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Home , Axial compressor, Centrifugal compressor, Jet engine, Jet propulsion, Propfan, Propulsive efficiency

Fundamentals of and ThiS is a FM Blank Page Ahmed F. El-Sayed

Fundamentals of Aircraft and Rocket Propulsion Ahmed F. El-Sayed Department of Mechanical Engineering Zagazig University Zagazig, Egypt

ISBN 978-1-4471-6794-5 ISBN 978-1-4471-6796-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4471-6796-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016940096

© Springer-Verlag 2016 The author(s) has/have asserted their right(s) to be identified as the author(s) of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Design and Patents Act 1988. This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer-Verlag London Ltd. To my parents whose endless love, support, and encouragement were a constant source for my inspiration ThiS is a FM Blank Page Preface

Pedagogically, the fundamental principles are the foundation for lifelong learning. Thus, this book through a simple treatment can provide students of / aeronautical and mechanical engineering with a deep understanding of both aircraft and spacecraft propulsions. The development of aircrafts in only one century is far beyond expectations. December 1903 was the of human-engineered flight when the Wright Brothers flew their first flights that lasted for a few seconds in Ohio, USA. This first aircraft was powered by a single and had no passengers, neither did it have a nor landing gears. It is extremely amazing that in 2011 over 2.8 billion passengers were carried by the world’s commercial airlines via more than 222,500 aircrafts powered by more than 260,000 different types of aero . Some of these aircrafts can carry as many as 800 passengers for more than 15 h of flying time, while others can fly at supersonic . In 2015, the number of passengers exceeded 3.3 billion. Now, piston engines are no longer the single actor in propulsion theater, though they are still dominant! engines were the first jet engines invented in the late 1930s and took a reasonable share in military and civil-powered flights for nearly two decades. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, engines (or bypass turbojet engines) were invented. These are the present prevailing engines which faster, quieter, cleaner, and heavier aircrafts. In the 1950s also two other engine types, namely, and turbo- shaft, were invented to power commercial and military aircrafts and . Due to the rapid advance in air transportation as well as military and intelligence missions, aircraft and rocket propulsion has become an essential part of engineering education. Propulsion is the combined aero-thermal science for aircrafts and . Propulsion has both macro- and microscales. Macroscale handles the performance and operation of aircrafts and rockets during different missions, while microscale is concerned with component design including both rotary mod- ules (i.e., , , , and ) and stationary modules (i.e., , , , and nozzle).

