRAŽIĆ, G., POPOVIC, V., IKANOVIC, J., VUČKOVIĆ, S., ŽIVANOVIĆ, Lj., TATIĆ M., KOLARIĆ Lj. (2016). Productivity biomass agro-energy crops – Sorghums – tolerants by environmental conditions. International Scientific Conference Agro-energy for sustainable agriculture and rural development. Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of European Studies and Regional Development, September 7th 2016 in Nitra. CARPITA, N. C. and GIBEAUT, D. M. (1993): Structural models of primary cell walls in flowering plants: consistency of molecular structure with the physical properties of the walls during growth. Plant J., 3, pp. 1-30. CARPITA, N. C. (1996): Structure and biogenesis of the cell walls of grasses. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol., 47, pp. 445-476. CARPITA, N. C. and Mc CANN, M. C. (2008): Maize and Sorghum: genetic resources for the bioenergy grasses. Trends Plant Sci, 13, pp. 415-420. GLAMOČLIJA, Đ., DRAŽIĆ, G., IKANOVIĆ, J., MALETIĆ, R., JANKOVIĆ, S., MILOVANOVIĆ, J., RAKIĆ, S. (2010): The impact of the increased amount of nitrogen on the yield of green biomass and hay Sorghum , Sudan grass and interspecific hybrids. Archive of Agricultural Sciences , Vol . 71 , No 254 , p. 63-74 . GLAMOČLIJA, Đ., STALETIĆ, M., ĐEKIĆ, V., DRAŽIĆ, G., IKANOVIĆ, J. (2010): Effect of nitrogen and weather conditions on the properties of the blades and grain Sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor L. Moench .) , Archives of Agricultural Sciences , Vol . 71 , no. 3 , p. 23-29 GLAMOČLIJA DJ., JANKOVIĆ S., MALETIĆ R., RAKIĆ S., IKANOVIĆ, J., LAKIĆ, Ž. (2011): Effect of nitrogen and mowing time on the biomass and the chemocal composition of Sudanose grass, foder Sorghum and their hybrid. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry. Volume 35 N 2 ISSN : 1300 – 011X pp 127-138M GLAMOČLIJA Đ., JANKOVIĆ S., POPOVIĆ VERA, KUZEVSKI J., FILIPOVIĆ V., UGRENOVIĆ V.(2015): Alternative crop plants in conventional and organic cultivation system. Monograph. IPN Belgrade, ISBN 978-86-81689-32-5 ; 1-355, 81-85 ; 220-225 . GRASSI, G., TONDI, G., HELM, P. (2004): Small-sized commercial bioenergy technologies as an instrument of rural development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. OECD Publication Service, Paris, pp. 277-287. IKANOVIĆ, J. (2010): "Genotypic and phenotypic specificity varieties of Sorghum. Sudan grass and their interspecies hybrids.." Doctoral dissertation , University of Belgrade , Faculty of Agriculture, Zemun, 1-145 . IKANOVIC, J., GLAMOCLIJA, DJ., MALETIC, R., JANKOVIC, S., TABAKOVIC, M., ZIVANOVIC, LJ. (2010): The genotype traits of forage Sorghum, sudan grass and their inter-species hybrid in the conditions of intensive nutrition. Genetika, Vol. 42, No, 2, pp. 349-358. IKANOVIC, J., GLAMOČLIJA, DJ., MALETIC, R., POPOVIĆ, V., SOKOLOVIC, D., SPASIC, M., RAKIC, S. (2011): Path analysis of the productive traits in Sorghum species, International Scientific Journal Genetics, Belgrade, Vol. 43,No.2, 253-262, DOI: 10.2298/GENSR11022531
131 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
IKANOVIC, J., GLAMOČLIJA, DJ., MALETIC, R., POPOVIĆ, V., SOKOLOVIC, D., SPASIC, M., RAKIC, S. (2011): Path analysis of the productive traits in Sorghum species, International Scientific Journal Genetics, Belgrade, Vol. 43,No.2, 253-262. UDC 575:630, DOI: 10.2298/GENSR11022531 IKANOVIC, J., POPOVIC, V., TRKULJA, V., ZIVANOVIC, LJ., LAKIC, Z., PAVLOVIC, S. (2013): Morphological characteristics of the interspecies hybrid between Sorghum and sudan grass under intensive nitrogen nutration. Genetika, Belgrade, 45 (1), 31-40. UDC 575:633.17, DOI: 10.2298/GENSR 1301031I, IF 0.492 IKANOVIĆ, J., JANKOVIĆ, S., POPOVIĆ, V., RAKIĆ, S., DRAŽIĆ, G., ŽIVANOVIĆ, LJ., KOLARIĆ, LJ. (2014). Effect of nitrogen fertilizer rates on green biomass and dry matter yield of Sorghum sp. at different growth stages. Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry 30 (4), p. 743-749. ISSN 1450-9156, Pub: Institute for Animal Husbandry, Belgrade-Zemun, UDC 631.84:633.3 DOI: 10.2298/BAH1404743 IKANOVIC, J., JANKOVIĆ, S., KRESOJEVIĆ, B., POPOVIĆ, V., RAKIĆ, S., DRAZIĆ, G., ŽIVANOVIĆ, LJ., KOLARIĆ LJ. 2015. Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizers on Leaf Biomass Production of Energy Crops (Miscanthus x giganteus). 6th International Scientific Agriculture Symposium “Agrosym 2015” Jahorina (B&H), 15-18.10.2015, ISBN 978-99976-632-2-1 , COBISS.RS-ID 5461016, CIP 631(082)(0.034.2); pp. 463-443. IKANOVIC, J., ŽIVANOVIĆ, LJ., KOLARIĆ, LJ. (2015): Agroenergy crops in service ecoremediation. In the line. Jelena Milovanovic , Slađana Đorđević : Preservation and enhancement of biological resources in the service ecoremediation / Conservation and enhancement of biological resources in the service of ecoremediation . Monograph . Futura , Belgrade , ISBN 978-86- 86859-41-9 ; COBISS.SR - ID 215624972 ; 193-262 . 1-407 . IKANOVIĆ, J., GORDANA, D., POPOVIĆ, V., RAJIĆ, Z. (2015): Bioenergy challenge and efficient use of land resources. Comparative analysis of the results of the bioenergy crop productivity grown on degraded and fertile lend . Eh- energy , economy and ecology . List Energy Association . Br . 1- 2, 96-102 . Year XVII / March 2015 UDC 620.9 , ISSN br.0354-865 . pp 141-147 JANKOVIĆ, S., RAKIĆ, S., IKANOVIĆ, J. KUZEVSKI, J., ŽIVANOVIĆ, LJ., LAKIĆ, Ž. (2012): Correlation coefficients of morphological-productive traits of species of Sorghum genus. Biotechnology in animal husbandry. VOL 28, 3 585-595 JANKOVIC, S., POPOVIC, V., IKANOVIC, J., RAKIC, S., KUZEVSKI, J., GAVRILOVIC, M. (2016). Productivity traits of rye (Secale cereale), Khorasan wheat (Triticum turgidum, ssp. Taranicum MCKEY) and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) grown on degraded soil. Nardi Fundulea, Romanian agricultural research, Romania No. 33, 2016 www.incda-fundulea.ro, DII 2067-5720 RAR 2016- 148. Mc LAREN, J.S., LAKEY, N., OSBORNE, J. (2003): Sorghum as a bioresources platform for future renewable resources. Proceedings 57th Corn and Sorghum Research Conference. CD ROM. American Seed Trade Association, Alexandria, VA, USA, pp. 156. MURRAY, S. C., ROONEY, W. L., MITCHELL, S. E., SHARMA, A., KLEIN, P. E., MULLET, J. E., KRESOVICH, S. (2008): Genetic improvement of Sorghum as a biofuel feedstock: II. QTL for stem and leaf structural carbohydrates. Crop Science, 48 (6): 2180-2193. OLJAČA, S., GLAMOČLIJA, Đ. AND. DŽELETOVIĆ, Ž. (2007): Using the new bioenergy crops for energy production, I Agrosym, Istočno Sarajevo, Books of abstracts. 2007. 132 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
PATERSON, A. H., BOWERS, J. E., BRUGGMANN, R., DUBCHAK, I., GRIMWOOD, J., GUNDLACH, H., HABERER, G., HELLSTEN, U., MITROS, T., POLIAKOV, A. (2009): The Sorghum bicolor genome and the diversification of grasses. Nature, 457, pp. 551-556. POPOVIĆ, V. (2010): Influence of agro-technical and agro-ecological practices on seed production of wheat, maize and soybean. Doctoral Thesis, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Agriculture, 1- 145. POPOVIC, V., JAKSIC, S., GLAMOCLIJA, DJ., DJEKIC, V., GRAHOVAC, N., AND MICKOVSKI, V., STEFANOVIC, P. (2012a): Variability and correlations between soybean yield and quality components, Romanian Agricultural Research, Nardi Fundulea, Romania. No. 29, 131-138.; POPOVIC, V., VIDIC, M., JOCKOVIC, DJ., IKANOVIC, J., JAKSIC, S., CVIJANOVIĆ, G. (2012b): Variability and correlations between yield components of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]. Genetika, Belgrade, Vol. 44, No.1, 33-45. ISSN 0534-0012, UDC 575:633.34; DOI: 10:2298/GENSR1201033P; POPOVIĆ, V., GLAMOČLIJA, DJ.,, SIKORA, V., ĐEKIĆ, V., ČERVENSKI, J., SIMIĆ, D., ILIN, S. (2013a): Genotypic specificity of soybean [Glycine max. (L) Merr.] under conditions of foliar fertilization, Romanian agricultural research, Romania. No. 30. 259-270; DII 2067-5720 RAR 255 POPOVIC, V., MILADINOVIĆ, J., MALEŠEVIĆ, M., MARIĆ, V., ŽIVANOVIĆ, LJ. (2013b): Effect of agroecological factors on variations in yield, protein and oil contents in soybean grain. Romanian Agricultural Research, Romania. No. 30, 241-248. DII 2067-5720 RAR 207 POPOVIC, M. VERA., VIDIC, M., MIHAILOVIC, V., IKANOVIC, J.., DJEKIĆ, V., ILIĆ, A. (2014). Genotype x environment interaction between yield and quality components of soybean [Glycine max]. "Agriculture and Forestry". Podgorica, Montenegro. Vol. 60. 2. 33-46. POPOVIĆ, V. (2015): The concept, classification and importance of biological resources in agriculture. (Ed) Milovanovic J., Đorđević S.: Conservation and еnhancement of biological esources in the service of ecoremediation. Monograph. IPN Belgrade, Serbia. 1-407. ISBN 978-86-86859-41-9; COBISS.SR-ID 215624972; 1-407, 29-51. POPOVIC, V., MILADINOVIC, J., VIDIC, M., VUCKOVIC, S., DRAZIC, G., IKANOVIC, J., DJEKIC, V., FILIPOVIC, V. (2015). Determining genetic potential and quality components of NS soybean cultivars under different agroecological conditions. Romanian Agricultural Research, No.32, 35- 42. DII 2067-5720 IKANOVIĆ, J., POPOVIĆ, V., JANKOVIĆ, S., ŽIVANOVIĆ, LJ., RAKIĆ, S., DONČIĆ, D. (2014): Khorasan wheat population researching (Triticum Turgidum,sp. Turanicum (McKEY) in the minimum tillage conditions. Genetika, Belgrade, 46 (1), pp.105-115. IF 0.372 http://www.dsggenetika.org.rs ĐEKIĆ, V., MILOVANOVIĆ, M., POPOVIĆ, V., MILIVOJEVIĆ, J., STALETIĆ, M., JELIĆ, M., PERIŠIĆ, V. (2014). Effect of fertilization on yield and grain quality in winter triticale. Romanian Agricultural Research, Nardi Fundulea, Romania. Vol. 31, (2014) RAR.1-9. ŽIVANOVIĆ, LJ., IKANOVIĆ, J., POPOVIĆ, V., SIMIĆ, D., KOLARIĆ, LJ., BOJOVIĆ, R., STEVANOVIĆ, P. (2014): Effect of planting density and supplemental nitrogen nutrition on the productivity of Miscanthus. Romanian agricultural research, Nardi Fundulea, No. 31, 291-298; Print ISSN 1222-
4227, DII 2067-5720 RAR 428, http://www.incda-fundulea.ro/rar/rar31.htm M23-3,0
133 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
IKANOVIC, J., POPOVIC, V., TRKULJA, V., ZIVANOVIC, LJ., LAKIC, Z., PAVLOVIC, S. (2013): Morphological characteristics of the interspecies hybrid between Sorghum and sudan grass under intensive nitrogen nutration. Genetika, Belgrade, 45 (1), 31-40. UDC 575:633.17, DOI: 10.2298/GENSR 1301031I RAKIĆ, S., GLAMOČLIJA, DJ., IKANOVIĆ, J., JANKOVIĆ, S., ŽIVKOVIĆ, M. (2013): Morphological traits, yield and chemical composition of forage Sorghum genotypes, grown under different nitrogen rates. Romanian Agricultural Research, 30 DII 2067-5720 RAR 2012-195 In press. ISSN 1222 - 4227 ISSN 2067 - 5720 SELVI, B. AND PALANISAMY, S. (1990): Heterosis and combining ability for grain yield in sweet Sorghum. Madras Agric J., 77, pp. 493-496. SIKORA, V., POPOVIC, V., ZORIC, M., LATKOVIC, D., FILIPOVIC, V., TATIC, M., IKANOVIC, J. (2016). An agro-technological characterization of south-eastern european broomcorn landraces. Pak. J. Agri. Sci., Vol. 53(3), 1-10. DOI:10.21162/PAKJAS/16.3061 STRAKA F., CIAHOTNÝ K. (2010): Biogas – Manual for Education, Designing and Operation of Biogas Systems. GAS, Praha, 305. ZHENG, Y., P. ZHONGLI, R. ZHANG, B.M. JENKINS, S. BLUNK (2005): Medium-density particle board from saline 'Jose' tall wheatgrass. Online. Am. Soc. Ag. Eng. (ASAE) Paper no. 056127.
ŽIVANOVIĆ, LJ., IKANOVIĆ, J., POPOVIĆ, V., SIMIĆ, D., KOLARIĆ, LJ., MAKLENOVIĆ, V., BOJOVIĆ, R., STEVANOVIĆ, P. (2014): Effect of planting density and supplemental nitrogen nutrition on the productivity of Miscanthus. Romanian agricultural research, Nardi Fundulea, Romania. No. 31, 291-298; Print ISSN 1222-4227, DII 2067-5720 RAR 428, http://www.incda- fundulea.ro/rar/rar31.htm IF 0.186
134 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Canary Grass - Phalaris canariensis
Botanical classification Unpeeled grain used in feeding livestock and birds. The polymorphic genus Phalaris has over
20 annual and perennial species. Red Hulled grains have a high protein value canary grass (reeds), many years grasses and can be used in human nutrition as and annual canary grass belonging to the well as easily digestible dietary meals. grass family fam. Poaceae, subfam. Above-ground biomass, in terms of Panicoideae, gender Phallaris. Cultivated quality is similar to oats and used as species is hardy Phallaris cannriensis L. roughage production, fresh or dried canary grass. It is divided into several (LINDIG-CISNEROS et al., 2007). Crop subspecies which differ according to the residues, straw, can be used as bedding or material class wiper. The most important used as animal feed medium quality Subspecies are (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015): (KRESOVIĆ et. al., 2016), as well as an Phallaris cannriensis ssp. minor - an energy source for the production of elongated stem and blossom and pellets or briquettes for burning in boilers. shortened and Yields of biomass are suitable for further Phallaris cannriensis ssp. aquatica - a processing into cellulose and bio-fuel and large cylindrical inflorescences. justify a relatively small investment in the
production of this plant species. In addition to cultivated, rod has a greater number wild growing, mostly perennial. Some of them can be grown in planted Figure 2.4.1. Canary grass seed grasslands, such as reeds (red canary grass) - Phallaris arundinacea (L.) Dum. This perennial grass gives the highest annual production of biomass suitable for use in bio-energy purposes.
Economic importance Canary grass is grown as an annual and many years species. As a hardy species Source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com are grown for single-seed fruits or grains of overhead (ABDEL et al., 1997).
135 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
As many years species most cultivated red Figure 2.4.2. Canary grass canary grass known as reeds with is suitable for bioremediation as a great flourish in conditions where water and of land contaminated with industrial waste. The annual increment of biomass in these environmental conditions is a great and cost for processing into pellets or briquettes for combustion in boiler plants (ANDERSON, 1961). Mature biomass has great content pulp suitable for obtaining bio-ethanol to stand out (MILLER et al., 2000). and paper production Mc LAUGHLIN et al., (2005). It appears in the moderate climate climate zone of Europe, Asia and America on marginal lands, too moist and often flooded terrain along the rivers and lakes. For the countries of Source: https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com northern Europe it represents an important plant to obtain pulp from Ancestry renewable sources MILLER et al., (2000); GLAMOČLIJA et al,. (2015). Canary grass is originating from the Mediterranean. Cultivated varieties are In Sweden, much like breeding canary caused by breeding of wild plants. Most grass and its introduction into commercial are grown in Canada (about 70% of the production, especially in soils that are not total world production of grain), then in suitable for other plant species. Australia, Russia, significantly less than in other European countries. Therefore, in the European market by producers in America each year sold about 50.000 tons of grains (Mc LAUGHLIN et al., 2005). According to the World Organization of food for annual production grains canary grass in the world could meet the nutritional needs the food of starch about one million inhabitants.
136 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Morphological traits of the canary spikelets. The flowers are bipolar, the same grass material as in other cereals. The fruit is was small one-seed hulled with shiny, firmly Canary grass has haired root system attached-lim glumes light yellow to brown. made up of a large number of primary Length of the fetus is about 2 mm. 1000- and secondary roots. A secondary roots grain weight is 9-10 g. Chemical develop from underground stems and composition. Peeled fruit contains 22-24% lower overhead of node stems, forming a of proteins, 50% carbohydrates, 5% oil, dense tangle of roots with high suction 10% cellulose, 1.8% mineral salts, and 11% power. The development of the root water. It is rich in vitamins B complex and depends on the physical and chemical vitamin E (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015). properties of soil and groundwater level. The stems is tall, articulated height of 80- Growing conditions 200 cm. Well, the tillers. In the beginning of the vegetation period of trees are Canary grass is relatively well tolerated tender and juicy, and maturing plant cold, but also high-temperature air. Is crude (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015). sensitive to drought while plants do not develop secondary root system. Well The flowers are collected in an inflorescence tolerated excessive humidity and can be class wiper oval or cylindrical shape, the submerged 20-30 days without length of 5-8 cm (ssp. Minor), or about 10 consequences. Minimum temperature for cm (ssp. Aquatica). Inflorescence diameter is germination of canary grass is 8-100C so 1.5-2.5 cm. On the part the laterals is a large that sowing can be carried out in late number of spikelets jednocvetnih. The March or early April. It is grown in flowers are bipolar, the same material as in different soil types if they are not too other prosolikih cereals. acidic or alkaline reaction (KAJGANA and GLAMOČLIJA, 2004). Chemical composition. Peeled fruit contains 22-24% of proteins, 50% carbohydrates, 5% Wild forms of this grass very well and oil, 10% cellulose, 1.8% mineral salts, and managed to flood periodically ditchwater, 11% water. It is rich in vitamins B complex but also on sandy soils. Crops grown and vitamin E. varieties can be based in these soil conditions with the prior destruction of The flowers are collected in An natural vegetation and soil treatment inflorescence class wiper oval or cylindrical using a total herbicide. If this grass will be shape, the length of 5-8 cm (ssp. Minor), or grown as an annual crop in the fertile about 10 cm (ssp. Aquatica). Inflorescence soils, the best preceeding the grass- diameter is 1.5-2.5 cm. On the part the legume mixtures and other unrelated laterals is a large number of flower
137 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation species that leave the land of favorable canary grass, in which the benefits of characteristics. biomass for energy purposes the whole plant for the production of pellets or The research results KRESOVIĆ et al briquettes for burning in boiler plants (2016) suggest that climatic factors: (Figure 2.4.4). Mature biomass has great temperature, light intensity and the content pulp suitable for obtaining bio- amount and distribution of rainfall have a ethanol. (Figure 2.4.3). significant impact on the production of
Figure 2.4.3. Crop canary grass Figure 2.4.4. Briquettes canary grass
Source: https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com Source: http://www.srna.rs
Technology of the canary grass species that leave the land of favorable production characteristics (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015).
Crop rotation Soil cultivation To achieve high and stable yields tillage has Wild forms of this grass very well and an important role. It is spring planting crops managed to flooded periodically and basic processing can be done in ditchwater, but also on sandy soils. Crops autumn or early winter. In the temperate grown varieties can be based in these soil climate zone canary grass is grown as a conditions with the prior destruction of crop of spring sowing. The depth of natural vegetation and soil treatment using plowing depends on the physical properties a total herbicide. If you will be grown on the of soil treatment depth and the preceding fertile soils, the best preceeding the grass- crop, most often it is performed at 20-25 legume mixtures and other unrelated cm. The role of primary treatment is to 138 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation reduce the number of weeds, pests and the soil, environmental conditions and parasites, plant diseases, entering into the genetic yield potential variety. In the year land of organic and mineral fertilizers and of crop establishment (plantings), if it is crop residue of the previous crop and the grown as a perennial species are used creation of a favorable general condition of NPK mineral nutrients in amounts and the arable layer of soil (GLAMOČLIJA et al., respect the needs of the natural fertility of 2015). the soil. In the medium-fertile soil (pH above 6) plowed about 40 kg ha-1 Immediately the primary area processing phosphorus and 60-80 kg ha-1 potassium. or during the winter can start with fine Sowing is entered all three elements in a soil preparation roto-tiller, or harrows to quantity of 20 kg ha-1. In subsequent into alignment the surface layer and years, the crop in the spring fed all three triturated larger clods of soil. Presowing nutritious elements, and after harvests preparation is carried out a few days only nitrogen. The quantities of mineral before planting to a depth of 5-8 cm, nutrients depend on the planned yield, depending on the grain to be sown. With (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015) fertility and soil this processing are entered into the soil humidity. pesticides and mineral nutrients. Processing system determine the soil The selection of varieties conditions and the preceding crop. On According to the content of alkaloids damp soils carried out reduced tillage varieties can be divided into sweet, with which involves the preparation of the little content, and bitter, with a high shallower, the seedbed, the previously content of alkaloids. If the reed is used as freed wild vegetation. On the quality an energy crop, should opt for varieties (agricultural) soils processing begins by that have a higher content of alkaloids plowing overturns of plastice or chisel- because they are better adapted to plows (without overturning of plastice). cultivation in less favorable conditions. Primary treatment carried out in autumn This group includes varieties Common, or spring, depending on environmental Rise Vantage, represented in the conditions. Just before seeding the production in Pennsylvania (HALL, 1996, surface is ground harrows, or roto-tiller to GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015). From the group a depth of 5 cm (GLAMOČLIJA et al., of sweet varieties should be set aside 2015). high-yield varieties tolerant to cold, such
as Palatona, Venture and others. Nutrition plants This agro-technical measures is of great significance because it will be optimal nutrition best use of the natural fertility of
139 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The sowing seed drills, with a consumption of 12-14 kg ha-1 seed. While the one-species Work on breeding and creating new planting should be 15-18 kg ha-1 seed. genotypes of alternative cereals in the Plants flourish long in our country, from past is very important, because the food May until the end of June, so the industries of these raw materials maturation period extended. For sowing increasing. The varieties are characterized in mixtures used 6-8 kg ha-1 seed canary by the latest generation of productive grass seed with the addition of some organs that, in addition to high nutritional leptirnjaca, and the mixture used for the value, they also have significant amounts production of animal feed. Seeding depth of vitamins, mineral salts (GLAMOČLIJA et is 1-1.5 cm. After sowing, the surface can al., 2015) and other useful food optionally be rolled with a smooth roller substances. (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015).
Owing well-organized seed production Care and protection of crops agricultural producers have the opportunity to procurement quality seeds The dimensions of care, which is applied of most of these types of field crops during the growing season, have the task ŽIVANOVIĆ et al,. (2014). Breeders are to provide the most favorable conditions also concerned with obtaining genotypes for plant growth and development. In the of Sorghum that would be genetically period from sowing to germination in resistant to fungal diseases. How this kind areas planted this plant species after big in our country becomes interesting for rain can be formed strong crust that cultivation in specific soils (marsh and prevents the normal process of partly Abar), created the first domestic emergence of the plants. If the need variety Novosadsko light seed. This arises combating crust perform light variety has a tall stem height of 90-100 harrows, ribbed rollers or dams, or cm, good tillers, uniform ripening, weaponry that does not penetrate deeply tolerant to drought and lodging, growing so as not to hurt Sorghum seedlings. It is up to 110-120 days. Canary grass is sown best to working machines moving seed drills are as narrow-row crops perpendicular to the lines of sowing. After (MILLER et al., 2000). the emergence of the plants perform inter-row cultivation to make the surface For planting using seed purity above 80% layer of soil between the rows held germination. Spring sowing (in March) nezakorovljenim and in bulk. Number carried out in areas where the surface interlinear cultivation is determined layer of soil drained in the period August- according to the state of the surface layer September. As if the main crop is a of soil and crop infestation. In the year of perennial type of session is thick. Spacing planting, crop care measures include
140 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation rolling for a more uniform germination exceeds the underground stem (rhizome), and emergence, if the land is dry and and the water content is reduced to watering in the early stages of below 30% so that the above-ground germination. In the coming years, the biomass has a high cellulose content. most important dimensions of care are Mowing is done tractor mowers, and then recharge in early spring and after the baled. Yields dried above-ground biomass harvests. If you need combating crust depend on the environmental conditions, perform light harrows, ribbed rollers or by harvest period and plant nutrition dams, or weaponry that does not (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015). The agro- penetrate deeply so as not to hurt ecological conditions of northern Europe Sorghum seedlings. It is best to working was prepared by 7-8.5 t ha-1 of dry machines moving perpendicular to the biomass, while in Central Europe lines of sowing. After the emergence of (Switzerland) yields range up to 19 t ha-1 the plants perform inter-row cultivation to (BODEGA, 1998). make the surface layer of soil between the rows of keeping non-weedy and in bulk. The mature seed canary grass can easily Number of regular inter-cultivation is spread the rash of blossom, in addition, determined according to the state of the overripe turns dark and is not suitable in surface layer of soil and crop infestation. the diet of pet animals. Therefore In the year of planting, crop care harvesting must be carried out at the measures include rolling for a more optimum time, the best two-phase - for uniform germination and emergence, if cutting plants and their grain drying in the land is dry and watering in the early bundles. Threshers threshing is done stages of germination. In the coming when the mowed plant mass dry out. years, the most important dimensions After harvest (harvests) beans are cleaned (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2015) of care are of impurities, dried at 10-11% humidity additional feeding in early spring and and Breakfast stored in bags in after the harvests. warehouses for grain products. Yields move in the grain limits 2000-3000 kg Harvesting and storage ha-1 (GLAMOČLIJA et al., 2012, 2015). The manner and time of harvest depends on the objective of production. If the canary grass grown as an energy source, biomass to produce the highest quality bio-pellets and bio-briquettes will be obtained by cutting in early spring. During the autumn and winter the highest percentage of macro and micro elements
141 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Research results of the canary (KRESOVIĆ et al, 2016). The experimental grass production in Serbia data were processed by the appropriate mathematical-statistical methods using The two-year (2011-2012) research with statistical package STATISTICA for Canary grass were performed on soil Windows 10.0. type in Stara Pazova, Serbia. Seeding has been used Novosadsko light seed Meteorological data variety, developed at Institute of Field Meteorological data were obtained from and Vegetable Crops in Novi Sad. the meteorological station Stara Pazova, Sowing visit was conducted in the first (KRESOVIĆ et al, 2016). week of April in both years of research. Using traditional cultural practices for The amount and distribution of rainfall growing spring wheat. The experiment varies from year to year and are was set up in five repetitions. Harvesting unpredictable and changeable (POPOVIĆ, 2010). The total amount of precipitation is done in early August. With each plot in the vegetation period studied ranged were taken after 5 representative plants from 348 mm (2012) to 371 mm (2011), and measured the morphological Figure 2.4.5. features. After harvesting crop grain yields were calculated per unit area
Figure 2.4.5. Precipitation, mm, Stara Pazova, 2011-2012.
Temperatures were higher in 2012 by 0.33 0C compared to 2011 (16.85 0C), Figure 2.4.6.
142 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 2.4.6. Average temperature, 0C, Stara Pazova, 2011-2012.
Morpho-productive characteristics of canary grass Investigated the morpho-productive characteristics of canary grass plant height, panicle length, 1.000 grains mass and grain yield (Table 2.4.1).
Table 2.4.1. Morphological-productive characteristics of canary grass
Parameter Canary grass; Variety “Novosadsko svetlo seme“ Years Mean Std.Dev Std. Err -95,00% +95,00% Plant height, cm 2011 95,75 1.707825 0.853913 93.03247 98.46753 2012 88,25 5.795113 2.897556 79.02868 97.47132 Average 92,00 5.631544 1.991051 87.29191 96.70809 2011 6,23 0.629153 0.314576 5.223877 7.226123 Panicle length, cm 2012 5,97 0.298608 0.149304 5.499848 6.450152 Average 6,10 0.475094 0.167971 5.702811 6.497189 2011 9,41 0.221115 0.110557 9.060657 9.764343 1000 grains mass, g 2012 9, 27 0.257601 0.128801 8.862599 9.682401 Average 9,34 0.234506 0.082910 9.146448 9.538552 2011 2512 47.871 23.936 2436.33 2588.67 Grain yield, t/ha 2012 2432 172.892 86.446 2157.30 2707.61 Average 2472 124.986 44.189 2368.01 2576,99
143 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 2.4.2. Morphological-productive characteristics of canary grass Indicator Year LSD-test 0.05 0.01 Plant height 7,3917 11,1979 Panicle length 0,8521 1,2908 1000 grains mass 0,4154 0,6292 Grain yield 219,49 322,51
.
The results showed the years had a 2,512 kg / ha in 2012. The statistical error statistically significant effect on plant in the average for the period studied, height. A variety of canary grass 2011-2012, amounted to 44.19 (Tab. "Novosadsko light seed" on average had 2.4.2). Climatic factors such as significantly higher plants in 2011 (95.75 temperature, (KRESOVIĆ et al. 2016), light cm) compared to 2012 (88.25 cm). The intensity and duration of grain filling standard deviation of the average plant stage had an impact on the examined height for the test period was 5.63 while factors: plant height, panicle length, grain the statistical error of the average for the yield and 1.000 grain mass. period studied, 2011-2012, was 1.99. The average length of the wiper in the study Correlations between the period was 6.10 cm and ranged from 5.97 examined morphological productive cm in 2011 to 6.23 cm in 2012, (KRESOVIĆ, et al. 2016). The statistical characteristics error in the average for the period In order to improve the production system of studied, 2011-2012, amounted to 0.17 canary grass, it is necessary to understand (Tab. 2.4.1). the relationships that exist between the individual factors and their influence on The average weight of 1000 seeds in the morphological characteristics of productive study period was 9.34 g, and ranged from canary grass. Grain yield was positively 9.27 g to 9.41 g to 2012 in 2011. The correlated with the mass of 1.000 seeds statistical error in the average for the and plant height, and in a weak negative period studied, 2011-2012, was 0.08, tab. correlation with panicle length (Table 2.4.3). 2. Grain yield canary grass in the study period was an average of 2,472 kg / ha and ranged from 2,432 kg / ha in 2011 to
144 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 2.4.3. Correlation relations studied traits, 2011-2012 Parameter Grain 1000 grain Plant height Panicle length yield mass Grain yield 1.00 0,53ns 0,14 ns -0,12 ns 1000 grain mass - 1.00 0,19 ns -0,35 ns Plant height - - 1.00 ns -0,08 ns ns – not statistically significant
Agro-energy crop production target at remediation of degraded areas and the same time provide: a year-renewable conservation of the fertility of agricultural energy sources, capturing CO2 from the land. atmosphere, sustainable use and
FINAL OBSERVATIONS
Obtaining a energy using biological Therefore, in the near future, more material in developed countries has a attention must be paid to the work on the long tradition, and crop residue of various breeding of annual and perennial canary plant species after the refining the main grass and their introduction into products can be used in various ways. commercial production, especially in soils They can serve as a direct source of that are not suitable for other plant energy or for the production of biofuels, species, given that there are large annual as well as voluminous fodder for further biomass production and tolerant on biotic industrial processing, as a construction and abiotic stress. Yields of biomass material, then as a raw material for the suitable for further processing into production of compost for growing cellulose and bio-fuel justify a relatively mushrooms, as litter for domestic animals small investment in the production of this were for mixing in order to increase the plant species. organic matter in soil.
