ISSN 2615-6075 (online) ISSN 2615-6946 (print) Journal of Socioeconomics and Development
Volume 1, Number 1, April 2018
Empowerment Strategy of The Traditional Fisherman’s Wifes in The Coastal Area of Barru Regency, South Sulawesi Abd. Rahim
The Sacred Site: The Conservation Based on The Local People In Tengger Community and Its Potential as Ecotourism Activity Purnomo, Anggraeni In Oktaviani, and Iwan Nugroho
The Testing of Entrepreneurship As The Attempt to Remodel The Factor ff Production In The Rice Farming Darmadji and Suwarta
The Influence of Business Management on Income and The Risk of Income in The Broiler Chicken Farming Suwarta and Rita Hanafie
Establish The Perception of Agricultural Extension Worker Through Cyber Extension as A Media Information Latarus Fangohoi, Sugiyanto, Keppi Sukesi, and Edi Dwi Cahyono
The Level Sustainability of Rice Farming on Peatland in The Kapuas Regency, Central Kalimantan Jhon Wardie and Tri Yuliana Eka Sintha
The Planning and Development of Ecotourism and Tourism Village in Indonesia: A Policy Review Iwan Nugroho, Purnawan Dwikora Negara, and Hefifa Rhesa Yuniar
Institutional Development of Irrigation Management Based on The Local Wisdom in Indonesia Popi Rejekiningrum and Budi Kartiwa
The Study Program of Socioeconomics (Agribusiness), Agriculture Faculty, Widyagama University of Malang Jl. Taman Borobudur Indah No. 3 Malang 65142 INDONESIA Phone / Fax +62341 496919 Email: [email protected] OJS http://publishing-widyagama.ac.id/ejournal-v2/index.php/jsed/ ISSN 2615-6075 (online) ISSN 2615-6946 (print)
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development (JSeD) publishes articles in the social and economic scope, development economics, social development, agribusiness, human resources development, regional development, institutional development, and sustainable development. JSeD is managed by The Study Program of Socioeconomics (Agribusiness), Agriculture Faculty, Widyagama University of Malang. JSeD is published bianually on April and October, available in printed and online version. JSeD receives articles of empirical research and literature reviews. Editors can revise the paper without changing the substance and content after review process. The articles sent by the author must be an original script and is not being considered for publication by other journal or publishers. The authors should ensure that they have written entirely original works, and if the authors have used the work and/or words of others that this has been appropriately cited or quoted.
Editorial Team Editor in Chief Isnaini Nur Safitri, SPd., MPd, Widyagama University of Malang Editorial Board Prof. Dr. Ir. Iwan Nugroho, MS, Widyagama University of Malang Dr. Evi Nurifah Julitasari, SP., MP, Widyagama University of Malang Dr. Ana Sopanah, SE., MSi, Widyagama University of Malang Dr. Purnawan Dwikora Negara, SH., MH, Widyagama University of Malang Dr. Ir. Rita Hanafie, MP, Widyagama University of Malang Dr. Ir. Suwarta, MP, Widyagama University of Malang Dr. Ir. Darmadji, MP, Widyagama University of Malang Associate Editors Prof. Dr. Maryunani SE., MS, University of Brawijaya, Malang Prof (res). Dr. Endang Turmudi, MA. Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Jakarta Prof. Dr. Ir. Soetriono, MS, University of Jember Prof. Dr. Ir. Jabal Tarik Ibrahim, MSi, University of Muhammadiyah Malang Dr. Mulyaningrum, SE, M.Hum, University of Pasundan, Bandung Technical Editor Hefifa Rhesa Yuniar, SIIP, Widyagama University of Malang
Editor Address: The Study Program of Socioeconomics (Agribusiness), Agriculture Faculty, Widyagama University of Malang Jl. Taman Borobudur Indah No. 3 Malang 65142 INDONESIA Phone / Fax +62341 496919 Email: [email protected] OJS http://publishing-widyagama.ac.id/ejournal-v2/index.php/jsed
Published by Badan Penerbitan Universitas Widyagama Malang @UWG Press, 2018 Website https://widyagama.org/pustaka/bpuwg
ISSN 2615-6075 (online) ISSN 2615-6946 (print)
Volume 1, Number 1, April 2018
Table of Content
Empowerment Strategy of The Traditional Fisherman’s Wifes in The Coastal Area of Barru Regency, South Sulawesi, Abd. Rahim...... 1-6 DOI: 10.31328/jsed.v1i1.515
The Sacred Site: The Conservation Based on The Local People in Tengger Community and Its Potential as Ecotourism Activity, Purnomo, Anggraeni In Oktaviani, and Iwan Nugroho...... 7-15 DOI: 10.31328/jsed.v1i1.517
The Testing of Entrepreneurship as The Attempt to Remodel The Factor of Production In The Rice Farming, Darmadji and Suwarta ...... 16-24 DOI: 10.31328/jsed.v1i1.519
The Influence of Business Management on Income and The Risk of Income in The Broiler Chicken Farming, Suwarta and Rita Hanafie ...... 25-31 DOI: 10.31328/jsed.v1i1.520
Establish The Perception of Agricultural Extension Worker Through Cyber Extension as A Media Information, Latarus Fangohoi, Sugiyanto, Keppi Sukesi, and Edi Dwi Cahyono ...... 32-37 DOI: 10.31328/jsed.v1i1.530
The Level Sustainability of Rice Farming on Peatland in The Kapuas Regency, Central Kalimantan, Jhon Wardie and Tri Yuliana Eka Sintha ...... 38-42 DOI: 10.31328/jsed.v1i1.531
The Planning and Development of Ecotourism and Tourism Village in Indonesia: A Policy Review, Iwan Nugroho, Purnawan Dwikora Negara, and Hefifa Rhesa Yuniar ...... 43-51 DOI: 10.31328/jsed.v1i1.532
Institutional Development of Irrigation Management Based on The Local Wisdom in Indonesia, Popi Rejekiningrum and Budi Kartiwa ...... 52-62 DOI: 10.31328/jsed.v1i1.535
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Journal of Socioeconomics and Development Widyagama Vol 1, No 1, April 2018, 1 – 6 DOI: 10.31328/jsed.v1i1.515
THE EMPOWERMENT STRATEGY OF THE TRADITIONAL FISHERMAN’S WIVES IN THE COASTAL AREA OF BARRU REGENCY, SOUTH SULAWESI
Abd. Rahim1*
1 Study program of Development Economics, Faculty of Economics, State University of Makassar
(Received April 12, 2017; accepted February 24, 2018)
ABSTRACT. The policy of the Sarpras assistance program from the local government through the Office of Marine and Fisheries of Barru Regency has been conducted, but the income of traditional fisherman is not sufficient. Therefore, the role of wives is needed to fulfill the needs of the household. Research conducted in the Western Coastal Area of Barru Regency of South Sulawesi Province of Indonesia aims to analyze the empowerment strategy of traditional capture fisherman wives in order to improve the household economy. The type of research is a descriptive method with SWOT (Strength, Weakness Opportunities, and Threats) analysis technique through IFAS (Internal Factors Analysis Summary) and EFAS (External Factors Analysis Summary) and SWOT Matrix. Based on the time dimension using cross-sectional data of 2016 comes from the primary data. The samples of respondents were 34 traditional fishermen wives who worked in business groups in the sample districts by the census. The findings of the fishermen wives empowerment strategy can be done through strengthening coastal community institutions, access to capital, access to infrastructure and facilities, the technology of processing equipment, processed product modification technology, and marketing of processed fish products. Keywords: woman, capital, institution, SWOT, fishery
JEL Classification: D19, Q22
INTRODUCTION as technological advances to improve their catch result (Lindawati, 2007). The Sarpras (infrastructure facilities) assistance program policy has been developed by the local Therefore, in improving the household government of Barru Regency through the Office of economy, it is necessary to have the wives' role in Marine and Fisheries (OMF). The program of fulfilling their needs, such as empowering women Barru Regency included the fishing gear and (Widodo et al. 2011; Handajani et al. 2015) and outboard machine (Rahim et al., 2015; Rahim et traditional fisherman's wives (Rahim et al. 2016). al., 2016), changes in catches production (Kadir, Because if fishermen are harder to earn, the 2009; Rahim, 2013), and catch income (Rahim, hardest party to bear life in fisherman's household 2011; Rahim et al. 2012; Rahim and Hastuti, 2016). is the fisherman's wives or women (Kusnadi, 2009). However, household incomes have not yet satisfied The magnitude of the contribution of fishermen the needs of traditional fisherman households wives to the increasing income of traditional (Rahim et al., 2014; Winarti and Permadi, 2015) fishermen households (Akbarini et al. 2012) is a and on expenditure for household consumption form of ability and independence of women in (Rahim et al., 2014). The aid of the program is the coastal areas to sustain their family's economy. choice of the fishermen's decision in the use of According to Azizi et al. (2012), fisherman wives fishing gear and outboard engines (Rahim, 2016) dominate working in the field of the fish processing industry, fish traders, and practical preparation, * Corresponding author email: [email protected], while fisherman works in fishing operations only. ISSN 2615-6075 online; ISSN 2615-6946 print @UWG Press, 2018 Fishermen women have a dual function, namely OJS http://publishing-widyagama.ac.id/ejournal- v2/index.php/jsed/ as the wives of fishermen and head of the family when the fishermen go to the sea (Marini and
2 Rahim, Empowerment Strategy of Traditional Fisherman’s Wives ..
Ningsih, 2015). Study of Nugraheni (2012) showed RESEARCH METHOD that besides as fisherman woman, their role is as The type of the research used by the researcher housewives (domestic), participants, and earning a was the descriptive method. According to living for the economic fulfillment of his family. Singarimbun and Effendi (1989), it is a careful Those research indeed differ from the study measurement of social phenomena. In connection found by Widodo et al. (2011), which is the with this research, this formulates the strategies to empowerment of fishermen women in the coastal improve the economy of traditional fishers through area of Pondok Kelapa District, North Bengkulu the development of models to improve the Regency with the application of Post Fish empowerment of fishermen's wives to develop the Processing Technology. Handajani et al. (2015) household economy in the West Coastal Areas of analyze the model of fostering traditional female Barru Regency, South Sulawesi Province Indonesia. fishermen in the South Coast Areas to improve the Furthermore, based on the time dimension welfare focused on abon processing. Nandy (2015) cross-section data of 2016, it was sourced from the in the West Bengal India finds the role of primary data. The samples of the research microfinance and self-help groups in empowering respondents were traditional captive fisherman's women fishermen. Meanwhile, Puspita and Widanta wives (outboard motor boats and non-powered (2016) in Sarangan Village explored the form of motor boats) by the census as many as 34 fishermen wives empowerment program and Haque fishermen wives working in business groups in the (2016) in Balbari District India in empowered sample district (Table 1). It was directly next to the women with fishing practices. western coastal areas and the Sulawesi Strait The fisheries development objectives include (Dinas Perikanan dan Kelautan Sulawesi Selatan, improving the welfare of fishermen, fish farmers, 2015). and other coastal communities (Keputusan Menteri Table 1. Business Group Membership of Traditional Kelautan dan Perikanan No.18/Men/2002). Fisherman's Wives in Barru Regency Furthermore, the policy conducted through the Name of Fisher- development of economic activities, improving the No District/Village Business Total Women man quality and quantity of human resources, Group wives institutional strengthening social, economic, and 1 Barru/Sumpang Sejahtera 8 6 4 Binangae utilizing the marine and fishery resources in an 2 Balusu/Madello Konya 10 8 7 optimal and sustainable (Keputusan Menteri 3 Soppeng Riaja/ Asoka 20 15 11 Kelautan dan Perikanan No.18/ Men/2004). Lawallu 4 Tanete Rilau/ Istana 14 11 9 Based on this, the empowerment strategy of Likupasi Sunu 5 Mallusetasi/Kupa Berkah 5 3 3 the traditional fishermen wives in the west coastal Total 57 40 34 area of Barru Regency of South Sulawesi Province Source: Rahim et al. (2016)
Indonesia is fascinating to be studied. According to the Karunia (2009), the concept of Furthermore, the empowerment strategy of the empowerment implied independence, participation, fisherman wives was formulated using SWOT network, and justice. It enhances the power of analysis (Strength, Weakness Opportunities, and individual level and social groups that can improve Threats) (Rangkuti, 2015). the livelihoods of coastal communities. The empowerment frequently stated as the RESULT AND DISCUSSION development of small and medium enterprises To improve the economic improvement strategy (SMEs), by establishing integrated fishery of the traditional fishermen households in the agribusiness system, improving the quality of western coastal area of Barru Regency, it is not fisheries human resources through enhancement of only to assess the implications of the Sapras fisheries science and technology implementation assistance program, but it is necessary to consider and development of marine industries. the sustainability aspect of a fishing business. The strategy of empowering fishermen's wives to
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 3 improve the fisherman's household in the Barru consisted of (i) the weak of capital in fish Regency is through the method of identifying processing business (0.17), (ii) the lack of business external factors and internal factors from various community of fishermen (0.14), (iii) the simple aspects. The methods approach are SWOT analysis. technology for capturing fisheries processing business (0.16), and (iv) the very low of Table 2. Assessment of Internal Factor Analysis Summary (IFAS) production and marketing of processed products such as abon in some business groups (0.09), as Internal Factor Weight Rating Score Strength presented at Table 2. In the external factors or 1. The potential age of fisherman's 0.23 3 0.69 EFAS, the total value obtained 3.37 in which it is wives higher than 2.5. It provides the understanding that 2. The motivation of fishermen wives 0.22 3 0.66 3. The shelf life of processed 0.24 3.5 0.84 the environmental condition of the west coastal products area of Barru Regency can give a positive response Total Strength 2.19 Weakness for the empowerment of fishermen women. 1. The weakness of capital in fish 0.07 1 0.07 Table 3. Assessment of External Factor Analysis processing business 2. A lack of community business of 0.07 2 0.14 Summary (EFAS) fishermen External Factor Weight Rating Score 3. The women business group is not 0.08 2 0.16 Strength yet developed 1. The potential of fish resources has 0.21 4 0.84 4. The limitations of supporting 0.09 1 0.09 not been utilized optimally facilities in business groups 2. The local government and private 0.20 4 0.80 Total Weakness 0.46 sector policy support Total Internal Factors 1.00 2.65 3. The cooperative membership of 0.19 3.5 0.67 Description: 1 = very weak; 2 = rather weak; 3 = somewhat fishermen strong; and 4 = very strong 4. The employment opportunities in 0.20 4 0.80 Source : Rahim et al. (2016) the field of processing of capture fisheries Total Strength 2.19 Internal factor that directly affects the activities Weakness of the economic improvement strategy which 1. The price of the competitor 0.07 1 0.07 processed products consists of strength and weakness While an 2. The existence of famine season 0.06 2 0.12 external factor is from the environment which also 3. The fresh fish prices fluctuate 0.07 1 0.07 influences the actions of empowerment of the Total Weakness 0.26 Total Internal Factors 1.00 3.37 fishermen women which consists of opportunities Description: 1 = very weak; 2 = rather weak; 3 = somewhat and threats. strong; and 4 = very strong Source : Rahim et al. (2016) The internal and external factors that influence how the fishermen women empower are the matrix These findings are different from the studies of model of IFAS and EFAS. Based on IFAS analysis, Firdaus and Rahadian (2015) in Penjajab Village, the total internal factor value obtained was 3.37 Pemangkat Subdistrict, Sambas Regency which which is greater than the average value of 2.65. found that most fishermen wives have jobs as This gives an illustration that the internal situation fishery product processors (crackers, dried fish and of women fishermen actually can overcome various shrimp paste) so that the household income is internal problems to capture fisheries business. highly dependent on the catch of her husband. The IFAS calculation results showed internal Furthermore, the result of EFAS analysis (Table factors that have the main strength to improve the 3) shows that the main external factors that fishermen's household economy were (i) the influence the empowerment strategy of the potential age of coastal fishermen women (0.69), fisherman woman are (i) the minimum use for (ii) the motivation of coastal fishermen women potential fish resource (0,84), (ii) the local (0.66), and (iii) the shelf life of processed products government and private policy support (0.80), (ii) (0.84). the cooperative members of fishermen (0.67), (iv) Meanwhile, the main weakness in the the employment opportunities in the field of improvement of household fishermen economy processing of capture fisheries (0.80). On the other
4 Rahim, Empowerment Strategy of Traditional Fisherman’s Wives .. hand, the main threats are (i) the price of of fishermen woman submitted in Table 4. competitively processed products (0.07), (ii) when The result of SWOT analysis (Table 4) has famine season exists (0.12), and (iii) the fresh fish formulated 6 (six) alternative improvements of the prices fluctuation (0.07). empowerment strategy of fisherman woman. Those The improvement strategy of the fisherman were: (i) how the institutional strengthening of household through empowerment of the fisherman coastal community developed, (ii) the development wives was expressed through the external factor of access to capital, (iii) access to infrastructure and the internal factor. Those are developing the and facilities build, (iv) processing equipment strength and opportunity owned and minimizing the technology supplied, (v) modified product weakness and threat faced. Based on IFAS and technology created, and (vi) marketing of fish EFAS, an alternative strategy of the empowerment caught production opened.