vii viii Preface

The primary aim of this text is to give students a thorough grounding in both the theory and practice of propulsion. It discusses the design, operation, installation and several inspections, repair, and maintenance aspects of aircraft and rocket engines. This book serves as a text for undergraduate and first year graduate students in mechanical, aeronautical, aerospace, avionics, and engineering depart- ments. Moreover, it can be used by practicing engineers in aviation and turbine industries. Background in fluid mechanics and at fundamental levels is assumed. The book also provides educators with comprehensive solved examples, practical engine case studies, intelligent unsolved problems, and design projects. The material of this book is the outcome of industrial, research, and educational experience for more than 40 years in numerous civil, military institu- tions, and companies of 9 countries including the USA, , , UK, Belgium, , and Japan as well as Egypt. The book is composed of 11 chapters and 4 appendices. The first ten chapters handle air-breathing engines, while non-air-breathing (or rocket) engines are ana- lyzed in Chap. 11. Chapter 1 is rather a unique one! It provides a rigorous classification of all types of aircrafts and its sources of power. The first part classifies aircrafts as aerostats/ aerodynes, fixed wing/rotary wing (or rotorcrafts), and hybrid fixed/rotary wings as well as all other lift aircrafts (flapping wing or ornithopter, lifting body, and fan wing). The second part handles power plant types. Power plants belong to two main groups, namely, external and internal engines. External combustion engines are steam, Stirling, and nuclear engines. Internal combustion engines are further classified as shaft and reaction engines. Shaft engine group is either of the intermittent combustion types (Wankel and piston) or continuous combustion types (turboprop, , and ). Reaction engines are either of the athodyd or turbine engines. Athodyd engines include , , and (valved, valveless, and pulse types). Finally, turbine-based engines include turbojet, turbofan, and turbo-ramjet engines. Chapters 2 and 3 emphasize that a few fundamental physical principles, rightly applied, can provide a deep understanding of operation and performance of aircrafts and space . Chapter 2 provides a review of basic laws of compressible flow with heat and friction. Conservation of , , moment of momentum, and equations applied to open control volume are reviewed. A review for aspects of normal and oblique shock waves and Fanno and Rayleigh flows follows. Flow in diffusers in aircrafts as well as flow in nozzles in both aircrafts and rockets are discussed. Standard atmosphere is highlighted to emphasize variations of air prop- erties at different altitudes. Chapter 3 relies upon governing formulae reviewed in Chap. 2 in driving the different performance parameters of , namely, force, operation efficiencies (propulsive, thermal, and overall), specific , and consump- tion. Other parameters that couple aircraft and engine performance like aircraft Preface ix range and endurance are presented. Analysis of aircraft mission, route planning, and non-return point are highlighted. Chapter 4 provides the necessary analyses of piston engines and . Though piston engine was the first in-flight air-breathing engine employed by the Wright brothers in 1903, it maintains its strong existence until now. It represents more than 70 % of present-day air-breathing engines. They are extensively used in small fixed wing, sport aircrafts, UAVs, and lighter than air flying vehicles, as well as many rotorcrafts. Unfortunately, it is overlooked in most available propulsion books. A concise analysis of power cycles for two- and four-stroke engines, compression or spark ignition (CI and SI), and Wankel engines as well as turbo- and is reviewed for power and thermal efficiency optimization. Piston engines cannot generate the necessary propulsive force for a flying on its own. Thus, it should be coupled to propellers. Classifications of propellers based on various aspects are defined. ’s power and thrust force coefficients are defined using simple aerodynamic theories (momentum, modified momentum, and blade-element). Chapter 5 is devoted to athodyd (nonrotating modules) engines, namely, pulsejet, ramjet, and scramjet engines. All cannot produce thrust force at zero flight , so other propulsive methods are used for takeoff operation. Each engine is composed of intake, , and nozzle. An analysis of ideal and real cycles as well as performance parameters of all engines is identified. Pulsejet engine is an internal combustion engine that produces thrust intermittently and is either of the valved or valveless type. (PDE) is evolved in the last decade. PDE promises higher fuel efficiency (even compared with turbofan jet engines). Ramjet engine represents the first invented continuous combustion engine. It is used in both aircrafts and rockets. The third engine analyzed in this chapter is scramjet (supersonic combustion ramjet). Combustion takes place in supersonic airflow. Thus it can fly at extremely high speeds (NASA X-43A reached Mach 9.6). Finally, dual-mode (Ram-Scram) combustion engine is analyzed. Chapters 6 and 7 treat air-breathing engines incorporating rotating modules. Chapter 6 handles turbine-based engines (turbojet, turbofan, and turbo-ramjet), while Chap. 7 treats shaft-based engines (turboprop, turboshaft, and propfan). One of the objectives of both chapters is to exercise students to practice realistic engines, build confidence, and a sense of professionalism. Both chapters start with a historical prospective and a classification of each engine. Next, thermodynamic and performance analyses for ideal and real cycles are introduced and further explained via solved examples. Chapter 6 starts by the first flown , namely, turbojet engine, which was coinvented in the 1930s by British and German activities. Analyses of single and double spools in the presence and absence of afterburner are described. Though rarely used in airliners or military planes in present days, it is still used in micro and turbojets powering rockets during sustained flight. Turbofan engines are continuing its superiority for most present commercial airliners and military planes as well as some rockets for sustained flight. A unique classification of the numerous types of this engine based on fan location x Preface