145 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
ABDEL, A. et al. (1997): Characteristics of canaryseed (Phalaris canariensis L.) starch. Starch 49 (12), pp. 475-480. ANDERSON, D. E. (1961): Taxonomy and distribution of the genus Phalaris. Iowa State Journal of Science, No 36, pp. 1-96. BODEGA, J. et al. (1998): Evaluation of two growth regulators on development, stem bending and seed yield of canary grass (Phalaris canariensis L.). Annals of Applied Biology 132 (Suppl.), pp. 34-35. DRAŽIĆ, G. (2010): Biodegradation and ecoremediation of soil in serbia – project activities of the faculty „Futura“. In International conference „Degraded areas & Ecoremediation“, ISBN 978-86-86859- 23-5, pp. 245-259. DRAŽIĆ, G. (2011): Ekoremedijacije. Univerzitet Singidunum, Fakultet za primenjenu ekologiju, Futura, Beograd, pp. 162. DRAŽIĆ, G., MILOVANOVIĆ, J., BABOVIĆ, N., ĐORĐEVIĆ, A., SPASIĆ, S. (2014): Ekoremedijacija degradiranog prostora plantažiranjem Miskantusa. Univerzitet Singidunum, Futura, str. 208. DŽELETOVIĆ, Ž., LAZAREVIĆ, M., BOGDANOVIĆ, M. T., DRAŽIĆ, G. (2000): Vrste drveća i žbunja adaptivne na stanišne uslove odlagališta pepela i šljake termoelektrana. U: Electra I – JUS ISO 14000 - Upravljanje zaštitom životne sredine u elektroprivredi. Zbornik radova. YU Forum kvaliteta, Beograd, 12-16.6.2000., Aranđelovac, 351-355. DŽELETOVIĆ, Ž., BOGDANOVIĆ, M. (2002): Primena pepela u poljoprivredi. U: Elektra II – ISO 14000. Zbornik radova 2. međunarodne konferencije o upravljanju zaštitom životne sredine u elektroprivredi, 10-14.6.2002 Tara,. Forum kvaliteta, Beograd, 375-379. DŽELETOVIĆ, Z., N. MIHAILOVIC, DJ. GLAMOCLIJA AND G. DRAZIC (2009): Postponed harvest of Miscanthus × Giganteus – influence on the quality and quantity of accumulated biomass, 170 PTEP -Journal of Process Engineering and Energy in Agriculture, 13, 2, pp. 170-173. GLAMOČLIJA, DJ., Z. DŽELETOVIĆ AND S. OLJAČA (2007): Using the new bioenergy crops for energy production, Agrosym, Sarajevo, 2007. GLAMOČLIJA, Đ., JANKOVIĆ, S., PIVIĆ, R. (2012): Alternativna žita. Institut za zemljište, Beograd. Monografija. HANSON, C. and MASON, J. (1985): Bird seed aliens in Britain. Watsonia, 15, pp. 237-252. HOLT, N. W. (1993): Effects of row spacing and seeding rate on the agro-nomic performance of annual canarygrass. Canadian Journal Of Plant Science 69 (4), pp. 1193-1198. GLAMOČLIJA, Đ., JANKOVIĆ, S., POPOVIĆ, V., KUZEVSKI, J., FILIPOVIĆ, V., UGRENOVIĆ, V. (2015): Alternativne ratarske biljke u konvencionalnom i organskom sistemu gajenju. Monografija. IPN Beograd, Alternatively crop plants in conventional and organic growing systems. Monograph. IPN Belgrade,ISBN 978-86-81689-32-5; COBISS.SR-ID 214569228; 1-355, 81-85; 220-225. IKANOVIĆ, J. (2010): “Genotipska i fenotipska specifičnost sorti sirka, sudanske trave i njihovog interspecies hibrida”. Doktorska disertacija, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Poljoprivredni fakultet Zemun, 1-145.
146 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
IKANOVIC, J., DJ. GLAMOCLIJA, R. MALETIC, S. JANKOVIC, M. TABAKOVIC, LJ. ZIVANOVIC (2010): The genotype traits of forage Sorghum, sudan grass and their inter-species hybrid in the conditions of intensive nutrition. Genetika, Vol. 42, No, 2, pp. 349-358. IKANOVIC, J., GLAMOČLIJA, DJ., MALETIC, R., POPOVIĆ, V., SOKOLOVIC, D., SPASIC, M., RAKIC, S. (2011): Path analysis of the productive traits in Sorghum species, International Scientific Journal Genetics, Belgrade, Vol. 43,No.2, 253-262. UDC 575:630, DOI: 10.2298/GENSR11022531 IKANOVIC, J., POPOVIC, V., TRKULJA, V., ZIVANOVIC, LJ., LAKIC, Z., PAVLOVIC, S. (2013): Morphological characteristics of the interspecies hybrid between Sorghum and sudan grass under intensive nitrogen nutration. Genetika, Belgrade, 45 (1), 31-40. UDC 575:633.17, DOI: 10.2298/GENSR 1301031I, IF 0.492 IKANOVIC, J., JANKOVIĆ, S., KRESOVIĆ, B., POPOVIĆ, V., RAKIĆ, S., DRAZIĆ, G., ŽIVANOVIĆ, LJ., KOLARIĆ LJ. 2015. Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizers on Leaf Biomass Production of Energy Crops (Miscanthus x giganteus). 6th International Scientific Agriculture Symposium “Agrosym 2015” Jahorina (B&H), 15-18.10.2015, ISBN 978-99976-632-2-1 , COBISS.RS-ID 5461016, CIP 631(082)(0.034.2); pp. 463-443. IKANOVIC, J., ŽIVANOVIĆ, LJ., KOLARIĆ, LJ. (2015): Agroenergyi crops in service ecoremediation. In the line. Jelena Milovanovic, Slađana Đorđević: Preservation and enhancement of biological resources in the service ecoremediation / Conservation and enhancement of biological resources in the service of ecoremediation . Monograph . Futura , Belgrade , ISBN 978-86- 86859-41-9 ; COBISS.SR - ID 215624972 ; 193-262 . 1-407 . JANKOVIĆ, S., S. RAKIĆ,,J. IKANOVIĆ, J. KUZEVSKI, LJ. ŽIVANOVIĆ, Ž. LAKIĆ (2012) Correlation coefficients of morphological-productive traits of species of Sorghum genus. Biotechnology in animal husbandry. VOL 28, 3 585-595 KAJGANA, M., Đ. GLAMOČLIJA I VANKA, G. (2004): Rezultati introdukcije kanarske trave (Phalaris canariensis L.) u ratarsku proizvodnju centralne Srbije. Acta Agriculturae Serbica, Vol. IX, 17, str. 553-558. KRESOVIĆ, B., IKANOVIĆ, J., DRAŽIĆ, G., POPOVIĆ V., RAJIĆ, Z., TAPANAROVA, A. (2016): Canary Grass as a viable energy source and its future. Energija, ekonomija i ekologija. List saveza energetičara. Br. 1-2, 96-102. godina XVIII / mart 2016. UDC 620.9, ISSN br.0354-8651 LINDIG-CISNEROS, R. and J. B. ZEDLER (2002): Phalaris arundinacea seedling establishment: Effects of canopy complexity in fen, mesocosm, and restoration experiments. Canadian Journal of Botany 80 (6): 617-624. Mc LAUGHLIN, S.B., KSZOS, A., (2005): Development of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) as a bioenergy feedstockin the United States. Biomass and Bioenergy 28: 515–535. MILLER, P. (2000): Effect of varying seeding date on crop development, yield and yield components in canaryseed. Can. Journ. of Plant Scien. 80 (1), pp. 83-86. OLJAČA, S., GLAMOČLIJA, Đ. AND. DŽELETOVIĆ, Ž. (2007) Using the new bioenergy crops for energy production, I Agrosym, Istočno Sarajevo, Books of abstracts. 2007.
147 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
POPOVIĆ, V. (2010): Influence of agro-technical and agro-ecological practices on seed production of wheat, maize and soybean. Doctoral Thesis, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Agriculture, 1- 145. POPOVIĆ, V.. VIDIĆ, M., GLAMOČLIJA, Đ., TATIĆ, M., VUČKOVIĆ, S., IKANOVIĆ J. (2011): Effect of meteorological conditions on the production of NS soya bean seed, Economics of agriculture, Belgrade, EP 2011. (58) 2, 323-331. POPOVIĆ, V. (2015): The concept, classification and importance of biological resources in agriculture. (Ed) Milovanovic J., Đorđević S.: Conservation and еnhancement of biological esources in the service of ecoremediation. Monograph. IPN Belgrade, Serbia. 1-407. ISBN 978-86-86859-41-9; COBISS.SR-ID 215624972; 1-407, 29-51. STRAKA F., CIAHOTNÝ K. (2010): Biogas – Manual for Education, Designing and Operation of Biogas Systems. GAS, Praha, 305. ŽIVANOVIĆ LJ., IKANOVIĆ, J., POPOVIĆ V., SIMIĆ, D., KOLARIĆ, Lj., MAKLENOVIĆ, V., BOJOVIĆ, R., STEVANOVIĆ, P. (2014): Effect of planting density and supplemental nitrogen nutrition on the productivity of Miscanthus. Romanian agricultural research, Nardi Fundulea, Romania. No. 31, 291-298; Print ISSN 1222-4227, DII 2067-5720 RAR 428, http://www.incda- fundulea.ro/rar/rar31.htm IF 0.186
148 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
2.5.1. Fast-growing energy trees of the genus Salix
RES reduce dependence on imported SUA on several sites in south-western fossil fuels and thus increase the self- Slovakia (Selice, Kolíňany, Brodské and sufficiency, create job opportunities in Chotín). The research has focused on the rural areas and provide environmental production potential of different varieties benefits. The use of RES is one of the of the genus Salix, Populus, Miscanthus priorities of Energy Security Strategy of and Paulownia. The initial results of the Slovak Republic (OECD/IEA 2016, ME SR selected growth parameters and biomass 2014). In Slovakia, biomass has the largest production of willow (Swedish and energy potential among RES with Hungarian varieties) and poplar (Italian theoretical potential of 120 PJ (ME SR varieties) from these research sites 2014). One form of biomass used for published SKLADAN (2010), FAZEKAŠ energy purposes is biomass produced in (2011), HAUPTVOGL (2011), DEMO et al. short rotation plantations (SRP) (2011), BAKO (2012) and TÓTHOVÁ (LINDEGAARD et al. 2016). Species (2012). KOTRLA and PRČÍK (2011) studied suitable for SRP include mainly willow possibilities of growing energy crops and (Salix spp.) and poplar (Populus spp.) trees on unused agricultural land in (JANDAČKA et al. 2007). According to Slovakia. MAGA (2008) described different SAMSON et al. (1999) willows are more ways of utilization of the biomass suitable for commercial cultivation than produced at SRP. JUREKOVÁ and poplars, because they achieve higher MARIŠOVÁ (2008), JUREKOVÁ et al. biomass yields at lower costs. First willow (2008) and JUREKOVÁ et al. (2011) dealt plantations for energy purposes were with the issue of environmental limits, as established in 1970s in Sweden well as legal aspects of the growing (CHRISTENSSON et al., 1993). The energy plants in Slovakia. research of the short rotation coppice (SRC) willow in Slovakia begun in 1994 The chapter provides results of the (HABOVŠTIAK and DANIEL 2001, DANIEL studied growth parameters and above- 2008, DANIEL and MEDVECKÝ, 2010). The ground biomass production of 3-year-old first field trial of SRC willow at Slovak and 4-year-old stools of five different University of Agriculture in Nitra (SUA) willow varieties grown in the south- was established in 1996 (HÚSKA, 2000). western Slovakia. The results were Further research continued at the obtained in two 4-year-long harvest cycle. Department of Sustainable Development,
149 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Characteristics of the studied area The results included in this chapter were vicinity of the plantation, so the obtained from the research SRC willow underground water level is relatively high. plantation located in the cadastral area of Soils are deep (60 cm or more) without the village Kolíňany in southwestern skeleton. The main soil type consists of Slovakia (48° 21' 20" N, 18° 12' 23" E) gleyic fluvisol. In terms of soil grain (Appendix Figure 2.5.1.3). The plantation structure it is moderately heavy (loam) was established in May 2007 on an area soil (LINKEŠ et al. 1996). of 0.21 ha. The altitude of the site is 180 m a.s.l. The area belongs to warm, very Soil samples for agrochemical analysis dry and lowland climatic region. The sum were collected from the research site of average daily temperatures above 10 before the plantation establishment. The °C is 3000-2800 °C. The number of days pH values ranged from 7.18 to 7.35. The with air temperature above 5 °C is 237. humus content was 1.16 to 2.50%. The The average annual temperature is 9.9 °C. content of the studied heavy metals did The long-term (1991-2000) average not exceed the limit values, except for rainfall is 547.6 mm (measured in Nitra cadmium, which was 1.972 mg kg-1 (Table located 13 km from the site) (ŠPÁNIK et 2.5.1.1). The limit value for cadmium on al. 2008). The whole area is plain with no clay soils is 0.7 mg kg-1 (Act no. occurrence of surface water erosion (0°- 220/2004). 1°). There is a stream Bocegaj in the close
Table 2.5.1.1. Agrochemical analysis of soil in the research site in Kolíňany humu N P K Ca Pb Cd Hg As pH Sample s no. Mg kg-1 %
1 1019 124 250 5330 20,30 1,972 0,024 0,254 2,50 7,18
2 1040 132 250 5880 14,80 0,085 0,190 0,455 1,90 7,22
3 1124 126 250 5490 14,50 0,065 0,096 0,443 2,30 7,24
4 865 120 225 5370 13,10 0,193 0,091 0,440 1,98 7,22
150 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
5 1054 124 200 5860 9,84 0,000 0,104 0,480 1,81 7,35
6 914 126 200 5750 12,10 0,000 0,122 0,403 1,88 7,22
7 648 85 150 6090 9,85 0,000 0,136 0,351 1,16 7,30
8 795 107 250 5710 8,22 0,000 0,053 0,566 1,31 7,24
9 648 85 150 6460 4,04 0,000 0,071 0,514 1,53 7,35
Willow varieties included in the Tordis and Gudrun (Appendix Figure research 2.5.1.4) were supplied by Swedish company Lantmännen Agroenergi (Table All willow varieties included in the 2.5.1.2). research come from the Swedish breeding program. The varieties Inger, Tora, Sven,
Tab. 2.5.1.2 Brief characteristics of the studied willow varieties (Lantmännen Agroenergi 2006, Salixenergi Europa AB) Variety Origin Characteristics
Inger Cross between a Grows very well on all types of soils. S. triandra × S. Russian clone from A good complement in mixed viminalis Siberia and the plantations as Inger has a different variety Jorr gene background than many of the other varieties. Tora Cross between a Almost free from leaf rust and S. schwerinii × S. Siberian basket attacks by gall midges and other viminalis willow and the SW- insects damaging the shoot tips are variety Orm less common. Tora is less preferred by game. Sven Cross between the Almost free from leaf rust. Sensitive S. viminalis × (S. varieties Jorunn and to late spring frost. viminalis × S. Björn schwerinii)
151 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Tordis Cross between the Very high yield in north – central (S. schwerinni × S. varieties Tora and Europe and free from leaf rust. viminalis) × S. viminalis Ulv Gudrun Hybrid between the Very frost tolerant and resistant to S. dasyclados Russian variety leaf beetles. The variety has broad Helga and the clone leaves and a dense canopy. It is Långa Veka Röd preferred by game. from Sweden
Pre-planting site preparation and Figure 2.5.1.1. Newly grown shoots planting after the cut-back in the spring Before the plantation establishment, the 2008 (photo: Demo) soil was ploughed followed by application of inorganic fertilizer (70 kg ha-1 N, 30 kg ha-1 K and 30 kg ha-1 P). No herbicides were applied. Willow cuttings (20 cm long) were planted in double-rows with the distance between the double-rows of 1.5 m. The distance between rows within the double-row was 1.0 m and the distance between individual plants in the row was 0.75 m. This planting design represents density of 10,666 plants ha-1. The planting depth was about 17 cm, i.e. Growth, production and energy the individual cuttings protruded parameters of the studied willow approximately 3 cm above the soil surface. During the growing period, varieties especially in the first months after the The successful establishment of a willow planting, the weeds were eradicated energy plantation is affected, in particular mechanically by hand-hoeing. The willow by the percentage of well-rooted cuttings stand was cut-back to support the growth after the planting. The mortality of plants a larger number of stems per stool (Figure was observed during the first growing 2.5.1.1) after the first growing season. season and/or in the beginning of the second growing season. The studied morphometric characteristics included the
152 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation shoot length and diameter. The month is 41.6 mm. In May, the amount of measurements were taken the end of rainfall was 90.7 mm, which is above the each growing year. The biomass long term average (56 mm). The greatest production was assessed by weighing the amount of precipitation fell at the end of whole plants harvested at the end of each May. Thus, it can be concluded that the growing year. cuttings were planted in dry soil, which together with other factors affecting the The willow varieties have been grown in mortality of the cuttings. The percentage four-year harvest cycles (rotation). Due to of well-rooted cuttings ranged from 45.67 the cutback of the stands at the end of (Sven) – 91.35% (Tora). The lowest the first growing season, the first rotation percentage of the well-rooted cuttings lasted five years (2007–2011). The second was 25% in one plot of the variety Sven rotation period ended at the end of the (Table 2.5.1.2). Besides the low growing year 2015 (2012–2015). precipitation prior to the planting and during the planting, another reason for Percentage of well-rooted cuttings the weak rootedness of the cuttings was a and plant mortality late delivery date of the planting material and its long transport from Sweden to The percentage of well-rooted cuttings of Slovakia that reduced vitality of the the five willow varieties was studied in the planting material. The analysis of variance first phase of the experimental works. The confirmed that differences in the amount of rainfall was only 0.2 mm in rootedness of the cuttings among the April 2007 (recorded at the varieties were statistically highly meteorological station Nitra – Janíkovce). significant (Table 2.5.1.3). The long-term rainfall average for this
Table 2.5.1.3. Percentage of well-rooted cuttings of individual varieties after the planting (2007) Variety Percentage of Minimum Maximum Standard well-rooted rootedness rootedness deviation cuttings [%] [%] [%] Tora 91.35 84.62 96.15 4.51 Gudrun 66.83 51.92 82.69 11.57 Tordis 67.79 50.00 84.62 10.65 Inger 77.16 67.31 84.62 4.66 Sven 45.67 25.00 67.31 13.14
153 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 2.5.1.4. Analysis of variance of the rootedness of individual varieties in Kolíňany (level of significance is defined as: n: non-significant impact, +: significant impact in P ≤ 0.05, ++: P ≤ 0.01 and +++: P ≤ 0.001)
Analysed parameter F P value F critical Significance
Rootedness of varieties 12.9994176 9.10069 10-5 8.25268374 +++
The missing stools were replanted in the Biomass production beginning of the next year after the The weight of the above-ground biomass planting (spring 2008). The replanting was was determined by destructive method successful and the newly planted cuttings each growing year during the winter created completely closed vegetation season. The individual studied plants were stand. coppiced few centimetres above the soil
surface. After the coppicing, the harvested Shoot length and diameter biomass (fresh weight) was weighed The growth parameters, i.e. length and directly on the site by hanging scale KERN diameter of the shoots were studied on HCB50K100. During the winter period, the randomly selected six plants from each timber has the lowest amount of water variety (n = 30). Height of shoots was (approx. 50%), which is important for determined as the distance from the soil further processing. Shoot samples of the surface to the top of the shoots. The studied varieties were taken for further shoot lengths up to 1.5 m were measured determination of the dry matter. The by a wooden folding meter or tape samples were approximately 50 cm long measure. Higher shoots were measured taken from the bottom, middle and the by telescoping measuring rod Nedo upper part of the shoot. The samples mEssfix-S 8 m. The diameter of shoots were transported to the laboratory, where was determined at the height of a centre segment was cut out of each approximately 1.3 m with a digital calliper sample (the length of the segments was (accuracy of 0.1 mm). The data were taken approx. 70-80 mm due to the size at the end of the studied growing years in limitation of the laboratory scales). The the winter season, when the willows are weight was determined on KERN ABT dormant. 120-5DM analytical balance with accuracy of 0.0001 g. The samples were oven dried at 85°C to a constant weight (about 48 hours) and afterwards the percentage of
154 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation dry matter was determined as a difference to 5.54 m at the end of the growing year of the fresh and dry weight of the 2010. The content of the dry matter varied samples. The dry weight of one stool was from 48.47 to 51.02%. The weight of the converted to the number of stools per 1 dry matter ranged from 4.92 kg (Inger) to ha. The plant mortality was not included 6.20 kg (Tora). The highest potential yield in the result. Therefore, the resulting (survival rate = 100%) of the dry matter biomass yield of the dry above-ground was provided by Tora (66.13 t ha-1 3 yrs-1). matter is only theoretical (0% mortality). The lowest yield was recorded in Inger (52.48 t ha-1 3 yrs-1). However, there were First harvest cycle (2007–2011) no significant statistical differences in the biomass yield among the varieties (Table The data of the first harvest cycle below 2.5.1.6). The average annual yield of the include the 3-year old (2010) and 4-year dry above-ground biomass of all studied old (2011) above-ground willow biomass varieties reached 20.89 t ha-1 at the end of (Table 2.5.1.5). The shoot length of the the growing year 2010. studied willow varieties ranged from 3.76
Table 2.5.1.5. Comparison of the studied morphometric characteristics and biomass yield among individual 3-year old willow varieties (2010) Variety Shoot length Shoot diameter Dry weight of a Average yield of [m] [mm] stool [kg] the dry matter [t ha-1 3 yrs-1] Tora 4.94 21.87 6.20 66.13 Gudrun 3.76 18.14 5.05 53.86 Tordis 4.97 22.11 5.04 53.76 Inger 5.54 21.92 4.92 52.48 Sven 5.10 21.22 5.81 61.97
Tab. 2.5.1.6. Single-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the biomass production among individual willow varieties (level of significance is defined as: n: non-significant impact, +: significant impact in P ≤ 0.05, ++: P ≤ 0.01 and +++: P ≤ 0.001)
Analysed parameter F P value F critical Significance Fresh weight of a stool 1.083741 0.379511 2.641465 n
155 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The end of the growing season of 2011 highest yielded variety was Tora and the represented the completion of the first lowest was Inger (Table 2.5.1.7). The harvest cycle of the plantation. Shoot average annual harvest of the dry above- heights of the subjects studied varieties ground biomass of individual varieties ranged between 5.42 (Gudrun) to 7.79 m reached 47.11 t ha-1. They were (Tora). The dry matter content varied from statistically significant differences in the 47.63 to 55.04%. The weight of the above- above-ground biomass among the ground dry matter of individual stools varieties (significance level α = 0.05) varied from 8.58 kg (Inger) to 13.05 kg (Table 2.5.1.8). (Tora). Similarily to the previous year, the
Table 2.5.1.7. Comparison of the studied morphometric characteristics and biomass yield among individual 4-year old willow varieties (2011) Variety Shoot length Shoot Dry weight of a Average yield of the [m] diameter stool [kg] dry matter [mm] [t ha-1 4 yrs-1] Tora 7.79 48.35 13.05 139.22 Gudrun 5.42 27.95 8.83 94.18 Tordis 7.50 32.56 11.46 122.24 Inger 6.58 29.81 8.58 91.53 Sven 7.26 33.22 8.86 94.47
Table 2.5.1.8. Single-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the biomass production among individual willow varieties (level of significance is defined as: n: non-significant impact, +: significant impact in P ≤ 0.05, ++: P ≤ 0.01 and +++: P ≤ 0.001) Analysed parameter F P value F critical Significance Fresh weight of a stool 4.062756 0.011323 2.75871 +
Second harvest cycle (2012–2015) ground biomass of the studied willow varieties. The shoot length of the studied Following data of the second harvest varieties ranged from 4.87 m (Gudrun) to cycle include, similarly to the first harvest 6.46 m (Tordis) at the end of the third cycle the selected parameters of 3-year- growing season. The highest average old (2014) and 4-year-old (2015) above- production of dry above-ground biomass 156 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation of one stool achieved the variety Gudrun There were no statistically significant (8.36 kg). Inger had the lowest dry weight differences among the varieties in of a stool (5.78 kg). The dry matter yield biomass production (Table 2.5.1.10.). of the above-ground biomass varied from -1 61.65 to 89.17 t ha (Table 2.5.1.9).
Table 2.5.1.9. Comparison of the studied morphometric characteristics and biomass yield among individual willow varieties at the end 2014 Variety Shoot length Shoot diameter Dry weight of a Average yield [m] [mm] stool [kg] of the dry matter [t ha-1 3 yrs-1] Tora 5.85 23.88 6.98 74.45 Gudrun 4.87 22.13 8.36 89.17 Tordis 6.46 23.66 6.04 64.42 Inger 5.85 23.33 5.78 61.65 Sven 5.88 22.52 6.45 68.80
Tab. 2.5.1.10. Single-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the biomass production among individual willow varieties (level of significance is defined as: n: non-significant impact, +: significant impact in P ≤ 0.05, ++: P ≤ 0.01 and +++: P ≤ 0.001)
Analysed parameter F P value F critical Significance Fresh weight of a stool 0.62994634 0.64568384 2.75871047 n
The end of the growing year 2015 thickness of shoots (30.97 mm) was lower represented the end of the second compared to the end of the first harvest harvest cycle. The shoot lengths of the cycle (34.38 mm). The highest dry weight studied varieties ranged between 6.63 m of above-ground biomass of one plant (Sven) to 7.30 m (Tordis). The average was 13.66 kg, reached by the variety height of shoots of all varieties was 6.96 Gudrun. The lowest value was 6.41 kg m, which is not a statistically significant (Sven) (Table 2.5.1.11). The average dry increase compared to the end of the first weight of the aboveground biomass of harvest cycle (6.91 meters). The average one stool of all varieties was 11.39 kg. It
157 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation represents an increase of 1.23 kg ha-1 compared with the yield achieved at compared to the average value recorded the end of the first harvest cycle (Table at the end of the first harvest cycle. A 2.5.1.11). significant increase was recorded in the theoretically attainable (zero mortality) The differences in biomass production yield of dry above-ground biomass. The among the varieties were statistically average yield of the studied varieties was significant (Table 2.5.1.12). 121.53 t ha-1. This is an increase of 13.2 t
Tab. 2.5.1.11. Comparison of the studied morphometric characteristics and biomass yield among individual willow varieties at the end of the second harvest cycle (2015) Variety Shoot length Shoot diameter Dry weight of a Average yield of [m] [mm] stool [kg] the dry matter [t ha-1 4 yrs-1] Tora 6.73 30.86 12.31 131.30 Gudrun 7.05 37.82 13.66 145.70 Tordis 7.30 28.00 11.72 125.01 Inger 7.08 28.85 12.87 137.27 Sven 6.63 29.30 6.41 68.37
Tab. 2.5.1.12. Single-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the biomass production among individual willow varieties (level of significance is defined as: n: non- significant impact, +: significant impact in P ≤ 0.05, ++: P ≤ 0.01 and +++: P ≤ 0.001)
Analysed parameter F P value F critical Significance Fresh weight of a stool 3.774028 0.015553 2.75871 +
Comparison of the willow biomass 2015 compared with the 3-year-old stand production between the first and the in 2011, where a decrease was recorded. second harvest cycle The average shoot height at the end of the second harvest cycle was 6.96 m, The results of the studied growth which was not a significant increase parameters show that all values recorded compared to the end of the first harvest were higher in the second harvest cycle cycle (6.91 m). However, the overall compared with the first, except for the average yield of the dry matter was shoot diameter of the 3-year-old stand in significantly higher in the second harvest 158 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation cycle in both growing years 2014 and reported that willows are able to provide 2015 in comparison with the first harvest considerably higher biomass production cycle (Table 2.5.1.13). The results support in the second rotation cycle compared to the findings of JUG et al. (199) who the first rotation cycle.
Tab. 2.5.1.13. Comparison of the average values of studied parameters between the first and second harvest cycle
Shoot Shoot Dry weight Average yield length diameter of a stool of the dry Harvest cycle Year [m] [mm] [kg] matter [t ha-1] 1st harvest cycle 2010 4.86 21.05 5.40 57.64 2011 6.91 34.38 10.16 108.33
2nd harvest cycle 2014 5.78 23.10 6.72 71.70 2015 6.96 30.97 11.39 121.53
The average annual dry above-ground It is an increase of 3.30 t ha-1 yr-1 biomass production at the end of the compared with the end of the first harvest second harvest cycle was 30.38 t ha-1 yr-1. cycle (Figure 2.5.1.2).
Figure 2.5.1.2. Average yield of the above-ground dry biomass of the studied willows in the first and second harvest cycle
159 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The chapter provided the results of the selected growth parameters and biomass The most productive variety in the both production of five SRC willow varieties studied years of the first harvest cycle was grown in the research plantation in Tora. The highest biomass yields in the southwestern Slovakia. The results show second harvest cycle provided the variety comparison of the 3-year-old and 4-year- Gudrun. The average yield of all studied old stools in two harvest cycles. The varieties was 27.08 t of dry matter per ha plantation was established in May 2007. at the end of the first harvest cycle and The mortality of the planted cuttings 30.38 t of dry matter per ha at the end of ranged widely. It was due to low amount the second harvest cycle. of precipitations, as well as long transportation period of the planting Figure 2.5.1.3. Research site in Kolíňany material. The amount of precipitation and (©2010 Google Earth hydrological conditions are considered as a key factor of the biomass production in SRC plantations (Hall 2003). Another important factor negatively affecting the biomass yield during the first month after the planting is weed competition (ALBERTSSON et al., 2014).