Table 4. SWOT Matrix Strategy for Improving Household Economy
Strengths Weaknesses Internal 1. The potential wives of coastal 1. The weak capital in fish processing Factors fisherman's wives business 2. The perseverance and motivation of 2. The lack of business community of coastal fisherman's wives fishermen External 3. The shelf life of processed products 3. The non-existence of fisherman’s Factors women business group 4. The limitations of supporting facilities in some business groups Opportunities SO Strategy WO Strategy 1. The minimum utilization for potential fish The development of processing The development of access to capital resources equipment technology The development of access to 2. The local government and private sector policy infrastructure and facilities support The development of institutional 3. The cooperative membership of fishermen strengthening of fisheries products 4. The employment opportunities in the field of business processing of capture fisheries Threats ST Strategy WT Strategy 1. The price of competitor processed products The development of marketing of fish The development of processed product 2. The existence of famine season cultivation modification technology 3. The fresh fish prices fluctuate Source: Rahim et al. (2016)
These findings differ from the study of Widodo rattan or palm leaf), and making souvenir (from et al. (2011) that found that the fishermen wives in bamboo, wood and coconut shell). the coastal area of Pondok Kelapa District of North CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Bengkulu Regency empowered with the application of Post Fish Processing Technology through 3 The strategy of empowering the traditional (three) stages, including community development, fishermen’s wives in the western coastal area of pre-business development, and business Barru Regency South Sulawesi Province Indonesia development. was to improve the household economy through a strengthening of activities. These included the Handayani et al. (2015) found a focal model for coastal community institution, the access to capital, a traditional fishermen women. The model related the access to infrastructure and facilities, the to business development included technology technology of processing equipment of catch, the processing, business management, marketing technology change of processed product, and the techniques, marketing management, business marketing of caught fish products. network building, promotion and finding customers. While the findings of Puspita and Widanta (2016) in The strategy of empowering the traditional Sarangan Village in the form of fishermen wives fisherman's wives can be carried out by a technical empowerment program that is the skill training assistance program of interest-free loans. The such as sewing, fruit basket making (made from support can be obtained from the local government of Marine and Fishery Agency and Industry Service,
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 5 and non-governmental organization / NGO). This Persidangan Kebangsaan Ekonomi Malaysia program can be financed from domestic or foreign (Perkem IV) Memacu Pembangunan Ekonomi funding sources, involving fishermen's wives in the Dalam Ketidaktentuan. Persekitaran Global Kuantan, Pahang, 2-4 Jun 2009. Prosiding region. Perkem IV. (1): 286-304 ACKNOWLEDGMENT Karunia, R. L. 2009. Analisis Kebijakan Peningkatan Kesejahteran Nelayan Kabupaten The authors would like to express their Administrasi Kepulauan Seribu. Disertasi. gratitude to the Office of Marine and Fisheries of Sekolah Pascasarjana Institut Pertanian Bogor. Barru Regency which has provided information in Bogor. the form of secondary data. The appreciation also Keputusan Menteri Kelautan dan Perikanan Nomor does to the Ministry of Research and Technology 18/Men/2002, Tentang Rencana Strategis (Research and Technology) of the Directorate Pembangunan Kelautan Perikanan Tahun 2002- General of Higher Education (DGHE) that has 2004, Jakarta provided research grant funds in the Competitive Keputusan Menteri Kelautan dan Perikanan Nomor grant of applied product research scheme 2015- 18/Men/2004, Tentang Program Pemberdayaan 2016 so that this research can be completed. Ekonomi Masyarakat Pesisir, Jakarta REFERENCES Kusnadi, 2009, Keberdayaan Nelayan dan Dinamika Ekonomi Pesisir, Ar-Ruzz Media, Yogyakarta. Akbarini, T. U., Gumilar, U. dan Grandiosa, R. 2012. Kontribusi ekonomi produktif nelayan Lindawati. 2007. Faktor-faktor yang terhadap pendapatan keluarga nelayan di mempengaruhi peluang berusaha dan kegiatan Pangandaran Kabupaten Ciamis. Jurnal ekonomi rumah tangga istri nelayan pekerja di Perikanan dan Kelautan.3(3): 127-136 Kecamatan Medan Belawan. Wahana Hijau Jurnal Perencanaan & Pengembangan Wilayah. Azizi, A., Hikmah, dan Pranowo, S. A. 2012. Peran 3(1): 1-8 gender dalam pengambilan keputusan rumah tangga nelayan di Kota Semarang Utara Provinsi Marini, I. A. K., dan Ningsih, N. S. K. 2015. Ragam Jawa Tengah. Jurnal Sosial Ekonomi Kelautan aktivitas ekonomi wanita nelayan terhadap dan Perikanan. 7(1): 113-125 peningkatan pendapatan rumah tangga nelayan Di Kota Mataram, Jurnal Ganeç Swara. 9(1): Dinas Perikanan dan Kelautan Propinsi Sulawesi 53-59 Selatan. 2015. Statistik Perikanan, Sulawesi Selatan Nandy, S. 2015. Role of microfinance and self-help groups in empowering fisherwomen community Firdaus, M., dan Rahadian, R. 2015. Peran istri in West Bengal: A Study of Two Selected nelayan dalam meningkatkan pendapatan Districts. International Research Journal of rumah tangga (Studi Kasus Di Desa Penjajab, Interdisciplinary & Multidisciplinary Studies. Kecamatan Pemangkat, Kabupaten Sambas). 1(6): 106-112 Jurnal Sosial Ekonomi Kelautan dan Perikanan. 10(2): 241-249 Nugraheni, W. 2012. Peran dan potensi wanita dalam pemenuhan kebutuhan ekonomi keluarga Handajani H., Relawati, R. dan Handayanto, E. nelayan, Journal of Educational Social Studies. 2015. Peran gender dalam keluarga nelayan 1(2): 106-111 tradisional dan implikasinya pada model pemberdayaan perempuan di Kawasan Pesisir Puspita, L. M. R. dan Widanta, A. A. B. P. 2016. Malang Selatan. Jurnal Perempuan dan Anak. Analisis pendapatan istri nelayan dalam upaya (1): 1 - 21 meningkatkan pendapatan keluarga di desa Serangan Jurnal Ekonomi Pembangungan Haque, C.M, 2016, fishing practices and the socio- Universitas Udayana. 5(7): 846-860 economic empowerment of the Kaibartta women: A Case study in The Nalbari District of Rahim, A. 2011. Analisis pendapatan usaha Assam: India, IOSR Journal Of Humanities And tangkap nelayan dan faktor-faktor yang Social Science . 21(4): 51-58 mempengaruhinya di wilayah pesisir pantai Sulawesi Selatan. Jurnal Sosial Ekonomi Kadir, A. A. A., and Sohor, D. 2009. Analisis faktor Kelautan Dan Perikanan. 6(2): 235-247 yang mempengaruhi hasil tangkapan ikan: Kajian di Perairan Sabak Bernam, Selangor.
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Journal of Socioeconomics and Development Vol 1, No 1, April 2018, 7 – 15 Widyagama DOI: 10.31328/jsed.v1i1.517
THE SACRED SITE: THE CONSERVATION BASED ON THE LOCAL PEOPLE IN TENGGER COMMUNITY AND ITS POTENTIAL AS ECOTOURISM ACTIVITIES
Purnomo1*, Anggraeni In Oktaviani1, and Iwan Nugroho2
1 Graduate Program in Environmental Resource Management and Development, Brawijaya University 2 Agribusiness Department, Widyagama University of Malang
(Received April 25, 2017; Accepted February 22, 2018)
ABSTRACT. Tengger is one of the Java sub-tribes that has a belief system in the form of a life view called Kejawen. Kejawen's life is a view that is considered holistic in looking at the environment. The traditional wisdom of the Tengger community in the management of natural resources is one of the living and sustainable local wisdom in Indonesia. One of the local wisdom associated with environmental management is the existence of sacred areas as a part of environmental conservation. This research was conducted in Ngadas Village, Poncokusumo District, Malang Regency. The purpose of this study is to study the types of areas that are sacred by the Tengger community and the factors behind the existence of the area as a part of the conservation-based ecotourism. This research was conducted by interviewing the key person of the traditional leader. The interview materials in questions include the types of sacred places and the reason behind the area is sacred. The research results showed that the form of preservation of certain sacred areas has a unique ecosystem and shows the historical ties. The areas considered by the Ngadas community as sacred sites have indigenous values such as Pedanyangan, Sanggar Agung, Mbah Sedek tombs, Punden Kutungan, the mount of Bromo, the mount of Semeru, Savanna land and Bromo caldera and other sacred sites. The sacred place is highly respected by the Tengger people. Norms and values in Tengger culture incorporate with the respect for the sacred places. The existence of these sacred areas can be used as a part of environmental conservation-based ecotourism. Keywords: Pedanyangan, Bromo, ecotourism, environment, biodiversity JEL Classification: P32, Q01, Z32
INTRODUCTION (2013) even states that Indonesian plant genera occupy the highest position for the biodiversity of Indonesia is one of the countries that have a butterflies, parrots, palms and some (Rhee et al., high index of biodiversity (State Ministry of 2004). The ecosystem in Indonesia is also diverse. Environment, 2001), so-called a mega-biodiversity There are 40 kinds of ecosystems that are still country (Rhee et al., 2004). This biodiversity is not original. The diversity of these ecosystems is due to only at the species level but also in the genetic the different natural conditions among island or level (State Ministry of Environment, 2001). place within an island. Although Indonesia has only 1.3% of the world's land areas, Indonesia contributes global biodiversity In addition to having high biodiversity, in the amount of 25% fish species, 16-17% of bird Indonesia also has a high diversity in terms of species, 16% of reptile and amphibian species, ethnic, religious, racial and intergroup. Primordial 11% of plants, and 10% of mammals. Setyawati heterogeneity also reflects cultural diversity. Cultural diversity and its indigenous knowledge are
* Corresponding author email: [email protected], useful for developing and managing the natural ISSN 2615-6075 online; ISSN 2615-6946 print environment with the concept of conservation. @UWG Press, 2018 Local wisdom is a community effort based on OJS http://publishing-widyagama.ac.id/ejournal- v2/index.php/jsed/ experience, needs, understanding, and knowledge
8 Purnomo, Octaviani, and Nugroho, The Sacred Site: The Conservation Based on.. about the hereditary environment, passed down The purpose of this study is to describe the from generation to generation. This mechanism is existence of sacred areas of Ngadas village as a possible contrary to modern knowledge because part of environmental conservation and potential local wisdom is customarily based on the for ecotourism development.The development of philosophical, social or environmental framework. this technology can encourage people to create various technological innovations that can convey Local wisdom related to environmental information quickly, precisely and accurately so that management can be an essential part of the interpersonal communication is easier to do. conservation efforts. The society is usually easier to During this time the problem often faced by people adopt something that has been known, besides, in rural areas due to the lack of new and because local wisdom can be tailored to the appropriate information. Information from the characteristics of culture. One of the conservation Internet serves as the first step to solve the approaches based on the local wisdom is the problem which is then followed up with other community values on the environment. Local sense activities (Anonymous, 2014). Extension workers, enriches and strengthens life in the village and farmers, and stakeholders can learn to use provides ecotourism potential (Nugroho and necessary information technology on the internet. Negara, 2015) and the economic welfare of the village (Nugroho et al., 2016). This is an RESEARCH METHOD implementation of the concept of social capital as This research was conducted in Ngadas Village, an essential economic capital of ecotourism Poncokusumo District, Malang Regency (Figure 1). services that contain elements of education (Baksh Ngadas is located in the conservation area of et al., 2013) Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park (TN-BTS) Tengger is one of the Java sub-tribes that has a and is also the oldest enclave zone in TN-BTS. belief system in the form of a life view called Ngadas village is geographically located on the Kejawen. Kejawen's view of life is a view that is coordinates of -7.9831 and 112.9088. This village is considered holistic in view of the environment administratively divided into two hamlets, namely (Sukenti, 2002). One of the aspects of the life of Ngadas and Jarak Ijo. Ngadas village has Kejawen is memayu hayuning bawono and sangkan undulating topography to steep hills with an paraning dumadi. Memayu hayuning bawono altitude of 1000-2200 m above the sea level. The means to keep the beauty of the world and its area size of Ngadas Village is 384 hectares. The air contents. While sangkan paraning dumadi means temperature ranges from 13 to 20 ˚C. from anywhere and for what in term of human life This research was done by a semi-structured existence. In this Kejawen view, nature presented a interview with a key person who includes a system consisting of creators, universes and traditional leader called dukun and local figures. supernatural realms. Human beings and the The interview materials in question included the creatures are seen as a part of the system or types of sacred places and the basic reasons for content, while the natural habitat functions as a determining the area sacred. The sacred sites were container or place (Sukenti, 2002). then documented and described. The traditional wisdom of the Tengger community in the management of natural resources RESULT AND DISCUSSION is one of the indigenous peoples who still sustain The traditional wisdom of the Tengger the living of local value and wisdom in Indonesia. community in the management of natural resources In order to the local knowledge still exist, it needs is built on four main pillars. The pillars included (i) to identifiy and describe how local cultural ritual system related to life cycle, (ii) land tenure treasures exist. It is hoped that each region has and tenure system, (iii) forest management system complete documentation of local culture and its and water resources, and (iv) food crop agriculture conservation values. It will become baseline in system. There is a ritualized system that is formulating a national state law and policy of actualized in various forms which are followed by natural resource management in the framework of various adherents of the religion of Islam, sustainable tourism development.
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Hinduism, and Buddhism. This phenomenon is Nature is a part of human life. People see that unique and rarely encountered in the belief systems whoever hurt nature means hurting himself. The in other communities outside the Tengger norms and values of Tengger indigenous people's community (Noor et al., 2010). life view have implications for their ability in managing the natural environment based on the Ngadas is one of the villages that have local wisdom growing and developing in the traditional wisdom in the institutional management society. The various forms of norms and value of the environment which is inherited through the systems in the view of life become a alive force for learning process and life habituation process. The the Tenggerese people in managing their lives. Ngadas community views nature comprehensively.
Figure 1. Map of Ngadas Village (googlemap)
The internalization of these values evidence horticultural productivity (Nugroho and Negara, reality of local wisdom that is treated and inherited 2015). as noble values. This capability is increasingly The society's view of nature in the Ngadas meaningful when the many of social changes that community is strongly influenced by the life are taking place in the society do not shift philosophy of Javanese society to raise hayune fundamentally to the current local wisdom. The bawono or preserve the world. The implementation change can even strengthen the local sense of the of this philosophy in various areas varies according community. This is evidenced by the independence to the beliefs of culture, customs, and knowledge of socio-economic life of Tengger society, through gained from interaction with the environment. In the ability of environmental management of the the village of Ngadas, this form of preservation in environment in a sustainable manner. Ecological the forming of certain areas that have a unique conditions around the settlements, or in the moor ecosystem or have historical ties. The areas that and within the forest are maintained (Suyono, are considered by the Ngadas community as a 2009) and produce an optimal crop and
10 Purnomo, Octaviani, and Nugroho, The Sacred Site: The Conservation Based on.. sacred location or have its private value are as village has a form of a collection of large trees such follows: as mountain pine (Casuarina junghuhniana Miq.), and danglu or ki rain (Engelhardia spicata Blume.) 1. Pedanyangan The tree, in which there is a stylish Europe building Pedanyangan is a local name area that is which is former relics (petilasan) of Raden Panji regarded as sacred by the surrounding community. Wulung. Pedanyangan is a residence site of danyang- The form of the pedanyangan usually temple or danyang (a subtle creature of the village protector). old tomb, a hidden spring, a collection of large The origin of the word of danyang itself comes trees such as banyan (Ficus sp.) or areas that have from the word hyang which means ancestor. The a special natural landscape. In some places, the pedanyangan can also be interpreted as a place to pedanyangan also called punden. In the village of reside ancestors in order to maintain the village. Ngadas, pedanyangan has a form of a collection of The shape of the usual vagrants of old temples or large trees such as mountain pine (Casuarina tombs, hidden water sources, large banyan trees junghuhniana Miq.) and danglu or ki hujan Tree (Ficus sp.) or areas of the distinctive natural (Engelhardia spicata Blume.), in which there is a landscape. In some places, pedanyangan also heritage European-style building of Raden Panji called punden (Figure 2). Ngadas pedanyangan Wulung, a figure of antiquity.
Figure 2. Pedanyangan (left) and Punden Kutungan (right) of Ngadas Village
The pedanyangan is the place where the For the people of Ngadas Village, pedanyangan ancestral spirits of the people of Ngadas Village. is a place where the spirits of the ancestors exist. The people put offerings inside the cottage, pray to The people put the offerings in the hut of pride, seek blessings for the villagers to be safe and safe pray for the blessing and the salvation of body and in their bodies, or when they have intentions or soul. The people who are having an intent or wishes, especially when one is to celebrate. Below desire, pray for it to run smoothly and wish fulfilled. position of the pedanyangan, there is a water On the place under the pedanyangan, there is a source. It is possible that the vegetation present in water spring. The existence of vegetation around the pedanyangan is a protective spring there. The the pedanyangan is a protective water spring. The Ngadas community uses this water for daily needs. Ngadas community uses this water for daily needs. Because under the pedanyangan there are springs Since the position of the water source is under the that also called danyang banyu. pedanyangan, the spring is also called as banyu danyang (danyang spring)
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The management concept of Pedanyangan in highest position compared to the settlement of the Ngadas village is equal with forest management, Ngadas villagers. where wild or planted vegetation must be The word sanggar comes from the sangga preserved and protected from destruction. This which means to be supported above. In the results in all the vegetation from the past until now Sanggar Agung, there is also a small building which remain intact and sustainable and form a complete is regularly used as a place of meditation. The stratification. Dead branches or trees are left in the vegetation around Sanggar Agung is dominated by area of pedanyangan and should not be removed the Mountain Pine (Casuarina junghuhniana Miq). from the area. Pedanyangan in Ngadas village is Nowadays, under the studio have been built managed by the traditional custom stakeholders. monasteries, such as Buddhist prayer places. The existence of pedanyangan is essentially a However, the existence of the studio remains the form of local knowledge wisdom to local property of the entire community of Ngadas Village. communities to protect certain areas that may have 3. Tomb of Mbah Sedek important value and related to spiritual and sacred sites. The local wisdom of the community towards Mbah Sedek (grandpa Sedek) is one of the first pedanyangan is actually a form of conservation community leaders who helped to build Ngadas based on the experience and knowledge passed Village. He came from the Mataram Kingdom and down from generation to generation. This was buried in Ngadas Village. The tomb is often mechanism is contrary to modern knowledge visited by people on certain days who expect because it has different philosophical, missionary or blessing and salvation in their life. They come and objective views than local wisdom (Noor et al., pray that their wishes can go smoothly and come 2003). true. This tomb is also frequently visited by people from outside Ngadas, especially before the month The values of beliefs, customs, and local of Ramadan. knowledge are necessary elements in formulating local wisdom in community. All of those are the 4. Punden Kutungan unity of the system underlying the social order, to Punden kutungan is an area near Bromo ensure the sustenance of systematic biodiversity in Caldera which is sanctioned by Ngadas people and a long time. Given this, the values of beliefs, considered as the entrance to mount of Bromo. customs, and local knowledge should be the basis Punden Kutungan is a stone punden building where of state policy, including in the management of the Kipres tree grows (Thuja orientalis) on it conservation areas. In other words, custom (Figure 2). Visitors who want to enter the Bromo institutions can position themselves as an caldera region are encouraged to give coins in the institution in the component of determining a policy punden. According to the community, the money is in conservation approach (Dariah and Tony, 2008). aimed to keep the Bromo caldera region safe. Developing conservation techniques based on In the beliefs of Tengger people, According to the local wisdom can be an option. Society is Ambayoen (2006), Punden Kutungan is a gathering ordinarily easier to adopt something that already place of the spirits before being worshiped in the known. Therefore, developing local intelligence can entas-entas ceremonies. People who want their provide the guarantee and benefits of optimal wish come true ordinarily pray in this place. It has natural resource management (Dariah and Tony, become the belief and custom of Tengger people to 2008).. go to sacred sites if they have intentions to be 2. High Hermitage (Sanggar Agung) answered fast..