(forward/aft), (low/high), number of spools (single/double/triple), number of nozzles (single/double), fan/turbine coupling (geared/ungeared), and finally afterburner (present/absent) is given. After detailed analyses for some (not all) types of turbofan, the third engine, namely, turbo-ramjet, is presented. It is found in two configurations: wraparound or above/under types. An analysis of its single mode or combined mode is precisely defined. Chapter 7 is confined to shaft-based engines in which performance is controlled by shaft power rather than thrust force. Also, its economy is governed by brake- specific fuel consumption rather than thrust-specific fuel consumption. Turboprop engines power manned and unmanned aircrafts. It may be of the puller (tractor) or pusher types. It may be also either a single or double spool. This section is ended by an analogy between turboprop and turbofan engines. Next, turboshaft engines which mainly power are classified and analyzed. Exhaust speeds are no longer important in this type of engines as all available energy is converted into shaft power. Finally, propfan or unducted fan (UDF) engines, normally described as ultrahigh bypass (UHP) ratio engine, are classified based on fan location (forward/ aft) and numbers of fan stages (single/double). A thermodynamic analysis of this engine is presented for the first time in this book. It combines features from both turbofan and turboprop engines. Chapter 8 presents aero-/thermodynamic analyses of stationary modules of jet engines, namely, , combustion chamber, afterburner, and nozzle. At first, different methods for power plant installation (wing/fuselage/tail, or combinations) are discussed as it has a direct influence on air flow rates into intakes and ingestion of foreign objects into the engines. Also, intakes for fixed and rotary wing aircrafts as well as rockets are described. Moreover, subsonic and supersonic intakes are reviewed for optimum jet engine performance. Intake geometry and its perfor- mance are also presented. A review of combustion chambers including types, chemistry of combustion, , and thermodynamics of flow in its differ- ent elements is presented. in turbojets/ in supersonic aircrafts are analyzed. Different types of aviation and biofuels as a future for green aviation are examined. The exhaust system is treated here in a general scope. Convergent and convergent divergent (de Laval) nozzles are analyzed. Moreover, thrust reverse and are reviewed. Noise control for nozzles is given. (i.e., fans, , and ) are treated in Chaps. 9 and 10. The objective of both chapters is to provide a simplified understanding of its aerodynamics, thermal, and stresses in both compressors and turbines. In Chap. 9, different types of compressors are first identified, but only centrifugal and axial flow types are analyzed. The three main components of , namely, impeller, stator, and volute/scroll, are first analyzed taking into consideration their different types. Positive/negative prewhirl is also presented. Concerning , the aerodynamics of single and multistages is reviewed. A perfor- mance map for both compressors is employed in identifying design and off-design operation. Lastly, different mechanisms for avoiding surge and rotating stall are discussed. Preface xi

Chapter 10 treats radial and axial flow turbines. Radial turbine is to a great extent similar to centrifugal compressor. The aerodynamics and thermodynamics of its components (i.e., inlet, nozzle, rotor, and outlet duct) are presented. Next, single and multistage axial flow turbines are treated with either impulse or reaction blading. Mechanical design and cooling techniques are reviewed. Finally, turbine map and off-design performance of both turbines are discussed. Matching between compressors and turbines in both gas generators and jet engines ends this chapter. Rocket propulsion is discussed in Chap. 11. It starts with a brief history of rocketry followed by classifications of rockets based on type, launching mode, range, engine, warhead, and guidance systems. Rocket performance parameters (i.e., thrust force, effective exhaust , specific impulse, thrust coefficient, and combustion chamber drop) are derived in closed forms similar to those in Chap. 3 for air-breathing engines. A comprehensive section for multistaging is presented. Finally, an analysis of exhaust system (i.e., nozzle geometry, exhaust velocity, and structural coefficient) is given. Both chemical and nonchemical rocket engines are reviewed. Chemical rockets are further divided into liquid, solid, and hybrid rockets. Solid types, combustion chamber, and nozzles are defined. In liquid propellant rockets, a is added. A hybrid rocket combines liquid and solid propellant systems. Nonchemical rockets including nuclear heating and electrically powered and electrothermal, electromagnetic, and electrostatic are reviewed. The book ends with 4 appendices. These lists chronicle details of piston, turbojet, and turbofan engines, as well as milestones for rockets. Finally, I would like to express my sincere appreciation and gratitude to Industries and Rolls-Royce plc for their permission to use illustrations and photo- graphs within this text. I would like to express my sincere thanks to my editor, Charlotte Cross, who was a great help since day one and continued her support during the tough time of manuscript writing. I’m deeply honored by the support of the dean and staff of Institute for Physics and (MIPT), Moscow University, and for granting me their medal of 50th anniversary Particular thanks for the continuous help and technical support of: • Professor Darrell Pepper, Director, NCACM, University of Nevada Las Vegas, USA • Mr. Joseph Veres, Compressor Section, NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleve- land, USA • Professor Louis Chow, University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA • Dr. Dennis Barbeau, AIAA Phoenix Section, USA I would like to express my sincere thanks and utmost gratitude to my students: Ahmed Z. Almeldein, Aerospace Department, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, ; Mohamed Aziz and Eslam Said Ahmed, Institute of Aviation Engineering and Technology (IAET); Amr Kamel, Egyptian ; Mohamed Emera and Ibrahim Roufael, Mechanical Power Engineering xii Preface