In terms of shoot length, the highest values were obtained from the variety Tora and Tordis from 3-year-old and 4- year-old stools, respectively in the first harvest cycle. Tordis had the longest shoots in both studied years of the second harvest cycle. The highest values of stem diameters were reached by Tordis and Tora in 2010 and 2011, respectively. In the second harvest cycle, the highest values were reached by Tora and Gudrun in 2014 and 2015, respectively. Average values of the shoot length and diameter were higher in the second harvest cycle, except for the shoot diameter of the 4- year-old stand at the end of the second harvest cycle that had lower values than 4-year-old stand of the first harvest cycle. 160 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Fig. 2.5.1.4. Stands of SRC Swedish willow varieties in the beginning of the growing period (2009)
(Photo: Hauptvogl)
161 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
References AGROBRÄNSLE. 2006. Agrobränsle Willow Varieties. [on-line]. [cit. 2013-06-06]. Available at:
162 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
HABOVŠTIAK, J. – DANIEL, J. 2001. Growing varieties of willow (Salix viminalis) for energy purposes (Pestovanie odrôd vŕby (Salix viminalis) na energetické účely). In Naše pole, vol. 5, no. 5, p. 10. HALL, R. L., 2003: Short Rotation Coppice for Energy Production: Hydrological Guidelines: Report. Crown Copyright, 21 p. HAUPTVOGL, M. 2011. Effect of soil, climate and hydrological conditions of south-western Slovakia on selected production indicators of fast growing energy plant genus Salix (Vplyv pôdno- klimatických a hydrologických podmienok juhozápadného Slovenska na vybrané produkčné ukazovatele rýchlorastúcej energetickej dreviny rodu Salix). PhD thesis. SPU. Nitra, 119 pp. HÚSKA, J. et al., 2000. Experimental results from growing osier willow (Salix viminalis) Experimentálne výsledky z pestovania vŕby košikárskej (Salix viminalis). Proceedings of the International Conference. Bratislava: DATAEXPRES, pp. 124-128. JANDAČKA, J. – MALCHO, M. – MIKULÍK, M. 2007. Biomasa ako zdroj energie: Potenciál, druhy, bilancia a vlastnosti palív. Žilina: Juraj Štefuň – GEORG, 241 s. ISBN 978-80-969161-3-9. JUG, A. et al. 1999. Short-rotation plantations of balsam poplars, aspen and willows on former arable land in the Federal Republic of Germany. II. Nutritional status and bioelement export by harvested shoot axes. In Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 121, no. 1–2, p. 67–83. JUREKOVÁ, Z. – BARANEC, T. – PAGANOVÁ, V. – KOTRLA, M. – ELIÁŠ, P. jun., 2008: Comparison of the ecological characteristics the willow-poplar floodplain forest fragments on the stands with different height of groundwater level. In Ekológia, 27(1): 31-40. JUREKOVÁ, Z. – DRAŽIĆ, G. eds., 2011: External and internal factors influencing the growth and biomass production of short rotation woods genus Salix and perennial grass Miscanthus. Beograd: Fakultet za primenjenu ekologiju Futura. 176 pp. JUREKOVÁ, Z. – MARIŠOVÁ, E., 2008. Ecological limits and global aspects of growing energy crops in Slovakia (Ekologické limity a právne aspekty pestovania energetických rastlín na Slovensku). Acta regionalia et environmentalica, 5(2): 46-50. KOTRLA, M., PRČÍK, M., 2011: Possibilities of utilization of energy crops grown on unused agricultural land in Slovakia (Možnosti využitia pestovania energetických rastlín na poľnohospodársky nevyužívanej pôde v podmienkach Slovenska). Competitiveness and innovation on agricultural land in Slovakia. Nitra: SPU 15-20. ISBN 978-80-552-0734-6. LINDEGAARD, K., N. – ADAMS, P. W. R. – HOLLEY, M. – LAMLEY, A. – HENRIKSSON, A. – LARSSON, S. – VON ENGELBRECHTEN, H.-G. – LOPEZ, G. E. – PISAREK, M. 2016. Short rotation plantations policy history in Europe: lessons from the past and recommendations for the future. In Food and Energy Security, vol. 5, no. 3, p. 125–152, LINDEGAARD, K. N., PARFITT, R. I., DONALDSON, G., HUNTER, T., DAWSON, W. M., FORBES, E. G. A, CARTER, M. M., WHINNEY, C. C., WHINNEY, J. E., LARSSON, S. 2001: Comparative trials of elite Swedish and UK biomass willow varieties. Aspects of Applied Biolog. 65: 183-192. LINKEŠ, V. – PESTÚN, V. – DŽATKO, M. 1996. Príručka pre používanie máp bonitovaných pôdno- ekologických jednotiek. 3. ed. Bratislava: Výskumný ústav pôdnej úrodnosti, 104 s. ISBN 80- 85361-19-1. [on-line] [cit. 2013-03-05]. Available at:
MAGA, J. et al., 2008: A comprehensive model of biomass use for energy purposes (Komplexný model využitia biomasy na energetické účely). Nitra, Slovak University of Agriculture. 183 p. ISBN 978- 80-552-0029-3. ME SR 2014. Energy Policy of the Slovak Republic. [on-line] [cit. 2016-10-05]. Available at:
164 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
2.5.2. Fast-growing energy woody crops of the genus Populus (poplar)
Fast-growing woody crops include mainly height curves (PETRÁŠ, 1992), growth and soft deciduous trees, such as poplar in our production of entire stands (PETRÁŠ and climate conditions. The poplars are MECKO, 2005), production models of represented particularly by bred clones assortments (PETRÁŠ et al., 2007, 2008a), that reach several fold higher and faster value production (PETRÁŠ et al., 2008b) timber production than other naturally and rotation/maturity ages and widespread tree species in Slovakia when production of combustion heat that intensively grown (PETRÁŠ and MECKO, should include not only the production of 2005). Forest stands of poplar clones large timber for the wood industry, but represent only around 0.6% the whole also the production of smallwood and area of Slovakia. bark for the energy purposes (PETRÁŠ et al., 2010, 2012). Poplars have dominant economic importance among the tree species in The biomass production of fast-growing lowland, particularly floodplain areas of poplars has number of environmentally Slovakia (KOTRLA and PRČÍK, 2010). positive aspects. It contributes to
reducing the amount of CO2 in the According to DEMO et al. (2013), the atmosphere and positively affects the cultivation of the fast-growing energy recycling of water and nutrients. Poplar poplar on agricultural land is an plantations increase the biodiversity and alternative in non-forested areas of aesthetic value of agricultural landscape Slovakia, on a lower quality soils and soils (DOBSON et al., 1997). In socio-economic with high underground water table. terms, the plantations represent new employment opportunities, especially in The history of the research of poplar rural areas and a source of domestic fuel, clones in Slovakia dates back to the the prices and production volume of second half of the 20th century, when which can be fairly accurately predicted their progressive cultivation were into the future (MÖNNICH et al., 2006). introduced into the forestry practice. The The biomass production can utilize fallow main task was to assess the growth and farmland and land that is not suitable for health condition (CIFRA, 1971). A gradual growing of agricultural crops (PASTOREK systematic research of the cultivated et al., 2004). poplar clones production began in 1991. It resulted in creation of models of tree volume patterns (MECKO et al., 1994), the cortex thickness (PETRÁŠ et al., 1998),
165 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The characteristics of the studied Site preparation poplar varieties The first operation of the basic soil Four poplar varieties from an Italian preparation is stubble ploughing, which Research breeding program (Monviso, should be implemented immediately after Pegaso, AF-2 and Sirio) were included in the harvest of the preceding crop (in the research. order to maintain soil moisture and weed control). A deep autumn ploughing (turn- MONVISO: Populus × generosa × Populus over plough) should be provided after the nigra, origin: controlled hybrid, mother: germination and emergence of weeds, to Populus × generosa [P. deltoides 583 (Iowa a depth of 0.35-0.40 m, followed by – USA) X P. trichocarpa 196 (Oregon – levelling the soil surface in order to avoid USA)] father: Populus nigra 715-86 [P. this operation (dragging) in the spring nigra 12 (Piemonte – Italy) X P. nigra 7 before the planting that could adversely (Umbria – Italy)], sex: female affect the soil moisture conditions. Just before the planting, the seed bed should AF-2: Populus × canadensis, origin: be prepared by a shovel plough to a controlled hybrid, mother: Populus depth of 0.20 m. The best time for the deltoides 145-86 (Illinois - USA), father: application of fertilizers is after the cut Populus nigra 40 (Piemonte – Italy), sex: back (1st application) and after the female harvest at the end of the first production cycle (2nd application). The amount of SIRIO: Populus deltoides × Populus × nitrogen in each fertilizer application canadensis, origin: controlled hybrid, should be in the range of 80 to 100kgha-1. mother: Populus deltoides 266 (Tennessee In case the potential weed infestation of – USA), father: Populus × canadensis 4-85 the site is high and a mechanical [P. deltoides 1095 (Illinois – USA) X P. treatment of stands would not ensure full nigra 666 (Tuscany - Italy)], sex: male protection against weeds, it is necessary to apply STOMP 330 herbicide one or two PEGASO Populus × generosa × Populus days after the planting of the cuttings nigra, origin: controlled hybrid, mother: (before sprouting) at a dose of 3.0-4.0 l Populus × generosa [P. deltoides 80-16 ha-1. The recommended dose on light (Iowa – USA) X P. trichocarpa 84-19 soils is 5.0 l ha-1. (Oregon – USA)], father: Populus nigra 4 The importance of environmental (Piemonte – Italy), sex: male (DEMO et al. conditions at the time of the plantation 2013). establishment and shortly after is stressed by FRANCIS et al. (2005) and TÓTHOVÁ (2011).
166 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Establishment of the research produced on an individual cutting, plantation examined 60 days after the planting. - The number of newly formed shoots, The research plantation of the Italian observed at the beginning of the poplar varieties were established on second growing year, 30 days after arable land of the Slovak University of the cut-back, based on the original Agriculture Farm, Ltd. in Kolíňany in April number of shoots formed on the 2009. The research site is located at an cuttings in the first growing year. altitude of 180 m asl and the region is - The number of survived shoots and characterized as warm climate, very dry shoot mortality on individual plants, and lowland. The average annual observed even in the third growing temperature is 9.9 °C, the long-term year in order to determine the loss of (1951-2000) average annual rainfall is shoots for the entire three-year 547.6 mm. The soil is moderate loam, growing period. fluvisol with an average pH 7.26 and - The study of morphometric humus content 1.8%. characteristics (the length and thickness of shoots produced during The poplar varieties were planted by two the growing year), took place at the methods of planting in twin rows. In the end of each growing year. first method, 0.2 meters long cuttings of - Quantitative assessment of the one-year-old shoots with a diameter of 25 biomass yield, provided at the end of mm were planted into the ground, leaving a 30 mm of the cuttings above the soil the first and during the second year surface. In the second method, the whole of the three-year growing cycle. length of the cuttings was planted into - Chemical and energy analysis of the the ground. The distance between the above-ground biomass produced by twin rows was 2.0 m, the distance within the poplar varieties (2011). the twin row was 1.0 m and distance between the cuttings in the row was 0.75 During the first years (the planting year m. The planting density was 8,889 plants ha-1 (DEMO et al., 2013). and the following two years of the first growing cycle), fundamental climatic Methodology for determination of the factors that may significantly affect the selected growth, production and energy overall natality and/or mortality of the indicators was as follows: planting material were studied. The - The percentage of rooted cuttings percentage of the rooted cuttings is from the total number of the planted shown in Table 2.5.2.1. cuttings, examined 30 days after the planting. The number of shoots 167 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 2.5.2.1. Comparison of the percentage of rooted cuttings among the studied poplar varieties Percentage of rooted cuttings Variety 1st planting method 2nd planting method Monviso 66.67 76.67 AF-2 83.33 70.00 Pegaso 80.00 63.33 Sirio 70.00 60.00
Table 2.5.2.1 shows that the percentage of The average number of shoots, produced the rooted cuttings in all studied poplar on a cutting ranged from 1.00 (variety varieties is rather low, especially in the Sirio in both planting methods) to 1.63 second planting method. This could be shoots (variety Pegaso in the second affected by a longer period between the planting method). The cuttings with one preparation of the cuttings and the planting shoot prevailed and there were much less date (5 days), which could have a negative cuttings with two or more shoots. The impact on the viability of the cuttings and difference between the two planting their rooting ability. Dead cuttings were methods on the number of shoots was replaced by new ones (Figure 2.5.2.1) not statistically confirmed. (TÓTHOVÁ, 2012). Fig. 2.5.2.1. Rooted cutting Shoot formation was also observed after with one shoot (June 7 2009) the cut-back in the beginning of the second growing year, based on the original number of shoots and method of planting cuttings. The average number of shoots after the cut-back observed in the first planting method formed on the originally one-shoot cuttings was 6.2 shoots (Sirio), 8.14 shoots (Pegaso) and 9.67 shoots (AF-2). On average, up to 12.00 shoots were formed in the variety Pegaso in the first planting method on the originally two-shoot cuttings. The number of newly formed shoots after the
Photo: Demo, 2009 cut-back reflected the original number of shoots per cutting. Statistically, however, 168 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation the dependence of the number of shoots increase of the shoot height was 1.3 to 1.7 after the cut-back on the planting method times the shoot height in 2010 and the as well as difference among the varieties increase of the maximum shoot height was not confirmed. The number of alive was 1.4 to 1.5 times the maximum shoot shoots ranged from 2.6 to 4.6 two years height in 2010. after the cut-back (in the third growing year). It means that the mortality of There were no statistically significant shoots was 63-72% (variety Monviso), 54- differences confirmed in shoot heights 60% (variety Pegaso), 47.9-48.3% (variety and diameters among the studied AF2) and 48-61% (variety Sirio) varieties and between the planting (TÓTHOVÁ, 2012). methods. The average values of the shoot diameters in individual varieties were as The results of the shoot heights and follows. The shoot diameter in the variety diameters in the third growing year (2011) Monviso ranged from 25.1 mm to 30.9 show that the shoot height of the variety mm with a maximum shoot diameter of Monviso ranged from 4.15 m to 4.81 m, 55.2 mm, the values in the variety Pegaso the maximum shoot height was 7.15 m. ranged from 20.5 mm to 22.1 mm with a The shoot heights of the variety Pegaso maximum of 54.4 mm, in the variety of ranged from 3:37 m to 3.69 m with a AF-2 24.0 mm to 25.5 mm with a maximum shoot height of 6.50 m. The maximum of 56.3 mm and in the variety average shoot height of the variety AF-2 Sirio from 29.0 mm to 31.3 mm with a ranged from 3.93 m to 4.17 m with a maximum diameter of 59.0 mm. maximum shoot height of 7.22 m. The Compared to the year 2010, the average average shoot height of the variety Sirio and maximum shoot diameters increased ranged from 4.42 m to 4.62 m with a by 1.4 to 1.7 times in 2011 (TÓTHOVÁ, maximum shoot height of 7.32 m. The 2012).
Table 2.5.2.2. Selected growth parameters of the studied poplar varieties in the growing years 2012–2015 (Prčík, et al. 2014) Growth parameters Variety Number of shoots Average shoot length [m] Average shoot diameter [mm] 2012 2013 2014 2015 2012 2013 2014 2015 2012 2013 2014 2015 Monviso 5.3 8.75 7.5 7.5 4.34 3.36 3.99 4.1 28.67 17.98 21.13 22.7 Pegaso 6.7 10 95 13 4.28 2.72 4.07 4.93 26.23 13.59 22.21 25.39 AF-2 5 8.5 9 7.75 5.25 2.64 3.98 4.75 27.9 13.61 23.63 29.38 Sirio 4.3 8.25 7 6.75 4.88 3.02 4.19 5.83 32.72 16.67 25.54 37.16
169 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The number of shoots in the fourth growing (latitude) to 10.0 (Pegaso). The average year (2012) (Table 2.5.2.2) ranged from 5.0 length of shoots varied from 2.64 to 3.36 (AF-2) to 6.66 (Pegaso). The average shoot meters. The average shoot diameters were height was similar in the varieties Monviso, 13:59 to 13.62 mm in the varieties Monviso Pegaso and Sirio (from 4.28 to 4.88 m) and Pegaso and AF-2 and 16.67 and 17.98 mm significantly higher (5.25 m) in the variety in the varieties Sirio and Monviso, AF-2. The average thickness of shoots in the respectively. varieties Monviso, Pegaso, AF-2 ranged from 26.23 mm to 28.67 mm, with a variety TRNKA et al. (2009) analysed eight six-year- Sirio was 32.72 mm. The average number of old poplar clones. The results of the shoot shoots in the varieties of poplar (Table heights were 5.6 m to 11.0 m and shoot 2.5.2.2) in the first growing year (2013) of diameters 40 to 100 mm. the second growing cycle ranged from 25.8
Table 2.5.2.3. ANOVA and Scheffe test of shoot lengths and shoot diameters of the studied poplar varieties Analysis of variance p ˂ 0.05 Parameter Sum of Degree of Mean F P squares freedom squares Shoot length 1.27932 3 0.42644 1.825854 0.196120
Shoot diameter 58.93402 3 19.64467 1.828547 0.195644
Scheffeho test; variable.:shoot diameter p < 0.05000 Scheffeho test; variable:lenght of shoots p < 0.05000
{1} {2} {3} {4} {1} {2} {3} {4} Variete M=17,975 M=13,585 M=13,610 M=16,673 Variete M=3,3575 M=2,7250 M=2,6350 M=3,0200 Monviso {1} 0,352892 0,357518 0,955401 Monviso {1} 0,371663 0,267074 0,807226 Pegaso {2} 0,352892 1,000000 0,632291 Pegaso {2} 0,371663 0,994977 0,860919 AF-2 {3} 0,357518 1,000000 0,638050 AF-2 {3} 0,267074 0,994977 0,739911 Sirio {4} 0,955401 0,632291 0,638050 Sirio {4} 0,807226 0,860919 0,739911
There were no statistically significant p = 0.008644) among the poplar varieties differences among the studied poplar (Table 2.5.2.3). varieties in the selected growth parameters. As the authors state, the dependence of the The number of shoots among the poplar dry matter production on the shoot diameter varieties ranged from 7.00 (Sirio) to 9.5 was statistically significant (α = 0,05, p = (Pegaso) in the second growing year (2014) 0.000475), as well as the dependence on the of the second growing cycle (Table 2.5.2.2). shoot length (significance level α = 0,05, There was no change in the number of
170 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation shoots in the variety Monviso in 2015. In the efficient if the annual biomass production at variety Pegaso, the number of shoots least 12 t ha-1. The studied poplar varieties, increased by 36.8%, in AF-2 decreased to as shown below, represent a suitable 7.75, and in Sirio decreased to 6.75. biological material in soil and ecological conditions of southern Slovakia in terms of The shoot lengths among the varieties production, reaching economically efficient ranged from 3.98 to 4.19 m in 2014. The and balanced biomass production that can values increased to 4.10 to 5.83 m in 2015. be used in the energy as well as non-energy The average shoot diameters ranged from sectors. 21.13 mm (Monviso) to 25.54 mm (Sirio) in 2014. In the growing year 2015, the shoot The results of the evaluation of the achieved diameters increased in all studied varieties biomass yields (Table 2.5.2.4) show that the (the highest increase was by 45.50% in highest biomass yields were reached in the Sirio). first planting method in all varieties. The highest yield of the above-ground dry Analysis of the selected production, matter provided the variety Monviso (first -1 chemical and energy indicators planting method: 35.40 t ha ) and the lowest the variety Pegaso (19.12 t ha-1). According to Porvaz et al. (2009), growing fast-growing tree species is economically
Table 2.5.2.4. Biomass production of individual poplar varieties in the third growing year (2011) Average dry Maximum dry Yield of Average % Planting weight of an weight of an dry Variety of dry method individual individual matter matter [kg] [kg] [t ha-1] 1 41.33 3.98 5.93 35.40 Monviso 2 41.33 2.50 3.30 22.25 1 40.91 3.45 3.96 30.67 AF-2 2 40.91 2.55 3.14 22.71 1 40.84 2.15 4.70 19.12 Pegaso 2 40.84 2.03 2.85 18.06 1 41.76 3.42 5.09 30.42 Sirio 2 41.76 3.65 6.66 29.80
171 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Chemical and energy analysis of the above-ground biomass is shown in Table 2.5.2.5.
Table 2.5.2.5. Chemical and energy analysis of the above-ground biomass of the studied poplar varieties Chemical Variety and energy Symbol Unit Monviso AF-2 Pegaso Sirio indicator Ash A (d) [%] 2.57 2.62 2.53 2.58 C t (d) [%] 49.98 50.52 50.62 50.72 Elementary H t (d) [%] 6.67 6.85 6.81 6.30 analysis N (d) [%] 1.12 1.13 1.08 1.10 Total S (d) [%] 0.056 0.050 0.052 0.053 sulphur tot. Silicium Si (d) [%] 0.008 0.009 0.007 0.007 Combustion Qs (d) MJ.kg-1 19.51 19.58 19.67 19.62 heat Calorific Qi (d) MJ.kg-1 18.65 18.17 18,27 18.90 value Calorific Qi (r) MJ.kg-1 17.52 17.25 17.39 17.40 value Chlorine Cl (d) [%] 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020
As shown in Table 2.5.2.5, the studied (Chrysomela (Melampsora) populi), chemical and energy parameters are not damaging the leaves and crane fly (Tipula significantly different among the varieties. paludosa) (DEMO et al., 2013).
Poplar stands were partially affected by Since the poplar varieties created closed diseases and pests. The most widespread stands in the first year after the cut-back disease was rust (Melampsora larici- (2011) and the shoot formation was populina). The observation also revealed observed in all individuals, there was no the first signs of poplar cancer (Dothichiza need to pursue further research on populea, anam. Cryptodiaporthe populea) differences between the planting in the variety Pegaso. Major pests in some methods. varieties were balsam poplar leaf beetle
172 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 2.5.2.6. Biomass yields of the studied poplar varieties in growing years 2012– 2015 (Prčík et al. 2014) Biomass yield
Average biomass yield of the dry matter Variety [t.ha-1]
2012 2013 2014 2015 Monviso 87.16 21.92 44.44 89.70
Pegaso 76.90 14.09 55.34 67.13
AF-2 67.42 12.34 64.70 197.84
Sirio 78.64 15.51 52.05 185.87
Average [t ha-1] 77.54 15.97 54.13 135.14
Average [t ha-1 year-1] 25.85 15.97 27.07 45.05
The dry matter yield ranged from 67.42 t To conclude the results of this chapter, we ha-1 (AF-2) to 87.16 t ha-1 (Monviso) in can state as follows: The percentage of 2012 (Table 2.5.2.6). In 2013 the values rooted cuttings was relatively low, ranged from 12.34 t ha-1 (AF-2) to 21.92 t particularly in the second planting ha-1 (Monviso). The yields in 2013 method. It was mainly due to a longer compared to 2012 were lower, because transport period of the planting material 2013 was the first year of the second from the supplier. growing cycle. The plants were harvested at the end of 2012. The production of dry The number of shoots produced on the matter in the growing year 2014 ranged planted cuttings ranged from 1.0 to 1.6. from 44.44 t ha-1 (Monviso) to 64.50 t ha-1 Individuals with one shoot dominated. (AF-2). The biomass production in 2015 can be divided into two groups: the first The number of shoots per individual plant group includes Monviso (89.70 t ha-1 of ranged from 6 to 12 shoots in the second dry matter) and Pegaso (67.13 t ha-1 of growing year after the cut-back. dry matter) and the second group includes AF-2 (197.84 t ha-1 of dry matter) The mortality of shoots appeared and Sirio (185.87 t ha-1 of dry matter). significantly in the third growing year. The number of shoots per plant decreased to 173 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
2.6–4.6. Given the plant density, we year 2012). The variety had the highest assume that the shoot formation could be yield (21.92 t ha-1) also in the first year of affected by varietal competition for the second three-year growing cycle assimilates. (2013).
In comparison to the two previous In 2014, the highest value (cumulative) of growing years, the shoot length increase dry matter provided the variety AF-2 by 1.3–1.7 times in the third growing year. (64.50 t ha-1). The shoot diameter increased by 1.4–1.7 times. The studied varieties had significant differences in the biomass production at The highest yield of the dry matter in the the end of the second three-year growing second growing year (2011) was achieved cycle (2015). The growing year 2015 can by the variety Monviso (35.40 t ha-1) in the be divided in terms of dry matter first planting method and the lowest yield production into two groups. The first one provided the variety Pegaso (6.18 t ha-1) includes the varieties Monviso (89.70 t in the second planting method, which was ha-1) and Pegaso (67.13 t ha-1) and the affected by poplar cancer. second group includes the varieties AF-2 (197.84 t ha-1) and Sirio (185.87 t ha-1). The variety Monviso provided the highest cumulative production of dry matter All studied poplar varieties exceeded the (87.16 t ha-1) at the end of the first three- threshold of economic efficiency during year growing cycle (the third growing the individual growing years.
DEMO, M. et al. 2013. Production and energy potential of different hybrids of poplar in the soil and climatic conditions of southwestern Slovakia. In Wood research, vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 439-450. ISSN 1336-4561. CIFRA, J. 1971. Doterajší rast topoľov v pokusných lignikultúrach na Slovensku. In Lesnícky časopis, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 259-271. ISSN 1335-2563. DOBSON, A. et al. 1997. Hopes for the Future: Restoration Ecoology and Conservation Biology. In Science [online]. No. 227, pp. 515-522. [cit. 2016-06-14]. Dostupné na internete: DOI:10.1126/science.277.5325.515. FRANCIS, R. A. et al. 2005. Survival and growth responses of Populus nigra, Salix elaeagnos and Alnus incana cutting to varying levels of hydric stress. In Forest Ecology and management, vol. 210, no. 1-3, pp. 291-301. ISSN 0378-1127.
174 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
KOTRLA, M. – PRČÍK, M. 2010. Lužné lesy v dolnom toku Váhu a návrh ich obnovy. Nitra : Slovenská poľnohospodárska univerzita. 98 s. ISBN 978-80-552-0444-4. MECKO, J. et al. 1994. Konštrukcia objemových tabuliek topoľových klonov Robusta a I-214. In Lesnictví, vol. 40, no. 10, pp. 446-454. ISSN 00241105. MŐNNICH, K. et al. 2006. Využívanie drevného odpadu v podmienkach Slovenskej republiky. In Acta Montanistica Slovaca, vol. 11, no. 2, pp.137-143. ISSN 1335-1788. PASTOREK, Z. et al. 2004. Biomasa: obnoviteľný zdroj energie. Praha : FCC Public s.r.o. 286 s. ISBN 80- 86534-06-5. PETRÁŠ, R. 1992. Slobodova diferenciálna rovnica v konštrukcii výškových bonitných kriviek topoľových klonov. In Lesnícky časopis, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 147-156. ISSN 1335-2563. PETRÁŠ, R. et al. 1998. Hrúbka kôry topoľovej guľatiny klonov Robusta a I-214. In Lesnícky časopis - Forestry Journal, vol. 44, no. 5, s. 321-328. ISSN 1335-2563. PETRÁŠ, R. - MECKO, J. 2005. Rastové tabuľky topoľových klonov. Bratislava : Slovak Academic Press. pp. 135. ISBN 80-88908-22-1. PETRÁŠ, R. et al. 2007. Modely kvality surového dreva stromov topoľových klonov. In Lesnícky časopis- Forestry Journal, vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 83-97. ISSN 1335-2563. PETRÁŠ, R. et al. 2008a. Quality of wood in the stands of poplar clones. In Journal of Forest Science, vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 9–16. ISSN 0015-749X. PETRÁŠ, R. et al. 2008b. Value production of poplar clones. In Journal of Forest Science, vol. 54, no. 6, pp. 237–244. ISSN 0015-749X. PETRÁŠ, R. et al. 2010. Density of basic components of above-ground biomass of poplar clones. In Wood Research, vol. 55, no.4, pp. 113-122. ISSN 1336-4561. PETRÁŠ, R. . et al. 2012. State of Mineral Nutrition and Heavy Metals Distribution in Aboveground Biomass of Poplar Clones. In Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 447-453. ISSN 1230-1485. PORVAZ, P. et al. 2009. Poľné plodiny ako zdroj biomasy na energetické využitie v podmienkach Slovenska. [online], [cit. 2016-06-14]. Dostupné na internete: http://enersupply.euke.sk/wp- content/uploads/66-75_porvaz-nascakovakotorovakovac.pdf. PRČÍK, M. – KOTRLA, M. – HAUPTVOGL, M. 2014. Changes in production parameters of fast-growing energy grey poplar varietes (Populus × canescens) in Slovakia. In SGEM 2014. SGEM. -- Sofia : STEP92 Technology, 2014. pp. 93-100. ISBN 978-619-7105-15-5. TÓTHOVÁ, D. 2011. Zakorenenosť a tvorba výhonov rýchlorastúcich odrôd topoľa (Populus). In Pestovanie a využitie láskavca (Amaranthus L.) a iných plodín na energetické účely. Nitra : Slovenská poľnohospodárska univerzita v Nitre, s. 187-192. ISBN978-80-552-0561-8. TÓTHOVÁ, D. 2012. Vplyv vybraných biotických faktorov produkčného procesu na tvorbu biomasy rýchlorastúcich energetických drevín rodu Salix a Populus v pôdnoekologických podmienkach južného Slovenska : doktorandská dizertačná práca. Nitra : SPU, 163 s. TRNKA, M. et al. 2009. Biomass production and survival rates of selected poplar clones grown under a short-rotation system on arable land. In Plant Soil and Environment, vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 78-88. ISSN 1214-1178.
175 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
176 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The national target of Slovakia on field of 14 % share of RES among TPES exploiting RES is to reach the 14 % share (total final energy consumption), in general energy mix by 2020. It means 10 % share of RES in transport the 14 % share of RES in total primary sector. energy sources (TPES) consumption. To introduce the National Action Plan for The legal base for nation RES target stems energy from RES by 2010 was the from the Directive 2009/28/EC on the obligation of each EU member state. Due promotion of use of energy from RES. It to the early election and the change of was endorsed by EU institutions in April government, Slovakia sent this Plan to 2009. This directive sets: European Commission just at the end of mandatory national targets for summer that year, a few months after the the overall share of RES among initial deadline. However, concrete TPES as well as the target in national targets for 2020, set in Plan are: transport sector, 15,3 % share of energy from RES rules related to statistical transfers in TPES, between EU member states, 24,0 % share of RES in electricity biofuels and bio liquids standards. production, 14,6 % share of RES in heat The national targets were set as + 5,5 % produced in Slovakia, increased share of RES among TPES in 10,0 % share of energy from RES comparison with the state in 2005. In in transport. addition, the secondary criteria became the GDP per capita. Therefore, mandatory The estimated progress and higher use of national target for Slovakia is following: RES is described in graph (Figure 3.1.1.)
177 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 3.1.1. Use of RES in Slovak Republic
Source: Slovak Innovation and Energy Agency (SIEA)
When it comes to heat, the prognosis is following (Figure 3.1.2):
Figure 3.1.2. Prognosis of heat production from RES in Slovak Republic
Source: Slovak Innovation and Energy Agency (SIEA)
178 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
On field of electricity production, National Action Plan estimates this scenario (Figure 3.1.3):
Figure 3.1.3. Scenario of electricity production from RES in Slovak Republic
Source: Slovak Innovation and Energy Agency (SIEA)
National overall target energy efficiency scenario (Table 3.1.1). The expected amount of energy from The figures in Table 3.1.1 are expert renewable sources corresponding to the estimates by the Ministry of Economy. 2020 target of 14% was calculated from Expected amount of energy from the expected total adjusted energy renewable sources for Slovakia is 1 572 consumption according to the additional ktoe (66 PJ).
179 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 3.1.1. National overall targets for the share of energy from renewable sources in gross final consumption of energy in 2005 and 2020 Share of energy from renewable sources in gross final consumption of 6.7 energy in 2005 (S2005) (%) Target of energy from renewable sources in gross final consumption of 14.0 energy in 2020 (S2020) (%) Expected total adjusted energy consumption in 2020 (ktoe) 11 226
Expected amount of energy from renewable sources corresponding to the 1 572 2020 target (calculated as B x C) (ktoe) Source: Ministry of Economy and Construction of the Slovak Republic
Analysis of regional renewable energy potentials Use of RES as domestic energy sources has been shown to increase security to some extent and partially diversify energy One of the main priorities of Slovakia’s supply while reducing economic Energy Policy, approved in 2006, is to dependence on unstable oil and natural increase the share of RES in power and gas prices. RES use is based on advanced, heat generation in order to create environmentally-friendly technologies appropriate additional resources needed and helps to reduce greenhouse gases to cover domestic demand. and pollutants.