The Sanggar Agung is one of the places that 5. Mount of Bromo also sacred by the Ngadas community. The reason Mount of Bromo has been known as a very for the sanctuary of this place is the same as the popular tourist destination around the world. Mount existence of pedanyangan, where the Sanggar of Bromo has a beautiful natural panorama, with a Agung also has spirits of the village protector. The height of 2392 meters above sea level, and location of the sanggar is in the village at the
12 Purnomo, Octaviani, and Nugroho, The Sacred Site: The Conservation Based on.. surrounded by caldera with a diameter of about 8 the qibla of Tengger society. The name of Mount km (Figure 3). Crater of the mount of Bromo is Bromo takes its name from the main deity of the named Candra Dimuka. Candra means defect and Hindu religion namely Lord Brahma. Every year upfront mean in front or in advance. This is Tengger people held a ceremony Kasada on this because if viewed from the front of the mount will mountain. The Tengger people considered the look flawed or look uneven. The mount has a Bromo as a manifestation of one of Tengger midline of 800 meters (north to south direction) people's ancestor, Raden Kusumo. and 600 meters (east to west direction). Mount of Historically, the mount of Bromo and other Bromo is a volcano that is still active, and every mountains around the Tengger Caldera are formed year always remove the smoke from inside the from the eruption of Mount Tengger. Mount crater. While the danger area of the mount in the Tengger is estimated to have a height of about distance with radius 4 km from the center of the 4000 meters above sea level and is considered the crater. largest and highest mountain in its time. As it In the mythology of Java, Candra Dimuka crater erupts, the eruption of tengger mountain creates a is a crater in heaven (kayangan). In general, the sea of sand which at that time filled with water. In name Candra Dimuka often used as the name of subsequent developments, emerged several the crater not only by the Tengger community but magma streams in the middle of the caldera and also other communities in Java, such as people in formed new mountains such as mount of Bromo, Mount Lawu Magetan regency, East Java. Bromo is mount of Widodaren, mount of Watangan, mount the mount that is considered the most sacred by of Batok (Figure 4) and mount of Kursi. the people of Tengger. The mountain is considered
Figure 3. Crater (left) and savanna land (right) of Bromo mount
6. Savanna Land hilarious vegetation and hilly topography create beautiful scenery. Some people call this savanna- One of the beauties of the mount of Bromo is like Teletubbies hill (Figure 3). located in the area of the former caldera. The caldera with an area of approximately 200 sq km The people of Tengger regard this savanna has various characteristics. The caldera on the region as a sacred site. People passing through this north side of Bromo mountain is more dominated savanna are advised to be careful in saying. It by the dry sand sea, due to the influence of sulfur gives a moral message that everyone should keep fumes eruption. While the southern side caldera is his words for positive and useful things. In this further away from the effect of the eruption, it has savanna, there is a belief that every word can a greener vegetation. Vegetation of this shrub is become a reality. Someone who talks wants to rain, similar to savanna in subtropical countries. The then soon there will be rain.
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7. Mount of Semeru Mount of Semeru is a mount that is considered the most sacred by the people of Tengger. Mount Mount of Semeru is the highest volcano in Java of Semeru is considered a manifestation of one of Island. Mount of Semeru has a height of 3.676 Tengger people's as the grandmother of Demak meters (Figure 4). Mount of Semeru Diningrat. People who are on this mountain are administratively covers in Malang and Lumajang advised to say and behave in a positive and Regency area. Mount of Semeru crater is called by beneficial manner. Negative things should be the name Jonggring Saloko (Jonggring means avoided because it can cause dangerous or bad tilting and saloka means White). This is because luck to the person. when the mount is viewed from a distance, this crater has a sloping slope and white.
Figure 4. Mount of Semeru (left) and Batok (right)
The mount of Semeru is also considered a little contains the rules of life balance and message of Himalayan mountain in India. According to the nature and environmental conservation legend, the mount of Semeru was moved from Sacred Areas and Ecotourism India to Java by the gods. To bring the mountain to Java Island, Lord of Vishnu transformed into a giant The values of beliefs, customs, and local tortoise carrying the mountain on his back. knowledge are essential elements in formulating Meanwhile, God of Brahma incarnated a long snake local wisdom in society. All of them are the unity of that wrapped itself around the mountain and turtle the system underlying the social order, to ensure body so that the mountain could be safely the sustenance of the systematic biodiversity in a transported. When it reached Java, this fallen long time. Considering that these values of beliefs, mountain scattered created Mount Penanggungan, customs, and local knowledge should be the basis located in the northwest of the mount of Semeru of government policy, including in the management (Whitten et al., 1999). of conservation areas, customary institutions can position themselves as an institution in the 8. Other Sacred Sites component of determining a policy in a The mountains and other places around Bromo conservation approach. and Semeru mount are also considered sacred by Pedanyangan as a sacred area based on the people of Tengger. That is the mourning place environmental conservation is an asset in support of the gods, the grave of the saint, or the relic of of the existence of Ngadas as one of the tourist the deceased, who is highly respected by the villages. The presence of pedanyangan can be people of Tengger or the surrounding community. applied as learning to visitors about the concept of Norms and values embedded or inherited by the nature and culture conservation. The presence of gods or figures become the guidance of life that pedanyangan can correspond with the
14 Purnomo, Octaviani, and Nugroho, The Sacred Site: The Conservation Based on.. management of other agroecosystems in the village learned in the concern of developing science and area. conservation skills to tourists. Tengger culture can provide enrichment with knowledge of humanity, Pedanyangan as a kind of conservation sociology, anthropology, climatology, botany, or activities can be used as a tourist attraction area, zoology. The research needs can be facilitated The especially ecotourism. According to Nugroho and Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park to build Negara (2015), ecotourism is a tourism activity that conservation vision. contains educational elements and is packed professionally, which considers the cultural Ecotourism services in the Tengger region rely heritage, participation, and welfare of local people on interpretation, namely the ability of mastery and as well as efforts to conserve natural resources and narrating attractions with learning approaches. The environment. local people have been able to guide the psychomotor experience of sacred areas to visitors. Table 1. Several sacred places at surrounding area of Bromo They are very knowledgeable about the legends and events around the sacred areas. No Sacred area Place of mourning1 1 Gunung Ringgit Tumenggung Kliwung The Ngadas Village has many sacred places. 2 Midangan SintoWiji The places include Pedanyangan, Sanggar Agung, 3 Siti Kuning Baru Klinting 4 Sumber Semanik Rawit Mbah Sedek tomb, Punden Putungan, the mount of 5 Jinahan Jiting Jinah Bromo, the mount of Semeru, Savana and other 6 Gunung Pranten Ical Mountains around Bromo Caldera. The people of 7 Gunung Lingga Prabu Siwah 8 Gunung Gendera Cokro Aminoto Tengger highly respect the sacred place. Norms 9 Gunung Penanjakan Tumenggung Klinter and values in Tengger culture incorporate with 10 Gunung Cemoro Lawang Tunggul Wulung respect for the sacred places. 11 Selo Balang Bagus Waris 12 Selo Wungkuk Dukun These sacred places provide knowledge about 13 Poten Pernoto nature and environment conservation. The 14 Bajangan Perniti 15 Gunung Tunggukan Tunggul Ametung preservation of Tenggerese culture including 16 Gunung Batok Masigit respect for sacred sites gives a lot about the 17 Gunung Widodaren Puspa Gentong Sari implementation of Tengger people life that is 18 Gunung Guyangan Teku 19 Sumber Pakis. DadungKawuk oriented towards balance and nature conservation. 20 Pusung Nglingker Demeling The protection of certain sacred spaces also have a 21 Wonongkoro Sindu Jaya unique ecosystem and show historical ties. The 22 Gunung Pundak Lembuk Sapu Jagat dan 23 Gunung Rujak Tempat bersemayam Ki Ngadas community views areas suppose to sacred Jenggot sites have indigenous values. 1 it is stated in the local name Sacred places in the village of Tengger or in the Utilization of cultural assets in the development vicinity of the mount of Bromo has become a well- of tourism activities has a strong institutional known ecotourism object. The population is capable foundation, as mentioned in the Minister of Home of performing functions as a tour guide and with Affairs Regulation No. 33 of 2009 on Guidelines for the ability of interpretation. They explain the Ecotourism Development in the Region. In Chapter conservation practices of life and local values that III, Article 9 states that the utilization of ecotourism are obeyed. can be arranged by individuals, institution, or local government. Ecotourism utilization by local CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION government can cooperate with other local The Ngadas Village has many sacred places. government by the provisions of the legislation. The places include Pedanyangan, Sanggar Agung, The cooperation is prioritized to provide Mbah Sedek tomb, Punden Kutungan, the mount of convenience to individuals and institution for Bromo, the mount of Semeru, Savana and other supporting ecotourism activities (Nugroho, 2010). The people of Tengger highly respect the sacred According to Nugroho and Negara (2015), places. Norms and values in Tengger culture norms and values in the local culture can be incorporate with respect for the sacred places.
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These sacred places provide knowledge about Nugroho, I and Negara, P. D. 2015. nature and environment conservation. The Pengembangan Desa Melalui Ekowisata. Era preservation of Tenggerese culture including Adicitra Intermedia, Solo. 281 p respect for sacred places gives a lot about the Nugroho, I. 2010. Pengembangan ekowisata implementation of Tengger people life that is dalam pembangunan daerah. Jurnal oriented towards balance and nature conservation. Pembangunan Daerah. Kementerian Dalam The preservation of certain sacred areas also has a Negeri RI, Jakarta. Edisi 01 tahun 2010. 65-76. unique ecosystem and show historical ties. The Nugroho, I., Pramukanto, F.H., Negara, P.D., areas considered by the Ngadas community as Purnomowati, W. and Wulandari, W. 2016. sacred sites have indigenous values. Promoting the Rural Development through the Ecotourism Activities in Indonesia. American Sacred places in the village of Tengger or in the Journal of Tourism Management, 5(1): 9-18. vicinity of the mount of Bromo have become a well- Rhee, S., Darrell K., Tim, B., Reed, M., Russ, D known ecotourism object. The people are capable dan Stacey, T. 2004. Report on Biodiversity and of performing functions as a tour guide, with the Tropical Forests in Indonesia Submitted in competence of interpretation. They explain the accordance with Foreign Assistance Act Sections conservation practices of life and local values of 118/119. Prepared for USAID/Indonesia. Tenggerese. Jakarta. hal 1. Setyawati, T. 2013. Ancaman Jenis Invasif Asing di REFERENCES KawasanHutan Indonesia. Jambore Penyuluh Ambayoen, M. A. 2006. Pola Komunikasi Kehutanan Pusat Litbang Konservasi dan Masyarakat Tengger dalam Sosialisasi Tradisi Rehabilitasi Badan Litbang Kehutanan Entas-entas Prasawala Gara dan Pujan Kapat. Kementrian Kehutanan, Jakarta. Tesis. Program Studi Komunikasi Pembangunan State Ministry of Environment. 2001. National Pertanian dan Pedesaan Sekolah Pascasarjana. Report on the Impletation of the Conventional Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor. on Biological Diversity. The First National Baksh, R., Soemarno, Hakim, L. and Nugroho, I. Report: Implementation of Article 6, General 2013. Social capital in the development of Measures for Conservation and Sustainable Use. ecotourism: A Case Study in Tambaksari Village Government Of Indonesia. Hal 1. Pasuruan Regency, East Java Province, Sukenti, K. 2002. Kajian Etnobotani Serat Centhini. Indonesia. J. Basic Appl. Sci. Res. 3(3): 1-7 Program Pascasarjana. Institut Pertanian Bogor, Dariah, A. and Tony, B. 2008. Kebekolo di NTT: Bogor. Kearifan Lokal dalam Konservasi Tanah. Suyono, R. P. 2009. MistisismeTengger. LKiS. http://www.pustaka-deptan.go.id/publikasi/ Yogyakarta. wr302084.pdf. [14 Oktober 2009]. Whitten, T., Soeriaatmadja, R. E. and Afif, S. A. Noor, M., Muhammad, A. and Khairil, A. 2010. 1999. Ekologi Jawa dan Bali. Terjemahan: S.N Kearifan Lokal dalam Perspektif Kesuburan Kartikasari, T.B. Utami, A. Widyanto. Tanah dan Konservasi Air di Lahan Gambut. Prenhallindo, Jakarta. http://balittra.litbang.deptan.go.id/lokal/Kearipa n-7%20M-Noor.pdf. [18 Oktober 2009].
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development Widyagama Vol 1, No 1, April 2018, 16 – 24 DOI: 10.31328/jsed.v1i1.519
THE TESTING OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP AS THE ATTEMPT TO REMODEL THE FACTOR OF PRODUCTION IN THE RICE FARMING
Darmadji1* and Suwarta1
1 Agribusiness Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Widyagama University of Malang
(Received February 7, 2018; Accepted April 4, 2018)
ABSTRACT. The objective of this study was to test whether entrepreneurship can be included as a new production factor in farming business management. This study was intended to make improvement of classic economic factors of production. To achieve the purpose, the research was conducted on the rice farming at Pakis and Karangploso districts of Malang Regency, East Java. Methods analysis used were Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with PLS smart program. Primary data was collected from the farmers by interviews based on a list of prepared questions. The analysis result showed that entrepreneurship had direct effect to increase on the performance of paddy farming. This result makes more reinforced to incorporate entrepreneurship as new factor of production in farm management. The classic theory of factor of production was important to be updated because there are many empirical facts that conceptually had influence to the farming production. One of empirical facts was internal potential that owned by every farmer which is called as entrepreneurship spirit. Keywords : SEM, theory of production, management, farmer, path JEL Classification: D24, L26, Q12
INTRODUCTION influence entrepreneurship that associated with genetic factor (Nicolaou et al., 2008). Current theory well known as classical theory of production factor states that production is the The important of entrepreneurship as a new function of land, labor, capital, and management factor of production is based on the same (Soekartawi, 1990; Hernanto, 1991, Sapoetra, argument below. An entrepreneur is generally 1991; and Shinta, 2011). Mathematically, the independent, has strong will, dream, dare to try, functions of production and the factor of production passion, creative, need for achievement and vision can be written as Y (production) = f (Land, Labor, of life (Priyanto 2004, 2008). Besides, he or she Capital, Management). This theory still becomes as has the initiative, responsibility or authority and the reference by researchers. forward, creative in acting, be taugh facing a failure, confident, is able to manage risk, and be Similarly, recent studies on the factors that able to see the change as an opportunity. influence the agricultural production conducted by Lyson et al. (2004); Reed (2004); Toledo et al. Another reason why entrepreneurship is very (2011) and Nurhayati et al. (2012) state that there important as the new factor of production is based is no one of the researchers who studied about on the reality that every farmer actually has farmer entrepreneurial as a factor of production. internal potential or individual characteristic On the other hand, the study of entrepreneurship identified as an entrepreneurship. All the in the west is more focus on the factors that agribusiness decision is actually based on the entrepreneurship. Based on the reality in the field, it is found that although in the same location there * Corresponding Email: [email protected] are many different commodity are planted by ISSN 2615-6075 online; ISSN 2615-6946 print farmer. Then, in the same commodity, in the same @UWG Press, 2018 OJS http://publishing-widyagama.ac.id/ejournal- wide of area there are many different doses and v2/index.php/jsed/ different fertilizer are used by the farmers. All the
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 17 difference decision are related to motivation, the the performance of tobacco farming. The variables need of achievement, and the risk of tolerance. analyzed and the model refers to Priyanto’s model (2004, 2006). However, Sadjudi (2009) is not able Entrepreneurship affects the performance on to produce a new model because he used multiple the agricultural production (Rougoor et al., 1998; regression model, and entrepreneurial variables Lee and Tsang, 2001; Nugroho, 2008; Sadjudi tested not as a latent variable but only as an 2009; Darmadji, 2011; and Darmadji et al., 2011). indicator. The significant finding of the study is Entrepreneurship also shows the indirect effect to that entrepreneurship shows positive influence on the farming performance, through both the tobbaco farming through the ability of farmer to technical and biological process or through take risks. management capacity. The classic theory of the production factor is Rougoor et al. (1998) has formulated the important to be refreshed because there are many relationship between a personal aspect, a decision- empirical facts that conceptually have influence to making process, a technical process of biological the farming production. One of empirical facts is and a agricultural performance in the structural the internal potential that is owned by every farmer form. The personal aspect analyzed as a or named as entrepreneurship spirit owned by the determinant of performance is the drive and farmers. Based on the reality, all decisions are motivation, the ability and capability, and the made by farmer. It is implicitly based on the biographies. However, the structural model of entrepreneurship spirit. Rougoor et al. 1998 has not been proven empirically yet. The hypothetical models of This research is aimed to make modification to Rougoor further contribute to Priyanto (2004, the classic theory. This research is done to promote 2006) . the farming field that production consitutes the function of production factor. Adopting a new factor The novelty models of Priyanto (2004, 2006) of production in the production function is are: (1) measuring the effect of entrepreneurial academically challenging. knowledge, attitude, and skill to the performance of production, prices of output, and profits, (2) This research was further study from a previous putting the personal aspect as a determinant of studies of Darmadji (2011) and Darmadji et al. entrepreneurial together with economic (2011). Those research on chili and paddy farmers environmental factors, physical, and organizations. at Sleman Regency of Yogyakarta showed that The model was tested on tobacco farmers in the entrepreneurship has direct and positive effect on province of Central Java. The results show in the the farming performance. The novelty of the stages, (1) the characteristic of the individual, research was the direct influence of social environment, physical, and institutional entrepreneurship to the farming performance. This influence on entrepreneurial farmers, (2) further is different with the study of Priyanto (2004) who entrepreneurial influence of the management showed that entrepreneurship has indirect effect to capacity, (3) the capacity affecting the performance performance. The new findings are important to of farm management. The study results in the new follow up primarily as an effort to update a classic findings that entrepreneurial farmers have an theory related with production factors. influence on the performance of the farm, but the Thus, the objective of this research is to know entrepreneurial influence on the performance is still the effect of entrepreneurship on the farming indirect because it is mediated by management production performance in Malang regency. capacity factors.
Sadjudi (2009) conducted a study on the findings of Priyanto (2004, 2006) with the objective is to determine the effect of entrepreneurship on
18 Darmadji and Suwarta, The Testing of Entrepreneurship as The Attempt..
RESEARCH METHOD the prepared questionnaire. This study used a SEM model with PLS as a parameter estimator method. This study was carried out at Pakis and The structural model is presented at Figure 1. The Karangploso districts of Malang Regency. The model is adopted from Priyanto (2004) and selection of the research areas is based on the Darmadji (2011). consideration that the areas are potential in the agricultural. The samples taken in this study were According to Jogiyanto and Abdillah (2009), the 157 respondents of rice farmer and they were steps of SEM analysis with PLS are: (i) the selected randomly. All necessary data in the development of the theoretical model, (ii) the analysis is the primary data. construction of the model, (iii) the running data, (iv) the evaluation of the measurement model, (v) The data from farmers were collected through the evaluation of the structural model, and (vi) the the direct interview process carried out based on interpretation.