Department, Zagazig University; and Ahmed Hamed, Senior Production Engineer, Engine Overhaul Directorate, EgyptAir Maintenance and Engineering Company. At last, I extend my heartfelt gratitude to my wife, Amany, and sons Mohamed, Abdallah, and Khalid who were the real inspiration and motivation behind this work.

Zagazig, Egypt Ahmed F. El-Sayed Contents

1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts ...... 3 1.2.1 General ...... 3 1.2.2 Aerostats ...... 3 1.2.3 Aerodynes ...... 4 1.2.4 Fixed Wing Aircrafts ...... 5 1.2.5 Rotorcrafts (Rotor-Wing Aircrafts) ...... 31 1.2.6 Hybrid Fixed/Rotary Wings ...... 44 1.2.7 Other Methods of Lift Aircrafts ...... 47 1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems ...... 51 1.3.1 External Combustion ...... 51 1.3.2 Internal Combustion ...... 55 1.3.3 Other Power Sources ...... 78 References ...... 89 2 A Review of Basic Laws for a Compressible Flow ...... 91 2.1 Introduction ...... 91 2.2 System and Control Volume ...... 92 2.3 Fundamental Equations ...... 92 2.3.1 Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation) ...... 94 2.3.2 Linear Momentum (’s Second Law) ...... 96 2.3.3 Equation (Moment of Momentum) ...... 103 2.3.4 Energy Equation (First Law of Thermodynamics) ...... 106 2.3.5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics and the Equation ...... 110 2.3.6 ...... 111

xiii xiv Contents

2.4 Steady One-Dimensional Compressible Flow ...... 114 2.4.1 Isentropic Relations ...... 114 2.4.2 Sonic Conditions ...... 116 2.4.3 Classification of Mach Regimes ...... 119 2.4.4 Diffusers and Nozzles ...... 120 2.4.5 Shocks ...... 125 2.5 Rayleigh Flow Equations ...... 146 2.6 The Standard Atmosphere ...... 151 References ...... 160 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines ...... 161 3.1 Introduction ...... 161 3.2 Thrust Force ...... 162 3.3 Factors Affecting Thrust ...... 174 3.3.1 Jet Nozzle ...... 175 3.3.2 Air Speed ...... 175 3.3.3 Mass Air Flow ...... 175 3.3.4 Altitude ...... 176 3.3.5 Ram Effect ...... 177 3.4 Engine Performance Parameters ...... 178 3.4.1 Propulsive Efficiency ...... 179 3.4.2 Thermal Efficiency ...... 186 3.4.3 Propeller Efficiency ...... 189 3.4.4 Overall Efficiency ...... 189 3.4.5 Takeoff Thrust ...... 192 3.4.6 Specific Fuel Consumption ...... 193 3.4.7 Aircraft Range ...... 200 3.4.8 Range Factor ...... 205 3.4.9 Endurance and Endurance Factor ...... 205 3.4.10 Mission Segment Fraction ...... 206 3.4.11 Head- and Tail-Wind ...... 206 3.4.12 Route Planning ...... 209 3.4.13 Specific Impulse ...... 213 References ...... 218 4 Piston Engines and Propellers ...... 219 4.1 Introduction ...... 219 4.2 Intermittent (or Piston) Engines ...... 221 4.2.1 Milestones ...... 223 4.2.2 Types of Aero Piston Engines ...... 223 4.3 Aerodynamics and Thermodynamics of Reciprocating ICE ...... 232 4.3.1 Terminology for Four-Stroke Engine ...... 232 4.3.2 Air-Standard Analysis ...... 233 4.3.3 Engine Cycles ...... 235 Contents xv