The gas crisis in early 2009 was an RES play a role in the strengthening and unprecedented situation which saw diversification of the structure of industry supplies of Russian gas intended for and agriculture. With an active support Slovakia, transmitted via Ukraine, come to policy, the initial stage of importing a complete standstill for several days. foreign technology and know-how can be During this period of crisis, the heat accelerated and opportunities can be sector’s high dependence on natural gas created for investment in the manufacture highlighted the vulnerability of heat and assembly of components, entire supply security. Slovakia’s reserves of systems, and the establishment of individual energy sources indicate that research facilities affiliated to universities. only RES (especially biomass) can play a RES encourage the innovation and role in reducing overall dependence on development of information technology, natural gas imports. 180 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation open up new paths, and are one of the which is several times higher than the pillars in the building of a knowledge market price of electricity, is reflected in economy. Rational management of electricity prices to a large degree. domestic renewable energy resources is consistent with the principles of Electricity production from RES is sustainable development, making it one dominated by electricity generated in of the pillars supporting the sound large hydropower plants, accounting for economic development of society. more than 90% of all plants using RES. In this respect, the production of electricity Despite the benefits, RES use also carries from RES in recent years has been highly certain risks. The most significant risk lies dependent on hydropower. in the nature of these energy sources. The generation of solar and wind power Act No 309/2009 on the promotion of suffers from fluctuations which can have renewable energy and high efficiency an adverse effect on the safety and cogeneration and amending certain laws reliability of grid operations. (“Act No 309/2009 on the promotion of Producers of electricity from RES create RES”) was approved in 2009 with a view to derogations from planned production for promoting the production of electricity which they are not held accounTable. from RES. That law has improved the These derogations and the risk they pose functioning of the electricity market in to grid safety are placed in the hands of renewable energy and created a stable system operators. business environment. It has delivered a long-term guarantee of feed-in prices for Another risk is significant electricity price 15 years and has guided the path hikes. The promotion of the production of followed in the production of electricity electricity from RES in the Slovak Republic from RES by encouraging the is based on a feed-in price, paid to construction of small and decentralized producers for the electricity they facilities. generate. The feed-in price is set with a view to ensuring a reasonable return on The increase in prices of non-renewable the investment. In many countries where fossil fuels, reflected, in mid-2008, in the a feed-in price system has been highest ever oil prices, shifted biomass as introduced, the rapid fall in the price of an energy alternative to the centre of photovoltaic (PV) modules has focused economic and political attention. In recent investor attention on the use of solar years, the heat sector has witnessed a energy. The significant reduction in PV significant increase in the use of biomass, module prices has resulted in windfall indicating that in the coming years it will profits for investors. The feed-in price continue to be the most widespread RES. paid for electricity from solar energy, Furthermore, Slovakia has large 181 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation production capacity to produce pellets distributed. Producers of electricity from and briquettes, most of which must biomethane who generate electricity in currently be placed on foreign markets. the form of CHP receive support. This provides the assurance that, despite Biomethane producers need to be the rapidly growing number of biomass guaranteed the purchase of their boilers being installed, the scarcity of this biomethane, provided that they meet all fuel will not be an issue. of the requirements of a gas market participant, by means of legislative The principle of minimizing costs by amendments. means of an integrated approach to the use of RES and reductions in greenhouse Climate change also has an impact also gas emissions was taken into account on the intensity of rainfall, resulting in when projecting how to apply RES. As a floods. One flood prevention measure is result, an appropriate combination of RES the construction of hydropower plants and low-carbon technologies will reduce that are aligned with flood protection fossil fuel consumption and, by extension, plans; in this regard, the use of the idle greenhouse gas emissions. The priority hydropower potential is a priority. will be technologies whose use leads to energy prices close to market prices with In the field of biofuels, significant growth the aim of delivering a reasonable final in second-generation biofuels is projected energy cost. by around 2020, which will make an appreciable contribution to the target of The priority is biomass, use of which can, 10% use in transport. Not even the in many cases, can compete with fossil gradual marketing of electric vehicles fuels in terms of price. Increasing biomass after 2015 is expected to make the same use, combined with energy savings and impact in achieving this target as second- geothermal and solar energy, will reduce generation biofuels. the quantity of natural gas consumed for heating purposes. The path followed by Slovakia in the use of renewable energy is set out in the Legislative conditions have been created Energy Security Strategy of the Slovak to promote the use of biomethane as a Republic, which was approved in 2008 refined type of biogas. Once technical and which states that the greatest conditions have been met, biomethane prospects offered by RES up to 2020 lie in can be granted preferential access to the heating and cooling. distribution network and can be
182 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Solar energy Solar potential in Slovakia is in total up to 54 000 TWh, while usable potential (real) is 9,4 TWh (estimated for solar collectors) and 1537 GWh (estimated for solar modules).
2 Figure 3.1.4. Yearly global irradiance energy (incident on horizontal plane [kWh/m ])
Electricity in Slovakia is produced by PV what gives 100 TJ. Growing tendency for photovoltaic solar modules. Installed around 5 000 m2/year (7 400 m2 installed power is around 15 kWp , what gives in 2006). Average heat production is around 0,01-0,015 GWh/year. around 500 kWh/m2/year. Photovoltaic power plants in Slovakia (state to 30.6.2011), it is 809 photovoltaic Hydro energy power plants (total 473,6 MW), of this: 325 (244,1 MW ) - 40,1% Central Hydro energy is the most used renewable Slovakia, energy source in Slovak Republlic. Big 285 (115,1 MW) - 35,2% Eastern hydropower plants currently generate Slovakia 4448 GWh of electricity annually and 199 (114,4 MW) - 24,7% Western small power plants 248 GWh. Slovakia Heat production in Slovakia is The technical energy potential of Slovak represented by installed solar collectors in rivers is 6700 GWh, from which 70.6 % is the total installed area of over 55 000 m2, actually utilised. From the 26.074 GWh of 183 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation electricity produced in Slovakia during 2009, the function of regulators. Technically hydropower plants generated sizeable 17.9 available hydropower potential in Slovakia %. Hydropower plants accounted for 34.9 % is 7361 GWh/year of energy. of the total installed capacity 7101 MW. There are currently in operation in Slovakia Slovakia has 25 big hydropower plants. The 250 small hydropower stations (power up to hydroelectric dam Gabčíkovo with a total 10 MW), which represents utilization of installed capacity 720 MW is the biggest approximately 25% of the total potential one. Others are Čierny Váh, Liptovská Mara, (Figure 3.1.5). Ružín and Dobšiná and they also carry out
Figure 3.1.5. Small hydropower plant Jelšovce on the river Nitra (1.2 MW)
184 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Biomass energy Among RES in Slovakia, biomass has the Wood-processing industry produces 1,410 largest energy theoretical potential which is thousand tons of waste annually (18.1 PJ), 120 PJ, what represents up to 15% of of which 2/3 originates from mechanical energy consumption of SR. wood processing and 1/3 from black liquor. The greatest waste producers are large Biomass represents an important potential wood-processing companies, which also for the development of regional and local most frequently use this waste for energy economy. As results from the prognosis of purposes. Another possible source is the electricity production, the most intensive production of agricultural biomass – cereal, development is expected in the use of solid corn and sunflower straw, winter rape, biomass, biogas or biomethane. orchard and vineyard wood waste.
Biomass is the source that has the largest The production of biofuels will increase technical potential (46% of all RES), closely significantly by 2010 due to the followed by geothermal energy (26%) and implementation of the objectives set out by solar energy (21%). The technically Directive 2003/30/EC. The estimated exploitable potential for wind and small production of biodiesel amounting to 100 hydropower have respectively a share of thousand tons is equivalent to 11.0 PJ of less than 3% and less than 5% of the RES heat. technical potential. The production of biogas from cattle Slovakia’s total annual capacity in the manure can reach 277 million m³ annually, production of forest biomass suitable for which corresponds with 6.9 PJ of heat. energy production will reach around 1,080 Wastewater treatment plants are important thousand tons by 2010 (16.9 PJ) 14. It is source of biogas. There are currently about realistic to increase the amount of forest 100 co-generation units in operation using biomass available after 2010 through more their own biogas and it is expected that co- intensive wood cutting and growing of generation units will be built at all energy crops in an area of 45.400 ha. wastewater treatment plants in larger Energy crops are promising source of fuel towns. Theoretically, biomass with energy biomass, which can be grown in areas equivalent to as much as 46.5 PJ can be unsuitable for conventional agricultural and produced in agriculture without negatively forestry production, on land temporarily set affecting agricultural production. aside from agricultural production, contaminated land suitable only for non- food production, as well as on damaged land in industrial agglomerations. 185 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Wind energy Geothermal energy Natural conditions of Slovak Republic Slovak Republic has around 26 determine total usable potential of only perspective areas concerning geothermal 600 GWh/year, because it is strongly energy with potential of 60 GWh of reduced by national parks. Possible annual electricity production. Slovakia has installed power is 300 MW, what is 5% 116 verified holes with temperature from total electric energy plants installed. frames of 18-129 °C and thermal power of Most suitable areas are Kysuce, Orava, 314,3 MWt. Spiš and Malé Karpaty. Geothermal water is used in 36 areas with Current installed power is 5 MW: power of 131 MWt (what is 42.7%, 2.3% Wind power plant Cerová (operation from total). In 12 localities it is used for since October 2003): 4 x 660 kW greenhouse heating and in 2 localities for Ostrý vrch Myjava (operation since fish farming, 32 localities use geothermal July 2004): 500 kW (pilot run) water for recreation purposes. For house Wind park Skalité, locality Polana heating there are installations in 10 (begin operations in September 2005 localities – in year 1996 Galanta with 1240 and currently is suspended flats and hospital. operations, older turbines removed): 4 x 500 kW turbine Figure 3.1.6. Geothermal energy
perspective areas There are almost no places in Slovakia where yearly average wind speed is over 5 m/s. This was long-term measured in specific places. Average wind speed: Krížna (5,7 m/s), Červenica – Dubník (5,7 m/s), Chopok (9,8 m/s)
Possible wind energy installations in Slovak Republic depends on wind conditions.
186 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The usage of the RES has grown in the renewable energy in action diversification last decade. The share of the RES has into non- agricultural activities and farm reached in 2010 the value of 9.5 % of the modernization measures. The measure gross domestic power consumption in Diversification supported by additional Slovak Republic. Especially biomass is an non-agricultural production, including the opportunity for agriculture. Of all RES in use of RES. Projects are assessed in Slovakia has the highest energy potential particular with regard to the following of agricultural biomass. The theoretical criteria: solution of biogass treatment energy potential of agricultural biomass in from the waste of their own livestock Slovakia can be quantified for a total of (manure, slurry) as well as biodegradable more than 106 PJ or 29 449 GWh of heat, waste (dendromass, agricultural biomass), which is 13,2 % of total energy waste from vegetable production as well consumption (800 PJ). Ministry of as specific waste from food production Agriculture and Rural Development of the and rendering. The measure farm Slovak Republic is responsible for the modernization projects is to support the renewable energy from biomass of projects of the utilization of RES other agricultural origin. The Ministry is than wind, hydro and solar energy, therefore preparing support RES through provided that the bulk of the energy is legislation innovation and consumed by the final beneficiary in their implementation of EU directives and own business (which are legal and natural regulations and subventions for farmers persons, whose share of income revenue into technologies for utilization of from agricultural production to total biomass for energy. receipts/ revenues is at least 30%). These subsidies concern mainly financial support Direct subsidies for plantation of energy for purchase of biomass utilization crops are in Slovakia used only subsidies technologies such as small agricultural from the EU framework, and use national biogas stations or regional biogas subsidy. Subventions into technologies stations which use agricultural waste to for utilization of energetic biomass are produce energy, technologies such as available for Slovak farmers in the furnaces or pellets, chips and straw bales framework of Rural Development manufacturing machines. Support for Program of Slovak Republic 2007- 2013. processing material for production of The program supports the use of renewable energy is in the country’s
187 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation interests, enabling it to honour EU access to electricity. As raw materials, agreements on the use of bio-fuels and biomass wastes have attractive potentials biomass. for large-scale industries and community- level enterprises. Rapid increase in volume and types of waste agricultural biomass, as a result of Biomass takes the form of residual stalks, intensive agriculture in the wake of straw, leaves, roots, husk, nut or seed population growth and improved living shells, waste wood and animal husbandry standards, is becoming a burgeoning waste. Widely available, renewable, and problem as rotten waste agricultural virtually free, waste biomass is an biomass emits methane and leachate, important resource. and open burning by the farmers to clear the lands generate CO2 and other With the global campaign to combat local pollutants. Hence improper climate change, countries are now looking management of waste agricultural for alternative sources of energy to biomass is contributing towards climate minimize greenhouse gas (GHG) change, water and soil contamination, emissions. Aside from being carbon and local air pollution. Furthermore, this neutral, the use of biomass for energy waste is of high value with respect to reduces dependency on the consumption material and energy recovery. of fossil fuel; hence, contributing to energy security and climate change Globally, worldwide, 140 billion metric mitigation. tons of biomass (Biomass wastes include agricultural wastes, such as corn stalks, Although there is an emerging trend on straw, sugar beet leavings and manure the utilization of biomass conversion from cattle, poultry, and hogs; forestry technologies - from combustion of straw residues, such as wood chips, bark, and wood chips to gasification of other sawdust, timber slash, and mill scrap; agricultural residues - biomass is still municipal waste, such as waste paper) is largely under utilized and left to rot or generated every year from agriculture. openly burned in the fields, especially in This volume of biomass can be converted developing countries that do not have to an enormous amount of energy and strong regulatory instruments to control raw materials. Equivalent to approximately such pollutive practices. As a common 50 billion tons of oil, agricultural biomass practice, direct combustion of agricultural waste converted to energy can substantially residue results in air pollution thereby displace fossil fuel, reduce emissions of posing risk to human and ecological greenhouse gases and provide renewable health. Biomass is a renewable resource energy to some 1.6 billion people in that causes problems when not used. The developing countries, which still lack challenge, therefore, is to convert biomass 188 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation as a resource for energy and other of wine, is developed in the Podunajská productive uses. and Východoslovenská Lowlands and adjacent hills. There are advantages in the use of biomass. Biomass is a renewable resource Besides the environmental benefits, the that has a steady and abundant supply, use of the RES also contributes to the especially those biomass resources that energy self-sufficiency, or country energy are by-products of agricultural activity. Its safety. That is why to increase the RES use is carbon neutral, can displace fossil ratio in electricity and heat production in fuels, and helps reduce GHG emissions order to create adequate additional while closing the carbon cycle loop. As resources necessary to cover the energy the debate on food versus fuel intensifies, demand is one of the priorities of the biomass can provide added income to energy policy of the Slovak Republic. farmers without compromising the Slovakia imports 90% of all primary production of main food and even non- energy sources. food crops. Geographical structure of Slovakia, where Total area of Slovakia represents of 47% of the area is the agricultural land 49.035 square kilometres. Half of the area and 41% of the area consists of forest of Slovakia, or 2.45 million hectares, is land, which predetermine to intensive agricultural land of which arable land production of biomass. A significant makes up 1.45 million hectares. Forests proportion of exploitable biomass for cover over 40 percent of the country (1.99 energy use is produced in agriculture and million hectares), most of which is hilly or food sector. The large scale agricultural of mountainous. About 963.000 hectares are Slovakia is the very significant producer of grassland. The latter is mainly located in biological "waste". The following Tables the northern, mountainous parts of the (Table 3.2.1 and Table 3.2.2) shows the country. Intensive agriculture, partly structure of Slovakia's regions. including the growing of vegetables and of other intensive crops, in particular that
189 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 3.2.1. Structure of regions area in Slovakia in hectares (ha) Arable Agricultur Water Built-up Other Region Forest land land al land areas areas areas Bratislava 46 141 66 012 75 429 5 582 14 230 19 683 Trnava 264 323 294 322 65 205 14 363 26 546 28 650 Trenčín 100 097 186 891 220 537 6 296 22 601 20 164 Nitra 407 032 469 763 96 094 15 653 37 088 31 428 Žilina 64 437 248 067 376 191 12 814 24 591 31 210 Banská 168 621 419 634 462 113 7 861 32 660 31 117 Bystrica Prešov 154 921 218 055 440 504 14 131 30 861 40 459 Košice 205 591 338 469 266 056 16 231 33 898 36 715 Slovakia 1 411 163 2 439 408 2 002 129 92 932 222 475 146 404
Table 3.2.2. Acreage of agricultural land in Slovakia in hectares (ha) Indicator / Year 2012 2013 2014 Total area of agricultural land 2 432 979 2 401 693 2 397 041 Used agricultural land 1 927 449 1 928 508 1 921 157 Total area of arable agricultural land 1 429 040 1 413 129 1 412 228 Used arable agricultural land 1 359 979 1 362 002 1 359 091 Total area of permanent grasslands 881 263 868 061 864 681 Used permanent grasslands 514 942 513 704 510 801
From the review (Table 3.2.2) it can be Between the most important sources of stated that in Slovakia more than 500 biomass for energy conversion also it thousand hectares of agricultural land are includes animal production on the Slovak not used. On this area an average of 2.550 farms. In the Table 3.2.3 it is given trends thousand tons of biomass per year could in the number of livestock. be cultivated and used for energy production.
190 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 3.2.3. Trends in the number of livestock in Slovakia (pcs) Farm animals / Year 2012 2013 2014 Cattle in total 471 100 467 800 465 500 Cows from that 202 600 199 000 201 800 Pigs in total 631 500 637 200 641 800 Sow from that 39 700 40 500 40 100 Sheep in total 409 600 399 900 391 200 Sheep ewe from that 272 200 269 800 265 400 Poultry in total 11 849 800 10 986 900 12 494 100 Hens from that 6 265 500 5 680 900 5 651 300 Goats in total 34 800 35 500 35 200 Horse in total 7 200 7 200 6 800
Produced biomass in the form of animal The next Table (Table 3.2.4) shows manure, liquid manure or excrement is estimates of the total energy potential of then in a volume of around 10 million various types of biomass. tons per year.
Table 3.2.4. Total energy potential of agricultural biomass Type of biomass Amount/volume Energy potential in PJ Agricultural biomass for 2 031 000 t 28,6 incineration/combustion Forest dendromass 1 810 000 t 16,9 Wood-processing industry 1 410 000 t 18,1 Biomass for biofuel production 200 000 t 7,0 Pressings and distiller-dried grains as a 400 000 t 8,4 by-product of biofuels Excrements of farm animals 13 700 000 t 9,3 Energy crops (purpose-grown) 300 000 ha 32,0 Total - 120,3
According current statements a main source sources on the available biomass potential of the biomass is traditional fuel wood. are given in the hereinafter Figures and Values and proportions of the particular Tables.
191 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 3.2.1. Available potential of biomass in Slovakia
From all RES, biomass has the greatest energy (21 %). The technically exploitable technical potential in Slovakia. It represents potential for wind in Slovakia is less than 3 % 46 % of all RES. Biomass is closely followed of total RES´ technical potential, and that of by geothermal energy (26 %) and solar small hydropower plants is less than 5 %.
Table 3.2.5. Technically available potential of RES in Slovakia (in TJ)
Technical Current Available Type potential exploitation potential Geothermal energy 22,680 1,224 21,456 Wind energy 2,178 0 2,178 Solar energy 18,720 25 18,695 Small hydropower plants 3,722 727 2,995 Biomass 40,453 12,683 27,770 Forest biomass 6,710 1,778 4,932 Energy plants 6,613 0 6,613 Wood industry 15,862 9,497 6,365 Agricultural biomass 8,359 216 8,143 Sludge - sewage treatment plants 828 47 781 Domestic waste 2,081 1,145 936 Total 87,754 14,659 73,094
192 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 3.2.6. Potential for RES in Slovakia (in TJ)
Technically available Economic potential Market potential Type potential heat Electricity heat electricity heat electricity Geothermal energy 20,384 1,073 7,920 504 4,230 125 Wind energy 0 2,178 0 505 0 150 Solar energy 16,321 2,374 4,250 210 1,260 10 Small hydropower 0 2,995 0 749 0 299 plants Biomass 23,606 4,164 10,058 1,810 2,412 520 Total 60,310 12,784 22,228 3,778 7,902 1,104 Grand total 73,094 26,006 9,006
An available annual biomass potential is of the potential of agricultural biomass in more than 35 PJ in Slovakia. But its Slovakia can be processed. In this model, utilization is markedly behind any the use of waste biomass has been potential possibilities. The annual energy considered with the following model value of the used biomass is equipment for energy production: approximately only 9 PJ (i.e. 25 % from • equipment for combustion of the total potential). A full utilization would biomass with average power of 500 enable to cover approximately 5 % of the kW, with an annual consumption of primary power sources consumption, 600 tons of biomass, mainly on the local and regional level. • biogas plants with an output of 350 kWe, with the annual consumption of Estimation and modelling of 40.000 tons of excrements. biomass energy use The number of power facilities according Based on the stated overviews of the to the use biomass potential of each potential of different types of RES the region is shown in Table 3.2.7. following qualified estimate of energy use
193 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 3.2.7. Number of potential energy equipment installations by region of Slovakia
Number of potential installations Region for combustion biogas plants
Bratislava 362 8
Trnava 1 526 50
Trenčín 461 28
Nitra 2734 52
Žilina 317 33
Banská Bystrica 1 028 41
Prešov 655 41
Košice 1230 27
SR total 8 313 280
The total number of installations for the Slovakia and the number of biogas plants heat production using only the waste in which only livestock excrement used as agricultural biomass (mainly straw) could the input biomass could be up to 280. be about 8.313 for the whole territory of
194 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
DIRECTIVE 2009/28/EC on the promotion of the use of renewable energy and defining the 20% renewables target per Member State. DIRECTIVE 2003/87/EC as amended by 2009/29/EC reviewing the EU emission trading scheme by defining an emissions cap and harmonising allocation of allowances to companies. DECISION No 406/2009/EC (Effort Sharing Decision) defining the targets per Member State for GHG reductions in sectors not included in the ETS. REGULATION (EC) No 443/2009 (CO2 & Cars) on CO2 standards for new passenger cars REGULATION (EU) No 510/2011 setting emission performance standards for new light commercial vehicles as part of the Union's integrated approach to reduce CO2 emissions from light-duty vehicles DIRECTIVE 2009/30/EC (Fuel Quality Directive) to reduce the life cycle carbon content of fuels. DIRECTIVE 2009/31/EC creating an enabling framework for carbon capture and storage. DIRECTIVE 2012/27/EU on energy efficiency defining required actions at Member State level DIRECTIVE 2010/31/EU on the energy performance of buildings DIRECTIVE 2009/125/EC on ecodesign requirements for energy-related products, incl. standards Regulation No. 2006/842/EC on F-gases and Directive 2006/40/EC on F-gases from mobile air conditioning DIRECTIVE 99/31/EC gradually phasing out the use of landfills for waste disposal, reducing CH4 emissions DIRECTIVE 1991/676/EEC on Nitrates, contributing to limit N2O emissions DIRECTIVE 2009/33/EC on the promotion of clean and energy-efficient road transport vehicles COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 2003/96/EC restructuring the Community framework for the taxation of energy products and electricity REGULATION 1222/2009 on the labelling of tyres with respect to fuel efficiency and other essential parameters REGULATION 228/2011 amending Regulation (EC) No 1222/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council with regard to the wet grip testing method for C1 tyres The state of renewable energies in Europe edition 2013, 13th EurObserv’ER Report, Printed by Imprimerie New Goff, December 2013, ISSN 2101-9622
195 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation IV RESEARCH OF BIOMASS BIOCHEMICAL CONVERSION USING DRY FERMENTATION METHOD AT SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE IN NITRA
196 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The fact that the proportion of the A main part of the whole equipment is a biomass use in energy production in the bioreactor (5), what is a fermentor of a agricultural sector in Slovakia was nearly horizontal flow type with 100 m3 volume. negligible, has led the Slovak University of The designed daily production of the Agriculture (SUA) in Nitra to start dealing biogas is approximately 150 m3. The with the issues of RES. In 1995 the small biogas production process is carried out group of scientists of SUA joined the in the fermentor without any access of air. preparation of a new international The operating temperature is a mesofilic research project Biogas-Technology for one of a range from 32 to 38 0C. Duration Regenerative Energy Supply in Eastern of the biomass stay in the fermentor is 20 Europe (Bulgaria, Slovakia, Ukraine) which days. The biogas produced in the was submitted and approved within the fermentor is collected in a biogas tank EU programme INCO-COPERNICUS under holder (7) from which it is led through the registration number EU Joint Research a pipeline to a low-pressure dry gasholder Project – Inco-Copernicus No. PL 962023 (11). The gasholder is created by a special Regenerate. The main co-ordinator of the rubber sheet gas-proofly attached to an project was an Austrian partner out-let substrate tank (10). Residual Forschungszentrum Seidersdorf, GmbH., biogas released from the substrate which the rest of the partners were from has already left the fermentor is captured Bulgaria, Germany, Sweden and Ukraine. here, too. The biogas is consequently The project duration was from 1996 to used for burning in a cogeneration unit 2000. The Biogas plant in Kolíňany was (engine (14), generator (15)) and in an built within this project as its realization adapted gas boiler (17). Scrap heat is output. Although the biogas plant is a transferred to an exchanger (16) for its large-scale one it does not serve for further utilization. industrial purposes. It has been intended as a demonstration facility to fulfil Except the above-mentioned a part of the research and educational purposes. biogas is used to test Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) what is currently one of The Biogas plant in Kolíňany was the most progressive ways to exploit this designed to process manure from 80 live- renewable energy source. In a matter of stock units and to a consequent fact, a fuel cell is an electrochemical cogenerative production of heat (45 kWt) source of energy. The combination of the and electric power (22 kWe) from the fuel cells with biogas is tested for the first produced biogas. The main parts of the time. The Slovak Agricultural University in biogas equipment are presented on the Nitra has carried out long-term Figure 4.1 and the complete set-up on the endurance experiments of the MCFC fuel Figure 4.2. cells at its Biogas plant Kolíňany as a part 197 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation of the international project of the EU 5th consist of 10 fuel cells and a total output Frame Programme EFFECTIVE - Holistic of a test stack should be 300 W, 10 V at a Integration of MCFC technology towards a biogas consumption 200 litres per hour. most effective systems compound using Any other activities devoted to fuel cells biogas as a renewable source of energy utilization in the RES area in Slovakia are (N°. NNE5-1999-00224). The test stacks not carried out.
Figure 4.1. Scheme of the main parts of the Biogas plant Kolíňany
17
Although the Biogas plant in Kolíňany is fermentor at the Biogas plant and operated on pure cattle manure, in frame consequently three types of substrates of another international project the will be used in it: Slovak Agricultural University has started - 40 % cattle manure + 60 % energy explorations of efficiency of various plants, substrate types. The project is also a EU - 40 % cattle manure + 60 % biological th 5 Frame Programme project, entitled kitchen stuff, Advanced prediction, monitoring and - 40 % cattle manure + 60 % biological controlling of anaerobic digestion processes agricultural wastage (vegetable scraps, behaviour towards Biogas usage in Fuel useless silage, etc.). Cells (N°. NNE5-2001-00067). For its purposes, there was installed a pilot 5 m3
198 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 4.2. General view on the Biogas plant Kolíňany
Dry fermentation is a series of processes to treat sewage sludge (HAMZAWI et al., in which micro-organisms break down 1998). Before anaerobic digestion, the biodegradable material in the absence of organic material in the sludge also oxygen. This dry fermentation process automatically decay due to the biological utilises renewable sources as a feedstock activities of the extensive existence of to produce a methane and carbon dioxide microorganisms in the sludge, producing rich biogas suitable for energy offensive, odorous and reduced end production. The nutrient-rich solids left products such as fatty acids, mercaptans after digestion can be used as a fertiliser and amines. After anaerobic digestion, the and compost. Almost any organic material digestate consists of an odor free residue can be processed with dry fermentation. with appearance similar to peat. Methane This includes biodegradable waste produced by the anaerobic digestion materials such as waste paper, grass process is a clean, carbon dioxide (CO2) clippings, leftover food, sewage and neutral and renewable energy that can be animal waste. Anaerobic digestion has used to produce heat and electricity. been manipulated by man for many years Furthermore, anaerobic digestion seems
199 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation to be a very cost-effective method that ecosystem, and remains or improves the makes it possible for sewage sludge to soil structure. use farmland as a safe and permanent outlet destination with positive effect, i.e. Anaerobic digestion is a multiple bio- the digestate, which has retained plant process, of which four main steps can be nutrients such as nitrogen (N) and identified, namely hydrolysis, acidogenisis, phosphorus (P), can be recycled as acetogenisis and methanogenisis, fertilizer and soil conditioner back to the involving six major distinct processes. farmland and thus keeps these natural Proposed reaction scheme for this 4-step nutrients recycled within a closed loop anaerobic digestion model of biomass is presented in Figure 4.1.1.
Figure 4.1.1. Scheme of 4-step anaerobic digestion process
Current trends in the present is the use of least energy from agricultural biomass. renewable energy, i.e. energy derived This green energy does not pollute the from the sun, water, wind and last but not environment in such a way as fossil fuels. 200 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
In the case that biomass will be grown To testing suitability of various biomasses deliberately and purposefully, it will for dry fermentation purposes become an inexhaustible source of experimental equipment was designed by energy. Forecasts suggest that in the research workers of the Department of climatic conditions as are those in Regional BioEnergy at the Slovak Slovakia, the use of biomass is real for 6- University of Agriculture in Nitra. The 12% coverage of the total energy designed experimental equipment consumption. The priority is being given consists of a cylindrical double-cup tank to them biomass which in its available of 80 l volume. A general scheme of the amount exceeds the energy demands of equipment showing its main parts and the mankind. percolate and biogas flow is presented in Figure 4.1.2. In Slovakia for purposefully grown biomass only the second class soil can be Measured biogas parameters were: used which means the soil of lower - CH4 (% Vol) – methane volume quality, which may alternatively be used percentage, also for other purposes than the - CO2 (% Vol) – carbon dioxide volume production of food and the production of percentage, biomass. Energy potential of agricultural - O2 (% Vol) – oxygen volume biomass is very high and it theoretically percentage, represents 20.4% of the annual energy - H2S (ppm) – hydrosulphide volume. consumption in the Slovak Republic, - BGP (l.d-1) - biogas production . which is 800 PJ. This way it would be possible to use in Slovakia the area Analysis of the biogas composition was around 300.000 ha. done once a day by a gas analyser Sewerin Multitec 540. As well the biogas Deliberate cultivation of energy crops on production was measured once a day and the farm holding for the production of it was done by a laboratory flowmeter. biogas not only corn silage, but also new Based on the total biogas production per crops, such as. Sorghum bicolour is day consequently the one-hour biogas opening a new branch of agricultural production (lh-1) was calculated (Figure production which through the 4.1.4). diversification of production increases the competitiveness of the farm enterprise in the current challenging economic conditions of land management.
201 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 4.1.2. Scheme of the experimental equipment
5 6
4
7 1 1 – fermentor 2 – percolate tank 3 – percolate pump 4 – gasholder 8 5 – temperature sensor 2 6 – temperature controller 9 3 7 – heating of fermentor 8 – biogas analyser 9 – flowmeter
The substrate parameters were experiment 6 was –temperature carried out controller from 10. 10. determined from the percolate taken to 27. 10. 2013, i.e. its duration was 18 from the fermentor. There were recorded days. Basic parameters of the used following parameters: Sorghum silage were: dry matter content - pH level – measured by a pH – 32.6 %, pH value 8.174. Percolate for probe, biomass wetting was taken off from the - substrate temperature ST (oC) – biogas plant fermentor in volume of measured by a temperature sensor 10 litres and its parameters were: dry integrated in the pH – probe. matter content 6.2 %, pH value 7.4, temperature 39.5o C. During the whole A view on the configuration of the running of the experiment, mainly the experimental equipment for dry biogas production (l.h-1) and biogas fermentation with a flexible gas holder composition were assessed (Fig. 4.1.4). and measurement of the produced biogas More detailed record of the biogas volume is presented in Figure 4.1.3. composition changes during the experiment is presented in Figure 4.1.5. The tested substrate consists of 6 kg To measure the biogas composition the Sorghum silage and 13 kg straw cattle analyser Sewerin Multitec 540 was used. manure from the previous cycle. The
202 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
One of the main advantages of the dry seen in Figure 4.1.5. The methane content fermentation is so-called batch way of reached 53.46 % already on the fourth day. feeding. Batch way of feeding means that Beginning from the sixth day its content the substrate is fed into the fermentor at was above 60 % and such values were once and then during the whole period of registered even next 10 days. The highest its stay in the fermentor it does not fill up. methane content, which was 62.02 %, was The biomass is only wetted by the percolate registered on 6th day. Within the whole 18- which is added from an external source at day experiment duration there was the beginning of the feeding, and during produced 571.4 litres of the biogas, what the operation it is filled up with substrate meant its average production 31.74 litres own sap. This ensures a very short start-up per day. time of the fermentation process as it is
Figure 4.1.3. View of the experimental equipment for dry fermentation
203 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 4.1.4. Biogas production and methane content time behaviour
70
60
50
40
30 Methane, %, BGP, l/day, ST, dg. of C ST, l/day, %, BGP, Methane, 20
methane 10 ST BGP
0
10.10.2013
11.10.2013
12.10.2013
13.10.2013
14.10.2013
15.10.2013
16.10.2013
17.10.2013
18.10.2013
19.10.2013
20.10.2013
21.10.2013
22.10.2013
23.10.2013
24.10.2013
25.10.2013
26.10.2013 27.10.2013
day
Figure 4.1.5. Methane, carbon dioxide, oxygen and hydrogen sulfide content in produced biogas
70 50
45 60 40
50 H2S, ppm H2S,
CH4, CO2, O2,% CO2, CH4, 35
30 40 25 30 20
15 20 O2 10 CO2 10 CH4 5 H2S
0 0
23.10.2013 10.10.2013 11.10.2013 12.10.2013 13.10.2013 14.10.2013 15.10.2013 16.10.2013 17.10.2013 18.10.2013 19.10.2013 20.10.2013 21.10.2013 22.10.2013 24.10.2013 25.10.2013 26.10.2013 27.10.2013
day
204 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
To ensure a continuity and stability of the use high moisture waste streams, like biogas production in the case of dry manure, as input and add large amounts fermentation technology more of liquid to facilitate movement required fermentation tanks are necessary. These by this system. “Dry” fermentation have to be filled in successive steps with technology uses numerous waste streams, time distance given by the time of the such as municipal solid waste and biomass stay in fermentor and by the industrial food processing waste. In this number of the tanks/fermentors. way eliminates the need for movement of input and the addition of liquid. “Dry” Anaerobic digesters induce the processes fermentation technology has specific of fermentation and anaerobic digestion advantages over “wet” fermentation and provide a mechanism for capturing systems in many situations and provides the released by-product, biogas. customers with increased flexibility and Traditional digesters are classified as profitability. “wet” fermentation systems. They typically
ANDREAS, H., I. 1998: Untersuchung zu IN- und Outputströmen bei der Restabfallvergärung und Vergleich mit der Kompostierung, diploma theses, Höxter: Universität – Gesamthochschule Paderborn BUSWELL, E. G., & NEAVE, S. L. 1930. Laboratory studies of sludge digestion. Illinois Division of State Water Survey, Bulletin no. 30. GUJER, W., ZEHNDER, A.J.B. 1983. Conversion process in anaerobic digestion. Water Science and Technology, Vol. 15, 127-167. HAMZAWI, N., KENNEDY, K. J. AND MCLEAN, D. D. 1998. Anaerobic digestion of co-mingled municipal solid waste and sewage sludge. Water Science and Technology, Vol. 38, No. 2, 127-132. JANIČEK, F., DARUĽA, I., GADUŠ, J., et al. 2009. Renewable energy sources 1: technologies for a sustainable future. 2. dopln. vyd. [Pezinok]: Renesans, 174 s. ISBN 978-80-89402-05-2. JANIČEK, F., GADUŠ, J., ŠÁLY, V. et al. 2012. Renewable energy sources 2: Prospective conversions and technologies. [Pezinok] : Renesans, 192 s. ISBN 978-80-89402-13-7. MADIGAN, T. M., MARTINKO, J. M. AND PARKER J. 2003: Brock Biology of Microorganisms (10th ed), Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. MOCKAITIS, G. 2006. Anaerobic whey treatment by a stirred sequencing batch reactor (ASBR): effects of organic loading and supplemented alkalinity. In: Journal of Environmental Management London, 2006, v. 79, n. 2, p. 198-206. ISSN 0301-4797 205 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
STEFFEN, R., SZOLAR, O., BRAUN, R. 2009. Feedstocks for anaerobic digestions. Institute for Agrobiotechnology Tulln, University of Agricultural Sciences, Vienna, Austria, http://www.adnett.org/dl_feedstocks.pdf, STRAKA, F. a kol. 2006. Bioplyn, GAS s.r.o, Říčany, ISBN 80-7328-090-6 THUCHINASHI, N., GOTO,, Y. 2004. Cultivation of sweet Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) and determination of its harvest time to make use as the raw material for fermentation, practiced during rainy season in dry land of Indonesia., Plant production science, 2004, vol. 7, no 4, pp. 442-448, ISSN 1343-943X. VÁŇA, J. 2003. Biomasa pro energii a technické využití. Biom.cz, 25.3.2003. In: http://biom.cz/index.shtml?x=129197.