Figure 1. Structural model of entrepreneurship (before corrected)
In the PLS, there are two steps to test test if Crombac’s Alpha and Composite Reliability hypotheses of the effect of farmer entrepreneurial are more than 0.6 (Hair et al., 2008). on farming performance. Those are measurement The evaluation of structural model is pointed to evaluation model and structural evaluation model. know the effect of one independent latent variable In the measurement evaluation model, there are to dependent latent variable (Ferdinand, 2002). two steps of analysis, including validity and There are two parameters to test causal correlation reliability test. The data is considered feasible between two latent variables. The coefficient of statistically if: (i) the loading factor and the average determination (R2) for the dependent construct, variance extracted (AVE) are more than 0.5, and the path coefficient and or t-value of each path are (ii) the cross loading is more than 0.5 and the roof for the significant test between construct in the of AVE exceed inter-correlation among latent structural model. variable (Jogiyanto dan Abdillah, 2007 and Santoso 2007). Meanwhile, the data meets the reliability
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 19
RESULT AND DISCUSSION the model deleted, there are needs of achievement (x11), the self-confidence (x12), the personal Evaluation of Model Measurement capability (x17), the independence (x18), the The measurement of model describes about the planning (z12). relationship among indicators with its construct (its The output model after modification is latent variables). This measurement is used to test presented at Figure 2. The initial value of path validity of construct and reliability of instrument. coefficient of technique process and biology of farm The output of the modelmeasurement is presented performance is negative (-0.1220). A negative at Figure 1. effect is not consistent as the theoretical concepts Before evaluating the model measurement at explain. Instead, the indicator of tillage (z21) and Figure 1, it is very important to evaluate the fertilizer (z31) are deleted from the model. loading factor at each construct. Based on the rule, Therefore the final model is presented at Figure 2, the value of loading factor that is below 0.5 should and become analysis basis for discussion. be deleted from the model. The indicators are from
Figure 2. Structural model of entrepreneurship (after corrected)
The entrepreneurship shows five indicators Meanwhile, the management capacity has four which have loading factor above 0.5. These indicators as their reflectors. These indicators are indicators are: risk taking (X13), creativity (X14), planning (Z12), controlling (Z13), evaluating (Z14), innovativeness (X15), future orientation (X16), and and preparing for next planting season (Z15). The leadership (X19). As a note, a variable of x11, x12, process of technique and biology has five indicators x19 are deleted from the model because number of which have strong reflectors to the indicators. loading factor less than 0.5. All indicators are These indicators are planning (Z22), pest and deses reflectors of entrepreneurship construct. control (Z24), watering (Z25), growing up (Z26),
20 Darmadji and Suwarta, The Testing of Entrepreneurship as The Attempt.. and harvest (Z28). The reflectors of farm and (v) 0.718 is AVE root for process technique and performance are production (y1), price of output biology. All numbers are values of inter-correlation (y2), and income (y3). among latent variable, except the root of AVE. For example value of inter-correlation among 1. Validity test entrepreneurship with: (i) farm performance is Validity test is intended to know the ability of 0.76, (ii) management capacity is 0.359, (iii) research instrument to measure what should be praying is 0.327, and (iv) process technique and measured. There are two kinds of the Validity test, biology is 0.465. Based on the result, the root of Discriminant Validity and Convergent Validity. AVE for entrepreneurship (0.677) is higher than value of inter-correlation among latent variable. There are two parameters used to test convergent validity, namely loading factor and Table 2. Root AVE and Intercorrelation among Latent average variance extracted (AVE). Based on the Variable Figure 2, the loading factor is presented by the Latent variables 1 2 3 4 5 value on each arrow from the latent variable to Entrepreneurship (1) 0.677 Farm performance (2) 0.376 0.852 indicator connected. Then the value of the loading Management capacity (3) 0.539 0.251 0.698 factor in every indicator is more than 0.5. It means Praying (4) 0.327 0.158 0.113 1.000 Process of tech & biol (5) that all values of loading factor meet the 0.465 0.198 0.588 0.201 0.718 Based on output analisis of PLS convergent validity. Based on the explanation for inter-correlation Table 1. Root of AVE of Latent Variable among entrepreneurship with the other latent Original Sample variables, the inter-correlation among other latent Latent variable t-value* sample mean variables can be explained. According to Table 2, Entrepreneurship 0.550 0.461 9.22 the value of each root of every AVE is higher than Farm performance 0.730 0.720 14.24 Management capacity 0.490 0.487 9.97 value of inter-correlation among latent variable. Praying 1.000 1.000 nc Process of tech & biology 0.520 0.515 10.63 The corresponding explanation also be relevant Based on output analisis of PLS to other latent variables. The value of each root of *All t value showed p value < 0.01, except denoted nc (not calculated) every AVE are always higher than value of inter- correlation among latent variable. Meanwhile, AVE values are presented at Table Table 3. Cross Loading between Latent Variables and Its 1. Table 1 shows all AVE values above 0.5. Table 1 Indicators also shows all AVE value in variable of farm Manage- Process of Entreprene- Farm per- performance is 0.726. It means that the amount of Indicators ment technique & urship formance 72.6% information within all indicators can be capacity biology x13 0.678 0.300 0.360 0.241 reflected in the latent variable of farm performance. x14 0.709 0.200 0.316 0.378 This explanation is also subjected to the other x15 0.649 0.200 0.359 0.361 x16 0.797 0.300 0.495 0.449 latent variables. x19 0.524 0.200 0.238 0.278 y1 0.319 0.900 0.257 0.145 There are two parameters as indicators of y2 0.304 0.700 0.106 0.165 model regarding to the discriminant validity test. y3 0.334 0.900 0.258 0.125 z12 0.323 0.200 0.546 0.216 These parameters are cross loading and z13 0.419 0.200 0.736 0.461 comparison between root of AVE and inter- z14 0.375 0.200 0.737 0.473 z15 0.380 0.100 0.752 0.468 correlation among latent variables. The output of z21 0.511 0.100 0.494 0.805 the root of AVE and the inter-correlation among z22 0.502 0.200 0.497 0.817 z23 0.257 0.000 0.267 0.665 latent variables are presented in Table 2. The value z24 0.295 0.100 0.409 0.726 of cross loading is presented in Table 3. z25 0.305 0.100 0.367 0.695 z26 0.295 0.200 0.501 0.670 The Table 2 shows the following values: (i) Based on output analisis of PLS
0.677 is root of AVE for entrepreneurship, (ii) 0.852 The output analysis of cross loading is is root AVE for farm performance, (iii) 0.698 is roof presented in Table 3. The loading factor for all AVE for management, (iv) 1 is root AVE for praying,
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 21 indicators in its construct is higher than the value at Evaluation of Structural Model others construct. The evaluation of structural model constitutes The output analysis of cross loading was second step after the evaluation of model presented in Table 3. The table showed that the measurement considered eligible. The objective of output cross loading of relationship between the the evaluation of structural model is to test the indicators and the latent variables in model effect of independent latent variable to dependent constructed performed higher value than on those latent variable. For this test, PLS use t statistic or p indicator with other latent variables. For example, value as presented at Table 5. the relationship between X13 and entrepreneurship Table 5 shows the direct relationship between (Figure 2) shows a higher number (0.678) than the independent latent variable to dependent latent X13 to other latent variables; such as farm variable. Table 5 (column 2) indicates the path performance (0.300), management capacity coefficient of each relationship of latent variable (0.360) and Process of technique and biology and also its t statistic respectively. (0.241). Similar examples were also shown for other relationship, with similar behavior and Table 5. Estimate Direct Effect between Laten Variables explanations. This means that the built model Original Sample Latent variable t-value* structure meets the rules sample mean Entrepreneurship Farm 0.339 0.369 2.647 Based on the evaluation of each parameter for performance each validity test, it can be shown that all Entrepreneurship 0.539 0.563 6.380 Management capacity parameter can meet convergent validity test and Entrepreneurship Proc 0.176 0.202 1.136 discriminant validity test. It can be said that the tech&biology Management capacity 0.068 0.053 0.388ns model is eligible regarding validity test. Farm performance Management capacity 0.089 0.470 3.860 2. Realibility test Proc tech&biology Proc tech&biology Farm 0.001 0.006 0.005ns There are two parameters in the test of performance reliability, that is crombach’ alpha and composite *All t value showed p value < 0.01, except denoted ns (non significant) reliability. The output of analysis is presented at Based on output analisis of PLS Table 4. Table 4 shows that the values of both parameters are more than 0.5. It can be said that Table 5 shows the direct effect of the model is eligible regarding reliability test. entrepreneurship farm performance is positive (0.339) and the significant (t-value 2.647 or p value Table 4. Test Result of Reliability of Latent Variables (0.000). The result indicates that entrepreneurship Original Sample has significant effect to the farm performance. The Latent variables t-value* sample mean contribution of entrepreneurship to farm Crombach’s Alpha Entrepreneurship 0.700 0.689 10.985 performance is 0.339. It means that every increase Farm performance 0.797 0.080 21.161 in the entrepreneurship ability and farm Management capacity 0.646 0.638 8.964 performance will increase amount of 0.339 units Praying 1.000 1.000 nc Process of tech & biology 0.771 0.766 17.927 with the assumption that other variables hold Composite Reliability constant (ceteris paribus). Entrepreneurship 0.806 0.798 21.058 Farm performance 0.886 0.870 11.151 One of indicators used to measure farm Management capacity 0.790 0.785 2.785 Praying 1.000 1.000 nc performance is production. Therefore, it can be Process of tech & biology 0.840 0.837 28.719 assumed that an increase of entrepreneurship *All t value showed p value < 0.01, except denoted nc (not ability will also affect the increasing of production. calculated) Based on output analisis of PLS Figure 2 and Table 6 show the loading factor of indicator of production (y1) is 0.925 (p
22 Darmadji and Suwarta, The Testing of Entrepreneurship as The Attempt.. value=0.000). It means that the indicator of Based on Figure 2 and Table 6, the indicators production is closely perfect to explain the farm that have important contribution as reflector of management. On the other word, the production is entrepreneurship are risk taking (X13), creativity the strong reflector for farm performance. It means (X14), innovation (X15), orientation to the future that if there is an increase on the farm (X16), and leadership (X19). Among those performance, it automatically reflects an increase of indicators, the future orientation has highest production. Thus, if there is an increase of loading factor (path coefficient of 0.801). entrepreneurship, it will automatically increase the Figure 2 also shows that there are two path of production. entrepreneurship displaying effect to the farm performance including direct and indirect effect. Table 6. Relationship between Latent Variables and Its Indicators The direct effect is shown by an arrow from entrepreneurship to farm performance directly. On Latent variables and its Original Sample t-value* indicators sample mean the other side, the indirect effect of those relations Entrepreneurship x13 0.676 0.666 5.975 is presented through a mediating variable as follow: Entrepreneurship x14 0.704 0.693 10.674 i. entrepreneurship management capacity Entrepreneurship x15 0.650 0.630 6.468 Entrepreneurship x16 0.801 0.807 20.272 farm performance, Entrepreneurship x19 0.524 0.509 3.999 ii. entrepreneurship process technique & Farm performance y1 0.925 0.900 6.532 Farm performance y2 0.665 0.654 4.403 biology farm performance, Farm performance y3 0.938 0.914 6.913 iii. entrepreneurship management capacity Management capacity z12 0.571 0.549 3.975 process technique & biology farm Management capacity z13 0.745 0.737 11.906 Management capacity z14 0.724 0.727 10.075 performance. Management capacity z15 0.739 0.738 11.178 Proc tech&biology z22 0.757 0.758 16.358 The total indirect effect from entrepreneurship Proc tech&biology z24 0.752 0.749 11.862 to process of technique & biology and to farm *All t value showed p value < 0.01, except denoted (not significant) performance is presented in Table 7. The total of Based on output analisis of PLS indirect effect entrepreneurship farm performance Based on the above result, there was strongly is 0.037. However this indirect effect is not evident that entrepreneurship meet a requirement significant. Besides to the farm performance, as new production factor. On the other hand, based entrepreneurship also has indirect effect to the on the result of research that conducted at Malang process of technique and biology. The total of Regency, entrepreneurship can represent as one of indirect effect from entrepreneurship process of factor of production. This description indicated a technique & biology is 0.260. new improvement of classic economic of factor of The results of Table 7 show that production. entrepreneurship does not significantly indirectly Table 7. Estimate Indirect Effect between Latent influence farm management. This is in contrast to Variables the results in Table 5, where the direct influence of
Original Sample entrepreneurship strongly affects farm Latent variables t-value* sample mean management as well as the production. This Entrepreneurship Farm 0.037 0.024 0.431ns situation is increasingly consistent in proving that performance Entrepreneurship nd nd nd entrepreneurship can be one of the productions Management capacity that directly affect production. Entrepreneurship Proc 0.260 0.271 3.271 tech&biology CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Management capacity Farm 0.000 0.003 0.005ns performance Entrepreneurship is viewed from indicator risk Management capacity Proc nd nd nd tech&biology taking, creativity, innovativeness, future Proc tech&biology Farm nd nd nd orientation, and leadership has direct positive effect performance (0.339) and significant (t-value 2.647) on farm *All t value showed p value < 0.01, except denoted ns (not significant) performance that measured from production, price nd means indirect efect not defined of output, and income. Based on output analisis of PLS
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 23
The loading factor of production is 0.93 and is activities on venture growth. Journal Of very significant. It means that if there is an Management Studies, 38(4): 583-602 increase of entrepreneurship ability, it will influence Lyson, T. A. and Guptill, A. 2004. Commodity on the increase of production. On the other hand, agriculture, civic agriculture and the future of entrepreneurship can be presented as the new U.S. Farming. Rural Sociology 69(3): 370-385 factor of production beside land, labour, capital, Nicolaou, N., Shane, S., Cherkas, L., Hunkin, J. and management. and Spector, T. D. 2008. Is the tendency to engagein entrepreneurship genetic?. The research results significant findings Management Science. 54(1): 167-179 concerning the improvement to the classic economic theory of production factor. The Nugroho, I., Negara, P. D. dan Nugroho, Y. A. recommended proposition is that production 2009. Karakteristik kewirausahaan penduduk lokal pada jasa ekowisata di Taman Nasional constitutes function of land, labour, capital, Bromo Tengger Semeru. Social Economic of management, and entrepreneurship, explicitly Agriculture and Agribusiness (SOCA) Journal, stated as Y=f (L, Lb, C, M, E). Fakultas Pertanian, Universitas Udayana Denpasar. 9(3): 342-346. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Nurhayati, Bakce, D. dan Yusmini. 2012. Faktor- This research is funded by the General Director faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan ekonomi of Higher Education (DIKTI) in the scheme of rumah tangga petani kakao di Kabupaten Fundamental Research in the year of 2015. The Kuantan Singingi. Indonesian Journal of gratitude is also addressed to LPPM Widyagama Agricultural Economics (IJAE). 3(2): 105-116. University of Malang for the cooperation and kindly Priyanto, S. H. 2004. Pengaruh Faktor Lingkungan, support to manage the research. Kewirausahaan dan Kapasitas Manajemen Pada Petani Tembakau di Jawa Tengah. Disertasi REFERENCES Tidak Dipublikasikan. Program Studi Ilmu Ekonomi Pasca Sarjana Universitas Brawijaya, Darmadji. 2011. Kewirausahaan Petani dan Kinerja Malang. Usahatani Padi dan Cabe di Kabupaten Sleman. Disertasi. Universitas Gadjah Mada. Priyanto, S. H. 2006. Structural model of business performence: empirical study on tobacco Darmadji, Hartono, S., Masyhuri dan Djuwari. 2011. farmers. Gajah Mada International Journal of Pengaruh kewirausahaan petani terhadap Business, January-April 2006, 8(1):103-134 kinerja usahatani cabe. Agrika. Vol. 9(1): 103- 119. Priyanto, S. H. 2008. Di Dalam Jiwa Ada Jiwa: The Backbone and the Social Construction Of Ferdinand, A. 2002. Structural Equation Modelling Entrepreneurship. Pidato Pengukuhan Guru dalam Penelitian Manajemen. BP UNDIP, Besar Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana Semarang Salatiga. Hair Jr, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, Reed, D. B. 2004. The risky business of production R. E. and Tatham, R. L. 2008. Multivariate agriculture: health and safety for farm workers. Data Analysis, 6th ed., Pearson Prentice Hall, American Association of Occupational Health NJ. Nurses Journal. 52(9):401-409 Hernanto, F. 1991. Ilmu Usahatani. Agromedia. Rougoor, C. W, Trip, G., Huirne, R. B. M. and Jakarta. Renhema, J. A. 1998. How to define and study Jogiyanto dan Abdillah, W. 2009. Konsep dan farmers’manajemen capacity: theory and use in Aplikasi PLS Untuk Penelitian Empiris. BPFE agriculture economic. Agriculture Economis. 18: UGM. Yogyakarta 261-272 Lee, D. Y. and Tsang, E. W. K. 2001. The effect of Sadjudi. 2009. Pengaruh kewirausahaan terhadap entrepreneurial, background and network kinerja usahatani tembakau di Kecamatan
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Gantiwarno Kabupaten Klaten. Jurnal Aplikasi Soekartawi. 1990. Prinsip Dasar Ekonomi Manajemen. 7(2): 401-410 Pertanian. Teori dan Aplikasi. Edisi Revisi. Raja Grafindo Persada. Jakarta. Santoso, S. 2007. Structural Equation Modelling: Konsep dan Aplikasi. PT Flex media Toledo, R., Alejandra, E. and Ahumada, V. 2011. Komputindo. Jakarta Evaluation of risk factor in agriculture: an application of the analytical hierarchical process Sapoetra, 1991. Ilmu Usahatani. BPFE. Yogyakarta (AHP) methodology. Chilean Journal of Shinta, A. 2011. Ilmu Usahatani. Universitas Agricultural Research. 71(1): 114-121 Brawijaya Press. Malang
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development Widyagama Vol 1, No 1, April 2018, 25 – 31 DOI: 10.31328/jsed.v1i1.520
THE INFLUENCE OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT ON INCOME AND THE RISK OF INCOME IN THE BROILER CHICKEN FARMING
Suwarta1* and Rita Hanafie1
1 Agribusiness Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Widyagama University of Malang
(Received February 7, 2018; Accepted April 4, 2018)
ABSTRACT. Broiler meat is an important commodity to support national meat production and increase farmer's income. However, the broiler farmers are generally in a weak position in terms of poultry management. They require best management practices for increasing the business volume and income as well. This study aims to study the achievement of broiler farming business management, and the influence of the business management on income and its income in their broiler farms. This research was conducted in Lamongan regency. It used the primary data from selected the broiler farmers. The analysis method used was descriptive approach and multiple regression. The result shows that the achievement of broiler business management comprises planning 67.6%, organizing 65.68%, directing 84.18%, coordination 75.43%, and control 77.58%. The management of broiler business has a positive effect on income but negatively affects the income risk. In addition, the income of broilers is positively influenced by the cage size, experience, and business volume, and conversely, this is negatively affected by seed prices and feed prices. Meanwhile, the income risk of broiler business is positively influenced by seed price and feed price, and contrarily it is negatively influenced by the size of cage and the business volume. Keywords: poultry, plasm-core, farmer, seed, cage size JEL Classification: D19, Q12
INTRODUCTION 2010, the amount of production (supply) broiler achieved 3.36 million tons, while the amount of In Indonesia, broiler chicken is a promising demand was 4.11 million tons, or faced the deficit business commodity, as a source of income and of 749 thousand tons (Simatupang and Maulana, animal protein for poor households. Poultry 2010). business of broiler has also contributed significant return and source of income for the farmer (Ike Problems in broiler chicken production must be and Ugwama, 2011; Masad, 2010; Mustafa and overcome, namely, the country has a deficit, and Ashfaq, 2012; Suwarta, Irham dan Hartono, 2012). demand for meat will continue to increase (Simatupang and Maulana, 2010). From these The performance of the broiler industry at the problems, it is necessary to increase the production national level is presented as follows. The broiler and obtain an opportunity of the profitable poultry production in 2010 dominated a national meat business. demand, contributing as much as 1.21 million tons (51.33%) from total meat production 2.37 million Management is an important factor for tons. Meanwhile, the meat consumption is fulfilled overcoming the problem of broiler chicken by broiler as much as 3.80 kg (49%), and in 2011 production. Therefore, it is necessary to consider rose to 60%. The total demand of broiler chicken how to manage the business of broilers optimally. is greater than the amount of its production. In A properly business management could increase income and reduce the risk of income of broilers farmer. * Corresponding author email: [email protected] ISSN 2615-6075 online; ISSN 2615-6946 print The business management is one of the indirect @UWG Press, 2018 OJS http://publishing-widyagama.ac.id/ejournal- independent variables that is important, and v2/index.php/jsed/ significantly determines the success of a business.