4.4 Aircraft Propellers ...... 261 4.4.1 Introduction ...... 261 4.4.2 Nomenclature ...... 264 4.5 Classifications ...... 265 4.5.1 Source of Power ...... 265 4.5.2 Material ...... 265 4.5.3 Coupling to the Output Shaft ...... 267 4.5.4 Control ...... 267 4.5.5 Number of Propellers Coupled to Each Engine . . . . 269 4.5.6 Direction of Rotation ...... 269 4.5.7 Propulsion Method ...... 271 4.5.8 Number of Blades ...... 271 4.6 Aerodynamic Design ...... 273 4.6.1 Axial Momentum, (or Actuator Disk) Theory ..... 274 4.6.2 Modified Momentum or Simple Model ...... 281 4.6.3 Blade Element Considerations ...... 282 4.7 Dimensionless Parameters ...... 287 4.8 Typical Propeller Performance ...... 293 4.9 Conclusion ...... 304 References ...... 313 5 Pulsejet, Ramjet, and Scramjet Engines ...... 315 5.1 Introduction to Athodyd Engines ...... 315 5.2 Pulsejet ...... 315 5.2.1 Introduction ...... 315 5.2.2 Brief History ...... 316 5.2.3 Valved Pulsejet ...... 318 5.2.4 ...... 319 5.2.5 ...... 327 5.2.6 Pulsating Nature of Flow Parameters in Pulsejet Engines ...... 329 5.2.7 Pulse Detonation Engine (PDE) ...... 330 5.3 Ramjet ...... 337 5.3.1 Introduction ...... 337 5.3.2 Applications ...... 338 5.3.3 Aero-Thermodynamic Analysis of Modules ...... 341 5.3.4 Aero-thermodynamic Analysis of Ramjet Cycle ...... 348 5.3.5 Nuclear Ramjet ...... 360 5.3.6 Double Throat Ramjet Engine ...... 362 5.4 Scramjet ...... 364 5.4.1 Introduction ...... 364 5.4.2 Evolution of ...... 365 5.4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Scramjets ...... 367 5.4.4 Aero-Thermodynamic Analysis of Scramjets ...... 367 xvi Contents

5.4.5 Performance Analysis ...... 371 5.4.6 Dual-Mode Combustion Engine (Dual Ram-Scramjet) ...... 376 5.5 Conclusion ...... 386 References ...... 400 6 Turbine-Based Engines: Turbojet, Turbofan, and Turboramjet Engines ...... 403 6.1 Introduction ...... 403 6.2 Turbojet ...... 404 6.2.1 Introduction ...... 404 6.2.2 Milestones of Turbojet Engines ...... 407 6.2.3 Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis of a Single Spool ...... 407 6.2.4 Performance Parameters of a Single Spool ...... 416 6.2.5 Important Definitions ...... 417 6.2.6 Double-Spool Turbojet ...... 430 6.2.7 Thermodynamic Analysis of Double-Spool Turbojet ...... 430 6.2.8 Performance Parameters of Double-Spool Turbojet Engine ...... 435 6.2.9 Micro-turbojet ...... 441 6.3 Turbofan ...... 445 6.3.1 Introduction ...... 445 6.3.2 Milestones ...... 446 6.3.3 Classifications of Turbofan Engines ...... 446 6.3.4 Forward Fan Unmixed Double-Spool Configuration ...... 448 6.3.5 Forward Fan Mixed-Flow Engine ...... 461 6.3.6 Forward Fan Unmixed Three-Spool Engine ...... 471 6.4 Turbine-Based Combined-Cycle (TBCC) Engines ...... 479 6.4.1 Introduction ...... 479 6.4.2 Historical Review of Supersonic and Hypersonic Aircrafts ...... 481 6.4.3 Technology Challenges of the Future ...... 486 6.4.4 Propulsion System Configurations ...... 486 6.4.5 Performance of TBCC (or Hybrid Engine) ...... 490 6.4.6 Cycle Analysis of Turboramjet (or TBCC) Engine ...... 492 6.4.7 General Analysis for a Turboramjet Engine ...... 498 6.4.8 Design Procedure ...... 508 6.4.9 Future TBCC Engine ...... 509 6.5 Conclusion ...... 509 References ...... 528 Contents xvii