206 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
207 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
208 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Growing energy crops becomes an within the growing cycle and the alternative for utilisation of fallow or economic efficiency unused land in Slovakia in recent years. In 2. Miscanthus – production of two some cases, it can be also an option at genotypes is analysed Miscanthus is a arable land regions, as a measure to meet representative of perennial greening policy requirements. In all cases, rhizomatous grasses with annual economic efficiency is the most important harvest, where subject of evaluation is factor to adopt production of energy only economic efficiency crops into production plans at farms in rural areas. In our study, we develop a spreadsheet based model to analyse economic Research results as well as practical efficiency of the two fast growing energy experience show that the most crops based on standard economic prospective crops for the conditions of metrics such as Net Present Value (NPV) Slovakia are willow (Salix), Poplar and and Internal Rate of Return (IRR). We also Miscanthus. perform sensitivity analysis of key factors of the production process, including In this chapter, we focus on two energy break-event point estimates. crops and we investigate under what conditions they could be a source for Our model builds on the work of revitalisation and sustainable Faustmann who determined when a development of farms in rural areas. parcel of evenly aged trees should be cut 1. Salix - we analyse production of four to maximize the cumulative discounted Salix varieties as representatives of profits per hectare. In our study short rotation coppice (SRC), where Faustmann’s model is modified for the the subject of economic evaluation is production of fast growing crops, in the optimal length of harvest rotation particular, we assume that the parcel of crops is replanted after a predetermined
209 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation period of time. In the model we use function, of a typical stand of trees, which Schumacher growth function to simulate is shown in Figure 5.1.1. The horizontal yields of the fast growing crops for the axis represents time and the vertical axis period of production cycle. volume of timber, measured in board meters, cubic meters or metric tons. The study is organized as follows. In the Typically, the volume of the wooden mass next section, we present model and data. increases at an increasing rate for young Section 3 presents results of economic trees. Later, the growth of the timber feasibility analysis, and in section 4 we volume slows down and increases at a propose conclusions. decreasing rate. Finally, when the trees are very old, they begin to exhibit Methods and data Model negative growth, as they rot, decay, and become subject to disease and pests. Our model is based on a forestry growth function, known also as the volume
Figure 5.1.1. The Forestry Growth Function
Source: David Zilberman – Forestry economics
Q(Tmax). But this is not the volume The volume of a stand of trees is associated with the Maximum Sustainable maximized at time Tmax, with a volume of 210 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Yield (MSY), which can be defined as the largest volume of timber harvested from a Because we model short rotation coppice forest over an infinite period. MSY occurs and want to incorporate features of the where the growth rate (increment) equals real world – namely that the entire stand the average growth per rotation (aka is derooted after a given number of years, mean annual increment - MAI); that is at while being harvested several times in time Tmsy. The average growth rate of a between – we need to modify the stand, at any time, t, is: Faustmann formulation of the problem. The original Faustmann formulation A.G. = Q (t)/t (5.1.1) would answer the question: what is the optimal rotation length if the trees are planted in perpetuity; we are interested in which can be shown by a ray through the the following: given a predetermined origin. Ray 1 in Figure 5.2.1 shows that the length of a production cycle, what is the average growth can be achieved by either optimal length of a rotation within the cutting at time T1 or at time T2, but cycle, and consequently, what is the neither time gives the Maximum Average optimal number of rotations? Like Growth. In the forestry problem, the Faustmann, we also assume the critical element is that the growth production process runs in perpetuity. function is a function of time; not a This is graphically depicted in Figure 5.1.2. function of stock.
Figure 5.1.2. Cycles versus Rotations for n = 3
Source: Benko, 2012 where τ denotes an optimal rotation For analytical tractability, we assume the length, which means the interval between market price of the wood chips is P, the cuttings, and T denotes a predetermined cost of replanting is R, and the cost of length of the production cycle. harvesting is C, and all are constant.
211 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Farmer’s profits can then be expressed as by ordinary least squares method after its (ZILBERMAN, 1999) logaritmic transformation to the form
ln Q(t) = a – b/t (5.1.5) (5.1.2)
Schumacher function (5.1.4) is used to where T = nτ and the cost of replanting simulate yields of SRC biomass within 21 the trees (including derooting) is incurred years production cycle and is used also to only at the beginning of each new cycle interpolate missing data in rotation cycle. (e.g., every 21 years). On the other hand, the cost of harvesting the trees (including Economic efficiency of short rotation any cost incurred every rotation, like the copice biomass production is analysed as labour or capital cost) incurs in each a capital investment problem, where Net rotation. In equation (5.1.2), the term e-rτ Present Value is used as an indicator. Net represents the continuous discount factor, Present Value (NPV) is the difference where r denotes the interest rate, τ between the present value of cash inflows denotes the length of rotation and n and the present value of cash outflows. number of rotations (we assume n is a NPV is used in capital budgeting to positive integer greater than unity. analyze the profitability of a projected investment or project. The following is the Equation (5.1.2) can be simplified into formula for calculating NPV:
(5.1.3) NPV = (5.1.6)
where
Ct = net cashflow during the period t Equation (5.1.3) identifies farmer’s profit Co = total initial investment costs function. The equation does not occur n r = discount rate, and which can be computed as T/τ* because n t = number of time periods depends on the length of the cycle as well as on the length of the one rotation. In our analysis, initial investment costs C0
are costs spent on SRC establishment. Net In the model we adopt Schumacher’s type cashflow Ct is a difference of cash inflow volume function of the form (subsidy, term loan, biomass sales) and Q(t) = ea-b/t (5.1.4) cash outflow (total costs, term loan This functional form implies no decline in repayments). The discount rate element of the volume of marchanTable timber. We the NPV formula is commonly defined as estimate parameters of the eqation (5.1.4) expected return of aletrnative investment choices. As a basic investment choice is 212 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation a long-term deposit of money in the projects with the highest difference bank. between IRR and RRR, as chances are these will be the most profitable. A positive net present value indicates that Data the projected earnings generated by a project or investment (in present Euro) Data used in this study come from two exceed the anticipated costs (also in sources. SRC biomass yields records of present Euro). Generally, an investment four varieties of Salix and two genotypes with a positive NPV will be a of Miscanthus come from the research site profitableone and one with a negative at Kolíňany and are described in detail in NPV will result in a net loss. This concept another chapter of this monograph. Costs is the basis for the Net Present Value data relating to site establishment, planting Rule, which dictates that the only material, cultivation, chemical protection, investments that should be made are harvesting, storage and drying, and site those with positive NPV values. restoration are compiled from literature (HAUK et al, 2014; SOLDATOS et al, 2004; Internal rate of return (IRR) is a metric DI NASO et al., 2010, KASMIOU, 2012; used for measuring the profitability of FAASCH, 2012, McKenney, 2011; TOTH et potential investments. Internal rate of al, 2015). Structure of operations and return is a discount rate that makes the related costs items is based on best net present value of all cash flows from a practice guidelines for SRC willow and particular project equal to zero. IRR Miscanthus (TEAGASC, 2015, 2010). calculations rely on the same formula as NPV does. Costs data All costs data presented in the next In theory, any project with an IRR greater section are calculated per one hectare. than its cost of capital is a profitableone, Tables in which data are shown are input and thus it is in a company’s interest to Tables of the developed spreadsheet undertake such projects. In planning model. Tables in separate sheets are investment projects, firms will often directly linked to the main efficiency establish a required rate of return (RRR) to analysis model/sheet. All Tables are determine the minimum accepTable similar both for Salix and Miscanthus return percentage that the investment in except minor differences resulting from question must earn in order to be various cultivation and harvesting worthwhile. Any project with an IRR that technologies. exceeds the RRR will likely be deemed a profitableone, although companies will In Table 5.1.1 pre-planting site not necessarily pursue a project on this preparation costs are shown. First 5 items basis alone. Rather, they will likely pursue 213 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation in the Table are standard pre-planting optional. operations. Soil analysis and fencing is
Table 5.1.1. Pre-planting site preparation costs
Pre-planting site preparation €/ha Pre-ploughing herbicide application 20 Pre-ploughing pesticide application 20 Ploughing (min depth 20-25 cm) 75 Power-harrowing 80 Post-ploughing herbicide application 20 Soil analysis 50 Fencing Netting 740 Electric mesh fencing Material costs Glyphosate herbicide 40 Weed killer/insecticide 25 Residual herbicide 60 Management fee 160 Source: Own elaboration
Table 5.1.2 and Table 5.1.3 enable to set planting material and planting operation initial planting density of cuttings per ha, costs. Listed post-planting operations are but can be used also to define mix of optional. varieties as a disease prevention. In the model the Table serves for calculation of
214 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 5.1.2. Planting material, planting and post-planting costs: Salix
Planting material Pcs €/pc €/ha Initial planting density of cuttings per ha 15000 1500 No. of cuttings of varieties: Tora 15000 0,1 1500 Gudrun 0 0,1 0 Tordis 0 0,1 0 Inger 0 0,1 0 Sven 0 0,1 0 Planting operation (options) Manual planting 320 Mechanical planting 150 Post-planting operations Post-planting site rolling Post-planting residual herbicide application Source: Own elaboration
Table 5.1.3. Planting material, planting and post-planting costs: Miscanthus
Planting material Pcs €/pc €/ha Initial planting density of per ha 10000 1800 Rhizomes 10000 0,18 1800 In-vitro plants 0,28 0 Planting operation Manual planting 350 Mechanical planting 400 Post-planting operations Post-planting site rolling 10 Post-planting selective herbicide application 20 Source: Own elaboration
215 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
In Table 5.1.4 three post-planting Table 5.1.5. Post-planting operations establishment operations for Salix are costs: Miscanthus listed. Cutback is a basic operation performed during the first growing Post-planting operations €/ha season to encourage the established Pre-emergence weed cuttings to produce multiple shots. Post- control - selective herbicide cutback herbicide application and application 20 mechanical in-row weed control are Post emergence weed optional. control - selective herbicide application 20 Post-planting selective Table 5.1.4. Post-planting herbicide application 20 establishment costs: Salix Source: Own elaboration Post-planting establishment €/ha Cutback (coppicing) 30 Three harvesting options (see Table 5.1.6) Post-cutback herbicide are available. All three are performed by application 20 specialized machinery, in case of small Mechanical in-row weed producers usually as contractor control 10 operations. Each has its own advantages Source: Own elaboration and disadvantages. The selection of a single option depends on availability of Post-planting operations for Miscanthus the necessary following technologies, i.e. differ due to one year rotation cycle. See storage facilities, drying technology, Table 5.1.5. supply chain links etc.
Table 5.1.6. Harvesting operation costs Miscanthus Harvesting Salix Harvesting (options) €/ha (options): €/ha Chip harvesting 300 Mowing 50 Whole stem harvesting 350 Baling 270 Billet harvesting 300-350 Cutting and chipping 300 Bio-baler 300-350 Source: Own elaboration
216 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Costs for storage and drying depend on applied harvesting operation option. Chip Table 5.1.8. Site restoration drying is necessary to prevent biomass operations costs decomposition and degradation by fungi and bacteria. Extra costs may be incurred Site restoration €/ha by postponed delivery of chips to the Herbicide application 20 supply chain by long-term storage and Heavy rotavator or forestry keeping chips dry. Costs of this type are mulches application 80 presented in Table 5.1.7. Source: Own elaboration
Table 5.1.7. Storage & drying operation costs Production data Storage & drying €/t Production data of four willow varieties Dying of chips and two Miscanthus genotypes were (moisture<25%) 8-12 available from the cultivation experiment Long-term storage & performed at the site of University Farm drying of chips 5 Kolíňany for the period of years 2007- Source: Own elaboration 2015. Willow data for the year 2007 represent cutback yield. Within the period When a willow coppice or Miscanthus 2007-2015 two four year rotation cycle grass reach the end of the planned life (harvests) were applied: in years 2011 and cycle, the site has to be restored to grass 2015 (bold Figures). Original data for or arable production. Costs connected willow varieties are presented in Table with site restoration operations are shown 5.1.9, data for Miscanthus are shown in in Table 5.1.8. Table 5.1.10.
Table 5.1.9. Salix dry matter yields [t.ha-1]
Variety/Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Tora 1,90 12,63 50,88 66,13 139,22 32,32 67,84 74,42 131,30 Gudrun 1,28 9,01 33,06 53,86 94,18 29,44 50,98 89,17 145,70 Tordis 2,22 11,79 49,92 53,76 122,24 27,20 39,46 64,47 125,01 Inger 2,62 10,43 37,86 52,48 91,53 n/a 33,22 59,73 137,27 Sven 1,25 11,63 38,93 61,97 94,47 n/a 52,22 64,85 68,37 Source: Own elaboration
217 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 5.1.10. Miscanthus dry matter yields [t.ha-1.year-1]
Genotype/Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Miscanthus giganteus 11,1 18,1 27,1 30,3 30,9 30,10 Miscanthus sinensis 10,8 16,9 22,6 24,1 26,3 25,10 Source: Own elaboration
In the financial part of the model income Results was calculated as a product of yields and Yield simulation - Salix the selling price of € 100 per one ton of dry matter of willow chips and €60 per Yields for the planned whole life cycle of one ton of dry matter of Miscanthus chips. 21 years were simulated using Schumacher growth function (5.1.4). Missing 2012 data for the varieties Inger and Sven were simulated using interpolation procedure in Schumacher function, applied only for the second rotation cycle. Simulated yields for willow varieties are presented in Table 5.1.11.
Table 5.1.11. Salix dry matter simulated yields [t.ha-1]
Salix varieties Years Tora Gudrun Tordis Inger Sven 2007 1 2,23 0,61 2,21 1,10 3,56 2008 2 18,32 10,48 16,36 11,08 18,85 2009 3 36,95 27,00 31,86 23,92 32,85 2010 4 52,49 43,34 44,46 35,16 43,37 2011 5 64,79 57,57 54,31 44,29 51,24 2012 6 74,55 69,56 62,06 51,67 57,27 2013 7 82,41 79,64 68,26 57,68 62,00 2014 8 88,84 88,14 73,32 62,64 65,80 2015 9 94,19 95,37 77,50 66,79 68,92 2016 10 98,70 101,58 81,03 70,31 71,52
218 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
2017 11 102,55 106,97 84,03 73,32 73,72 2018 12 105,88 111,67 86,61 75,94 75,61 2019 13 108,78 115,81 88,86 78,22 77,24 2020 14 111,32 119,48 90,84 80,23 78,67 2021 15 113,58 122,76 92,59 82,01 79,93 2022 16 115,59 125,70 94,14 83,61 81,05 2023 17 117,39 128,35 95,54 85,04 82,05 2024 18 119,02 130,75 96,79 86,33 82,95 2025 19 120,49 132,94 97,93 87,51 83,76 2026 20 121,83 134,94 98,97 88,58 84,50 2027 21 123,06 136,78 99,92 89,56 85,17 Source: Own elaboration
We used ordinary least squares to estimate the parameters of equation (5.1.5). In Table 5.1.12 and Table 5.1.13 we present regression statistic for all Salix varieties.
Table 5.1.12. Regression statistics for Salix varieties
Regression Statistics Tora Gudrun Tordis Inger Sven Multiple R 0,982 0,982 0,973 0,943 0,993 R Square 0,965 0,965 0,946 0,888 0,986 Adjusted R Square 0,960 0,960 0,939 0,872 0,984 Standard Error 2,801 2,897 3,339 4,894 1,589 Observations 9 9 9 9 9 Source: Own elaboration
Table 5.1.13. Regression statistics for Salix varieties
Tora Gudrun Tordis Inger Sven
Coef. P-val. Coef. P-val. Coef. P-val. Coef. P-val. Coef. P-val. Intercept (-b) -4,210 0,077 -5,679 0,031 -4,001 0,143 -4,620 0,235 -3,334 0,023 X Variable 1 (a) 5,013 0,000 5,189 0,000 4,795 0,000 4,715 0,000 4,603 0,000 Source: Own elaboration
219 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Simulated yields were used in economic increment (MAI) (5.1.1) and growth rate efficiency evaluation spreadsheet model (increment of two successive years) for all for calculation of income and for willow varieties. They are presented in the calculation of values of mean annual following Table 5.1.14.
Table 5.1.14. Mean annual increments (MAI) and yield increments (Incr.) of Salix varieties
Tora Gudrun Tordis Inger Sven Years MAI Incr. MAI Incr. MAI Incr. MAI Incr. MAI Incr. 2007 1 2,23 2,23 0,61 0,61 2,21 2,21 1,10 1,10 3,56 3,56 2008 2 9,16 16,09 5,24 9,86 8,18 14,14 5,54 9,98 9,42 15,29 2009 3 12,32 18,64 9,00 16,52 10,62 15,50 7,97 12,85 10,95 14,01 2010 4 13,12 15,53 10,83 16,34 11,12 12,61 8,79 11,24 10,84 10,52 2011 5 12,96 12,30 11,51 14,23 10,86 9,85 8,86 9,14 10,25 7,87 2012 6 12,42 9,76 11,59 12,00 10,34 7,75 8,61 7,38 9,54 6,02 2013 7 11,77 7,86 11,38 10,07 9,75 6,20 8,24 6,01 8,86 4,73 2014 8 11,11 6,43 11,02 8,50 9,16 5,05 7,83 4,96 8,23 3,80 2015 9 10,47 5,35 10,60 7,23 8,61 4,19 7,42 4,15 7,66 3,12 2016 10 9,87 4,51 10,16 6,21 8,10 3,52 7,03 3,52 7,15 2,60 2017 11 9,32 3,85 9,72 5,38 7,64 3,00 6,67 3,02 6,70 2,20 2018 12 8,82 3,32 9,31 4,70 7,22 2,59 6,33 2,61 6,30 1,89 2019 13 8,37 2,90 8,91 4,14 6,84 2,25 6,02 2,28 5,94 1,63 2020 14 7,95 2,55 8,53 3,67 6,49 1,97 5,73 2,01 5,62 1,43 2021 15 7,57 2,25 8,18 3,28 6,17 1,75 5,47 1,78 5,33 1,26 2022 16 7,22 2,01 7,86 2,94 5,88 1,56 5,23 1,59 5,07 1,12 2023 17 6,91 1,80 7,55 2,65 5,62 1,39 5,00 1,43 4,83 1,00 2024 18 6,61 1,63 7,26 2,40 5,38 1,26 4,80 1,29 4,61 0,90 2025 19 6,34 1,47 7,00 2,19 5,15 1,14 4,61 1,17 4,41 0,81 2026 20 6,09 1,34 6,75 2,00 4,95 1,04 4,43 1,07 4,22 0,74 2027 21 5,86 1,23 6,51 1,84 4,76 0,95 4,26 0,98 4,06 0,67 Source: Own elaboration
220 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
In the following four Figures (Figure 5.1.3, Figure 5.1.4, Figure 5.1.5 and Figure 5.1.6) we show relationship of original production (yield) data, simulated yields (yield estimations), MAI and increments.
Figure 5.1.3. Tora willow variety original production (yield) data, simulated yields, MAI and increments
Source: Own elaboration
Figure 5.1.4. Gudrun willow variety original production (yield) data, simulated yields, MAI and increments
Source: Own elaboration
221 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 5.1.5. Tordis willow variety original production (yield) data, simulated yields, MAI and increments
Source: Own elaboration
Figure 5.1.6. Inger willow variety original production (yield) data, simulated yields, MAI and increments
Source: Own elaboration
222 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 5.1.7. Sven willow variety original production (yield) data, simulated yields, MAI and increments
Source: Own elaboration
In the presented Figures we can check to analyse profitability of a projected whether for all varieties 4-year rotation investment into SRC willow. Two metrics cycle, selected in SRC willow cultivation were calculated: Net Present Value (NPV) experiment, is optimal. We follow rule that and Internal Rate of Return (IRR). maximum sustainable yield, which can be defined as the largest volume of biomass Our calculations are based on following harvested from a stand over an infinite assumptions: period, occurs where the increment equals 1. All parameters (prices, discount rate, the average growth per rotation, or MAI. technology, and functional forms) are Tora, Tordis, and Inger varieties data known and remain constant over time analysis confirms correctness of selected 4- 2. Subsidy covers 40% of initial year rotation cycle. Production parameters establishment cost of Gudrun variety suggest 5-year rotation 3. Loan interest rate is 6% cycle and Sven variety only 3-years rotation 4. Loan grace period is 1 year cycle (Figure 5.1.7). 5. Discount rate is 6%
Economic efficiency evaluation - Economic efficiency evaluation model is developed in a spreadsheet form and in its Salix full format is presented in Annex 1. In the economic efficiency evaluation, we applied standard dynamic capital budgeting 223 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
For all varieties NPV and IRR calculated in the model are presented in Table 5.1.15.
Table 5.1.15. NPV and IRR measures for Salix varieties
Metrics Tora Gudrun Tordis Inger Sven NPV [€] 9.936,69 9.813,7 7.557,15 5.901,16 6.428,95 IRR [€] 34,08% 32,60% 29,51% 25,37% 27,44% Source: Own elaboration
NPV of all Salix varieties is positive. It 3. Loan interest indicates that the investment into SRC willow is economically efficient, since We tested to what extend NPV is sensitive projected earnings generated by the to 10% change of the above listed factors. investment exceed anticipated costs. The In our model NPV is most sensitive to best NPV value (€ 9.936,69) and the most change of biomass product price. Its 10 % economically efficient is the variety Tora, raise generates 15-18 percentage increase the least efficient is the variety Inger. of NPV. Less sensitive is NPV on cuttings price and loan interest change. IRR of all varieties are greater than used cost of capital (6%). It indicates that all Break even analysis showed that the investments into SRC willow production highest limit for cuttings price is ca 86 are profitable. They bring higher return cents for Tora, or 55 cents for Inger. SRC than the one given by a bank saving. willow projects with higher prices would Similarily to NPV metrics the best IRR be rejected due to economical value is estimated for Tora variety. inefficiency. Within ceteris paribus rule, Production of Tora biomass can generate the minimum selling price for biomass is over 34% return from the invested capital. in the range €35,96 - €46,01. Allowable loan interest interval is 63% - 88%. In the next phase, we performed sensitivity analysis of three selected Results of sensitivity analysis and break factors of economic efficiency: even analysis are presented in Table 1. Price of cuttings 5.1.16. 2. Sale price of biomass product (chips)
224 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 5.1.16. Results of sensitivity analysis and break even analysis - Salix
Sensitivity analysis (ceteris paribus) Original % change of Break Even +10% factor change NPV factor value NPV Point Tora Cuttings Price [€] 0,1 9.806,7 1,31% 0,86 Product Price [€] 100 11.488 15,62% 35,96 Loan Interest [%] 6% 9.899,4 0,38% 88% Gudrun
Cuttings Price [€] 0,1 9.683,7 1,32% 0,85 Product Price [€] 100 11.351 15,67% 36,18 Loan Interest [%] 6% 9.776,4 0,38% 88% Tordis
Cuttings Price [€] 0,1 7.427,2 1,72% 0,68 Product Price [€] 100 8.838,4 16,95% 41,02 Loan Interest [%] 6% 7.519,8 0,49% 74% Inger
Cuttings Price [€] 0,1 5.771,2 2,20% 0,55 Product Price [€] 100 6.994,2 18,52% 46,01 Loan Interest [%] 6% 5.863,8 0,63% 63% Sven
Cuttings Price [€] 0,1 6.299 2,02% 0,59 Product Price [€] 100 7.582 17,93% 44,24 Loan Interest [%] 6% 6.391,6 0,58% 67% Source: Own elaboration
225 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Yield simulation – Miscanthus Schumacher growth function (5.1.4) was applied also for modelling yields of two Miscanthus genotypes. Simulated yields are presented in Table 5.1.17.
Table 5.1.17. Miscanthus dry matter simulated yields [t.ha-1]
Year Giganteus Sinensis 2010 1 not harvested not harvested 2011 2 20,88 18,29 2012 3 25,62 21,82 2013 4 28,38 23,83 2014 5 30,18 25,13 2015 6 31,44 26,03 2016 7 32,37 26,70 2017 8 33,09 27,21 2018 9 33,66 27,61 2019 10 34,12 27,94 2020 11 34,50 28,21 2021 12 34,82 28,44 2022 13 35,10 28,63 2023 14 35,34 28,80 2024 15 35,54 28,94 2025 16 35,73 29,07 2026 17 35,89 29,18 2027 18 36,03 29,28 2028 19 36,16 29,38 2029 20 36,28 29,46 2030 21 36,38 29,53 2031 22 36,48 29,60 Source: Own elaboration
226 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
We used ordinary least squares to Table 5.1.19 we present regression estimate the parameters of equation statistic for the two genotypes of (5.1.5) for Miscanthus. In Table 5.1.18 and Miscanthus.
Table 5.1.18. Regression statistics for Miscanthus genotypes
Regression Statistics Gigantheus Sinensis Multiple R 0,999 0,999 R Square 0,998 0,999 Adjusted R Square 0,997 0,998 Standard Error 0,295 0,214 Observations 5 5 Source: Own elaboration
Table 5.1.19. Parameters of the regression function ln Q(t) = a – b/t for Miscanthus genotypes
Gigantheus Sinensis Coef. P-val. Coef. P-val. Intercept (-b) -1,227 0,053 -1,059 0,035 X Variable 1 (a) 3,653 0,000 3,436 0,000 Source: Own elaboration
In the following two Figures 5.1.8 and 5.1.9 we show original production (yield) data and simulated yields (yield estimations) for the period of 22 years.
227 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 5.1.8. Original production (yield) data and simulated yields (yield estimations) for the period of 22 years – Miscanthus giganteus
Figure 5.1.9. Original production (yield) data and simulated yields (yield estimations) for the period of 22 years – Miscanthus sinensis
Sinensis 31 29 27 25 23 Yield 21 19 Yield 17 estim. 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516171819202122
Source: Own elaboration
228 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Economic efficiency evaluation - Economic efficiency evaluation model is also Miscanthus constructed in a spreadsheet form and is presented in full extend in Annexes. The difference between Salix and Miscanthus economic efficiency evaluation is that For two genotypes of Miscanthus NPV and Miscanthus is harvested every year. In the IRR calculated by the model are presented in model 22 years long planning period was Table 5.1.20. applied. First harvest was performed in year 2. Again we applied standard dynamic capital NPV of all Miscanthus genotypes is positive. budgeting to analyse profitability of a It indicates that the investment into projected investment into Miscanthus Miscanthus is economically efficient, since biomass production. Net Present Value projected earnings generated by the (NPV) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) were investment exceed anticipated costs. The used as basic metrics for economic efficiency higher NPV value (€8.597) is given by evaluation. Assumptions for calculation are Giganteus genotype. Its IRR is also higher the same as for Salix, except we do not and promises under defined conditions expect subsidy for Miscanthus. generate almost 46% return of the invested capital. Sinensis genotype is economically less efficient, by almost 9 percentage points.
Table 5.1.20. NPV and IRR measures for Miscanthus genotypes
Metrics Giganteus Sinensis NPV [€] 8.597 6.155 IRR [€] 45,94% 37,29% Source: Own elaboration
Sensitivity analysis done for the same factors NPV is most sensitive to change of biomass as for Salix shows that Miscanthus’ NPV is product price. Its 10 % raise generates 16-19 more sensitive to product price change than percentage increase of NPV. Less sensitive is to other factors change. 10% increase in NPV on cuttings price and loan interest product price would cause 16,78%, resp. change. 19.48% change in Giganteus, resp. Sinensis Miscanthus genotype NPV. Break even analysis showed that the highest limit rhizomes price is ca 1euro for Giganteus, In sensitivity analysis, we tested to what or 80 cents for Sinensis. SRC Miscanthus extend NPV is sensitive to 10% change of the projects with higher prices would be rejected selected factors. In the Miscanthus model due to economical inefficiency. Within ceteris
229 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation paribus rule, the minimum selling price for Results of sensitivity analysis and break even biomass is in the range €24 - €29. Allowable analysis are presented in Table 5.1.21. loan interest interval is quite high 91% - 111%.