26 Suwarta and Hanafie, The Influence of Business Management on Income..
A good management can improve the productivity core of the manufacturer has more influence than and profit of the poultry industry. An 88% of plasm farmer to increase income (0,0373, α=0.05) business failures are due to ineffective The poultry business management as a management (Downey and Erickson, 1992). production factor is thought to have an effect on According to Ochieng et al. (2011; 2012), by an income function. By reviewing the function of adopting a full intervention management package, income, it is expected to find the factors that affect the performance will be more productive rather the broiler business income and its risk (Suwarta, than modifying and selective. 2012). Connecting a management business in the Suwarta (2012) finds that a broiler business income function will provide opportunity to find a income is negatively affected by (a) the seed price, model of income function and its risk, and improve (b) the feed price, and (c) the age of the farmer. a resource management of broiler farm. Conversely, broiler farm income is positively Based on the description above, the problems influenced by (a) the area of the cage (business are stated in term of business fam management. volume), (b) the partnership, and (c) the This research aims to explore the effect of business manufacturer's core. According to Masad (2010), management on income and income risk of farm the profitability of broiler farming is influenced by broiler chicken. the selling price of the broiler, doc price, feed price, labor cost, medicines cost, depreciation cost RESEARCH METHOD of building and machinery maintenance, heating East Java province notes in three large and lighting cost, mortality rate and FCR. provinces producing broiler chicken with West and Dassanayake and Bandara (2006), state that the Central Java, with the population is more than 50 profit of farmers is influenced by broiler price per million broilers. In 2010, the East Java province kg of live weight, chicken price, feed price, cost of produced 57 million chickens and increased 150 medicine, vitamins, chemical (MVC), and FCR. million chickens in 2011. Hartono (2005) finds that poultry business profits are influenced by doc real prices and real prices of The research was conducted in Lamongan feed, while the real price of drugs, real wages and regency, where there was also as central cages have no effect. production area of broiler chicken. The Broiler production in Lamongan regency is the highest According to Suwarta, Irham dan Hartono compared other areas in East Java. The district (2012); Hartono (2005); Ike and Ugwama (2011); areas with the highest population of broiler chicken Masad (2010); Mustafa and Ashfaq (2012), it were selected, that was Muntup, Sugio and appears that the income function has not included Kedungpring district. the management factor as an independent variable. The primary data sampling was conducted to obtain the following variables. The personal Suwarta (2010; 2011) states that by cross-table character of broiler farmer was explored, including analysis of the influence of broiler farm age, education, experience, and type of business management achievement on income, it shows pattern. The Primary data of poultry business that the management pattern of independent conditions were broiler population, size of the cage, farmer supports the plasm-core farmers and a volume of feeding, usage of drugs-vitamins, independent plasm-core ranchers, yielding the labor, type of cage, harvest age, and feeding achievement of farm business management equal mode. The primary data management included to 68.38, 80.38 and 73.93%, respectively. Those planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, and indicate that the farm management pattern shows controlling. Meanwhile, the more detailed primary a significant influence on farm income. The data were done by recording and calculating a achievement of plasm farmer management shows price variable such as feed, seed, vitamin, drug, influence more significant than the independent chemical, labor wages, and broiler. farmer to the increase of income (0,0862, α=0.01). Meanwhile, the management achievement of a The determination of the number of samples with the consideration that is a statistical analysis
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 27 would be multiple linear regression. It requires performance of broiler farm management, minimum samples of 30 broiler farmer. This including (a) the planning, with a maximum score research selected 50 broiler farmers. This is of 33, (b) the organizing, with a maximum score of expected to meet the standard sample size for 19, (c) the directing, with a maximum score of 22, analysis. (d) the coordinating, with a maximum score of 14, and (e) the controlling, with a maximum score of The research used random sampling method. 19. The total score of management will find a value The number of samples was 50 broiler farmer of the maximum of 107 and minimum of 33. commercial (with 500 broilers or its above) including plasm farmers. On the other side, the RESULT AND DISCUSSION independent farmers were not classified as Income of Broiler Farm commercial businesses (below 500 broilers). The result of model analysis of broiler business The analysis method for accomplishing the income (Table 1), shows that the coefficient of factors that influence the income and the risk of determination (R2) = 0.993, it means that 99.3% income of broilers business used a function as of broiler business income is influenced by follows: independent variable in the model. Meanwhile, Ln I*=β0 + β1ln Px1* + β2ln Px2* + β3ln X3 + β4ln 0.7% of broiler poultry business income is X4 + β5 X5 + β6ln X6 + β7ln X7+ β8D1 + β9 influenced by independent variables outside the D + β D + β D + є 2 10 4 11 5 i model. This statistical analysis shows that the Ln єi2=β + β ln Px * + β ln Px * + β lnX + β 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 model can be used in explaining the income ln X + β X + β ln X + β lnX β D + 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 + 8 1 function of broilers farm. β9 D2+ β10 D3 + β11 D4 + єi Table 1. Estimate of Income Function of Broiler Farm in which, No. Estimate Variables Coefficient I * : real income (Rp) 1 Seed price (X1) -0.658** 2 єi : risk of income 2 Feed price (X2) -0.571* PX1 * : real seed price 3 Cage size (X3) 0.372** PX2 * : real feed price. 4 Age of farmer (X4) 0.027-ns X3 : cage size (m2) 5 Education (X5) 0.001-ns X4 : age of farmer 6 Experience (X6) 0.032* X5 : education (year) 7 Business management (X7) 0.432** X6 : experience (years) 8 Dummy Variables X7 : business management Business volume (D1) 0.036* D1 : dummy variables, d1=1 if broiler business Feeding method (D2) 0.019-ns volume exceeds average volume, D1=0 if other. Harvest age (D3) -0.041-ns D2 : dummy variables, D2=1, divided feeding Farming as a site job (D4) 0.027-ns method, D2=0 if other Constant 25.189** D3 : dummy variables, D3=1, if harvest age is N=50, R2=0.993, F=252.909** shorter than average age, D3=0 if other **, *, and ns denote a level of probability (α) at <0.01, <0.05 D4 : dummy variables, D4=0 if broilers farming as a and >0.05 respectively side job, D4=1 if other є : error, β0 : constant, Meanwhile, the estimate variables that show a β1-β7 : elasticity of independent variable, significant effect (p-value 0.05) on the income of β8 - β11: parameter of dummy variable. broilers business are: (i) the seed price, negatively
If the model of regression testing shows affected, (ii) the feed price, negatively affected, symptoms of heteroscedasticity, then to determine (iii) the cage size, positively affected, (iv) the the percentage of the influence of independent experience, positively affected, (v) the business variables on the dependent variable used statistical management, positively affected, and (vi) the Likelihood Ratio (LR). LR comes from the maximum volume of business, positively affected. On the limit and maximum constrained (Theil, 1971). other side, the variables of age, education, feeding method, harvest period and farming job do not The descriptive analysis of farming business indicate a significant effect on income of the broiler management was conducted to determine the farm.
28 Suwarta and Hanafie, The Influence of Business Management on Income..
Seed price (PX1). The price of seeds shows a positive effect on broiler business income, with a negative affect significantly on broiler farm income, regression coefficient of 0,432 (α=0.01). It means with regression coefficient -0.658 (α=0.01). This that if the business management of broilers means that if the price of seeds rises of 10%, it will improves 10%, the income of broiler business will decrease the farm income of 6.58%. The work of increase 4.32%. The research of Suwarta (2011), other researchers also finds results and with the cross-table analysis, is found that broiler corresponding directions, including Suwarta (2011) business management positively affects the income finds the regression coefficient 0.989 (α=0.01); of broilers business. Hartono (2005) obtains the number of -0.486 The achievements of broiler farm management (α=0.05); Mustafa and Ashfaq (2012) discovers - determined by management pattern. The pattern 0.671 (α=0.01); and Dassanayake and Bandara consists of three management group: (i) the (2006) finds -0.671 (α=0.01) supported plasm-core cooperation which produces Price of feed (PX2). The feed prices negatively a unit of production equal to 80.38%; (ii) the affect broiler farm income, with the regression independent plasm-core cooperation which coefficient 0.571 (α=0.05). This means that if there produces a unit of production equal to 73.93%; (iii) is an increase in feed prices of 10%, it brings about the independent farmer which produces a unit of a 5.7% decrease of broiler business income. production equal to 68.38% (Suwarta, 2011). Conversely, a 10% decrease in feed price will Business volume. The dummy variable of the improve 5.7% of broiler business income. Studies volume of broiler business reflected a business of other researchers also obtain similar results. volume measurement or total production of broiler Suwarta (2011) obtains regression coefficient farm. It means that the higher business volume 0.8438 (α=0.01). The similar coefficient found by will generate an increase in farm income. This is in Hartono (2005) of -0.340 (α=0.05); Mustafa and accordance with the formulation of the dummy in Ashfaq (2012) of -0.701 (α=0.01); and the equation, in which it is found a positive Dassanayake and Bandara (2006) of -3.021 regression coefficient of 0,036 (α=0.05). This can (α=0.01). be said that an increase of income of broilers Size of the cage (X3). The coverage area of the business also as a result of improving efficiency in cage significantly has a positive effect on broiler farm management. poultry business income, with regression coefficient Income Risk of Broilers Farm 0,372. This means that if the cage area extended by 10%, the income of broiler business will The analysis result of income risk function increase 3.72%. Suwarta (2011) and Hartono (Table 2) obtains the value of R2=0.997. It means (2005) obtain the similar result with regression that 99.7% of broiler business income risk is coefficient 0.04169 (α=1) and 0.701 (α=0.05). influenced by the independent variable in the model, while 0.3% remaining is influenced by Experience (X6). The experience has a positive independent variable outside the model. In effect significantly on broiler poultry business addition, the value of F-test=505.855 is (α=0.01) income with regression coefficient 0.032 (α=0.05). which means independent variable in the model It means that every experience increasing 10% will jointly affect the income of broilers business. With increase 0.32% in broiler business income. The these results, the model can be used to describe similar finding is also found by Amos (2016). findings of the research. Experience is the length of time for farmers to carry out and develop the broiler business. The The estimate variables of income risk function long experience of farmers leads to accumulating showing a significant effect on the income of more management knowledge about broilers broilers business are: (i) the seed price, positively business. It generates the more skilled for a affected (α=0.10), (ii) the feed price, positively farmer in managing the broiler farm. affected (α=0.01), (iii) the cage size, negatively affected (α=0.01), (iv) the business management, Business management (X7). The variable of negatively affected (α=0.01), and (vi) the volume business management shows a significantly of business, negatively affected (α=0.10). On the
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 29 other side, the variables of age, education, correspondingly discovered with previous experience, feeding method, harvest period and discussions farming job do not indicate a significant effect on The volume of business (D1). The size of farm income risk of the broiler farm. business showed a negative influence on the Seed price (X1). The price of seeds shows a income risk of broiler farm with a regression positive effect on broiler business income, with a coefficient of -0.266 (α=0.10). As stated in the regression coefficient of 1.389. It means that if previous discussion, the farmer with management the price of seed rises 10%, the income risk of pattern of supporting core-plasm cooperation has broiler business will increase 13.89%. Conversely, advantages concerning the income risk of their if the price of seed drops 10%, it will stimulate broiler farm. This cooperation means that the 13.89% decline in the income risk of broilers interaction within supported plasm-core is useful to business. protect farmer against a various risk of the farm, including in risk of decreasing income. The plasm- Table 2. Estimate of Income Risk Function of Broiler Farm core organization of the broiler farm can explain risks sharing among parties and manage all No. Estimate variables Coefficient resources in the broiler farm. 1 Seed price (X1) 1.389* 2 Feed price (X2) 2.366** Farming Management and Its Implication 3 Cage size (X3) -3.334** 4 Age of farmer (X4) 0.027-ns The analysis of farming business management 5 Education (X5) 0.263-ns 6 Experience (X6) 0.036-ns shows an interesting result. The total achievement 7 Business management (X7) -2.572** of business management of broiler farming 8 Dummy Variables discovers a score of 78.62 and is equal to 73.48% Business volume (D1) -0.286* of the total score of 107. This score comprises a Feeding method (D2) 0.252-ns Harvest age (D3) -0.211-ns management functions as follow: Farming as a site job (D4) 0.828-ns i. The planning, with the score of 22.32, and is Constant 83.331** equal with 67.64% of the total score of 33 N=50, R2=0.997, F=505.855** **, *, and ns denote a level of probability (α) at <0.05, <0.10 ii. The organizing, with the score of 12.48, and is and >0.10 respectively equal with 65.58% of the total score of 19
iii. The directing, with the score of 18.52, and is Feed prices (X2). The price of broiler feed equal with 84.18% of the total score of 22 significantly affected the income risk of broiler farm iv. The coordinating, with the score of 10.56, and is with a regression coefficient of 2.366. It means equal with ideal 74.53% of the total score of 14 that feed price increase by 10% leads to 23.66% v. The controlling, with the score of 14.74 score, increase to the income risk. and is equal with 77.48% of the total score of Area of the cage (X3). The area of the cage 19 showed a negative affect significantly on the The research generally finds that business income risk of broiler business with the regression management of the broiler chicken farm shows a coefficient of -3.334. It means that expanding high achievement, with the score above 65%. The 10% cage area would lower 33.34% the income highest score is displayed by directing component risk of broiler business. at 84%. Most of the broiler farms require the real Business management (X7). The management action to directly do their farms management. The of broiler business has a significantly negative real steps are more important than other effect on income risk of broiler business with the management functions because their farm business regression coefficient of -2.572. It means that if is still in a household scale, with a simple the business management of broilers improves organizational structure. 10%, the income risk will decrease 25.72% of In general, the research encounters the income risk. The explanation of the effect of important results. The variables influencing business management on income risk is income and risk of income also significantly implicate on the farm business management. Table