7 Shaft Engines Turboprop, Turboshaft, and Propfan ...... 531 7.1 Introduction ...... 531 7.2 Turboprop Engines ...... 532 7.2.1 Introduction ...... 532 7.2.2 Milestones ...... 534 7.2.3 Thermodynamics Analysis of Turboprop Engines ...... 538 7.2.4 Equivalent Engine Power ...... 545 7.2.5 Fuel Consumption ...... 546 7.2.6 Analogy with Turbofan Engines ...... 552 7.3 Turboshaft ...... 553 7.3.1 Introduction ...... 553 7.3.2 Examples for Turboshaft Manufacturers and Engines ...... 553 7.3.3 Thermodynamic Analysis of Turboshaft Engines . . . 556 7.3.4 Power Generated by Turboshaft Engines ...... 557 7.4 Propfan ...... 564 7.4.1 Introduction ...... 564 7.4.2 Historical Hints ...... 565 7.4.3 Classifications of ...... 567 7.4.4 Comparisons Between Turboprop, Propfan, and Turbofan ...... 569 References ...... 587 8 Stationary Modules Intakes, , and Nozzles ...... 589 8.1 Intake ...... 589 8.1.1 Introduction ...... 589 8.1.2 Power Plant Installation ...... 590 8.1.3 Inlet Performance Parameters ...... 619 8.1.4 Subsonic Intakes ...... 621 8.1.5 Supersonic Intakes ...... 637 8.1.6 Hypersonic Inlets ...... 645 8.1.7 Performance Parameters ...... 646 8.2 Combustion Systems ...... 653 8.2.1 Introduction ...... 653 8.2.2 Types of Combustion Chamber ...... 653 8.2.3 Components of Combustion Chamber ...... 658 8.2.4 Aerodynamics of Combustion Chamber ...... 661 8.2.5 The Chemistry of Combustion ...... 665 8.2.6 The First Law Analysis of Combustion ...... 668 8.2.7 Combustion Chamber Performance ...... 669 8.2.8 Material ...... 672 8.2.9 Aircraft Fuels ...... 672 8.2.10 Emissions and Pollutants ...... 674 8.2.11 Afterburner ...... 675 xviii Contents

8.3 Exhaust Nozzle ...... 677 8.3.1 Introduction ...... 677 8.3.2 Operation of Nozzles ...... 680 8.3.3 Performance Parameters of Nozzles ...... 681 8.3.4 High-Speed Vehicles ...... 689 References ...... 700 9 Centrifugal and Axial Compressors ...... 703 9.1 Introduction ...... 703 9.2 Centrifugal Compressor ...... 703 9.2.1 Introduction ...... 703 9.2.2 Layout of Compressor ...... 706 9.2.3 Classification of Centrifugal Compressors ...... 708 9.2.4 Governing Equations ...... 711 9.2.5 Slip Factor (σ)...... 718 9.2.6 Types of Impeller ...... 724 9.2.7 Impeller Isentropic Efficiency ...... 728 9.2.8 Radial Impeller ...... 733 9.2.9 Diffuser ...... 735 9.2.10 Prewhirl ...... 737 9.2.11 Discharge System ...... 742 9.2.12 ...... 742 9.2.13 Surge ...... 746 9.3 Axial Flow Compressor ...... 747 9.3.1 Introduction ...... 747 9.3.2 Comparison Between Axial and Centrifugal Compressors ...... 750 9.3.3 Mean Flow (Two-Dimensional Approach) ...... 752 9.3.4 Basic Design Parameters ...... 763 9.3.5 Design Parameters ...... 770 9.3.6 Real Flow in Axial Compressor ...... 773 9.3.7 Simplified Radial Equilibrium Equation (SRE) . . . . 775 9.3.8 Conceptual Design Procedure for Axial Compressor ...... 794 9.3.9 Blade Design ...... 808 9.3.10 Choice of Type ...... 812 9.3.11 Compressor Map ...... 813 9.4 Centrifugal and Axial Compressors Material ...... 818 9.5 Closure ...... 819 References ...... 837 10 Turbines ...... 839 10.1 Introduction ...... 839 10.2 Axial Flow Turbines ...... 840 10.2.1 Flow Features ...... 840 10.2.2 Euler Equation ...... 841 Contents xix