Table 5.1.21. Results of sensitivity analysis and break even analysis - Miscanthus Sensitivity analysis (ceteris paribus) +10% factor Original NPV % change of Break Even change factor value change NPV Point Giganteus Rhizomes Price [€] 0,18 8.417,38 2,09% 1,04 Product Price [€] 60 10.040,38 16,78% 24,25 Loan Interest [%] 6% 8.575,24 0,26% 111% Sinensis
Rhizomes Price [€] 0,18 5.974,98 2,92% 0,80 Product Price [€] 60 7.353,74 19,48% 29,19 Loan Interest [%] 6% 6.132,85 0,36% 91% Source: Own elaboration
If we compare economic efficiency of Comparison of sensitivity analysis results Salix and Miscanthus we see that average show that NPV indicator is the most NPV of Salix is higher by ca 551 €. Internal sensitive on product price change. 10% rate of return is in contrary higher for change of product price generates in Miscanthus, by ca 12 percentage points average ca 17% change of Salix’s NPV and (see Table 5.1.22). 18% change of Miscanthus’ NPV. Less sensitive is NPV on cuttings/rhizomes Table 5.1.22. Comparison of price change: 1.71% for Salix versus 2.51% average NPV and IRR indicators: for Miscanthus. We have learnt that 10% Salix vs. Miscanthus change of loan interest rate has a very limited impact on NPV change: 0.49% for Average NPV Average IRR Salix versus 0.31% for Miscanthus (see Salix 7.927,53 30% Table 5.1.23). Miscanthus 7.376,00 42% Source: Own elaboration
230 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 5.1.23. Impact of 10 % change of selected factors on NPV change
Cuttings/rhizomes price Product price Interest rate Salix Miscanthus Salix Miscanthus Salix Miscanthus 1,71% 2,51% 16,94% 18,13% 0,49% 0,31% Source: Own elaboration
In this study, we present results of five examined varieties of willow. Data of economic efficiency analysis of producing two willow varieties suggest in one case short rotation coppice as a source for three-year rotation cycle and in one case sustainable development of farms in rural five-year rotation cycle. The differences areas. Two crops were a subject of might be caused by some biases in analysis: willow, represented by five estimation of dry matter yields from a varieties and Miscanthus, represented by limited size of a sample. two genotypes. Yield data were taken from the experimental crop plantation at Results of economic efficiency analysis are the University farm at Kolíňany. A nine- more consistent. Both crops, willow and year data series were available for willow Miscanthus, on the given data, appear to varieties. Only five-year data series were be profitableand worth of growing. available for the two Miscanthus Average NPV of willow biomass genotypes. For the both energy corps production appears slightly higher than data for 21, resp. 22- years life cycle were NPV of Miscanthus. Internal rate of return simulated applying Schumacher's growth for both crops is reasonably higher than function. On the simulated data two cost of capital. Average IRR indicates analyses were performed: (1) Analysis of higher return for Miscanthus. the optimal rotation cycle for the willow varieties applying Faustmann rule. (2) Comparison of sensitivity analysis results Analysis of economic efficiency of shows that Miscanthus’ NPV is more growing energy crops for biomass sensitive to rhizome price change than production applying dynamic methods of NPV of Salix to cuttings price change. The capital budgeting. We calculated two same situation holds for product price metrics for both crops: Net Present Value change. and Internal Rate of Return. Generally, results of this study show that Results of optimal rotation cycle length growing of energy crops for biomass is analysis show that four-year rotation cycle economically viable and can be a source was correctly selected in case of three of of sustainable development of agriculture
231 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation in rural areas. Spreadsheet based model of alternative scenarios with alternative developed within this study was fed with data sets and thus can serve for testing various source data. It could have impact economic efficiency of entrepreneurial on results. However, a model is an open project in the field of fast-growing plants system which can be used for simulation for biomass production.
232 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
BENKO, M. 2012. The Economics of Fast Growing Trees in Slovakia: Diploma thesis Slovenská poľnohospodárska univerzita v Nitre. Fakulta ekonomiky a manažmentu. Katedra štatistiky a operačného výskumu. 67p. CASLIN, B., FINNAN, J., EASSON, L. 2010. Miscanthus Best Practice Guidelines: Teagasc, Crops Research Centre, Oak Park, Carlow; AFBI, Agri-Food and Bioscience Institute, Hillsborough, Northern Ireland. ISBN 1-84170-567-5 CASLIN, B., FINNAN, J., JOHNSTON, C., McCRACKEN, A., WALSH, L. (eds). 2015. Short Rotation Coppice Willow Best Practice Guidelines: Teagasc, Crops Research Centre, Oak Park, Carlow; AFBI, Agri- Food and Bioscience Institute, Newforge Lane, Belfast. ISBN 1-84170-610-8
CASLIN, B., FINNAN, J., McCRACKEN, A. (eds). 2010. Short Rotation Coppice Willow Best Practice Guidelines: Teagasc, Crops Research Centre, Oak Park, Carlow, AFBI, Agri-Food and Bioscience Institute, Newforge Lane, Belfast. ISBN 1-84170-568-3 FAASCH, R. J., PATENAUDE, G. 2012. The economics of short rotation coppice in Germany: Biomass and bioenergy, 45, pp. 27-40 HAUK, S., KNOKE, T., WITTKOPF, S. 2014. Economic evaluation of short rotation coppice system for energy from biomass – A review: Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 29, pp. 435-448 EL KASMIOUI, E., CEULEMANS, R. 2012. Financial analysis of the cultivation of poplar and willow for bioenergy: Biomass and bioenergy, 43, pp. 52-64
McKENNEY, D. W., YEMSHANOV, D., FRALEIGH, S., ALLEN, D. 2011. An economic assessment of the use of short-rotation coppice woody biomass to heat greenhouses in southern Canada: Biomass and bioenergy, 35, po. 374-384. NASSI, di NASSO N., GUIDI, W., RAGAGLINI, G., TOZZINI, C. BONAT, E. 2010. Biomass production and energy balance of a 12-year-old short-rotation coppice poplar stand under different cutting cycles: GCB Bioenergy, 2, pp. 89-97, DOI: 10.1111/j.1757-1707.2010.01043.x TÓTH, Š., STRIČÍK, M., KUFF, M. 2015. Ekonomika pestovania rýchlorastúcich vŕb v podmienkach severovýchodného Slovenska – prípadová štúdia: Poľnohospodársky rok: mesačník rád a informácií pre poľnohospodárov. Roč. 22, č. 3 (2014), s. 3. - Michalovce: Národné poľnohospodárske a potravinárske centrum - Výskumný ústav agroekológie, 2014. ISSN 1336- 4723
ZILBERMAN, D. 1999. Forestry economics [online]. Berkley : University of California at Berkeley, 1999 [cit. 2016-07-20]. 10 p. Available from Internet: https://are.berkeley.edu/~zilber11/EEP101/Detail%20Notes%20PDF/Cha13,%20Forestry%20Eco nomics.pdf
233 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
234 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
VI BUILDING PARTNERSHIPS AND NETWORKING FOR RURAL DIVERSIFICATION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT
235 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Prosperity of rural areas depend on cultural and natural heritage they derive partnership from various socio-economic or depend of. points of view. From the economic point of view it is about partnerships in various The main goal of rural development in sectors, horizontal and vertical – within every country is to enable economic value chains as much as within different development and improve livelihoods in levels of public sector, economic rural areas. The main stream for achieving stakeholders and civil sector. The most this goal is taking actions for creation of important partnerships are those rural employment possibilities and traditional - between owners of farms and income diversification for rural their families of within families on the households. To take actions external basis of certain territory or a business. financial and technical assistance is This one was holding harmony of rural crucial. The provision of financial and areas for ages. Destruction of traditional technical support should include family and family ties as much as concerted human capacity building, degradation of traditional institutions improvement of organisational schemes such as „moba“ – (voluntary assistance in and upgrade of social capital in general, work exchanged between villages) and while gained knowledge should be many other sorts of internal assistance, immediately followed by investments inflienced rural community cohesion and leading to immediate action. its strenght to resist to external threats, a smuch as capacity to develop. The starting point for every rural Rehabilitation of internal, community development action in rural space synergy through business partnerships, as encompasses integration of traditional much as capacity for community planning rural economy with modern marketing and action, is a first prerequisite to patterns, meaning that agriculture sustainable rural development in modern development is seen as must. Further environment. Only rural community with development is seen within strong synergy is able to embrace and environmental actions, while natural cherish concept of sustainable resources are seen as a good fundament development. Its first task in modern rural for development. The road in between envornment is environmentally friendly usually remains blurred, and farming development as much as diversification of rural economy sustainable rural diversification based on underestimated as a possible link between two most popular options.
236 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Majority of decision makers consider development of every rural business have dominance of small farms as the main to fit with the overall strategy for obstacle of the agriculture development. development of rural community, while They refuse to consider importance of this strategy should foresee development small farming, especially in marginal areas of favourable businesses environment to where small farming have numerous accommodate business ideas positive sides and play important role i development. To make this interaction conservation of natural and cultural possible, local capacities should be heritage and provide various developed and partnerships of all environmental services. Possibility to stakeholders – public and private, make small farming economically viable business and administrative, civil and through organisational changes and governmental vivid. Partnership virtual increase of scale of their operation development is the most important tool through partnerships of various kinds for bridging the gap between potentials exist, as much as rural areas can develop and needs of rural areas. if this development is conducted in line with capacities of local resources Wide disparities between rural regions concerned. often originate from the relative strength of their civil societies. Some have an The key activity for making integration active civil society, because of the long between agriculture and tourism work on tradition of political culture, level of the grass root level is improving education, etc. and enjoy its benefits in cooperation in the value chain and filling terms of capacity of the rural population gaps in adding value process. And here to take the initiative and play an active more traditional components of rural role, striving for their own well-being. economy with some innovative Other rural areas have poorly developed businesses in branch of services become civil society because of long term absence interesting too. Upgrading every link in of decentralized government structures, the value chain implies – for instance or because of general apathy or other quality and safety of foods at all stages of reasons, and therefore have not the food production chain should be developed the capacity of the rural upgraded. Of course the success of these population to take the initiative....the fruit actions depends on abilities of local of mutual knowledge and the exchange communities to identify the true available of words, experiences, opinions and resources, define realistic business viewpoints (IFAD, 2011) make difference environment, and the most prominent between communities which were economy activity through the process of capable to present internal synergy and thorough analysis of contemporary those which were acting through markets. The strategy and the plan for individuals for ages. 237 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Social networks, mutual trust and administrative level. Local areas have understanding are important to all human forged partnerships with a range of public communities, regardless to their location, and private sector actors to bring new however these values are often attributed actors to the Table for endogenous rural to rurality and better sustained in more development. In a 1990 review of traditional (or less modernised) societies partnerships for rural development, OECD (TONNIES, 1972 through NEMES, 2005), defined them as “systems of formalised and especially connected to small scale, co-operation, grounded in legally binding traditional agriculture (OECD, 1996 arrangements or in formal undertakings, through NEMES, 2005). Rural cooperative working relationships and communities which have long tradition of mutually adopted plans among a number economic cooperation base them on of institutions” (OECD, 2006). strong family and community ties heritage, which do not differ a lot from Others have described partnerships as a those models of partnerships which are in process involving an inter-organisational modern time suggested as the best arrangement that mobilises a coalition of option for their sustainable development. interests around shared objectives and a Although rich community values, as an common agenda as a means to respond inherent ‘property’ of the indigenous to a shared issue or to realise specific population, are not a garantee that a rural outcomes (JAMES, 2002 through OECD, community will be by default capable for 2006). In general, such partnerships seek making modern business partnerships to address complex problems, build and economically prosper based on them, consensus, share resources, improve co- it’s crucial to support conservation and ordination, achieve synergies, stimulate rehabilitation of these values along with greater community involvement, support to rural economy economic strengthen local identity or encourage developmment. innovative problem solving. This logic is at the base of different local partnerships The concept of partnership is central to that have been developed in recent years the LEADER and the regional policy of the as part of a new governance of rural EU as a whole. When in 1988 European development policy. These have evolved Development Fund was reformed, differently depending on the institutional vertically partnership has been introduced and administrative characteristics of every to include national and regional level in country (OECD, 2005). the development and implementation of policies and measures. These vertical According to (OECD, 1996 through partnerships are quickly connected with a NEMES, 2005), there are four key horizontal partnership in order to create requirements for the success of rural an inter-sectoral cooperation at the same areas, understood as a socio-economic 238 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation network: flexibility, competences, infrastructure, facilities and related efficiency and synergy. Flexibility is services, all of which have substantial needed to respond to, and to pre-empt public good dimensions. Structures through strategic planning, changes in bringing together different sectors such the market. This would lead to as tourism, environment, community and diversification from single sector wider development interests are also dependency to a broader rural economy. required on the local level. Some of all of Shared competencies may be discovered the areas and functions or natinal with other firms in the local area and governments may be reflected within beyond through network linkages; the local authorities. To strenghten the exchange of information may aid the sustainability of rural tourism, for development of common business example, mechanisms should also be strategies, identifying best practice and established that encourage join-up moving towards greater efficiency. thinking and action with local Efficiency includes developing economies government. In a number of countries, of scale through the pooling of ideas and "destination management organizations resources to reach mutual aims, for (DMOs)" have been established at the example encouraging joint processing, local level. These are partnerships distribution and retailing of production in between local government and the order to ensure that value-added remains private sector. The main responsibility is in the local area and is not swallowed up the management and promotion of by middlemen en route to the market. tourism; they sometimes also address Synergy is best achieved where development aspects. Such organisations information, innovation and business should take a full account of the social transactions flow most freely. Networks and environmental dimension of can offer an alternative, “enabling very sustainability by ensuring sound small producers to collectively purchase representation of local community and or contract for business functions, locate environmental interests within their new markets, and share technologies.” governing bodies (UNEP/WTO, 2005). (OECD, 1996 through NEMES, 2005). The other form of local organisations One of the most important partnerships which can bring together diverse interest for rural development are public-private of local communities for sustainable partnerships (PPPs). PPPs is a tool to development are Local Action Groups mobilise new resources for both (LAGs). This EU model is based on LEADER infrastructure and services in rural areas. program. LEADER is an innovative PPPs are defined as arrangements approach to rural development policy between public sector and private sector within the EU. It is a method for the entities which provide public mobilization and implementation of rural 239 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation development in local rural communities, participate in economic and development rather than determined by a package of activities. Therefore focus of rural measures to be implemented. Past development has to be with capacity experiences have shown that the LEADER building (skills, institutions and can make a real difference to the infrastructure) and overcoming social everyday lives of people in rural areas. exclusion. These points have to be LEADER can play an important role in obligatory present in every rural encouraging innovative responses to rural development strategy. Guarantee for this problems. Partnerships have helped to is establishment and maintainance of prepare the ground for long-term active partnerships in rural areas which sustainable development . Through their will take permanent responsibility over work detailed analysis of rural area in rural development strategy and take care terms of territorial capital - resources of to keep it focused on capacity building to the area – people, activities, land provide favourable buisnisess development resources, cultural heritage, technical in rural areas. knowledge etc. was provided in majority of EU rural space making cration of local Sets of economic and other development development strategies possible. These activities which have to be identified as strategies, no matter if they were mid or the operational part of local strategy, long term exposed to the wide public should follow rather territorial than diverse developed visions and plans of sectoral framework and be oriented to activities providing good start for maximise the retention of benefits within launching the process of endogenous the local territory by valorising and development. The endogenous development exploiting local resources – physical and (or participatory) is important approach for human. That means that when local rural space, since it provides stability and agriculture is considered, or rural tourism longevity of the process in uncertain policial or any other economic activity, taking the and economical environment. According holistic approach first and then to (LOWE et al., 1998 through NEMES, developing sustainable agriculture or 2005) the key principle of the tourism strategy out of the overall rural endogenous model of rural development economy development process is much is that the specific resources of an area more appropriate than the vice-versa (natural, human and cultural) hold the key option. Of course, these sectorial strategies to its sustainable development, while its have to take in full consideration the overal dynamic force are local initiative and local strategy as much as national strategies enterprise. Rural areas have function of of importance. To make this possible, diverse service economies which are to be sectoral planning should involve developped despise the limited capacity stakeholders out of agriculture sector too, of areas and social groups which should actually it should network all stakeholders 240 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation which are involved in agriculture value energy and commitment, and the largest chains, as much as those value chains amount of money would not be spent where agriculture product is an input. useful. Yet, financial support is vital and Activities defined should reflect and be selection of activities with equal level of focused on the needs, capacities and priority should be done according to the perspectives of local people, which means forecast funds availability from different that ownership and responsibility for sources. bringing about its own socio-economic development is with creators of the As stated by (SHORTALL and strategy. Objectives of the strategy should SHUCKSMITH, 1998 through NEMES, be realistic, which doesn't mean that they 2005), “development is not just about should not be challenging. Collaborative increasing goods and services provided arrangements between public, private and and consumed by society. It also involves voluntary sectors should be included with enabling communities to have greater clear responsibilities over every single control over their relationship with the activity, while external factors should be environment and other communities.” added wherever is possible on the basis Therefore endogenous approach of their true responsibilities defined in "represents a significant change from their own strategies and plans related to investment on physical capital to the same issue which are officially investment in developing the knowledge, adopted and publicly announced. the skills and the entrepreneurial abilities of the local population". Animation of Although endogenous development is public, empowerment, capacity building more sustainable approach to rural and suitable trainings should be provided development, the balance of ‘internal’ and on local level. Central institutions and ‘external’ elements is important, it's not their policies should suupport this. Local wise to plan others to take responsibility administrations and political structures ower your own actions without its have responsibility to establish horisontal consent. The golden rule in this regard is: partnership with others with simmilar "Finance your program, do not program needs to influence national structures and finances of others." This means that local request support. action groups or partnerships should be clear about what they want to achieve, To do the successful public advocacy for and then to raise funds and to implement. incorporating of local needs in to the Money should be considered as a means national level rural development policies, to an end rather than as just a goal. Local local population should use all available development programs depend, first, on resources including mechanisms of the energy and commitment of people peoples representation in national and partners involved. Without this parlament, local administration chanels to 241 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation the upper level, civil society debates, making influence by powerful local actors regional structures etc. There is no space or have been undermined by local apathy for internal anemosities between various (LOWE et al., 1998; WARD and NICHOLAS, stakeholders, public and private sector, 1998 through NEMES, 2005). It is also governmental structures and non- important to recognise that a destination governmental organisations which are, may well be made of a number of clearly unfortunately often part of reality. Only identifiable individual communities. A concerted actions from the bottom to the sustainable tourism approach would call top level can bring results – an exercise or for careful consultation within each a check-out of this kind if successful can community to ascertain local concerns be the best possible indicator of the and perceived opportunities within existance of true partnership and capacity respect to tourism. The amount of of rural communities to develop. emphasis to place on this depends very much on the nature of the destination. In Participatory approaches to rural most of cases, the involvement of development have been sought to ensure indigenous communities in determing the efficient use of rural resources, but agriculture and tourism development in largely these have tended to provide their area is critically important. scope for local domination of decision-
IFAD (2011): Indigenous peoples, valuing, respecting and supporting diversity, http://www.ifad.org/english/indigenous/index.htm KOVAČIĆ, D. (2005): Izravna prodaja seljačkih proizvoda, Agrarno savjetovanje d.o.o. Zagreb NEMES, G. (2005): Integrated rural development, The concept and its operation, Institute of economics, Hungarian Academz of sciences, discussion papers, Budapest OECD (2006): The New Rural Paradigm, Policies and Governance, OECD Publishing
242 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Rural development in large extent depend customers of their businessess – products of upgrading existing economic activities. and services. Increase of production is considered as one of key indicators for this upgrade. Improvements of rural business, therefore, Diversification of economic activities is have multiple dimensions as much as looking further, for new economic activities sustainablility they strive for. Production which can help rural communities to improvements are ranging from properly respond to available resources improvement of production conditions, while using opportunities on the market. equipment and tools, raw materials and Diversification is using unused, or additives, knowledge and skills, upgrading existing, trying to fit new with organisation of production, standardisation old, and make comprehensive local of production, control and harmonization, economies more profitable. Capability to provision of sufficient qualities, continuity of diversify is an indicator of vitality of rural the offer, emblage, packaging and economy and societiy which is holding it. declaration, provision of specific quality, Production as much as services which brending, optimisation of distribution diversified rural economies normaly consist channels and decrease of expences. of, should be concerted and interlinked to Majority of these improvements are topic be sustainable. Concerting is neither short for services too while the rest consider term action nor one-time action – it’s a supply of specific inputs which are shared continous activity which demand interest of both production and services participation of all rural development improvements. The optimisation of stakeholders. Their activities might not be production and provision of services are always directly linked or interdependent, inevitably connected to establishment of but can benefit a lot of connecting their diverse partnerships, or at least can benefit value chains or creating novel chains for of some. creating two way benefits and adding value to each other. This is the only way to better According to (LOWE et al. 1995:95 through valorise engaged resources, specially NEMES, 2005) “closely networked relations expendible natural resources, which is between local farms, processors, concern of all stakeholders, no matter if distributors and retailers make for flexibility they own rural business concerned, or are in adapting to technological and market changes, but at the same time, allow
243 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation value-added in the non-agricultural in a rural community which can become a aspects of the food chain to remain within useful development resource. the regional economy, rather than being captured by exogenous, and often multi- Based on field surveys conducted for the national, food companies.” Successful purposes of the Rural Development innovation is bound up with the Strategy of Ljig in Central Serbia, the “associational capacity” of local actors major problem of rural population dealing (COOKE & MORGAN, 1998 through with small scale agriculture is marketing NEMES, 2005). “The logic of the industrial of their products. 85% of small farmers district is self-reinforcing. The vibrancy of are selling their products unprocessed the districts is not due to their geography leaving wholesalers to make the profit out alone, but to their social practices” of them. Promising example of successful (POWELL and SMITH-DOERR, 1994:386 linking between local partnership and a through NEMES, 2005). This may suggest value chain development is the project that rural areas may be endowed with called “Srpska magaza” (fruits of the greater development potential, where Serbian store) aiming to enhance the rural actors are more embedded in local competitiveness of the rural economy in cultures and social structures (BRUNORI Serbia by establishing a new model for and ROSSI, 2000; BRUSCO, 1996; linking production, promotion and sale of MURDOCH, 2000; PALOSCIA, 1991 goods and services of rural households. through NEMES, 2005). The project purpose was to bring together stakeholders and integrate Rural diversification which consist of on- supply of agricultural and non-agricultural farm introduction of processing and/or products and services in four rural regions tourism for better valorizing agriculture in the country to improve supply in rural products, could be in the focus of small tourism. Their exposure to the market was scale farmer intending to increase profit organized through direct marketing in a from his limited possession of agriculture sales facility made in traditional land and other resources instead of architectural style of so called “magaza” specialising in few agriculture crops for (storerooms) on the Ibar highway E763 increasing efficiency in production which and through the internet portal still can’t bring to much. Local networks of http://www.srpskamagaza.com, which is farms and households dealing with providing potential buyers opportunity to processing and those dealing with buy product or service or to obtain tourism could be further upgrade of the information on how to get the product or system. Seek mutual benefits through co- service they are interested for, and in one operation and yield rural development place learn about different regions and that is sustainable and innovative is their offer. At the same time “Srpska possible with establishing social networks magaza” is providing information to rural 244 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation households offering about demand for sufficient quantities of product to get it to their products and services, customer the market on as much low price as opinion on the quality and diversity of the possible to be competitive. For that offer, and assist producers with improving reason they either had to cooperate with the existing structure and quality of their neighbors or increase their own offer. production to reach large whole-sellers on reasonable management and transport This project was highly ranked due to its costs. Some of them never managed to relevance for achieving Millenium do so; they kept themselves occupied part Development Goals (MDGs) in rural time selling products on green markets development. Providing assistance to for a bit better price or struggling to small farmers to produce and market survive high transport costs and costs of products more effectively, “Srpska middleman. Age of whole-sellers is not magaza” is creating employment and coming to their end. In contrary, it’s going contributing considerably to the poverty to be even stronger and further reduction. It is planned that the idea of industrialization of agriculture will ”Serbian magazines” extends to other continue to provide product on more and regions in Serbia, with the possibility of more competitive price which for small adjusting the basic concept of the needs farmer will be almost impossible to and customs of a given region, with a achieve. What is even worse is that state view to promote local rural households. will continue to support farm increase, Each new "storeroom" would offer intensifications of all kinds and will not contained in it from other parts of Serbia, provide any incentive to balance income pointing out similarities and differences. of small farmer till his multi-functional role and value for environment is not The direct sale no middleman, but a finally appreciated. farmer sells its products to the final consumer on the best possible price at his Recently some new forms of direct sales farm gate – the ideal model which existed were developed. such as mini farm in agriculture for ages, actually until fifties supermarkets in shopping centers, of the last century. Food being produced contracted baskets (box scheme), etc. For in insufficient quantities at that time was direct sales are the most suitable easy to sell. With development of products, which can be immediately agriculture, specially with introduction of spent, such as fruits, vegetables, eggs and state subsidies, quantities of agriculture milk. However most of farm products products were increase and even surplus must be finalized before consumption, or appeared - traders were not coming to reprocessed. Direct sales of these the farm gate anymore, but farmers had products, and therefore includes the to organize themselves to deliver processing on a farm. Selling products 245 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation significantly increase income and new possibilities even in developing employment in the rural economy. countries such as Serbia. The target On the other hand processing is very groups are usually classified into five demanding - require advanced types - people who come from the knowledge of technology, significant countryside, eco consumers, hikers, investments in facilities and equipment, adventurers, saving and poor (RADMAN, organization and management of 2001; KAISER, 1997; MAHLER, 1991 household, entrepreneurs skills, and through KOVAČIĆ, 2005). Critical to the additional labor. Marketing of special success of direct sales is persistence in products sometimes also ask for reliability, but also good marketing, and expensive certification and labeling, the processed products and packaging. additional promotion and it has to follow increasingly demanding legislation. Some organic box schemes and “Srpska magaza” are examples of good practice in Despite the limitations for small farmers Serbia, which are still rare in West Balkan future of direct sales is very important. countries in general. For promoting local Interest of customers has grown again for products and direct marketing such direct sale. Consumers are losing attractive selling points and good confidence in the mass-produced food; advertisement is required as much as they are in search for quality foods appearance on local rural events, in produced in harmony with nature such as media, agriculture and tourism exhibitions organic and traditional specialties. In the and fairs etc. Direct marketing is most EU the most advanced direct sales is probably the only way to sustain recorded in Austria, where around three production which is based on small quarters of peasant farms deals with it, quantities of products which are mostly small - less than 3 hectares, produced seasonally and not continuously equivalent to conditions in Serbia. The available, but this one is the most most common form of sales is in the susceptible to fluctuations in quality - farmyard 86%, followed by 35% of the quality is MUST. sales order, sales in the rural market 33%, and sales of over 23% of rural shops. In EU, direct marketing as inevitable Direct sales deal is usually 77% of wine component of rural diversification is, production farms, then fruit, grape and because of its importance for supporting vegetable 60%, 34% beef and 32% crop rural development and flexibility which is (KOVAČIĆ, D., 2005). providing for small scale farming, recognised an important income Positive image of these products is alternative, especially for small and growing and good experiences customers medium rural households, so it is have with these products are opening financially, technically and educationally 246 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation supported. In West Balkans presently landscape is what is selling the product. support to such systems is very limited These attributes can sell even products and occassional. which are locally considered as usual or normal, or even forgotten if it is of high Rural tourism is an activity which is quality as declared - pair of coarse wool strongly supporting direct marketing by socks from old local sheep breed or bringing costumer to the selling point, package of flour from locally grown breed but also through providing direct of corn if mealed between stones on consumption of products on the site. This wather mill, even bad smelling brendy market however, has to be explored made of local beet (an example from before it can be exploited. At first, there is Austria. What can’t be sold is spoiled or a need to know tourists' expectations and rotted food under the label of product consumption behaviour. Those in large produced without chemicals or extent depend how famous some regions enormously expencive ordinary product are for certain local products. Their from daily use as a souvenier. It is also not presence in farmers’ shops is mandatory advisible to ruin local products reputation and fulfillment of the tourist expectation by exchanging them by cheap imported to find them in high quality and once made of not original rawmaterial or affordable price is necessary. Also fake. Genuinity has to be maintained by availability of expected products in variety all who are interested in having a part of of packages with different quantities is the income from touristic spending. also important. The whole network of Sometimes original local products will activities and benefits could be weaved need even protection to save reputation. around these products, including Partnership is an usual way to make this marketing of those which are less famous protection work for rural communities but important for local economy (widely posessing valuable products under spread since conditions for their threath. production is traditionally maintaining their production). Farm markets and Locals in Rajac vineyards region enjoy shops are ideal, but co-operation with reputation of fine wines producers. tourist agencies, hotels, restaurants etc. Recently, after media have promoted their for marketing should not be attractiveness again after decades of underestimated. slavery relation to big wine industry of the region and former federation, Rajac Direct marketing and rural tourism require region became an interesting destination lots of knowledge and skills, but what for rural tourism. Interested wine and have to be kept on mind is that the food tourists started arriving to the region regional and rural charm, the hospitality to enjoy wine and traditional food in of the people and beauty of the unique atmosphere of stone cellars and to 247 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation take some good local natural wines back traditional production have vanished as home. Soon after it become obvious that an expensive and with limited market this could be decant source of income, making space for industrial and cheaper. some newcomming entrepreneurs got the Being unable to produce or purchase idea to sell cheap low quality wine from from their immediate environment other villages in neighborhood under the certified (food safety) products for their name of Rajac one. Even worse, well offer in rural tourism, local service informed tourist is coming to purchase providers in wine tourism are forced to go wine made of old sorts of vine. Some fake to supermarkets and purchase industrial vine is sold by irresponsible individuals. products for their guests, while local Dinner is organized with defrosted farmers have no market for their tradition traditional dishes and meat. Lots of tourist products. have left the place dissapointed to never come back and have started spreading Through FAO supported project activities bad impressions about the place. Such within MDGF Joint Project „Sustainable damage is hard to erase, especially when tourism for rural development“, the local community is too weak to fight back. partnerships was established between two farmers – vine grower with winery and This is the clear example where good link livestock producer with traditional milk between agriculture production, processing processing and local NGO „Agroznanje“ and tourism along with good advertising is for promoting the new integrated not sufficient. Good new marketing touristic offer. The proponents invested in strategy is required which include also traditional barrique vine production and various protections, but also re- organic cheese making to help local establishment of strong community ties producers find market for their primary and partnership which can produce, products through traditional processing implement and defend shared strategy of and exchange products for enriching and development. completing offer in rural tourism. This idea was providing more primary The region of Vrsac is famous for its producers to join the network and vineyards and exceptional vines, Bela provide sufficient quantities for cheese Crkva also for cattle breeding. Although processing for providing adding value to naturaly connected in gastronomy these their products and make it rational seem not to be properly integrated in investment. local touristic offer since most of the
248 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
IFAD (2011): Indigenous peoples, valuing, respecting and supporting diversity, http://www.ifad.org/english/indigenous/index.htm KOVAČIĆ, D. (2005): Izravna prodaja seljačkih proizvoda, Agrarno savjetovanje d.o.o. Zagreb NEMES, G .(2005): Integrated rural development, The concept and its operation, Institute of economics, Hungarian Academz of sciences, discussion papers, Budapest OECD (2006): The New Rural Paradigm, Policies and Governance, OECD Publishing
249 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
6.3.1. Participatory Planning as an Engine for Revitalization of Small Rural Farms: An Overview on Local Action Groups in Slovakia and Serbia Based on Marišová et al., 2016
Over the last few decades, rural leading to multifunctional landscapes. landscapes have come under increasing Such development results in an enormous pressure. Although agricultural land use challenge for planning in rural areas, has predominated for many centuries and which have to find ways to solve still accounts for majority of the European upcoming conflicts. The individuals territory, coinciding functions are now included in the decision-making process, demanding a place of their own and are planners as well as researchers, must be ready to take over. As urbanisation takes able to identify and co-ordinate different place in the countryside, the influence of functions while respecting and integrating urban agglomerations extends far beyond the interests of many different groups. town limits. This development is felt in But can planners and researchers define many different ways. Traditionally non- future landscape functions and urban areas are increasingly being used interrelationships solely on their own for housing and businesses that authority? How can they identify the accommodate urban lifestyles and interests of a specific area without asking architecture. Urban transport systems the people living there? Landscape expand far into rural areas. New facilities planning is often fixed on a top–down for recreational activities and tourism approach and involvement of have been established. Also, the stakeholders is not part of the official countryside is used for nature preserves, planning strategies. retreats for species that are threatened by urban-influenced developments. All these An effective strategy for local sustainable processes are competing with each other development should be able to recognize for influence on and space in the community priorities and identify the countryside. Increased urbanisation of the means through which local actions will countryside will increase competition contribute to achieving the local, national, among these functions, but as rural areas and global goals. Holistic indigenous cannot be enlarged, more and more views must be reflected in the planning of functions will have to be integrated all policies relating rural people. Rural simultaneously in a given landscape thus development strategy is developed 250 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation around their shared vision of the territory about by recognising and animating the and a set of common objectives. This is collective resources of the territory itself frequently the result of a complex (RAY, 2000 through NEMES G., 2005). process, where different and often conflicting views on the most appropriate According to collected and processed strategies for the whole territory data, Serbia is rural country, with more converge. Role of the mediator of such than 85% of its territory defined as rural conflicting views is ideally assumed by a areas, and more than 55% of its local leader who is capable of leading the population living in these areas. National strategy and project design (DJORDJEVIC- definition of rurality compiles with MILOSEVIC, MILOVANOVIC, 2012). international OECD definition which is less than 150 inhabitants per square Only partnership can provide sufficiently kilometer. Categorization of regions detailed analysis of rural area in terms of within the country, using this and other territorial capital- resources of the area – following criteria, has been done thanks people, activities, land resources, cultural to the support of European Union heritage, technical knowledge etc. and through the project aimed to improve RD not in for of inventory but unique programming and planning in Serbia characteristics, which can be further completed during 2006. According to this developed. Analysis of these comprehensive analysis Serbia has only charactertistics and through identification few urban centers. Number of rural of key points through that analysis related municipalities is 130 (165 in total) and to the area, identification of possible local number of villages 4.706. Statistical data development strategies is possible. These provided an opportunity for identification strategies can be mid or long term for of homogeneous groups of municipalities certain branch or area and although as representative types of rural areas in certain external expertise in its design Serbia. Four different regions (Figure could help a lot, it is crucial to have 6.3.1.1.) have been identified according to diverse developed visions and strategies their natural characteristics and potentials exposed to public debate, for obtaining for agriculture development: high high level of concensus. This is the way to productivity agriculture and integrated launch the process of endogenous economy, small urban economies with development which is understood as the labour intensive agriculture, natural hypothesis that improvements in the resource oriented economies mostly socio-economic well being of mountainous, high tourism capacity and disadvantaged areas can best be brought poor agricultural structures.