30 Suwarta and Hanafie, The Influence of Business Management on Income..
1 and 2 indicate variables that show a very include increasing business volume, obtaining the significant of regression coefficient with high t- additional income and reducing of business risks. value. Those variables can provide alternative ACKNOWLEDGMENT managerial actions for improving the broiler farm and prosperity of the farmer. Those variables are The authors express many thanks to the the seed price,the feed price, the cage size, and Government of Indonesia through the Ministry of the business management pattern. Research, Technology and Higher Education that has provided opportunities to take a part in the The variables of seed price, feed price, and Fundamental Research grants in the year 2014 and cage size are relatively easy to define in managerial 2015. action in the broiler by the farmer itself. This associates with the subject of the technology or REFERENCES technical management matters in the daily life of the farmer. Amos, T. T. 2006. Analysis of backyard poultry production in Ondo State, Nigeria. International The factor that ia relatively difficult to be Journal of Poultry Science 5(3): 247-250 managed by farmers is business management Dassanayake, D. M. W .K and Bandara, R. M. A. S. respecting to participation in core-plasm 2006. A quantitative analysis on factors management. Although it is difficult to manage, affecting profitability of small scale broiler the involvement of farmers in the plasm-core production. The Journal of Agricltural Sciences. organization will gain many benefits. These 2(3): 45-50 benefits include increasing from business volume, Downey and Eriction. 1992. Managemen increasing to income and reducing of business Agribisnis. Edisi Kedua. Penerbit Erlangga risks. (Terjemahan), Jakarta
Suwarta, Irham dan Hartono (2012) find that Hartono. 2005. Estimasi fungsi keuntungan untuk usaha ayam potong di Kecamatan Suruh the economic scale of broiler business is closely Kabupaten Semarang. J. Indon. Trop. Anim. related to the income risk. The farmers who raise Agric. 30 (4): 207-216 above 5000 broilers encounter the risk income of 65.21. Meanwhile the farmers that have less than Ike, P. C. and Ugwama, C. O. A. 2011. Profiability of scale broiler in onitsha north local 5000 broilers are deal with the higher risk income government area of Anambra State, Nigeria. of 83.23 with F-value=6.001 (α=0.05). International Journal of Poultry Science 10(2): CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION 106 – 109 Masad, M. 2010. Factors Affecting Profits of Broiler The broiler business management of broiler Industry in Jordan : A Quantitative Approach. affects the income of broilers. In addition to (http://www.medwelljournals.com/fulltext/?doi management, broiler poultry income is also =rjbsci.2010.111.115) positively influenced by the size of the cage, the Mustafa, G. and Ashfaq, M. 2012. Factor Affecting poultry experience, and the business volume. The Profit of Broiler Industry in Faisalabad. (http income of broiler business is negatively influenced ://en.engormix.com/MA-…) by the price of seeds and the feed price. Ochieng, J., Owuor, G. and Bebe, B. O. 2012. The business management provides negative Determinant of adoption of management influence on the income risk of broiler farm. The produtctive performance of indihenous chicken in Western Kenya. African Journal of risk income of the broiler farm is also negatively Agricultural and Resource Economics. 7 (1): 39- influenced by the cage size and the business 50 volume. Ochieng, J., Owuor, G., Bebe, B. O. and Ochieng, The business management associates farmer’s D. O. 2011. Effect of management participation in core-plasm management. The interventions on productive performance of involvement of farmers into the plasm-core indigenous chicken in Western Kenya. Livestock organization meets many advantages. These Research for Rural Development. Volume 23, Article #114
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Simatupang, P. and Maulana, M. 2010. Prospek faktor yang mempengaruhi di Kabupaten Penawaran dan Permintaan Pangan Utama : Sleman. J-SEP. 4(1): 53-62 Analisis Masalah , Kendala dan Opsi Kebijakan Suwarta. 2011. Produktivitas, Efisiensi dan Risiko Revitalisasi Produksi. Pusat Analisis Sosial Usaha Ternak Ayam Broiler di Sleman. Disertasi Ekonomi dan Kebijakan Pertanian, S3 Program Studi Ekonomi Pertanian Balitbangtan, Kementan, Bogor. 48p. Universitas Gadjah Mada (Tidak Suwarta, Irham, Hartono, S. 2012. Struktur biaya Dipublikasikan). dan pendapatan usaha ternak ayam broiler di Suwarta. 2012. Resiko usaha ternak ayam broiler Kabupaten Sleman. AGRIKA, 6(1): 65-85 di Kabupaten Sleman. AGRIKA, 7(2): 149-160 Suwarta. 2010. Efektifitas pola kemitraan inti- Theil, H. 1971. Principles of Econometrics. John plasma dan produktivitas, usaha ternak ayam Wiley, New York. broiler peternak plasma dan mandiri serta
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development Widyagama Vol 1, No 1, April 2018, 32 – 37 DOI: 10.31328/jsed.v1i1.530
ESTABLISH THE PERCEPTION OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORKERS THROUGH CYBER EXTENSION AS THE MEDIA INFORMATION
Latarus Fangohoi1*, Sugiyanto2, Keppi Sukesi2, and Edi Dwi Cahyono2
1 College of Agricultural Extension of Malang, East Java 2 Post Graduate Program of Agriculture Faculty, University of Brawijaya Malang
(Received April 12, 2017; Accepted March 20, 2018)
ABSTRACT. The cyber extension has a significant media in developing an extension program of agricultural information. The government has built the cyber extension supported by the development of ICT and its utilization in the dissemination of agricultural information. It is expected to provide positive benefits in the improvement of competence of the extension workers. The purpose of this research is to analyse the characteristics and perception of the extensions workers in the utilization of cyber extension to support their work. This research is correlational descriptive analysis by using survey method. The study was conducted in South Manokwari Regency, West Papua Province. The sample in the research was all extension workers as many as 22 people. The result shows that the characteristics of the extensions workers as follow: the media used is a smartphone (100%), the working period is 5-10 years (77%) and the education level is high school (SMK/SPMA, 73%). Meanwhile, the perception of the extension workers on the cyber media is high. It reaches 95%. They provide the positive perception on cyber extension concerning variables of benefit, complexity, and convenience. Keywords: smart phone, training, farmer, rural, Manokwari JEL Classification: D80, Q16
INTRODUCTION agricultural development. This is demonstrated by the demand for the quality extension services to Information communication and technology farmers. This condition certainly requires the needs (ICT) grows very fast. The Information technology of agricultural extension workers who have provides many varieties of alternative ways and competence based on the knowledge and skills procedures to help human needs. Therefore, according to their respective fields (Pramono, everyone needs to follow the development of the Fatchiya and Sadono, 2017)., technology and develops creativity dealing with the problems in various fields. This development also So far, the problem often faced by the farmers influences the paradigm shift in the field of in rural areas is the low availability of new agricultural extension to provide information to the information and as needed. So much information is public. The access to information can be obtained available over the internet. This information can be in the short time and quickly now. useful as the first step to understand the problem which is then followed up with a solution Today, farmers commonly show an increase in (Anonymous, 2014). The provision of this knowledge, skills, skills and critical attitude towards information needs to be well managed. The extension workers, farmers, and stakeholders can learn to use this information to be more useful. * Corresponding author email: [email protected], ISSN 2615-6075 online; ISSN 2615-6946 print Furthermore, the information technology can @UWG Press, 2018 encourage farmers to build personal OJS http://publishing-widyagama.ac.id/ejournal- communication more easily, quickly, and v2/index.php/jsed/ accurately. The information availability can also Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 33 create technological innovations in agriculture and to stimulate and develop their business. The issue its supporting services. of commercialization requires fast information and innovative services through the utilization of cyber A cyber extension is one of the mechanisms of extensions. development of network communication, information and innovation in the agriculture sector This research aims to study the characteristics that is developed by the government. The cyber of the extension workers and its perception in the extension is also intended for implementing the utilization of cyber extension to support its task. information and communication technology in the RESEARCH METHOD communication system of agricultural extension. The cyber extension has a synergistic and The research design used was a mixed method complementary role to bridge the needs of farmers which is a combination of qualitative and and stakeholders through the communication quantitative research approach (Sugiyono, 2014). mechanism of agricultural innovation (Sumardjo et The strategy of mixed methods used was the al., 2009). There are some benefits of the cyber concurrent embedded strategy (Creswell, 2014). extension, for example, providing information for The data collection was conducted by survey extension workers, farmers, and planters; and method. Two districts of South Manokwari Regency providing information to see how the development of West Papua Province were selected. The survey of the cocoa plant, in term of demand, cultivation, location was conducted purposely in two largest harvesting and transaction mechanisms. sub-districts of cocoa production (Dinas Pertanian, 2016). Those regions have received equipment of The barriers in the access to ICT by the data processing of cyber extension from the extension workers and farmers are still very Agriculture Office of South Manokwari Regency. significant. These constraints include a low in skills, gaps in understanding information, not familiar with The study was conducted from November 2016 ICT, and the expense of technology. to February 2017. The population was the extension workers assigned in South Manokwari The advantages of using cyber extension Regency in West Papua Province. They were the communications are the sustainable availability of extension workers of permanent civil servants information, the access to the international needs, (PNS, Pegawai Negeri Sipil) and freelancer (THL- the user-oriented, the personalized manner, the TBPP, Tenaga Harian Lepas Tenaga Bantu effective and fast cost. Today, the most relevant in Penyuluh Pertanian) in South Manokwari Regency. communication model is the use of cyber All extension workers (Sugiyono, 2014) who extensions. It is a strategic medium in extension become as the research respondents were 22 practice to improve the accessibility of information people. to farmers, extension workers, researchers, suppliers and other stakeholders (Subejo, 2013). The data used are primary data and secondary data. The primary data were associated with the Cyber Extension is one of the communication age, education, age of employment and the gadget channels that synergizes the application of used. The Perceptual data on the cyber extension information technology with the various included benefits, complexity, convenience, communication system via internet. One of the conformity, and expected profit. utilization of cyber extensions is through mobile phones and computer media. According to Subejo The research obtained the primary data (2013), the application of conventional extensions through: (i) structured interviews by using methods, such as face-to-face, group meetings, questionnaires, (ii) in-depth interviews, (iii) Focus leaflets, and field schools are no longer adequate. Group Discussion (FGD) and (iv) field observation (Akdon, 2007). The secondary data were gathered Commercialization of agricultural commodities through documents and information related to the has become a primary need for sustainable cyber extension. The analysis method used was a production. The flow of benefits from the marketing descriptive approach. of farm products provides farmers with incentives
34 Fangohoi et al., Establish The Perception of Agricultural Extention ...
Figure 1. Website of the cyber extension (http://cybex.pertanian.go.id)
RESULT AND DISCUSSION laptop can help them to improve their insight and competence in absorbing better information. In Characteristics of Extension Workers Garut, the skill of extension workers is generally in The results show that the characteristics of the low category (Pramono, Fatchiya, and Sadono, extension workers vary considerably (Table 1). The 2017). To solve these problems, the extension extension workers in South Manokwari District are workers are expected to be able to access cyber dominantly aged between 40 and 48 years old extension and utilize it to support knowledge (59%), high school education (73%), 5-10 years transfer. (77%), the positive perception of cyber extension Table 1. Characteristics of Extension Workers (95%) and smartphone use (100%). These results commonly illustrate that the character of the Characteristics Criterion Number Proportion Age 30-39 7 31.8 extension workers is usually adult, middle- 40-48 13 59.1 educated, do not have much experience in the 49-57 2 9.1 task, recognize the smartphone, and have a good Education High school 16 72.7 perception of the cyber extension. Diploma-3 2 9.1 Diploma-4 1 4.6 The extension workers have been very familiar Und’graduate 3 13.6 Working period 5 - 10 year 17 77.3 with communication technology and information 11 - 15 year 4 18.2 and its benefits as the source of information that 16 - 20 year 0 0.0 supports the task. 13 form the 22 extension > 20 year 1 4.5 workers who are adults are estimated to be very Extensionist's High 21 95 perception Low 1 5 active in utilizing smartphones for accessing to the Gadget used Smart phone 22 100 internet, especially information about agriculture. Laptop 13 59
The use of the smartphone is expected to increase the knowledge of extension workers with The result of the research also shows that there various sources of agricultural information from the are many workers who do not utilize Cyber internet, and is ready to be transferred to the extension optimally. The extension workers have farmers. Therefore, although they do not have not used an integrated and comprehensive web- much experience, then the role of smartphones or based agriculture information system yet. They still
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 35 use a conventional media such as Sinar Tani process of transformation of knowledge to the (Sinta), TV broadcasts, or books. The cyber farmers always be up to date. In addition, all users extension is one of the extension media that can be can also interactively share information and used to assist extension workers in developing knowledge in the application system provided. extension materials. The use of cyber extension is very effective in Therefore, the conventional and cyber implementing an agricultural extension program approaches will complement each other. The supported by national and international information convergence of two approaches can be created and network, expert system, and multimedia learning presented to meet the information needs of the system. A computer-based training system in the farmers. Currently, the use of the cyber extension cyber extension can improve information access to can be accessed through Information System the farmers, extension workers, scientists, Application of Information (Simluh) and Farmers researchers and extension manager. Information System and Farmer Group (Simpoktan) The ICT will increase both the reach and the (Figure 1) (Kementerian Pertanian, 2018) two-way interaction between the key stakeholders. The cyber extension is an agricultural The ITC offers a wider new opportunity and greater information exchange mechanism through the potential. This not only adds interactivity, but also cyber area, an imaginary virtual space behind the adds speed, two-way communication, and interconnection of computer networks. The use of increases the deeper message. It will also extend ICT is more effective and efficient in the coverage and improve the quality of agricultural implementation of agricultural extension so that the extension.
Figure 2. Perceptions of the extension workers on the cyber extension
The cyber extension should be used carefully, Perception of Extension Workers so it is not to replace the existing communication In this study, the extension workers' perception system (http://cybex.pertanian.go.id/). Oral of the cyber extension was analysed through six communication needs to be constantly developed variables, including perceived benefit, complexity, to build togetherness, recognize deeper needs, convenience, ease, conformity, and perceived profit touch the psychology of the audience to solve the (Figure 2). Figure 2 shows that extension workers problem thoroughly. provided a positive perception of the first three variables namely benefits, complexity, and
36 Fangohoi et al., Establish The Perception of Agricultural Extention ... convenience. From the 22 extension workers extension workers, farmers for their progress interviewed, 19 people stated that the cyber (Chauhan, 2010). extension is useful; 14 people stated that the cyber iii. Extension workers who often follow the training extension is relatively complex; and 17 people said have an advantage in knowing the information that the cyber extension provides the sense of from the internet. This opens the opportunity comfort. for extension workers to understand the cyber extension. The workers then run a self-taught Meanwhile, the other three variables show the lesson to improve his insights and skills. neutral perception. In the perception of ease, iv. High motivation of extension workers to carry suitability, and expected profit, the number of out their duties can build positive perceptions extension workers who have high or low perception about cyber extension and utilization of ICT. responses is the same (11 of 22 people). This The motivation makes them actively means that the extension workers do not provide a communicate, improve knowledge and seek significant response to the cyber extension information using ICT. ICTs facilitate perceived. communication and access to information for In general, the results are in accordance with agricultural and rural development. The policy Table 1, where the extension officers' perceptions on agricultural development is implemented are very enthusiastic (95%) on the cyber through relevant ICT applications to support extensions (Table 1). This indicates that the agricultural extension (Nandeesha and extension workers already recognize the internet or Thimmaiah, 2016). the use of ICT. This is also in line with the result of The role of extension workers is very strategic. the study in Garut, which states that the extension The extension workers can function as informants, workers have been very familiar with ICT as well as synergize cyber extension applications as (Pramono, Fatchiya, and Sadono, 2017). the source of information and potential The positive perceptions of the cyber extension communication. Through the cyber extension, the will change the perspective way in obtaining extension workers are also exposed to various information. It needs to be created dynamics in the choices of communication and information media. life of extension workers to improve insight and The internet has become a decisive force for the competence, thus by providing the positive extension workers in obtaining information. perception of cyber extension. The information media serve as the tool that The perception certainly cannot be seen empowers people. The media also facilitate statically. The perception of extension workers on community participation and provide avenues for cyber extension has a close relationship with the the development of the agricultural sector. The experience of understanding ICT and its benefits. cyber extension program launched by the The following can build a positive perception on the government is expected to promote sustainable cyber extension. development of rural areas. Media communication has an important role in the transformation i. Experience in using the internet via computer, process. According to Wilbur Schramm, the role of laptop or internet smartphone. This experience media in development includes; inform, direct and can be built through discussions with the fellow participate (Vagdevi et al., 2016). extension workers. They will recognize which source of information is good and desired. In general, the ICT has helped shift the ii. Intensity and quality of extension by using paradigm in the use of communication technology communication media and information. The between the extension workers and community. higher the communication behaviour related to The youths become active participants in the ICT-based information sources, the more the communication process. Smartphones are more need for information through the internet accessible than a computer for accessing the increase. The Internet is a rich source of internet. The availability of internet on the information, which should be exploited by smartphone makes it even more interesting. Smartphones have changed the concept of social
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 37 relationships through the features of social media. and assists in the research grant and other Most people use smartphones to communicate, supporting resources. share ideas, thoughts, dan beliefs (Drengy, 2017). REFERENCES CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Drengy, A. H. 2017. Changing paradigms of socio- The extension workers in South Manokwari political participation, impact of new media on Regency show the following characteristics: the age the youth of South Kashmir. International Journal of Advanced Education and Research. of 40-48 years (59%), high school education 2(4): 160-164 (73%), 5-10 years (77%), the positive perception of cyber extension (95 percent) and they use the Chauhan, N. M. 2010. Expectations of the farmers smart phone (100%). In general, this indicates that from ICT in agriculture, 10(1): 42–45. the extension workers have recognized the internet Kementerian Pertanian. 2018. Cyber Extension. or the use of ICT. Kementerian Pertanian Badan Penyuluhan Dan Pengembangan Sumber Daya Manusia The extension workers have diverse perceptions Pertanian. http://cybex.pertanian.go.id/ on the cyber extension. They provide the positive Nandeesha, H. K. and Thimmaiah, N. 2016. ICT perception on the variables of benefit, complexity, programmes and policies for agricultural and convenience. From 22 extension workers, 19 extension in India: Review. Journal of Media people stated that the cyber extension is useful; 14 and Sosial Development, 4(2):78-89 people declared that the cyber extension is Akdon, R. 2007. Rumus dan Data dalam Analisis relatively complex, and 17 people said that the Statistika untuk Penelitian. Penerbit Alfabeta. cyber extension provides the sense of comfort. Sugiyono. 2014. Metode Penelitian Kualitatif, While the ease, match, and profit variables Kualitatif dan R&D. Anggota Ikatan Penerbit show a neutral perception. This means that the Indonesia (IKAPI). Penerbit Alfabeta. extension workers do not show a significant Sumardjo., Baga, L. M. dan Mulyandari, R. S. H. response related to the perception of the cyber 2009. Kajian Cyber Extension Departemen extension. Pertanian The extension workers need to improve their Vagdevi H.S., Kumar, P. L. M. and Indira, M.. competence through activities such as discussion, 2016. Role of media in development training, self-learning and motivational communication with special reference to kissan call centre (kcc) in india. Journal of Media and improvement in work. Sosial Development. 4(2): 19-30 ACKNOWLEDGMENT Pramono, H. Fatchiya, A dan Sadono, D. 2017. Kompetensi Penyuluh Tenaga Harian Lepas The authors would like to thank the College of Tenaga Bantu Penyuluh Pertanian di Kabupaten Agricultural Extension of Malang which supports Garut, Jawa Barat. Jurnal Penyuluhan. 13(2): 194-209.
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development Widyagama Vol 1, No 1, April 2018, 38 – 42 DOI: 10.31328/jsed.v1i1.531
THE SUSTAINABILITY LEVEL OF THE RICE FARMING IN THE PEATLAND AT THE KAPUAS REGENCY, CENTRAL KALIMANTAN
Jhon Wardie1* and Tri Yuliana Eka Sintha1
1 Agriculture Faculty, University of Palangka Raya
(Received March 20, 2018; accepted April 12, 2018)
ABSTRACT. The research aims to analyse the level of sustainability and the level of household income in the farming of rice on the peatland. The research location was determined by purposive sampling in Terusan Karya Village, Bataguh District, Kapuas Regency. The simple random sampling method was taken on 50 farmer household served as respondent. The data were collected in the form of primary and secondary data. To achieve the first research objective, it was conducted by an analysis of sustainability indicators of farming using Likert Scale system. The index of farming sustainability includes biophysical and socio-economic aspects in the rice farming on peatland. Meanwhile, to achieve the purpose of the second research, it was operated by using a simple tabulation to measure the level of farmer household income. The result of the analysis showed that farming sustainability of rice in the peatland found index by 76.10%, which means that the level of farming sustainability is a good category or highly sustainable. The result of the analysis of farm household income was 16.9 million rupiahs, which means that the farm household income has been categorized as good. Keywords: sustainability index, peatland, income, rice, farmer household
JEL Classification: D10, Q01, Q12
INTRODUCTION natural resources. The agricultural development requires considering the implementation of the Agriculture still plays an essential role in concept of sustainable development, which consists fostering Indonesia's economy, so the government of three dimensions of development, covering continues to give a particular attention to economic, social and environmental aspects. The agricultural development. One of the main richness of natural resources has great potential to purposes of agricultural development in Indonesia develop, including the agricultural land resources. is to improve food security so that the various It should be managed optimally in supporting efforts and innovations continue to do it. One agricultural production regarding the quantity and attempt is to develop the role of how the quality, contributing economic output, providing agricultural sector which shows high productivity in economic prosperity for farmers, and maintaining the present and future. It is expected to meet the biodiversity. growing of food needs following the population growth, and to provide income for farmers. Significant agricultural land resources found on the island of Kalimantan are peatland. Peatlands A significant challenge in agricultural have specific characteristics, whose management is development is to develop of land resources that no easier than mineral soil. The utilization of pay attention to the environment conservation and peatlands for agricultural production will face many obstacles, related to the low nutrients in the soil. That is why managing peatlands require particular * Corresponding author email: [email protected], ISSN 2615-6075 online; ISSN 2615-6946 print attention and treatment (Ar-Riza, Nazemi, and @UWG Press, 2018 Rina, 2010). If there is a failure in management, OJS http://publishing-widyagama.ac.id/ejournal- then it can cause land degradation and v2/index.php/jsed/ environmental damage. Under these conditions, it
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 39 will take a long time to rehabilitate and restore the The research area was determined purposively by land condition. choosing Terusan Karya Village, Bataguh district as the location for the research with the consideration Thus, the agricultural development in peatlands that the location has the acreage of agricultural should be carried out by following the concept of development in particular rice in the vast pea land. sustainable agriculture systems. The management A simple random sampling was carried out to select of peatlands should adjust the characteristics of the 50 farmers as therespondents from the village. land and pay attention to an eco-region. It can They performed a rational and intensive farming in have implications for how the management of managing and paying attention to the agricultural production by farmers' households, environmental sustainability based on the results of related to soil tilting, cultivation technology, labour, observation of the field, as well as from an and farming cost needs. The optimal management interview with the field extension officers. The of this land will produce maximum production and respondents selected are expected to represent the income for the farmers. This will create incentives nature of the population of the farmers who for the farmers to develop peatland on the manage the activity of farming in peatland. sustainable agricultural cultivation. The data collected in the research include One model of sustainable agriculture primary data and secondary data. Primary data as management applied in peatland is a model of the primary data were obtained through direct sustainable agriculture with the low external input interviews with sample peasant using a structured use that is well-known as LEISA (Low External list of questions as well as the direct observation on Input Sustainable Agriculture). This agricultural the object of the research. Meanwhile, the system attempts to reduce the use of inputs from secondary data were collected from the variety of the outside ecosystems such as seeds, chemical the office or related institutions with relevant fertilizers, and pesticides. In the long term, using supporting data. the system can strengthen the implementation of the sustainable management of agricultural The primary method used in this research was systems et al., 1999). the descriptive method of analysis. The actual problem was accomplished systematically from the Based on the background and descriptions data acquired and collected for subsequent above, the purpose of this study is to analyse the compiled, tabulated, analysed and described both level of sustainability and the household income qualitatively and quantitatively. level of the farmers in rice farming on the peatland, in Terusan Karya Village, Bataguh District, Kapuas To conduct the first research objective, the level Regency. of sustainability of farming rice on-site research was analysed with the indicators of the RESEARCH METHOD sustainability assessment of the farmers by using The area of research was determined Likert scale system. An indicator of the purposively respecting the nature and character of sustainability of farming is an instrument that the area. The area selected was considered to contains the biophysics and socio-economic have close ties with the issues that will be aspects. These are used to measure the level of examined, so it is relevant enough to the research sustainability of farming in the lowland ecosystems objectives. Kapuas Regency is defined as the area on the level of farming, and were adopted from the of research that geographically covers an area of working paper on sustainable agriculture indicators 8.554 km2 (57%) of the area's region particularly (SEARCA, 1995). 14.999 km2 of ebb and peatland. Besides, the area To accomplish the second research objective, is rice production centre for the province of Central the assessment of the farming sustainability was Kalimantan. calculated in the form of an index of sustainability, In this study, there were 11 districts in the by adopting the equation of Riduwan and Akdon Southern Kapuas Regency which have (2005) which was formulated as follows: characteristics as the region of ebb and peatland.