10.2.3 Efficiency and Pressure Ratio ...... 843 10.2.4 Loss Coefficients in Nozzle and Rotor ...... 845 10.2.5 Performance Parameters ...... 846 10.2.6 Free Vortex Design ...... 858 10.2.7 Turbine Cooling Techniques ...... 867 10.2.8 Guide Lines for Axial Turbine Design ...... 870 10.2.9 Turbine Map ...... 872 10.3 Radial Flow Turbine ...... 873 10.3.1 Introduction ...... 873 10.3.2 Aero-Thermodynamics of Radial Inflow Turbine ...... 873 10.3.3 Recommended Design Values for Radial Inflow Turbines ...... 879 10.3.4 Radial Versus Axial Turbines ...... 880 10.4 Engine Matching ...... 885 10.4.1 Introduction ...... 885 10.4.2 Compatibility Conditions ...... 885 10.4.3 Single Shaft Gas Turbine Engine ...... 886 10.4.4 Off-Design of Free Turbine Engine ...... 888 References ...... 905 11 Rocket Propulsion ...... 907 11.1 Introduction ...... 907 11.2 History ...... 908 11.2.1 Important Events ...... 908 11.2.2 Future Plans of Rocket and Space (2014 and Beyond) ...... 912 11.3 Classifications of Rockets ...... 912 11.3.1 Method of Propulsion ...... 912 11.3.2 Types of ...... 912 11.3.3 Launch Mode ...... 913 11.3.4 Range ...... 914 11.3.5 Number of Stages ...... 914 11.3.6 Applications ...... 914 11.4 Rocket Performance Parameters ...... 914 11.4.1 Thrust Force ...... 915 11.4.2 Effective Exhaust Velocity (Veff) ...... 915 11.4.3 Exhaust Velocity (ue)...... 919 11.4.4 Important Nozzle Relations ...... 920 11.4.5 Characteristic Velocity (C*) ...... 922 11.4.6 Thrust Coefficient (CF)...... 922 11.4.7 Total Impulse (It)...... 924 11.4.8 Specific Impulse (Isp)...... 924 11.4.9 Specific Propellant Consumption ...... 929 11.4.10 Mass Ratio (MR) ...... 929 xx Contents

11.4.11 Propellant Mass Fraction (ζ)...... 929 11.4.12 Impulse-to-Weight Ratio ...... 930 11.4.13 Efficiencies ...... 930 11.5 The Rocket Equation ...... 933 11.5.1 Single-Stage Rocket ...... 933 11.5.2 Multistage Rockets ...... 937 11.5.3 Rocket Equation for a Series Multistage Rocket...... 938 11.5.4 Rocket Equation for a Parallel Multistage Rocket...... 940 11.5.5 Advantages of Staging ...... 940 11.5.6 Disadvantages of Staging ...... 941 11.6 Chemical Rocket Engines ...... 945 11.6.1 Introduction ...... 945 11.6.2 Performance Characteristics ...... 945 11.7 Solid Propellant ...... 946 11.7.1 Introduction ...... 946 11.7.2 Composition of a Solid Propellant ...... 948 11.7.3 Basic Definitions ...... 949 11.7.4 Burning Rate ...... 950 11.7.5 Characteristics of Some Solid ...... 958 11.8 Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engines (LREs) ...... 959 11.8.1 Introduction ...... 959 11.8.2 Applications ...... 960 11.8.3 Propellant Feed System of LREs ...... 961 11.8.4 Liquid Propellants ...... 962 11.8.5 Fundamental Relations ...... 965 11.8.6 Pump-Fed System ...... 968 11.8.7 Rocket ...... 972 11.8.8 Pump Materials and Fabrication Processes ...... 973 11.8.9 Axial Turbine ...... 974 11.9 Hybrid Propulsion ...... 976 11.9.1 Introduction ...... 976 11.9.2 Mathematical Modeling ...... 978 11.9.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hybrid Engines ...... 980 11.10 Nuclear Rocket Propulsion ...... 981 11.11 Electric Rocket Propulsion ...... 982 11.11.1 Introduction ...... 982 11.11.2 Electrostatic Rockets ...... 983 11.11.3 Electrothermal Rockets ...... 983 11.11.4 Electromagnetic Rockets ...... 984 References ...... 990 Contents xxi

Appendices ...... 993 Appendix A ...... 993 Appendix B ...... 994 Appendix C ...... 996 Appendix D ...... 999

Index ...... 1003