251 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 6.3.1.1. Types of rural areas in Serbia
Source: Bogdanov, 2007, Djordjević-Milošević & Milovanović, 2014
With respect to the nature of the territory is more than 50%, prevailingly rural and population density, Slovakia is a rural regions have a share of 15-50 % and country. The average population density prevailingly urbanised regions have a in the Slovakia is 110 inhabitants per share of inhabitants less than 15 %. square kilometer. The Eurostat methodology defines a rural region as an With respect to regional level (NUTS III), administrative unit structured according single regions of the SR are classified as to the level of rurality by the rate of follows: significantly rural regions (Banská number of people living in rural villages Bystrica region, Prešov region), and the total number of inhabitants in the predominantly rural regions (Trnava region. Significantly rural regions are region, Nitra region, Trenčín region, Žilina regions where the share of the population region, Košice region), predominantly of the region living in rural municipalities urban districts (Bratislava region).
252 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 6.3.1.2. Types of rural areas in Slovakia
Source: Own calculations, based on statistical office of Slovakia, www.statistics.sk
Very good example of participatory further successful actions in their approach, not perfect but with real wish municipality. to succeed, is the process of development of Local strategy for the Municipality of The first, and probably the hardest step, Ljig in the central part of Serbia. This was to wake up the community, to select example was selected to be presented as most interested members to participate a case study which can be used, and it is and to elaborate the need for such used, as a model for all future processes process and its benefits for the of local strategic planning in rural community. Selected NGO “Moba” development in Serbia. Process was conducted set of meetings with supported through the project financed representatives of three relevant sectors: by FAO Technical Cooperation Program. local self-authorities, entrepreneurs and This case study will show the participatory NGOs and civil associations. The result of process from the beginning to a negotiations was establishment of the successful end which is now leading to Local Group for Rural Development as an entity responsible for the process of rural 253 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation development strategy drafting and There are some of results gained from the implementation. The Group is a model for questionnaire, can be seen in Figure future LAG which will be officially founded 6.3.1.3. Positive information was that when Serbia raitifies the law on local more than half questioned persons see action groups. For this occasion, they the possibility for the progress of his signed the agreement on cooperation household in agriculture, they are familiar during the strategy development and for with existing support from the future implementation of its goals. government, but they are facing with Members of the local group included complicated paperwork, therefore lack of representatives of the municipality, public financial means, and they have most enterprises, civil associations, women expectations from the government and associations dealing with handcrafts and local authorities to help them with these private enterprises. Actually, each sector is problems. represented and has right to propose, discuss and vote for different proposals. Semi-structured interviews for stakeholders on the area of the Municipality of Ljig have The signing ceremony was also the first been developed in several models, meeting of the local group and they used according to the type of stakeholder. Semi- this opportunity to agree on field work structured interviews provided the group activities and to share responsibilities with attitudes of all relevant stakeholders between volunteers applied for field work. about existing systems of knowledge Field work was divided into three parts: transfer and information dissemination as a А) Questionnaires for rural people shape of nonfinancial support to rural B) Semi-structured interviews for development, and potentials and needs of stakeholders local stakeholders for participation in the C) PLA/PRA workshops for local improvement of these processes. The community interviews have been structured to provide information on different topics. The third Representative sample was also part of the process were workshops in developed for this occasion and it is used sampled villages applying PLA/PRA for all future processes in different methodology and collecting of opinions regions in Serbia. and attitudes of village representatives, real agricultural producers and community respected individuals.
254 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 6.3.1.3. Results gained from the questionnaire in Serbia
Source: MILOVANOVIĆ, 2010, own processing
The list of potential projects was the most of strategic planning in this pilot area, and important part of the strategic document representatives of the Center for and pilot municipality now has more than Sustainable Rural Development of the 50 project ideas, divided into three Faculty of Applied Ecology Futura groups: projects they can implement by Singidunum University Belgrade, provided their own capacities, projects for which the established group also with an they need external assistance and projects assistance to develop several project that other donors and experts should ideas from the list into project proposals conduct for them. The FAO project, which have been submitted to the mentioned as the support for this process 255 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Ministry of Agriculture during the open financed by Spanish MDG Fund, which call. includes several UN agencies: FAO, UNDP, UNWTO, UNICEF and UNEP with the aim Model of participatory local planning in to support sustainable rural tourism. The RD can be seen on Figure 6.3.1.4., Center for Rural Extension of Singidunum developed on the example of the University was engaged in this process of Municipality, was applied in other parts of establishing four regional groups for RD the country. It was adopted from FAO as and developing four regional strategies very good example, so they supported based on full participation of all relevant this process to be applied in 4 regions in stakeholders. Serbia, through the UN national program
Figure 6.3.1.4. Pilot regions assessed and rural development strategies developed under the UNJP “Sustainable Tourism for Rural Development”
256 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The third case study of successful attractiveness of the area through the application of this methodology is in completion of infrastructure and the southern part of Serbia, Jablanica and development of rural tourism (with Pcinja district, it includes 13 municipalities emphasis on the specificities of each (Vranje, Leskovac, Crna Trava, Medvedja, region), as well as improving quality of life Bujanovac, Presevo, Bojnik, Lebane, and standard of living of local people to Trgoviste, Vladicin Han, Vlasotince, improve the environment, knowledge and Bosilegrad, Surdulicaand) the final result educational level of the population and of the process is regional strategy for creating sufficient job opportunities and rural development. The process was public services. LAGs also want to focus supported by the Austrian Development on community mobilization of the local Agency and implemented by the Center population and make area more attractive for the district development with expert for visitors as well as for potential support of the center for rural extension investors. Emphasis is placed on of Singidunum University. sustainable development and preservation of natural and cultural- In Slovakia, there are 29 local action historical heritage and the values and groups of the country (as can be seen on traditions for future generations. Finally, it Figure 6.3.1.5.) approved by the Ministry is increasing the competitiveness of the of Agriculture and Rural Development of territory, support of small businesses and the Slovak republic. Strategic objective of agricultural restructuring. All these the integrated strategy for rural aspects should contribute to the development is particularly increase the integrated development of the area.
Figure 6.3.1.5. Local action groups in Slovakia
Source: www.nsrv.sk
257 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
According to database of realized projects Distribution of financial resources was as registered to Rural Development Agency, follows: there were 1318 projects in total from the - 12 097 989 € was allocated for the east Axis 3 and Axis 4 of the Rural development of the Slovakia program 2007-2013. From all these projects, - 10 622 497 € was allocated for the 33,46% were allocated in the east of central part of the Slovakia Slovakia (especially in the Košice and - 22 568 062 € was allocated for the Prešov region), 24,96% of the projects west of the Slovakia were allocated in the centre of Slovakia (Žilina and Banská Bystrica region) and In percentage, the most financial 41,58% of the projects were allocated in contributions went to the Nitra region, the west of Slovakia (Bratislava, Trenčín, where are located five LAGs and the least Trnava and Nitra region). to the Bratislava region, where are two LAGs. Allocation of the financial resources was different in different parts of Slovakia, in Financial contribution in regions can be total had been contracted 45 282 549 €. seen on Figure 6.3.1.6. and Figure 6.3.1.7.
Figure 6.3.1.6. Financial contributions per region
Source: Agency for rural development, www.nsrv.sk, 2015
258 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 6.3.1.7. Financial Above mentioned results suggest contributions per region per capita relatively high successfully implemented number of projects, by the LAG´s, however, we need to examine the topic structure of the projects more deeply. There were roughly implemented around 1 318 projects from 6 various topics, according the provisions assigned in Rural Development Program. Brief description of the provisions is as follows:
Source: Agency for rural development, www.nsrv.sk, 2015
Table 6.3.1.1. Provision description within the RDP 2007 - 2013 Code of Number of Description provision provision 1 3.1 Diversification towards to non agricultural activities 2 3.2.A Supporting initiatives in the field of the rural tourism 3 3.2.B Marketing activities in the field of the rural tourism 4 3.3 Education and information 5 3.4.1 Basic services for the rural population 6 3.4.2 Village renewal and development Source: own processing, Rural Development Program
However, the frequency distribution of the projects within the thematic topics is very uneven.
259 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 6.3.1.2. Frequency distribution of the projects by the thematic topic Code of Code of Cumulative Frequency Cumulative % Frequency3 provision provision % 1 7 0.005 3.1 7 0.005% 2 37 2.81% 3.4.1 658 49.96% 3 41 5.92% 3.4.2 544 91.27% 4 37 8.73% 3.2.B 41 94.38% 5 658 58.69% 3.3 37 97.19% 6 544 100% 3.2.A 31 100% Source: own processing
Further examination is going to be based on water pipelines, sewer system, public lighting Pareto analysis. From the Pareto graph, we and greenery. After a large gap, there are can see that the majority of projects (and following provisions No. 3.2.B Marketing funds) were allocated to provision No. 3.4.1 activities in the field of the rural tourism, Basic services for the rural population and provisions No. 3.2.A Supporting initiatives in provision No.3.4.2 Village renewal and the field of the rural tourism and provisions development. Activities from these No. 3.3 Education and information. The provisions are focusing in general on smallest contribution recorded provision restoring the technical infrastructure of rural No.3.1 Diversification towards to non- communities, for instance: road network, agricultural activities.
Figure 6.3.1.8. Project frequency by the Code of provision, histogram plot for Pareto analysis
Source: www.nsrv.sk
260 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Rural areas of West Balkans are fully disparities by implementing projects colored by their small-scale agriculture under LEADER programs in rural areas. In systems. Their small-scale farms, although total 1 318 projects were approved in often unprofitablefrom a modern Slovakia. The majority of projects was business perspective, have survived over approved in western Slovakia—Bratislava time and still seem to be one of the most region, Trnava region, Trenčín region and sustainable options for given Nitra region. In total over 45 million of environments. Not all reasons for their EUR was allocated in Slovakia. Almost half persistence are understood yet, but it is of these finances were allocated in generally agreed that such households western Slovakia. were important in providing food and shelter during economic disruptions of The project topic structure has proven the transition period for both resident relatively high interest about participatory families, and even urban based relatives. planning of the rural development within Having this in mind, it is necessary to talk the LAG´s in Slovakia. Together, the about participatory planning in a real results have revealed a relatively big sense of its meaning. Not rarely, imbalance in terms of regional – spatial especially in the Western Balkans area, the allocation and thematic allocation of term planning is understood as some job projects. The majority of projects was done by strangers called external focusing on restoration of infrastructure specialists with no communication with and public spaces of rural municipalities, people who are living in particular area. which, based on the results of Pareto The strategy and the plan for analysis, we can consider as a most development of every rural business have pressing problem. Small residual of a to fit with the overall strategy for number of projects were concentrating on development of rural community. For that the diversification of rural economies and reason, building of local capacities for enhancing enterprenual base of the rural development includes enhancing countryside. In the current programing partnerships of all stakeholders – public period the effort will be concentrated on and private, business and administrative, better use of the endogenous potential of civil and governmental as much as rural areas, aiming on job creation and business to business partnerships. enterprising promotion. Infrastructure Partnership development is the most restoration within the rural areas might important tool for bridging the gap help to stem the migration outflow and between potentials and needs of rural economic diversification might avert regions. further economic decline of the countryside. Based on this reaserch In Slovakia there are 29 approved Local results, we recommend Serbia to primarily action groups which can decrease the focus on creating sustainable conditions 261 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation for living and working on countryside, markets is a struggle for achieving through to municipal infrastructure sustainability of small-farming sector restoration and development. Next through better networking of primary challenging topic would be stabilization producers and processors with services of rural labor market, with potential of providers and through providing new jobs creation. The most challenging conditions for modernization of activity for sustainable bridging between production and services. local production achievements and
6.3.2. Energy market and biorenewables
Energy issues have been analysed from an security of supply in a carbon-constrained economic perspective for more than world. a century now. But energy economics did not develop as a specialised branch until The development of energy sources is the first oil shock in the 1970s (EDWARDS, crucial for economic development. Today, 2003) and (BHATTACHARYYA, 2011). The commercial energy is the lifeblood of dramatic increase in oil prices in the 1973 modern economies. Old energy patterns – 1974 highlighted the importance of and new emerging trends confirm the energy in economic development of inevitable role of various energy sources countries. Suddenly, higher prices in building modern society, fuelled by the brought energy demands in the industrial innovation and technological development. countries to a virtual standstill, generating inflation, unemployment, and accelerating The chapter is concerned with the deindustralization. economic principles of operation of the energy sector of the world market. It In the 1990s, liberalisation of energy analyzes the role and significance of markets and restructuring swept through individual types of energy commodities, the entire world although climate change which are the subject of the trade on and other global an local environmental international commodity markets. The issues also continued. chapter also assesses the energy sector of the Slovakia in terms of the state In recent times, particularly in energy regulation and incentives for renewable markets in Europe, energy became energy resources development. a powerful tool in shaping international relations and fueling the international disputes. All these issues and the others are attributed to the concerns about 262 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Energy commodities and trends of as a second ones and Europe & Eurasia development nations – 19% as a third ones.
Most commercial energy produced is Global oil consumption in average counts from non-renewable resources. Most RES, for 95.008 thd. barrels per day in 2015. particularly wood and charcoal, are used The largest consumer was Asia Pacific directly by producers, mainly poor people market, which counted for 34% of the in the developing countries. Although the daily consumption, followed by the North interest in renewable energy development America market, which counted for 25%. also on commercial base is rising, The smallest consumer was African and commercial energy sources are still the South American market, which counted core of energy use at the present time. for 4% and 8%, respectively.
Oil In terms of prices, the Brent crude has noted significant swings since year Oil remained the world´s leading fuel, elapsed. Crude oil prices have collapsed accounting for 32.9% of global energy by 42% since December 2014 to $44 per consumption (2015). Global total oil barrel in mid of the April 2015, after reserves stands at 1697.6 bln barrels in moderately recovered to $61 per barrel in 2015. OPEC countries1 continue to hold June, following another steep decline on the largest share (71.4%) of global proved to $26.18 dollar per barrel in February reserves. World oil production2 growth in 2016. Currently, the price is around $44.71 2015 significantly exceeded the growth in per barrel in July 2016. Generally, Brent oil consumption for a second consecutive averaged $52.39 per barrel in 2015, year. Total oil production stands on 91, a decline of $46.56 per barrel from 2014 670 mil. barrels in 2015 with Middle East levels and the lowest annual average nations as the largest contributors – 33% since 2004. following by North America nations – 22%
1 Note: OPEC - The Organization of the Petroleum Natural gas Exporting Countries (OPEC) has currnetly 14 members. The Statute stipulates that the principal aim of OPEC is to Global total natural gas proven reserves harmonise the petroleum policies of its Member currently stand on 186.91 tcm3 (2015), Countries as part of its efforts to safeguard their sufficient to meet 52.8 years of current interests. It further states that members of the Organization shall work together to ensure stable oil production. The Middle East region holds prices, secure fair returns to producing countries and the largest proved reserves (80 tcm, investors in the oil industry, and provide a steady 42.8% of the global total), and has the petroleum supply to consumers. 2 Note: Oil production data includes crude oil, tight oil, oil sands and NGLs (the liquid content of natural gas where this is recovered separately) 3 Note: TCM means trillion cubic meters 263 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation highest regional R/P ratio4 (129.5 years). low gas prices are an outcome of Worldwide, natural gas production stands sustained supply growth, led by the US at 3.538,65 MTOE5 in 2015. The largest and Asia. producer is North America together with Europe & Eurasia region to an equal Coal share of 28% respectively, followed by the Middle East region with 17% of share and World total proved coal reserves in 2015 Asia Pacific region with 16% of share, were sufficient to meet 114 years of respectively. global production, by far the largest R/P ratio for any fossil fuel. Europe & Eurasia Global oil consumption in average counts holds the largest proved reserves while for 3.468,6 bln. cubic metres in 2015. The North America has the highest R/P ratio - largest consumer was together North 276 years. The Asia Pacific region holds American and Europe & Eurasia market, the second-largest reserves, but higher which counted for equal share 28% of rates of production - accounting for the total consumption, followed by the 70.6% of global output - leave it with the Middle East market, which counted for lowest regional R/P ratio (53 years). 17%. The smallest consumer was South American and African market, which Global coal production reached 3.830,1 counted for 5% and 6%, respectively. MTOE in 2015. The largest producer is Asia Pacific region, which in terms of In general natural gas prices fell in absolute number of production surpasses Europe, Asia and also North America. the production of coal in the rest of the These low gas prices are an outcome of world, its global share on coal production sustained supply growth, led by the US was 70% in 2015, following by the North and Asia. However, natural gas prices may America region with 13% of shares and also be linked to the price of crude oil Europe & Eurasia region with 11% of and/ or petroleum products, especially in share, respectively. The share of Africa continental Europe. region was only 4% in 2015.
Natural gas prices fell in all regions with Global coal consumption counts for the largest percentage declines in North 3.839,9 MTOE in 2015. The largest America; the US benchmark Henry Hub consumer was an Asia Pacific market, fell to its lowest level since 1999. These which counted for 73% of the total consumption, followed by the Europe & Eurasia market, which counted for 12%. 4 Note: R/P ration means reserves to production ratio, indicating the remaining lifespan of a natural resource North America market counted for 11% 5 Note: MTOE means million tonne of oil equivalent (toe) share. is a unit of energy defined as the amount of energy released by burning one million tonne of crude oil 264 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Weak demand drove global coal prices renewables, followed by Portugal with down by 30% in 2015. The price level 30%. Among the larger EU economies, the remained the lowest in North America renewables share is 27% in Germany, 24% and highest in Japan. The steam coal price in Spain, and 23% in both Italy and the differential between Asia and North UK. America rose from $3/t in 2014 to $7/t, and the spread between Northwest Biofuels production including ethanol and Europe and North America rose from $9/t biodiesel, worldwide, reached 74. 847 thd. to $10/t. TOE in 2015. Leading is the North America region with 43% share, following Renewable energy by South & Central America region with 28% share and Europe & Eurasia region Renewable energy includes energy with 18% share. derived from natural processes that do not involve the consumption of Global renewables consumption reached exhaustible resources such as fossil fuels 364.9 MTOE in 2015 and recorded 15,2% and uranium. Hydroelectricity, wind and increase a year-to-year basis. In the wave power, solar and geothermal energy regional breakdown, leading is the and combustible renewables and Europe & Eurasia region with an 39% renewable waste (landfill gas, waste share of total consumption, following by incineration, solid biomass and liquid the Asia Pacific region with 30% and biofuels) are the constituents of North America region with 23% share. renewable energy. In terms of global renewables Despite high growth rates, renewable consumption by type in 2015 dominates energy still represents only a small the wind energy, which has counted for fraction of today’s global energy 74% of global renewables consumption, consumption. Renewable electricity following by the solar energy, with 22% generation (excluding hydro), is estimated share and only 4% share counts for to account for 7% of global electricity geothermal, biomass and others type of generation. Renewables do, however, play energy. a significant role in the growth of electricity, contributing 97% of the growth Energy Markets and Principles of in global power generation in 2015. Energy Pricing At the individual country level, these Energy market as the other markets are sources are already playing an important principally driven by the supply and role in some countries. Denmark leads, demand. The supply side is represented with 66% of power coming from by the value chain of the energy market 265 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation including producers – fuel extraction and Where is the price, means the refining; deliverers and suppliers of useful demand function and is cost energy for the final customer. The function demand is represented by the final users The first order condition is of energy in its usable form such as (1.1) eletricity, oil or gas. (1.2) In the condition of the perfect But competition consumers maximise their (1.3) utility subject to their budget constraint Hence, and producers maximise their profits subject to the constraints of production (1.4) possibilities. However some elements of the energy sector have the technical or other characteristics that amount to the That is, to maximize its profit, the violation of the basic assumptions of monopolist will charge consumers a competitive market model. inversely to their elasticity of demand. The more inelastic the demand, the higher The capital intensiveness of the energy price will be. sector requires large investments and as bigger installations provide economies of Figure 6.3.2.1. Price determination in scale, few large suppliers tend to a monopoly market dominate the market. In such a case monopolist or oligopolist structure of the sector will emerge. Furthermore, monopolist or oligopolist structure may emerge on each level of energy supply chain. Monopolist should maximize its profit, only if set the price at the intersection of marginal cost and marginal revenue. But as the monopolist faces a down-ward sloping demand curve, the marginal revenue will be less than the price. Mathematically, the problem to maximize the profit Source: Own elaboration, Economics, 2005
(1.0)
266 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Seeing that output of the monopoly is minimises the loss should be inversely scarce, monopoly raises its price over its proportional to the price elasticity of marginal costs. If the sector were demand. The price shall be higher for competitive, balance would become at inelastic demand and lower for elastic the point , where However demand. This provides the theoretical the monopolist will rather set justification for the so-called „value of services“ pricing that is used by some and the balance would shift to the point utilities. . The area of the square represents the profit of the monopolist. The efficiency loss represents the area of Government Intervention and Role the triangle , which means the loss of Governmentin the Sector of consumer surplus, which results from The discussion above indicates that the the change of the price and volume of the energy sector fails to satisfy the output set by the monopoly. requirements of a competitive market in a number of ways. The presence of Ramsey Pricing natural monopoly and existence of rents require corrective intervention to remedy Ramsey pricing is essentially a taxing the problems. An alternative solution to method that was developed in an attempt deal with the problems of natural to design a system that would lead to monopoly is to transfer the ownership minimal efficiency loss. This has then been and operation rights to the government. applied to the pricing issues as well as the This forms the basis for the public sector basic problem in a natural monopoly involvement in production. The logic subjected to a marginal cost pricing - the behind this is that the government will recovery of loses in a less distorted not be following the profit maximisation manner. The Ramsey rule can be principle but will operate to maximise presented as follows: economic surplus of the consumer. Both (1.5) the options have been widely adopted in practice. In the USA, the regulatory Where, is the price, is the marginal approach was adopted while in Europe cost, is the price elasticity of demand, (western part) the public ownership and indicates the product and is approach was followed. a constant. In general governments use a wide range This formula suggest that the quasi- of Instruments or measures to control the optimal price should be more than the functioning of the energy sector. IEA marginal cost and this price which (1996) categorises them in five following categories: 267 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
economic and fiscal instruments; research and development (R&D). trade Instruments; Following Figure 6.3.2.2 provides administration, management and some examples of each category ownership; of instruments. regulation;
Figure 6.3.2.2. Main policy instruments
Economic/fiscal Trade Administration, Regulation R&D management and ownership Taxes, royalties, Import/export Equity Price and R&D in the Fees tariffs participation in or volume public sector ownership of controls energy companies Tax exemptions Import/export Provision of Market Funding for licences government regulation private services (entry/exit, sector R&D monopoly rights, anti cartel legislation) Grants, subsidies, Quotas Technical International transfer payments regulations collaboratio n Credit instruments Selective (interest subsidies, bans/embargoes loan guarantees, soft credits) Differential treatment of domestic and foreign suppliers Source: Energy economics, 2011
Taxes, royalties and subsidies constitute the most important motive for their the common form of economic instruments widespread use. A number of trade-related used in the energy sector. Although fiscal Instruments are used in controlling Instruments can be used for various movement of energy resources and include purposes including internalisation of tariffs and quotas, licensing, fuel quality externalities, revenue generation remains restrictions and political restrictions 268 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
(embargoes and bans) on economic the fall of the socialism in these countries in involvement in certain areas or countries on 1989, and also in Latin America countries. trade. However, after around two decades of State participation in the management, persistent use of liberalisation policies, the ownership and control of production and progress has been quite limited. Now the supply of energy remains quite pervasive, World Bank acknowledges that the especially in grid-based industries. The prescription has been oversold, critism of the public ownership or regulation misunderstood and less effective (WORLD is based on assumptions, that excessive BANK, 2004). intervention of the state would harm the market and distort free market competition. Energy Pricing and Taxation Furthermore, state often manages the state assets inefficiently and they are subjected to Energy supply involves a number of bribery and corruption. Also if there is only activities – production or procurement of one public monopoly, there is lack of primary energy from local or external incentives for further investments and sources, transformation of primary innovations, thus fixed assets, equipment energies to usable forms, transportation and operational services become poor and of energy in bulk and distribution of undermaintained. energy to final consumers through retail activities. Moreover, the retail price also Governments use a wide range of regulatory includes charges, duties, taxes or interventions to control the sector subsidies as imposed by the state or its performance. These include price controls, agencies. Finally, domestic energy prices competition and market Access rules, private are partly determined by the fuctioning service obligations, monopoly and restrictive and influences of international energy trade practice controls, and technical and markets on the one hand and by the environmental performance management. sociopolitical environment of the country While the degree of control varies by on the other. Additionaly, since energy is industry, normally the networked industries an intermediate good as well as a final are sujected to higher levels of controls. product, prices should distinguish between the producers and consumers. Based on above mentioned arguments , the Additional criteria such as exhaustibility, World Bank and IMF were instrumental to capital intensiveness, and non-storability promote liberalisation policies in developing must also be taken care of where countries. Therefore, market liberalisation applicable. and also energy market liberalisation including, initiatives has swept through Central and Eastern Europe countries since 269 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 6.3.2.3. Electricity supply value chain and cost determinants
Source: Energy economics, 2011
Energy taxes revenue in developing countries, while in industrialized countries tax on income and Energy prices also include various charges, profit, and the contribution for social duties and taxes/subsidies which ultimately security represent the major source of determine the price paid by the financial revenue. consumers. Energy taxes are utilised for various purposes. The generation of The above Figure shows total tax receipts revenue for the government is a principal from various energy products and electricity objective. There are different forms of per capita in the EU. The Figure shows that taxation that bring revenue to the treasury – the major tax incomes from the receipts excise duties on goods, royalties on come from mineral oils, following the domestic production of fossil fuels, and residuals from by natural gas and electricity income taxes on the profit of energy only in some countries. The amount of the companies. The relative importance of each receipts among the countries vary, the instrument varies from one country to differences are based on marginal tax levels, another but in general, indirect taxes tax structure, effectiveness of the constitute the major source of government collection of taxes, etc. 270 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Figure 6.3.2.4. Total tax receipts from energy products and electricity per capita (2015)
Source: Own processing, based on Eurostat, 2016
Energy subsidies as a trade barrier. Subsidies take various forms. Subsidies to producers help to Subsidies can be defined as the difference lower the cost of production, while between the price that would exist in subsidies to consumers lower prices faced a market in absence of any distortion or by them. Fossil fuel subsidies in market failures and the price faced by developed countries tend to support consumers at a given time. If market particular indigenous fuels such as coal to distortions/failures exist, instead of protect employment. Nuclear energy also market price some reference price has to receives significant subsidy in many be used, correcting the problem. In case countries. Consumer subsidies take the of traded goods, relevant border prices form of support to lower income groups are considered as appropriate reference but on the other hand, other consumers prices in absence of externalities. often pay higher taxes to compensate for Subsidies normally have a number of the revenue losses. On the other hand, perverse consequences: they send wrong developing countries provide max price signals to consumers and promote extensive levels of subsidies, often across over-consumption, often inefficiently; the board. Price controls by the they divert scarce financial resources at governments remain the most commonly the cost of depriving other need; they used method of intervention. But being hinder growth of alternatives and act non-targeted, the effectiveness of the 271 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation subsidies is questionable, as the benefits effect. Examples can include subsidies for do not reach desired groups. promoting renewable energies. Subsidy programmes can be designed in different But not all subsidies have negative ways: through price-reduction systems, consequences. When the social benefit or through a gifts and vouchers scheme, and environmental improvement exceeds the through an all-or-nothing system. cost of subsidies, it can result in a positive
Figure 6.3.2.5. Total tax receipts from energy products and electricity per capita (2015)
Source: International Monetary Fund, 2016
The above Figure shows post tax The Economics of Renewable subsidies in US$ per capita in the EU. The Energy Supply Figure shows, that heavy subsidized is coal production namely in Central and Bioenergy refers to renewable energy Eastern Europe countries. Energy intensive from biological sources that can be used production in these countries is for them for heat, electricity and fuel and their co- characteristic. products. In terms of modern bioenergy, ethanol, biodiesel and biogas are the three major bioenergy products.
272 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Ethanol and biodiesel can be used as b) Inappropriate price signals: Such transportation fuel and ethanol is also units are often embedded in the important raw product in chemical industry. distribution system and rely on net Therefore, ethanol production has metering (i.e. considering the energy a particularly important role in transforming supplied less energy consumed by the petroleum-based economies to biomass- unit). But unless the retail tariff is based sustainable and environment-friendly based on time-of-day pricing, the economies (YUAN et al.,2008). system does not provide proper signals to consumer and the supplier. This section will be devoted to the This also affects the renesable energy economics of renewable electricity and generation and its viability. bio-fuel supply. Eletricity from renewable c) Non-internalisation of externalities: resources has a number of technical Renewable energies have features: environmental advantages compared most common forms of renewable to the fossil fuel-based electricity. energies (such as solar, wind or tidal) Consequently, non-recognition of the are intermittent in nature (i.e. they external costs in the pricing puts are not available all the time), renewable energies at a disadvantage given that eletricity cannot be stored and does not allow two types of in large quantities in a cost effective energies to be compared on the same manner, these energies have to be level. This acts as a barrier to the used when they are available renewable energy development. d) Fuel risk benefits: Renewable In addition, renewable electricity often energies do not face fuel price risks suffers from another biases against it. faced by the fossil fuels. In fact, the These include: operating cost of renewable energies a) Inappropriate valuation: The value of is minimal in most cases. However, the electricity normally varies depending market price for fossil-fuel based on whether it is used during the off- electricity does not provide the correct peak hours or peak-hours. The peak signal to the investors and the period supply should fetch a higher consumers taking the premium for value to the supplier; but as renewable higher prices for fossil fuels into supply is treated outside the wholesale consideration. This has an adverse market (being non-dispatchable), the effect on the renewable energy appropriate valuation of its development. contribution is difficult to make. This would affect the financial and Any comparison of electricity supply cost economic viability of the renewable should adequatly capture the above energy projects. differences. The basic indicator- levelised 273 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation cost- is often used but it may be an in should be considered to make like- appropriate comparator as it relies only for-like comparisons on a specific level of capacity utilisation, a. Environmental costs are higher for which varies widely across electricity fossil fuels and nearly non-existent generating technologies. for the renewable energies b. On the other hand, standby capacity Cost features costs could be important for certain types of renewable energies The main elements of costs to be c. Similarly, fuel price risk (or security considered in the case of electricity risk) could be high for some fossil supply technologies are: fuels and should be considered here. a) Energy-related costs: Including those costs which are related to energy Support mechanisms generation in facility: costs related to fuel and variable operating and A number of intervention or support maintenance related costs. Normally mechanisms have been used in practice for fossil-fuel based electricity, this to promote renewable energy based component is relatively high while electricity to overcome barriers arising for the renewable fuels, this element from market distortions and lack of tends to be small internalisation of externalities. These b) Capacity costs: These include the include feed-in tariffs, competitive cost of installing the capacity bidding process, renewable obligations, (charges to be paid in relation to financial incentives and taxing fossil fuels. installation of a capacity) and the fixed operating and maintenance Feed-in Tariffs costs (labour charges, stocks, etc.). For renewable energy based This is an intervention by influencing the electricity, this is the most important price. Here the electric utilities are cost element and could be between required by law or regulation to buy 50% ad 80% of the overall cost renewable electricity at fixed prices set supply. normally at higher than the market price. c) Other related costs: This is a broad More recent feed-in tariffs vary by category of cost that can include location, by technology and by plant size. external costs due to environmental The fixed price declines over time and is damages and climate change, costs adjusted periodically but the tariffs are related to standby or reserve long-term in nature. capacity, and any other costs that
274 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
In Figure 6.3.2.6., assume that the regulatory contract can lead to stranded investments, or public authorities have fixed the feed-in especially in a competitive market. tariff at . All producers whose cost of supply is below this price will enter the Competitive bidding processes market and produce and output . The This is a quantity restriction mechanism total cost of support in this case is where the regulator or public authority . The important point to note mandates that a given quantity of here is that projects with low cost of renewable electricity is supported but production will earn a rent due to their decides the suppliers of such electricity locational or technological advantage. The through a competitive bidding process. fixed price system allows the producer to Interested producers are asked to submit capture this rent, which provides an bids for their proposals, which are ranked in incentive for further innovation. terms of their cost of supply. All proposals are accepted until the target volume is Figure 6.3.2.6. Feed-in tariff reached. However the price paid to each principle supplier is limited to the bid price and not the marginal cost of the last qualifying bid. This removes the rent or producer surplus that is available in the case of a feed-in tariff. This reduces the support cost to the area under the supply curve and as a consequnce, the burden on the consumers reduces. However, by removing the rent the incentive to innovate aslo is reduced.