40 Wardie and Sintha, The Level Sustainability of The Rice Farming..
Table 2 shows that the achievement of sustainability indices of farming on rice farming score obtained sustainabilityindex x 100 activities in peat is 76.10%. It indicates that the the maximum score sustainability level of farming in Terusan Karya Sustainability index value will indicate the level of Village, Bataguh district is sustainable or very good sustainability of farming categories as shown in categories. This category is achieved because Table 1 below. farmers in cultivating activities on their land Table 1. Category level of Sustainability of farming performed an attitude and better behaviour in applying the biophysics and socio-economic aspects No Index Value (%) Category as the indicator of the sustainability. The 1 0.00 – 25.00 Bad (not sustainable) 2 25.01 – 50.00 Less (less sustainable) management of peatland of the farmers associate 3 50.01 – 75.00 Enough (enough sustainable) with a model approach of LEISA. Farmers have 4 75.01 – 100.00 Good (very sustainable) identified the use of technology inputs and Source: Thamrin and team on Wardie (2011). optimally worked land management. They have
been able to suppress the use of external inputs, For achieving the second research purposes, and instead use external inputs and optimally apply the level of household income of the farmers was input from the local resources. analysed in simple tabulations by using the Peatland resource development cannot be following formula: generalized to all regions. Peatlands are extremely I = TR – TVC fragile and sensitive to environmental changes, so In which I = household income of farmers, TR these need appropriate methods and management Total revenue/total acceptance of farming, and TVC practices. The application of technology should be Total variable cost/total cost of farming issued based on the consideration of land characteristics, suitability, efficiency and synergy between specific RESULT AND DISCUSSION technology and environment components so that the sustainability of production can be more In managing farming, farmers should ensured. Peatland management also considers the adequately carry out the application of a minimal conditions of biodiversity to support ecosystem input to obtain the maximum output, and will balance. Peatland cultivation technology employs eventually receive an increased household income an application of dolomite, compost, macro and and the well-being of farmers. macro fertilizer; high yield variety, inter-cropping; Sustainable agriculture became the focus of and land preparation without burning (Ar-Riza, attention because it is not only related to economic Nazemi, and Rina, 2010). aspects and productivity economically but also According to SEARCA (1995), there are two needs to pay attention to the environmental and aspects of assessing levels of farming sustainability, social issues. The term sustainable agriculture namely biophysics and socio-economic aspects. An means developing agro-ecosystem that seeks to indicator of sustainable farming denoted biophysics combine four things including productivity, stability, aspects includes the land quality, the use of equity, and sustainability. The sustainability of external and the internal inputs as well as effluent paddy farming is measured by using sustainability recycling. Meanwhile, the aspect of socio-economic assessment indicators. The results of the analysis covers diversified sources of revenue (from on- in detail can be shown in Table 2. farm, off-farm, and non-farm), harvesting systems, Table 2. Sustainability Index of rice farming on Peatland practice management of farming, ownership, and The control of land, food security, membership in the Category Number of Sustainability Activity Sustainability organization and support services. Sample Index (%) Of Farming (People) To meet the needs of daily life, farmers have to Farming rice Good (very 50 76.10 do household activities. In general, the business of on peatland sustainable) Source: primary data are processed the farmer household can be divided into three things, namely the on-farm activities, the off-farm
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 41 and the non-farm. However, this study only evaluation of the sustainability of income level, analysed household income sourced from the on- household earns income on the average above 10 farm activities. On-farm income of the household million rupiahs per year which is categorized as originated from the rice farming, crops, vegetables, good. fruits plant, and livestock business venture, as it CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION can be seen in Table 3.
Table 3. Sources of On-Farm Household Income of The level of sustainability of the rice farming in farmers peatland of Terusan Karya Village, Batagus District, Household Income No Type of Farming Kapuas Regency is well categorized or very Value Proportion sustainable. It means that the household farmers X Rp 1000/year % 1 Rice 8164.3 48.3 already have positive attitudes and behaviour that 2 Food crops and 508.6 3.0 is against the principles and nature of sustainable vegetables farming. 3 Fruit plant 6079.8 36.0 4 Livestock 2153.9 12.7 The household income level of farmers in the Total 16906.6 100.0 Terusan Karya Village, Batagus District, Kapuas Source: primary data are processed. Distric is high. This means that household economic circumstances of farmers are already well Table 3 shows that an on-farm income source categorized. comes mainly from the farming rice that contributes 48.29% of the total income. Farm households should continue to improve Meanwhile, the smallest income source found in the their positive attitudes and behaviours in applying crops and vegetables farming contribute 3.01% the principles of sustainable agriculture and natural total income. It is very reasonable because the rice resources management. These efforts will increase farming is the primary commodity for the farmers' agricultural production and economic value, build a household in contributing revenue. Meanwhile, for healthy and secure society for sustainable natural the cultivation of crops and vegetables grown is resource development. only on the land area with a relatively small size. In addition to the rice, farmers can develop The Household Income Survey of Farmer (SPP) other farming such as food crop, vegetables, fruits, by 2013 noted that the average farm household and livestock business either as a primary livelihood income from farming businesses in the province of or side business. It requires support from the local Central Kalimantan was 16.491 million rupiahs government agricultural agency. (BPS, 2014). This figure shows a significant REFERENCES increase compared with the similar survey done in 2004 as the amount of 8.240 million rupiahs (BPS, Ar-Riza, I., Nazemi, D dan Rina D,. Y. 2010. 2004). In this research, farm household income Penerapan teknologi tanpa bakar untuk meningkatkan produksi jagung di lahan gambut. reached 16.906 million rupiahs. This figure exceeds Prosiding Pekan Serealia Nasional, Maros, 27-28 slightly from the results of the SPP survey in 2013. Juli 2010. 287-293 Meanwhile, research results from Heryono, BPS. 2004. Agricultural Census 2003. Household Nugroho and Hanafie (2016) found different results Income Survey Results of Agricultural Business in Lumajang, East Java. The research on the (SPP) Province of Central Kalimantan (2004). intensive paddy field (with productivity average of Central Bureau of Statistics of The Province of 8.0 tons per hectare), the income of rice farmers Central Kalimantan. Palangka Raya. amounted to 37.737 and 31.280 million rupiahs BPS. 2014. The Census of agriculture 2013. each for farmers who are members of a group and Household Income Survey Results of a non farmer group. This result is much higher than Agricultural Business (SPP) Province of Central Kalimantan by 2013. Central Bureau of Statistics rice productivity in peatlands. The productivity level of The Province of Central Kalimantan. Palangka of a high yield variety of rice in peatlands was Raya. about 4.0 tons per hectare (Syafruwardi, Fajeri and Hamdani, 2012). However, in general, from the
42 Wardie and Sintha, The Level Sustainability of The Rice Farming..
Heryono, M., Nugroho, I, and Hanafie, R. 2017. Syafruwardi, A., Fajeri, H. dan Hamdani. 2012. Analysis of efficiency on rice farming. Analisis Finansial Usahatani Padi Varietas Agricultural Socio-Economics Journal. 16(1): 31- Unggul di Desa Guntung Ujung, Kecamatan 37. Gambut, Kabupaten Banjar, Kalimantan Selatan. Jurnal Agribisnis Perdesaan. 2 September 2012 Reijntjes, C., B. Haverkort and Ann Waters-Bayer. (3): 181-192 1999. The Agriculture of The Future. An Introduction to Sustainable Agriculture with Low Wardie, J. 2011. “Sustainable Farming Optimization External Input. Indonesia Edition. Canisius. at Local Farm Household and Non Local Yogyakarta. Household in Tidal Swamps Area in Kapuas Regency.” Dissertation. Program Study of Riduwan and Akdon. 2005. Formulas and Data in Agricultural Science. University of Gadjah Mada. Statistical Analysis. Alfabeta. Bandung. Yogyakarta. Not Published. SEARCA, 1995. Working Paper on Sustainable Agriculture Indicators. Los Banos. Philippines.
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development Widyagama Vol 1, No 1, April 2018, 43 – 51 DOI: 10.31328/jsed.v1i1.532
THE PLANNING AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ECOTOURISM AND TOURISM VILLAGE IN INDONESIA: A POLICY REVIEW
Iwan Nugroho1*, Purnawan Dwikora Negara2, and Hefifa Rhesa Yuniar3
1 Study Program of Agribusiness, Widyagama University of Malang 2 Study Program of Law, Widyagama University of Malang 3 University Library, Widyagama University of Malang
(Received November 25, 2017; Accepted February 22, 2018)
ABSTRACT. Developing tourism village or ecotourism requires a carefully integrated planning. The village shows its role and functions as the source of inspiration for environmental and cultural conservation. However, it is not easy to carry out. Developing the tourism village is a great work, multi-sector and requires collaboration. Planning of ecotourism requires the integration of macro, ecosystem and local level. Planning at the macro level gives a legal management basis in the ecosystem and local level. Planning at the ecosystem level devises environmental and cultural vision and coordinates the regional management of a destination. Planning at the local level develops a quality management service, participation, and empowerment of the local people. The development of ecotourism services in the village includes efforts of (i) developing the local empowerment, (ii) developing of infrastructure to meet environmental conservation, (iii) building governance to gain a positive experience and well-being, (iv)integrating the tourism promotion through the product development and market segmentation, and (v) interpreting and educating to offer the education of cultural and environmental conservation. Keywords : Ngadas, Bromo, conservation, culture, national park JEL Classification: Q01, Q20, Z38
INTRODUCTION is higher than farming (Purnomowati, Nugroho and Negara, 2012). This concept has become a flagship The development of tourism provides the program in the number of countries, such as significant benefits for the economy and the region. Malaysia (Liu, 2006; Kumar, Gill and Kunasekaran, The tourism services play a role in accelerating the 2012) and Thailand (Chancharoenchai and process of economic transformation including in the Saraithong, 2011). rural areas. The farmers can learn gradually to develop the environmental and social services The opportunities in developing the tourism around their regions. The momentum of the village is very wide. According to Parks et al. tradition, culture, and exoticism of the environment (2009), a middle-class economic community has a can be packaged as an attractive village tourism high demand for travel and tours. Along with that, service to visitors from outside the area. The the improvement of infrastructure especially concept of cultural and environmental is based on transportation builds access to a diversity of the tourism development in the villages, and will attractive areas. Considering the economic potential synergize the agricultural development and provide of this rural region needs to prepare people to a welfare alternative for farmers. The tourist accept the coming tourists from outside the region. services proved to demonstrate economic feasibility There have been many local governments to enhance the development of rural tourism services, and welfare benefits for the people (Nugroho, * Corresponding author email: [email protected], 2010). ISSN 2615-6075 online; ISSN 2615-6946 print @UWG Press, 2018 Developing tourism region, village tourism or OJS http://publishing-widyagama.ac.id/ejournal- v2/index.php/jsed/ ecotourism requires a careful and integrated
44 Nugroho, Negara and Yuniar, The Planning and The Development of The Ecotourism .. planning. A village living can just advance The demand for the services of the village economically, and show the progress of the village tourism, or various objects and village life is very construction. However, the village should still high. Tourists are very crucial to travel towards exhibit its role and functions as the source of villages or remote areas. The domestic and foreign inspiration for environmental and cultural tourists are willing to pay an expense going to long conservation, and support the balance of life and distances. The tourists stay in the remote villages ecosystems. Through tourism activity, the village like Ngadas or Ngadisari (Bromo), Candirejo can provide places for learning especially the (Magelang), Rajegwesi (other countries), Wanci conservation of environment and culture (Nugroho (Wakatobi), Komodo (Nusa Tenggara Western), and Negara, 2015). However, it is not easy to Baluran National Park, Raja Ampat (Papua) or other implement. Developing the tourism village is a exotic places all over the Archipelago. great work, multi sector and requires many ECOTOURISM DESTINATION synergies. The concept and implementation of ecotourism This paper aims to describe the concept of cannot be separated from the development of the ecotourism, ecotourism planning and development protected area. In Indonesia, the protected area of tourism village. consists of wilderness area (WA), natural ECOTOURISM AND VILLAGE TOURISM conservation area (NCA) and hunting park. WA consists of a strict nature reserve and wilderness Ecotourism is travelling activities that are protection; NCA consists of national parks, grand packed professionally, skilled, and contains the forest park, and natural tourism park. The elements of education, as a business venture, determination of protected area is directed by the considering the cultural heritage, participation, and Ministry of Forestry and has managed 414 sites well-being of local people as well as the which are equal with 23.1 million hectares, conservation efforts of natural resources and comprising 18.4 million hectares of land and 4.7 environment (Nugroho, 2011). million hectares of coastal and sea (USAID As an economic venture, the effectiveness of Indonesia, 2004) operational services of ecotourism is very efficient The most substantial proportion of the and lean. Its characteristics are the low quantity of protected area is a National Park, which contributes the visitors in the groups, the high service quality 65 percent of the area. So far, the Ministry of and the high added value. Consumers of Forestry has established 53 national parks (Table ecotourism are those who want a vacation with a 1). The consideration of national park sensation of natural and cultural interaction. They determination covers the substantive objects, willingly spend the time, effort and expense to position, ecosystem, types of endemic flora and satisfy his desire. Therefore, the service manager fauna, and job description of the implementation. of ecotourism needs to provide accommodation and Therefore, the national park institution is also a safe and satisfying vacation. The discipline considered as the main component in the and standards of service are also parts of the management of protected areas, as well as the efforts to protect ecosystems in the service of efforts of conservation of biodiversity in national ecotourism (Coles, 2006). and international scale (Rothberg, 1999). The village living not only gives a different The development of ecotourism in the experience with the city but is also viewed as an management level by the national parks in effort of creating a life balance. The village Indonesia has grown. The structure and function of economic development plays a role in the the national park show the competence in elaboration of human values and the environment. supporting the development of ecotourism. The The village can provide places that provide national parks also contribute to initiate, satisfaction or revitalizing, as well as learning many accompany or facilitate the development of things especially about the conservation of ecotourism in the villages around the area of the environment and culture (Nugroho et al., 2016). national park.
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 45
The ecotourism services activities outside the National Park enormously is developed by the national park area also grow. The ecotourism community organizations or individuals. They destination areas usually have the wisdom, usually have competence and knowledge of experience, and cultural values which blend with ecotourism, market information, capital and the environment to support the economic life. The potential ecotourism destination. They obtain a ecotourism destination areas can be a part of the positive response from the local people who receive coastal ecosystems, sea, or land; around protected social, economic and environmental benefits. As a areas, villages or regions which have the typical result, all stakeholders are responsible for ensuring inheritance values for the next generations. the sustainability of ecotourism activities in the surrounding areas. The development of ecotourism outside the
Table 1. The area of national parks in Indonesia Jawa 1. Karimunjawa 5. Gunung Gede Pangrango a 9. Alas Purwo 2. Bromo Tengger Semeru 6. Gunung Halimun Salak 10. Gunung Merapi 3. Meru Betiri 7. Kep Seribu 11. Gunung Merbabu 4. Baluran 8. Ujung Kulon b 12. Gunung Ciremai Sumatera 1. Gunung Leuser a b 5. Bukit Duabelas 9. Way Kambas 2. Siberut a 6. Berbak c 10. Batang Gadis 3. Kerinci Seblat b 7. Sembilang 11.Tesso Nilo 4. Bukit Tigapuluh 8. Bukit Barisan Selatan b 12. Zamrud Kalimantan 1. Gunung Palung 4. Bukit Baka-Bukit Raya 7. Kayan Mentarang 2. Danau Sentarum c 5. Tanjung Puting a 8. Sebangau 3. Betung Kerihun 6. Kutai Sulawesi 1. Bunaken 4. Taka Bonerate 7. Kepulauan Togean 2. Bogani Nani Wartabone 5. Rawa Aopa Watumohai 8. Bantimurung - Bulusaraung 9. 3. Lore Lindu a 6. Wakatobi Gandang Dewata Bali dan Nusa 1. Bali Barat 4. Manupeu Tanah Daru 7. Gunung Tambora Tenggara 2. Gunung Rinjani 5. Laiwangi Wanggameti 3. Komodo a b 6. Kelimutu Maluku dan Papua 1. Manusela 3. Teluk Cendrawasih 5. Wasur 2. Aketajawe - Lolobata 4. Lorentz b Description: a Biosphere Reserves, b World Heritage Sites, c Ramsar Sites Source: Ministry of forestry (2006)
DEVELOPMENT PLANNING OF ECOTOURISM implemented by respecting the economic, social and environmental aspects. Weaver (2002) In the RPJMN (2015-2019), the development of formulates the policy in a simple hierarchy as ecotourism achieve in the development of nature, follows. culture and creation tourism. The policy is implemented through the programs of conservation 1. Macro or national Level. of biological diversity (Ministry of Forestry), the The scope of macro-level planning is the development of tourist destinations (Ministry of establishment of a national institutional foundation Tourism), as well as the improvement of that comprehensively facilitates the development of infrastructure (Ministry of Civil Work). The ministry ecotourism. The macro-level boundaries are of Forestry develops protected areas and national national territories. However, the government also parks to support the management of environmental needs to implement issues about the global services and ecotourism. The ministry of Tourism environment. The Government of Indonesia (GOI) annually facilitates the development of 16 domestic has ratified a global agreement, for example, the tourism destinations; and 561 villages through the Convention on Biodiversity, Wetland, or CITES. program of PNPM Mandiri. The Ministry of Civil Some crucial issues of macro-level policies include: Work developes a port for the development of ecotourism of marine and waterway. i. The development of national institution. The institutional framework encourages coordination The planning of ecotourism development is mechanisms with other institutions at the level