Renewable obligations
Source: Menaneau et al., 2003 Renewable obligations also work through the quantity restriction mechanism where
the government sets the target for The feed-in tariff system has proved to be renewable electricity supply and lest the a successful instrument. It has been used by price be determined by the market. The those who have sucessfully developed their obligation is placed on the electricity renewable electricity market. The system is suppliers, who have to purchase a given easy to implement ad if standardised, the percentage of their supply from renewable transpayments to producers promote high sources. The target is often tightened over cost supply. The long-term nature of the time with the objective of reaching a final 275 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation level by a target date. The renewable prices paid by the consumers to send obligation requires the electricity supplier a clear signal. Taxing fuels for their to supply a specific amount of renewable environmental and other unaccounted for energy in a given year. damages is one way of ensuring the level playing field. The Nordic countries ae in A number of technologies are recognised the fore-front of such environmentally as the eligible renewable sources (such as oriented taxation. They are pioneering wind, solar energy, biomass, etc.). The countries in introducing carbon taxes (i.e. producer of renewable electricity receives a tax on CO2 emissions), even before the from the RO administrator a tradable European Union launched a proposal to certificate for every unit of electricity introduce community-wide carbon tax in generation – either at uniform rate 1992. Beside the carbon tax, there are depending on the technology employed. other taxes on energy as well these include Generators thus have two saleable taxes on fuel and electricity and a tax on products: electricity which they sell to SO2 emission. Despite this, it is doubtful electricity suppliers and the Renewable whether the polluter is bearing the tax obligation certificate that they can sell to burden as a study by Eurostat (2003) found electricity suppliers or traders. Certificates that the burden is shifted to residential are tradeable and trading between consumers while the industry bears suppliers and traders creates market for a relatively lower burden. these certificates. The Economics of Bio-fuels Financial Incentives The cost of supply of bio-fuels varies These are fiscal measures used either to widely depending on the technology reduce the cost of production or increase feedstock used and the size of the the payment received from the production. conversion plant . The energy content of Commonly used incentives include: tax bio-fuels varies significantly and the relief (income tax reduction, investment energy density of bio-fuels is less credit, reduced VAT rate, accelerated compared to petrol or diesel. Generally, depreciation, etc.); rebates or payment the plant size and feedstock cost play an grants (that refunds a share of the cost of important role in the bio-fuel supply cost. installing the renewable capacity), and low However, bio-ethanol and bio-diesel costs interest loans, etc. do not follow similar patterns and consequently, it is better to analyse them Taxing Fossil Fuels separately.
The objective here is to reflect the true costs and scarcity of the fossil fuels in the 276 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Bio-Ethanol Cost Features As the feedstock demand increases with Two important cost elements for bio- higher fuel demand, feedstock price will ethanol production are (OECD, 2006): increase. Higher feedstock price would a) The cost of feedstock: this is the most affect food prices and would encourage important cost in bio-ethanol diversion of land and agricultural activities production (accounts for around 41% towards fuel stock feedstock supply. This of the cost supply). The choice of could have adverse concesquenes for food feedstock explains cost variation across supply, water use, and for competitiveness countries to a large extent of bio-ethanol. In fact, this is one of the b) Energy and labour costs: These are main concerns about first generation bio- also quite important in bio-ethanol fuels. production and account for about 30% of the costs. Bio-Diesel Costs
Capital recovery can be about one-sixth of The feedstock plays a much higher role in these costs while the rest is attributed to the the cas of bio-diesel – almost 80% of the cost of chemicals. Some credits are also operating costs (BALAT and BALAT, 2008). obtained by selling them and this could The competition from high value cooking change the economics of bio-fuels to some use affects the feedstock price and the cost extent. The cost of production however falls of production. as the size of the conversion plant increases.
Box 6.3.2.1. Slovakia: Overall Summary In The Slovak Republic, electricity from renewable sources is promoted through a feed-in tariff. Energy companies are obliged to purchase and pay for electricity exported to the grid. Operators of PV and wind power plants may also receive subsidies under the Operational Programme Environmental Quality. The use of RES is further incentivised through an exemption from excise tax. Renewable energy plants must be given priority connection, and electricity from renewable sources must be given priority dispatch. The grid operator is obliged to extend the grid without discriminating against certain users. The support of heat from RES mainly takes the form of financial support for investments. Operators of renewable energy plants may receive subsidies under the Operational Programme Environmental Quality.
Electricity Support schemes
277 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
In the Slovak Republic, electricity from renewable sources is promoted through a feed-in tariff. Energy companies are obliged to purchase and pay for electricity exported to the grid. The use of RES is further incentivised through an exemption from excise tax.
Feed-in tariff. Grid operators are statutorily obliged to purchase and pay for electricity from renewable sources. Subsidies. Plant operators may receive subsidies for the support of RES from the Operational Programme Environmental Quality funded by the ERDF. Tax regulation mechanisms. Electricity generated from renewable sources is exempt from excise tax.
Grid issues In Slovakia, access of electricity from renewable sources to the grid is mainly regulated by the Act on the Support of Renewable Energy Sources. Renewable energy plants must be given priority connection, and electricity from renewable sources must be given priority dispatch. The grid operator is obliged to extend the grid without discriminating against certain users. Connection to the grid: The plant operators are contractually entitled against the grid operator to the connection of renewable energy plants to the grid. The grid operator is obliged to enter into connection agreements with the generators of electricity from renewable sources. Renewable energy plants shall be given priority connection. Use of the grid: Access to the grid is granted on the basis of either a transmission and access agreement or a distribution and access agreement. Thus, the grid users (e.g. plant operators) are entitled to the transmission and distribution of electricity by the grid operator. The competent transmission or distribution grid operator is obliged to enter into these agreements. Electricity from renewable sources shall be given priority transmission and distribution. Grid development: The grid operator is obliged to expand the grid upon the request of an electricity producer. Renewable energy is not given priority. Statutory provisions: RES Act (Act No. 309/2009 Coll. on the Support of Renewable Energy Sources); Energy Act (Energy Act No. 656/2004 Coll.); Government Decree No. 24/2013 (Government Decree No. 24/2013 Coll. on the Regulation of the Domestic Electricity Market)
Policies The following policies aim at promoting the development, installation and usage of RES- installations in Slovakia: There is a professional training programme for RES-installers and there are legally defined technical parameters for solar thermal installations and heat pumps. Furthermore, there is a building obligation for the use of renewable heating and for the exemplary role of public authorities which came into effect in January 2013. The certification of RES installers applies to installers of boilers and furnaces for biomass, PV and
278 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
solar thermal installations, shallow geothermal plants and heat pumps. Energy certification is required for public buildings with a total floor area of more than 250 m², newly constructed or renovated buildings as well as all other buildings that are sold or rented to a new tenant.
Heating & Cooling Support schemes In Slovakia, the support of heat from RES mainly takes the form of financial support for investments. Subsidies. RES-H plant operators may receive subsidies for the support of renewable heat from the Operational Programme Environmental Quality funded by the ERDF.
Policies The following policies aim at promoting the development, installation and usage of RES- installations in Slovakia: There is a professional training programme for RES-installers and there are legally defined technical parameters for solar thermal installations and heat pumps. Furthermore, there is a building obligation for the use of renewable heating and for the exemplary role of public authorities which came into effect in January 2013. The certification of RES installers applies to installers of boilers and furnaces for biomass, PV and solar thermal installations, shallow geothermal plants and heat pumps. Energy certification is required for public buildings with a total floor area of more than 250 m², newly constructed or renovated buildings as well as all other buildings that are sold or rented to a new tenant.
Transport Support schemes In Slovakia, the main support scheme for RES used in transport is a quota system. This scheme obliges companies importing or producing petrol or diesel to ensure that biofuels make up a defined percentage of their annual fuel sales. Furthermore, biofuels are supported through a tax regulation mechanism. Tax regulation mechanism. In Slovakia, petrol and diesel from a legally defined minimum content of biogenic material are subject to a lower mineral oil tax. Mineral oil solely from biogenic material is exempt from this tax. Biofuels quota. In Slovakia, there is an obligatory biofuel share for petrol and diesel fuel introduced on the Slovak market. The minimum content of biofuels has been legally defined for the years 2011 to 2020. Source: Renewable sources support in Slovakia http://www.res-legal.eu/home/, 2016
279 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Rural energy as challenge for dissemination of thrutful and adequate economic development information to consumers. Electricity distribution companies (both public and Developments in renewable energy private) should be encouraged to technologies have expanded the range of consider the costs and merits the various options available for improving rural renewables alternatives to grid supplies energy supplies. Until recently, the main for meeting small loads and for providing technologies in favorable locations were supplementary power on the longer micro-hydro, biogas, wind generators, distribution networks. wind pumps, and the sustainable ways of providing wood supplies. A more recent Goverment, NGO´s and municipalities and development has been the use of other public and private stakeholders photovoltaic (PV) systems to provide should play more systematic and catalytic electricity supplies for small-scale role in developing and improving rural applications. Familiar examples include energy strategies. A demand-driven, electric lights and domestic appliances, diversified approach is called for, village water pumps, street lighting, and characterized by multiple fuels, multiple supplies for health clinics and schools. borrowers, inclusion of smaller projects, Currently, however, the high initial cost of and greater local participation and the hardware puts renewable sources of investment. energy beyond the reach of most rural households including Slovakia. Use of renewable energy sources
in Slovakia However, further development and cost- efficient use of renewable energy Total technical exploitable potential of technologies in rural areas can be renewables in Slovakia has been encouraged in several ways. Initially, estimated at 96 753 TJ/year (26 876 subsidies for a particular way of supplying GWh/year) in 2012. If we add also the energy, should be considered. Extension potential of large hydropower plants, we and educational services can be used to gain 116 816 TJ/year (32 449 GWh/year). promote renewables. Careful system of design and proper installation are essential, as are after-sales service, adequate local management skills, and
280 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Table 6.3.2.2. Estimated technical potential of renewables by type in Slovakia Type of energy Technically exploitable potential
GWh/year TJ/year Geothermal energy 6 300 22 680 Wind energy 605 2 178 Solar energy 5 200 18 720 Small hydropower plants 1 034 3 722 Large hydropower plants 5 573 20 063 >10 MWe Biofuels 2 500 9 000 Biomass 11 237 40 453 Total (hydropower 26 876 96 753 excluding) Total 32 449 116 816 Source: The Atlas of renewable energy resources in Slovakia, 2012
The biggest share of technically exploitable The position of Slovakia in use and potential of renewables (35%) is contributed development of renewables was declared to biomass. In Slovak conditions, it is real in Strategy of energy security of Slovakia to use on energy purposes forest biomass (2008), which endorses the greatest and energy crops including, agricultural potential of use of renewables in case of biomass, waste from wood processing production heat and cold. The strategic and food industry, and waste biomass goal of Slovakia in terms of production from industrial and communal sphere. energy from renewables is 14% share till 2020.
Table 6.3.2.3. Share of energy on production of electricity, cold and heat and transportation from renewables in 2010 Renewables – production of heat and cold 9,2% 22 943 TJ Renewables – production of electricity 18,6% 19 050 TJ Renewables – transportation 4% 3 276 TJ Renewables - total 10,2% 45 719 TJ Source: Ministry of Economics of Slovak Republic, The Atlas of renewable energy resources in Slovakia, 2012
281 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
To provide more details, the installed should raise the octan number and capacity and generation of electricity from decrease the amount of emission of CO2. biomass in 2010 was 178 MW of power and 668 GWh. On solid biomass belongs Biodiesel is produced from raw rapeseed 169 MW of installed capacity and on oil esterification with methanol under the biogas belongs only 9 MW of installed action of the other ingredients as sodium capacity. In terms of produced electricity, hydroxide. Biodiesel is admixed to the on solid biomass belongs 636 GWh of diesel fuel with a 5.75% share from 2012 produced electricity and on biogas only and 10% share by 2020. 32 GWh. Biofuels did not record any data. In general we distinguish biofuels of the However, biofuels are parts of first generation (produced from sugar consumption of mineral oil fuels used beet or cane) and biofuels of the second mainly for transportation. There are two generation (produced from lignocellulose kinds of biofuels – bioethanol and or through new technologies to convert biodiesel. Bioethanol means ethanol biomass into liquid fuels). In comparison produced using ethanol alcoholic with the crude oil are raw materials of fermentation of biomass usually from plant origin more expensive and crops containing more starch and production of biofuels is more costly as carbohydrates, for instance maize, wheat, the production of fuels from the oil. potatoes, sugar cane and sugar beet. Produced bioethanol can be directly used In 2010, the total share of biofuels in total in combustion engines as a fuel. In fuel consumption was 6.75%, whereby on practice, the pure ethanol is not used, but Bioethanol become 2.34% share and on rather in amounts of 5% - 10% is Biodiesel become 4.41% share. admixed to the convenional fuels. Ethanol
282 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
BHATTACHARYYA, S. C. (2011): Energy Economics: Concepts, Issues, Markets and Governance, Berlín: Springer-Verlag, London Limited, 2011. 722 pp. ISBN 978-0-85729-267-4 BOGDANOV, N. 2007. Small Rural Households in Serbia and Rural Non-farm Economy. UNDP Serbia, Belgrade: 1-227. BOHÁTOVÁ, Z. 2011. Rural Development programme of SR 2007-2013 as a tool for increasing quality of life in countryside. In: Podnikanie na vidieku (obchodné právo EÚ I). s. 46-51. ISBN 978-80-552- 0584-7. BOHÁTOVÁ, Z. - BUMBALOVÁ, M. 2011. Problémy spojené s implementáciou programu LEADER v MAS Malohont v programovom období 2007-2013. In Inproforum 2011. České Budějovice. s. 53-61. ISBN 978-80-7394-315-8. BUMBALOVÁ, M. - TAKÁČ, I. - VALACH, M. - TVRDOŇOVÁ, J. 2015. Leader ex-post evaluation of the delivery mechanism. In Agrárne právo EÚ. Nitra. 2015. zv. Vol. 4, č. no. 1, s. 10-17. Dostupné na: http://www.degruyter.com/dg/viewjournalissue.articlelist.resultlinks.fullcontentlink:pdfeventlink/ $002fj$002feual.2015.4.issue-1$002feual-2015-0002$002feual-2015- 0002.pdf?t:ac=j$002feual.2015.4.issue-1$002fissue-files$002feual.2015.4.issue-1.xml CHRENEKOVÁ, M. 2014. Manažment inovačných programov Európskej únie pre obdobie 2014-2020. In: Financování a management inovačních programů Evropské unie. Brno: Akademické nakladatelství CERM. ISBN 978-80-7204-905-9, s. 45-70. DJORDJEVIĆ-MILOŠEVIĆ, S. - MILOVANOVIĆ, J. 2012. Sustainable Tourism for Rural Development – Small agricultural households and rural tourism in Serbia. Faculty of Applied Ecology Futura, Agroznanje Vršac, FAO Budapest: 247 p. DJORDJEVIĆ-MILOŠEVIĆ, S. - MILOVANOVIĆ, J. 2014. Linking Rural Livelihood Diversity and Sustainable Development. Faculty of Applied Ecology Futura Singidunum University Belgrade: 1-193. DJORDJEVIC-MILOSEVIC, S. 2011. Rural Economy Diversification & Its Importance for Serbia. Role of Rural Development Network. Available at: http://www.preparenetwork.org/files/PREPARE%20GATHERING%202011/conference%202011/S uzana-UNJP-for_PREPARE.pdf EBERLIN, R. – LUDVIG, K. – DZIMREVSKA, I. – SPASOVSKA, K. – ERJAVEC, E. 2014. Objectives and Approach. In Agriculture Policy and European Integration in Southeastern Europe, UN FAO: 3-8 EDWARDS, P.K. (ed). 2003. ‘The employment relationship and the field of industrial relations’ in Edwards, P.K. Industrial relations: theory and practice. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell. GOLDEMBERG, K. – LUCON, O. 2010. Energy, Environment and Development. London : Earthscan. ISBN 978-18-4407-748-9. KOVÁCH, I. - ANDERSSON, K. – GRANBERG, L. 2015. Evaluating the European Approach to Rural Development. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-14-7244-378-6. KULL, M. 2014. European Integration and Rural development. Ashgate Publishing Company. ISBN 978- 1-40-94-6854-7.
283 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
MALHOTRA, P. 1998. Participatory Rural Energy Planning: A Handbook. Tata Energy Research Institute. ISBN 978-81-8541-942-8. MARIŠOVÁ, E., MILOVANOVIĆ, J., DJORDJEVIĆ-MILOŠEVIĆ, S., KOVÁČIK, M., MARIŠ, M., MANDALOVÁ, K. (2016): Participatory Planning as an Engine for Revitalization of Small Rural Farms: An Overview on Local Action Groups in Slovakia and Serbia. International scientific conference Sustainability of rural areas in practice. Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, OECD, Co- operative Research Programme on Biological Resource Management for Sustainable Agricultural Systems. Conference Proceedings. p. 250-260. MILOVANOVIC, J. 2010. Mission reports 1-3, FAO, UNJP STRD NEMES, G. 2005. Integrated rural development, The concept and its operation. Institute of economics, Hungarian Academy of sciences, discussion papers, Budapest. OECD. 2013. OECD Rural Policy Reviews Rural-Urban Partnerships An Integrated Approach to Economic Development: An Integrated Approach to Economic Development. OECD Publishing. ISBN 978- 92-6420-481-2. OECD REGIONAL TYPOLOGY. 2011. Directorate for Public Governance and Territorial Development. Available at: http://www.oecd.org/gov/regional-policy/OECD_regional_typology_Nov2012.pdf PRČÍK, M. 2009. Regional iniciatives of SR as a part of EU enviromental policy. In: Regióny - vidiek - životné prostredie. Nitra : Slovenská poľnohospodárska univerzita. s.199-202. ISBN 978-80-552- 0259-4. Rural Development Program 2007 – 2013. Rural Development Program 2014 – 2020. http://www.nsrv.sk
284 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
The Energy Union strategy is designed to agricultural land, the presence of help to achieve our 2030 climate and degraded land, which could also be used energy targets and make sure that the as a source of biomass for biofuels is also European Union becomes the world present but in significantly lower amount. leader in renewable energy. Total possible available land for agro- energy crops in Serbia is close to 440.000 The current national legislations give to ha. For this land to be used as source of any business (entrepreneur) the possibility biomass for biofuels it is necessary to to extend the scope of its business in the determine their spatial characteristics, cultivation of energy crops on the basis of more precisely their exact locations and diversification of activities. In Slovakia, sizes of specific sites. This can be achieved entrepreneurs have the opportunity to through further and more detailed very effectively use less quality remote sensing with field validation. agricultural land by the cultivation of energy crops and the implementation of Rural economy of Serbia face a number of production on the assumptions of challenges but also open opportunities fulfilling the strict conditions stipulated by for the development of competitiveness, law no. 220/2004 Coll. on the which is the requirement for balance conservation and use of agricultural land. between agricultural production and other economic activities, environmental Slovakia has potential and suitable protection and social development. Rural climate for growing the energy crops, development has typically focused on fast-growing crops (Salix sp., Populus sp.) improving agricultural production and and herbs (Miscanthus, Panicum, promoting market orientation, however, Sorghum). The most suitable ecological as the examples of other countries in the conditions can be found in lowlands and EU accession process has shown (e.g. highlands located in warmer climate Slovakia), such an approach could conditions and rather humid soils. Slovak threaten the survival of the rural legislation set the condition for fast- population. To improve the quality of life growing trees on agricultural land. The in rural areas, reduce poverty and prevent acreage of the fallow land in Slovakia is social and environmental degradation, about 13.312,51 ha and the unused measures to support the diversification of agricultural soils represent 15.575,85 ha. the rural economy in a way that is socially, economically and environmentally sustainable The largest identified areas suitable for are necessary. Biomass production is one agro-energy crops in Serbia are unused of the key sectors with significant 285 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation potential for diversification of rural It brings also new approaches to economy. research and implements the knowledge triangle (study - research- practice) in the This monograph is a continuation of field. Study on Economic Efficiency of previous research results published in Short Rotation Coppice Biomass monograph “External and internal factors Production on Agricultural Land was influencing the growth and biomass developed as a model for potential production of short rotation woods genus enterpreneurs in biomass production. The Salix and perennial grass Miscanthus“, study showed that growing of energy published in 2011. crops for biomass is economically viable and can be a source of sustainable development of agriculture in rural areas.
286 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Annexes:
Annex 1. Compacted image of the spreadsheet efficiency evaluation model - Salix Miscanthus Year Pcs/ha €/pc €/t €/ha 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 COSTS Pre-planting site preparation: Soil analysis 50 50 Pre-ploughing herbicide application 20 20 Pre-ploughing pesticide application 20 20 Ploughing (min depth 20-25 cm) 75 75 Power-harrowing 70 70 Post-ploughing herbicide application 20 20 Planting operations: Mechanical planting 400 400 Post-planting operations: Pre-emergence weed control 10 Post-emergence weed control 20 20 Harvesting: Moving 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 Baling 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 Cutting an chipping 0 Transport 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 Storage & drying: Drying of chips (moisture < 25%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Long-term storage & drying of chips Site restoration: Herbicide application 20 20 Heavy rotavator or forestry mulcher application 80 80
MATERIALS Rhizomes (initial planting density) 10000 0,18 1800 1800 In-vitro plants 0 0,28 0 Herbicide (Roundup) 40 40 40 Selective herbicide/weedkiller 40 40 Insecticide 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
T O T A L C O S T S 2055 525 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 555
BIOMASS YIELD {Q(t) = exp(a-b/t)} [dry matter per ha] Schumacher growth function Variety No.: 1 Giganteus 20,88 25,62 28,38 30,18 31,44 32,37 33,09 33,66 34,12 34,50 34,82 35,10 35,34 35,54 35,73 35,89 36,03 36,16 36,28 36,38 Biomass harvest (t/harvest) 20,88 25,62 28,38 30,18 31,44 32,37 33,09 33,66 34,12 34,50 34,82 35,10 35,34 35,54 35,73 35,89 36,03 36,16 36,28 36,38
I N C O M E Sales of Chips (moisture < 20%) 60 1253,08 1537,45 1702,99 1810,75 1886,36 1942,29 1985,32 2019,45 2047,17 2070,14 2089,47 2105,97 2120,22 2132,65 2143,58 2153,27 2161,92 2169,69 2176,71 2183,08 Whole stems 60 Billets Bales T O T A L I N C O M E 0 1253,08 1537,45 1702,99 1810,75 1886,36 1942,29 1985,32 2019,45 2047,17 2070,14 2089,47 2105,97 2120,22 2132,65 2143,58 2153,27 2161,92 2169,69 2176,71 2183,08 G R O S M A R G I N -525 838,075 1122,45 1287,99 1395,75 1471,36 1527,29 1570,32 1604,45 1632,17 1655,14 1674,47 1690,97 1705,22 1717,65 1728,58 1738,27 1746,92 1754,69 1761,71 1628,08 Initial total costs 2055 Subsidy 0 Owners Equity 1055 Term Start Up Loan 1000 Nominal Rate of Interest 6% Loan Period (Years) 5 Grace Period 1 Loan Servicing: Term Loan 0 0 252 252 252 252 252 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TL - Interest Unpaid 0 60 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TL - Interest Paid 0 0 64 52 40 28 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TL - Capital Repayment 0 0 188 199 211 224 237 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TL - Amount Outstanding 1000 1060 872 673 461 237 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
C A S H F L O W Inflow Subsidy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Term Loan 1000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total Sales 0 0 1253,08 1537,45 1702,99 1810,75 1886,36 1942,29 1985,32 2019,45 2047,17 2070,14 2089,47 2105,97 2120,22 2132,65 2143,58 2153,27 2161,92 2169,69 2176,71 2183,08 Total Inflow 1000 0 1253,08 1537,45 1702,99 1810,75 1886,36 1942,29 1985,32 2019,45 2047,17 2070,14 2089,47 2105,97 2120,22 2132,65 2143,58 2153,27 2161,92 2169,69 2176,71 2183,08
Outflow Total Costs 2055 525 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 555 Term Loan Repayments 0 0 252 252 252 252 252 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total Outflows 2055 525 666,64 666,64 666,64 666,64 666,64 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 415 555
Net Cashflow -1055 -525 586,435 870,809 1036,35 1144,11 1219,72 1527,29 1570,32 1604,45 1632,17 1655,14 1674,47 1690,97 1705,22 1717,65 1728,58 1738,27 1746,92 1754,69 1761,71 1628,08 Cumulative Cashflow -1055 -1580 -993,57 -122,76 913,596 2057,71 3277,43 4804,72 6375,04 7979,48 9611,65 11266,8 12941,3 14632,2 16337,4 18055,1 19783,7 21521,9 23268,9 25023,6 26785,3 28413,4
Capital Costs Coverd with Owners Equity 1000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Return to Owners Equity -2055 -525 586,435 870,809 1036,35 1144,11 1219,72 1527,29 1570,32 1604,45 1632,17 1655,14 1674,47 1690,97 1705,22 1717,65 1728,58 1738,27 1746,92 1754,69 1761,71 1628,08
Present Value -1055 -495,28 521,925 731,148 820,888 854,949 859,854 1015,73 985,238 949,669 911,395 871,905 832,161 792,794 754,22 716,713 680,448 645,532 612,024 579,949 549,31 478,909 Discount Rate 6% IRR = 1 2 Variety 1 Giganteus Giganteus Sinensis NPV = 8597,38 NPV 8597 6155 IRR 45,94% 37,29% Source: Own elaboration
287 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
Annex 2. Compacted image of the spreadsheet efficiency evaluation model - Miscanthus SRC Willow Year Pcs/ha €/pc €/t €/ha 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 COSTS Pre-planting site preparation: Soil analysis 50 50 Pre-ploughing herbicide application 20 20 Pre-ploughing pesticide application 20 20 Plughing (min depth 20-25 cm) 75 75 Power-harrowing 80 80 Post-ploughing herbicide application 20 20 Fencing 740 740 Planting operations: Manual planting 320 Mechanical planting 350 350 Post-planting operations: Post-planting site rolling 10 10 Post-planting residual herbicide application 20 20 Post-planting establishment: Cutback (coppicing) 30 30 Post-cutback herbicide application 60 60 Mechanical in-row weed control 90 90 Harvesting: Chip harvesting 300 300 300 300 300 300 Whole stem harvesting 350 Billet harvesting 350 Biobaler Chipping 10 Transport 70 70 70 70 70 70 Storage & drying: Drying of chips (moisture < 25%) 12 777,423 1130,31 1305,31 1408,67 1476,71 Long-term storage & drying of chips Site restoration: Herbicide application 20 20 Heavy rotavator or forestry mulcher application 80 80 MATERIALS Cuttings (initial planting density) 13000 0,1 1300 1300 Herbicide (Roundup) 40 40 40 Residual herbicide 60 60 Weed killer 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 Management fee 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T O T A L C O S T S 2810 205 0 0 0 1172,42 0 0 0 1525,31 0 0 0 1700,31 0 0 0 1803,67 0 0 0 1986,71
BIOMASS YIELD {Q(t) = exp(a-b/t)} [dry matter per ha] Coppice age (rotation years) 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Variety No.: 1 Tora 2,23 18,32 36,95 52,49 64,79 74,55 82,41 88,84 94,19 98,70 102,55 105,88 108,78 111,32 113,58 115,59 117,39 119,02 120,49 121,83 123,06 Biomass harvest (t/harvest) 64,79 94,19 108,78 117,39 123,06
INCOME Sales of Chips (moisture < 25%) 100 6478,53 9419,24 10877,5 11738,9 12306 Whole stems 60 Billets Bales T O T A L I N C O M E 0 0 0 0 0 6478,53 0 0 0 9419,24 0 0 0 10877,5 0 0 0 11738,9 0 0 0 12306
Initial total costs 2810 Subsidy 1124 Owners Equity 0 Term Start Up Loan 1686 Nominal Rate of Interest 6% Loan Period (Years) 5 Grace Period 1 Loan Servicing: Term Loan 0 0 424 424 424 424 424 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TL - Interest Unpaid 0 101 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TL - Interest Paid 0 0 107 88 68 47 24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TL - Capital Repayment 0 0 317 336 356 378 400 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TL - Amount Outstanding 1686 1787 1470 1134 778 400 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
CASHFLOW Inflow Subsidy 1124 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Term Loan 1686 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total Sales 0 0 0 0 0 6478,53 0 0 0 9419,24 0 0 0 10877,5 0 0 0 11738,9 0 0 0 12306 Total Inflow 2810 0 0 0 0 6478,53 0 0 0 9419,24 0 0 0 10877,5 0 0 0 11738,9 0 0 0 12306 Profit -2810 -205 0 0 0 5306,1 0 0 0 7893,93 0 0 0 9177,24 0 0 0 9935,23 0 0 0 10319,2 Outflow Total Costs 2810 205 0 0 0 1172,42 0 0 0 1525,31 0 0 0 1700,31 0 0 0 1803,67 0 0 0 1986,71 Term Loan Repayments 0 0 424 424 424 424 424 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total Outflows 2810 205 424,265 424,265 424,265 1596,69 424,265 -6E-14 0 1525,31 0 0 0 1700,31 0 0 0 1803,67 0 0 0 1986,71
Net Cashflow 0 -205 -424,27 -424,27 -424,27 4881,84 -424,27 6E-14 0 7893,93 0 0 0 9177,24 0 0 0 9935,23 0 0 0 10319,2 Cumulative Cashflow 0 -205 -629,27 -1053,5 -1477,8 3404,04 2979,78 2979,78 2979,78 10873,7 10873,7 10873,7 10873,7 20050,9 20050,9 20050,9 20050,9 29986,2 29986,2 29986,2 29986,2 40305,4
Capital Costs Coverd with Owners Equity 1686 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Return to Owners Equity -1686 -205 -424,27 -424,27 -424,27 4881,84 -424,27 6E-14 0 7893,93 0 0 0 9177,24 0 0 0 9935,23 0 0 0 10319,2
Present Value 0 -193,4 -377,59 -356,22 -336,06 3647,99 -299,09 4E-14 0 4672,4 0 0 0 4302,65 0 0 0 3689,59 0 0 0 3035,46 Discount Rate 6% 1 2 3 4 5 Variety 1 Tora Tora Gudrun Tordis Inger Sven NPV = 9936,69 NPV 9936,69 9813,7 7557,15 5901,16 6428,95 IRR 34,08% 32,60% 29,51% 25,37% 27,44% Source: Own elaboration
288 AGRO-ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation
CIP - Каталогизација у публикацији Народна библиотека Србије, Београд
620.952(0.034.2)
AGRO-energy for Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development [Elektronski izvor]: good practices from Slovakia-Serbia bilateral cooperation / [authors Eleonóra Marišová ... et. al.]. - Belgrade: Faculty of Applied Ecology Futura, Singidunum University, 2016 (Šabac : Ecograf). - 1 elektronski optički disk (CD-ROM): ilustr.; 12 cm
Sistemski zahtevi: Nisu navedeni. - Nasl. sa naslovne strane dokumenta. - Tiraž 300
ISBN 978-86-86859-53-2 1. Marišová, Eleonóra, 1962- [аутор] a) Биомаса - Коришћење b) Енергија из биомасе COBISS.SR-ID 227988236 289