46 Nugroho, Negara and Yuniar, The Planning and The Development of The Ecotourism ..
of ecosystems, local and international. The ecotourism develops a uniqueness of nature, such regulatory legislation is developed to strengthen as flora or fauna in the land, coastal and sea. It is the development of national parks, the a useful tool for the preservation of the natural protection of uncontested tribes and heritage environment and the traditional art and culture. sites. The regulation contains the substance of Developing the tourism and its supporting the limitation, the number and total area, sector has an essential significance for the national lounge area, flora, and fauna conserved, the integration. The tourism villages can bind the implementation of tasks and responsibilities, the geography of the Indonesian Archipelago. The mechanisms of coordination and problem- government (GOI) seems to be present in providing solving. villagers with welfare and social benefits. Wealthy ii. The Research and development. The research citizens tend to be integrative and create positive facilitates the planning and management at the relationships to support the existence of the state local level and ecosystem. The academic theory and government (Pokja Wasantara, 2010) represents the linkages between the systems, the benefits and its distribution at the local level 2. Ecosystem level as well as the ecosystems. The research results The scope of ecosystem area planning is are used to formulate the regulations of the ecosystem areas and other functional areas, such legislation, and the mechanism of the as river basin (catchment area), mangroves, management or national parks development in mountains, valley, or others areas in the interest of Indonesia. habitat and culture conservation (Nugroho and iii. The technical and financial assistance. It Dahuri, 2012). The ecosystem areas may include encourages the economic growth and increases one or more of the local community, which has a prosperity. The budget required is for education component and interaction component to support and training of human resources, marketing, functional unity or the life cycle regularly. The and infrastructure development of roads, geographical boundary of an ecosystem area can bridges, telecommunications, electricity and be a unique area, protected area or national park water supply. The GOI take an important role in or in the administration area where it is explicitly the rehabilitation of environmental degradation, defined. Some of the following essential policy level the alleviation of poverty and the compensation ecosystems include: of losses around the area of ecotourism i. The vision of ecotourism destination Indonesia has 17 thousand islands, 470 ethnic management. An ecosystem needs to have a groups, 19 areas of customary law, and about 300 vision that is equally understood by all languages, as well as the cultural diversity stakeholders. The vision can be adjusted, for (heritage). The asset can be packaged as tourism example, the conservation of the coral reefs. (Ardiwidjaja, 2006). Utilizing the geographical The local population or tour operator is constellations will generate an economic activity of committed to implement that vision through a tourism potential throughout the country and number of activities in management model strengthen the national and geopolitical insights agreed upon both parties. That vision is Indonesia (Pokja Wasantara, 2010). informed to all parties endorsed by A significant role of tourism in economic, social theregulatory framework. and environmental aspect needs to be developed. ii. The Collaboration and synergy. The regional In the economic aspect, the tourism sector development is supported by an attractive contributes foreign exchange, domestic or regional synergy of other functional areas by, for economic activity. In the social aspect, the tourism example, agriculture, forestry or fishing sector. plays a role in labour absorption, art appreciation, The linkage between economic sectors will and tradition and culture pride. Those will build the generate economic growth and well-being in nation's identity. In the environmental aspect, these areas as a whole. tourism can promote several tourist products and iii. The Integrated area management. The services and its cultural life of local people. The development of an integrated ecotourism region
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includes trekking line, the territorial boundaries determination of the threshold on the of the ecosystem or catchment area, or the population and the extent of the stakeholder specific area for habitat and cultural participation and its implications on the benefit conservation. The determination of the area flows. The local values need to be appreciated boundaries is intended to prevent leakage of as substantial experience in the development of the cost or benefit flows to whose are not ecotourism services. permitted to receive. The area management is ii. Empowerment. Empowering local people aims carefully designed based on the agreement of to encourage the local economy to create a the stakeholders, with the attention to conserve multiplier effect. The role and participation of tourism trails and protect sites that experience the local population is the primary target in the the extinction. economic development of the ecotourism services. The higher of the role, the more the The ecosystem-level planning has been local receive incentives in the environmental implemented in the Government Regulation number conservation. 50 since 2010, regarding the National Tourism iii. Developing the destination area of ecotourism. Development Master Plan of 2010-2025. The The limitation of the activity and characteristics Ministry of Tourism as the leading sector has of the business, location, as well as travel path, established 50 National Tourism Destinations is an integral part of the management planning. (NTD). The NTD concept is equivalent to the The specification space or place become ecosystem or functional area, where it has been motivation for the operator in the provision of promoted the 15 NTD through the program of services based on the uniqueness of Destination Management Organization (DMO). The ecotourism. DMO covers Sabang, Toba, Kota Tua, iv. Developing products and services supporting Pangandaran, Borobudur, Bromo-Tengger-Semeru, the ecotourism conservation. Local people need Batur, Rinjani, Flores, Tanjung Puting, Derawan, to experience much training in Toraja, Bunaken, Wakatobi, and Raja Ampat. entrepreneurship, innovation, and leadership. DMO is the formation and development of the The innovation will reduce dependency villagers organization management of sustainable tourism on the natural resources and raw materials. destinations which is based on the process of The innovation in the product and services planning, operation, and monitoring. DMO creates high value-added and will provide programs implement it through the coordination of incentives for environmental conservation the central and regions government involving the efforts. local community, travellers, and other stakeholders The local level planning associates the efforts in to develop the tourism area. the empowerment, development, and management 3. Local level. of ecotourism in the village. The potential of the village tourism comes from the socio-cultural life, The scope of local level planning is the local natural environment, and economic activity. It can community. The understanding of local become a tourist attraction in the village. The communities includes the people of individuals or socio-cultural life with a variety of housing (home groups who have an interest in the same subject of and shelter), the ethnic costume (clothing, dress, ecotourism. The limit is the activity of the local garment), the culinary (food and beverage), the population and economic activities. The geographic art, the tradition, the values or norms and its boundary of the local community can be within dynamics of life can be promoted to provide added permitted areas by the National Park management, value and prosperity to the people. administration or tradition area, village or indigenous village or local customs. Some critical The potential of natural resources such as issues for local level policies include: mountains, beaches, lakes, sea, valleys, rivers, can be used for exploration, sports or adventure. The i. Participation. Identification of the local and potential economic of such agribusiness community participation is the main activities in (agriculture, forestry, fishery, husbandry, and the local planning. This step is essential for the
48 Nugroho, Negara and Yuniar, The Planning and The Development of The Ecotourism .. forestry), home industry, or other supporting services. sectors in the village, becomes a value added to The experience of ecotourism Non-Government tourism. All the potential economic can move into Organization (NGO) Indecon showed that it took the economic activity driven by the complex over two years for mentoring the local people of factors, the demand-supply, the internal-external Tangkahan, in the Gunung Leuser National Park so influences, the creation-innovation, the leadership, that they can independently interact with visitors and the organization, as well as the dynamics of and tour operators. Even the local people are able the village life. Tourism economic cluster begins to become the forefront of conservation efforts, from this condition adjusted by the situations of the while in the past they were involved in the illegal village (Nugroho and Negara, 2015). logging activity. At the local level, various interests of local Currently, the needs and economic life of the people, operators, tourists, local government people in Tangkahan are sourced from ecotourism authorities, or national park officials meet to create products and services, plantations and other interactions one another. The inability to supporting activities. The needs of local capacity to communicate, coordinate or the difference of support sustainable tourism management include understanding about ecotourism are usually found. organization, leadership, product innovation, and These can create uncertainty about the limits of the entrepreneurship (Nugroho and Negara, 2013). It authority, rights, and obligations. As a result, it will guide the conservation management against often makes a problem or conflict. This situation the threats such as abuse of authority, conflict of can threaten the conservation and the sustainability interest, and distortion. of the ecotourism services management. 2. Infrastructure THE DEVELOPMENT OF ECOTOURISM The condition of infrastructure which is close to The ecotourism activities need to be the ecotourism destination frequently has not been continuously developed. The potential of 53 adequate. Approaching in national parks or villages national parks have not been fully realized, usually has not been satisfactory. Sometimes roads particularly outside the Java Island, where the local are damaged or mudslides in the rainy season. people have not enjoyed the prosperity righteously. There are also tourists who should pass through At the same time, environmental and social factors the river's pathway to the National Park (especially are also relatively vulnerable to risk the market outside Java). The public transportation to travel at economy in the form of resource exploitation of the night is regularly not available. Therefore, visitors biological diversity. should plan the schedule of their trips precisely. A critical position of ecotourism development The public transportation in Bromo Tengger policy is the level of implementation in the local Semeru national park joins together with the area. At the local level, the objects of providing the traders' lane (Nugroho and Negara, 2015). ecotourism services and the demand of visitors However, in general, the two-wheeled motorcycle meet. Ecotourism business service faces constraints transport more freely in delivering visitors to as found on the other business. However, the anywhere although the aspect of safety and ecotourism services need to more seriously manage comfort is less assured. to produce positive added value for environmental The constraints of access to the national parks conservation and cultural activities in the village. are not a simple problem. It also correlates with a 1. Local capacity development low number of visitors. More and more visitors, it naturally invites an infrastructure investment. Local people need to be empowered by These challenges reveal opportunities for transport composing their needs with a partnership of the instruments by the local people. It can be trail NGOs, a supervision of national park and support of motor, mountain bike, horse, motorboat or other, the local government. These needs are then which is leased to visitors with attention in aspects accommodated in forest conservation programs of comfort, safety and environmental conservation. and the development of sustainable ecotourism
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3. The Government Both ministries are the leading sectors that execute management of sustainable tourism. Ministry of The tourism policy in Indonesia refers to a Home Affair and Ministry of Village play a role in relationship between industries and implementation the efforts to coordinate and control the flow of of organization functions. Industrial relations are benefits to the community, local people and private indicated by linkages of tourism service with other sector; through spatial policy, investment sectors such as forestry, urban, education, and procedures and other technical subjects. infrastructure. While the relationship of Coordination and alignments to the villagers organization function refers to the functions of become essential keys with the purpose of comfort planning, action, and controlling (Table 2) and safety, discover a productively work culture (Nugroho, 2011). and enjoy prosperity. When local people are failed The management of the tourism service to enjoy these benefits, conservation threats will industries is directly under the authority of the usually occur. Ministry of Forestry and the Ministry of Tourism.
Table 2. Classification of Relationships and Policy in Tourism Industrial The Functional Relationships of the Organization relations Planning Implementing (do and action) Control/monitoring (check) Upstream Ministry of Nat Dev Planning, Ministry of Civil Work, Ministry of - Ministry of Econ Affairs, Ministry Finance, Ministry of Higher of Defence Education Main Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry Ministry of Forestry, Ministry of Ministry of Forestry, Ministry of of Civil Work Tourism, Ministry of Village Home Affairs Downstream - Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of National Armed Forces, Police, Fishery, Ministry of Energy, Ministry of Justice, Attorney Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry General of Trade and Industry
4. Integration of promotion integrated with the names of cities and tourist attractions in the world. The development of Promotional efforts in developing ecotourism ecotourism services in a region needs to follow as can be directed in two categories, namely (i) Bali’s positioning. This marketing strategy requires promotion of tourist products and services and (ii) the support of product development, market development interests of travellers. Promotional segmentation, and marketing technology (Nugroho efforts can be implemented by developing a and Negara, 2015). potential price, position, and product of tourism service. This potential is seen to represent the 5. Product development supply side or characteristics of ecotourism Every tourism destination should emphasize products and services. This promotion is a standard excellence of its products and services. These way to introduce something that is unique or products include (Manurung, 2002): (i) the sights typical to prospective travellers broadly. Though and attractions of the environment and culture, (ii) less effective, this promotion is a way to build and the benefits landscape, (iii) the accommodation and maintain a positive image about the conservation of facilities of support services, (iii) the equipment and the environment. supplies, (iv) the education and skills, (v) the In the world of tourism, Bali is better known awards and appreciation. Excellent products should than Indonesia. Why? It associates with the meet the criteria as follow: unique, original and information about Bali in the aspect of culture and distinctive that cannot be found elsewhere, with environment which is more widespread and positive stylish packaging, safe and healthy. Tourists are rather than Indonesia as a whole. The information served comfortably and memorable; feeling happy related to Bali is found in many places around the to stay in the village. For example, travellers are world. This figure shows that Bali has better pleased with the local culinary specialties. The local positioning than Indonesia. The name of Bali is food or drink provides sensation and attraction of
50 Nugroho, Negara and Yuniar, The Planning and The Development of The Ecotourism .. tourism as being a symbol of culture (Sims, 2009). provide experience and education of cultural and The local people need to learn the packaging of a environmental conservation to the tourists. product according to the tastes of tourists. REFERENCES The development direction of ecotourism Ardiwidjaja, R. 2006. Pariwisata Budaya, Mengapa products and services is at the activities of Tidak Sekarang? interpretation. Interpretation is the understanding www.budpar.go.id/filedata/747_88- of an object, so that visitor is capable of reacting pariwisatabudaya.pdf [Agustus 2009] and showing a positive relationship between man BPS (Badan Pusat Statistik). 2016. Neraca Satelit and nature. Creating those relationships positively Pariwisata Nasional (Nesparnas) Tahun2016. needs an interpreter, who serves as an interpreter BPS Pusat, Jakarta. and identifiers of the object visited. The activities of interpretation are born on the fifth product, namely Coles, T. 2006. Suggestions For Developing Tourism in The Wakatobi Islands. Operation education, and skills (Nugroho, 2007). Wallacea Trust Project. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Kumar, R., Gill, S. S. dan Kunasekaran, P. 2012. Tourism as a Poverty Eradication Tool for Rural An ecotourism services activity in the village can Areas in Selangor, Malaysia. Global Journal of be a solution of problems in agricultural Human Social Science. 12(7): 21-26 development. Local people who are able to conduct Liu, A. 2006. Tourism in rural areas: Kedah, the business venture of ecotourism services will Malaysia. Tourism Management 27 (2006): enjoy prosperity. In turn, this will generate 878-889 incentives to conserve the agricultural production system, values, and cultural traditions as well as Manurung. 2002. Ecotourism in Indonesia. In: Hundloe, T (ed.). Linking Green Productivity to environmental conservation. Ecotourism : Experiences in the Asia-Pacific The planning of ecotourism requires the Region. Asian Productivity Organization (APO), integration of macro, ecosystem and local level. Tokyo, Japan. 98-103 Planning at the macro level gives legality to the Nugroho, I. 2007. Ekowisata: Sektor Riil operation management of the ecosystem and local Pendukung Pembangunan Berkelanjutan. level. Planning at the ecosystem level considers a Majalah Perencanaan Pembangunan-BAPPENAS vision of environmental and cultural conservation Jakarta. Edisi 2 tahun ke XII (Januari-Maret): 44-57. and coordinates the regional management of tourism destination area. Planning at the local level Nugroho, I. 2010. Pengembangan Ekowisata establishes quality management services, builds dalam Pembangunan Daerah. Jurnal Pembangunan Daerah. Kementerian Dalam participation and empowers the local people. Negeri RI, Jakarta. Edisi 01 tahun 2010. 65-76. The development of ecotourism services in the Nugroho, I. 2011. Ekowisata dan Pembangunan village deals with efforts (i) developing the local Berkelanjutan. Pustaka Pelajar, Yogyakarta. capacity to increase empowerment in the 362p. management of tourism services, (ii) developing Nugroho, I. dan Negara, P. D. 2015. the infrastructure to improve access and ensure Pengembangan Desa Melalui Ekowisata. Era environmental conservation, (iii) building Adicitra Intermedia, Solo. 281p governance and coordination at national to local Nugroho, I. dan Negara, P. D. 2013. Peran level which ensures alignments to the local people Kepemimpinan dan Inovasi dalam so that they obtain a positive experience and well- Pengembangan Kewirausahaan Ekowisata being, (iv) integrating the promotion and Berbasis Penduduk Lokal. Prosiding Seminar positioning of tourism (such as Bali), through Nasional Ekowisata. Diselenggarakan Fak product development, market segmentation, and Pertanian Univ Widyagama Malang dan Program marketing technology, and (v) developing products Pascasarjana Universitas Brawijaya. Univ Widyagama Malang, 12 Nopember 2013. at point to interpretation and education in order to Nugroho, I. dan Dahuri, R. 2012. Pembangunan Wilayah: Perspektif ekonomi, sosial dan
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lingkungan. LP3ES, Jakarta. Cetakan Ulang. Rothberg, D. 1999. Enhanced and Alternative 500p. Financing Mechanisms Strengthening National Park Management in Indonesia. NRMP USAID, Nugroho, I., Pramukanto, F. H., Negara, P. D., Jakarta Purnomowati, W. and Wulandari, W. 2016. Promoting the Rural Development through the RPJMN 2015-2019. Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Ecotourism Activities in Indonesia, American Menengah Nasional. Perpres No 2 Tahun 2015. Journal of Tourism Management, Vol. 5 No. 1, Bappenas, Jakarta 2016, pp. 9-18. Saraithong, W and Chancharoenchai, K. 2011. Parks T, H., Parks, T. A. and Allen, C. 2009. The Tourists' behaviour in Thai homestay business. Development of a Framework for Studying International Journal of Management Cases. Ecotourism. International Journal of Special Issue. (15): 112-126. Management. 26(1): 89-97 Sims, R. 2009. Food, place and authenticity: local Pokja Wasantara. 2010. Konsepsi Wawasan food and the sustainable tourism experience. Nusantara. Pokja Wasantara. Lemhannas, Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 17(3): 321– Jakarta 336. Purnomowati, W., Nugroho, I. dan Negara, P. D. USAID Indonesia. 2004. Report on Biodiversity 2012. Entrepreneurship Ability On Ecotourism and Tropical Forests in Indonesia Submitted in Services Of Local People In Taman Nasional accordance with Foreign. Assistance Act Bromo Tengger Semeru, Malang Regency, East Sections 118/119 Java, Indonesia. 11th International Weaver, D. 2002. Ecotourism as a Tool for Entrepreneurship Forum (IEF) Conference Development in Peripheral Regions. Presented Entrepreneurship and Sustainability. Kuala for The 4th International Environmental Lumpur, Malaysia. 3-6 September 2012. Congress of Andorra: ‘Ecotourism in Mountain Conference Proceeding. Volume 2, 458-473. Areas, July 17, 2002.
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development Widyagama Vol 1, No 1, April 2018, 52 – 62 DOI: 10.31328/jsed.v1i1.535
INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT BASED ON THE LOCAL WISDOM IN INDONESIA
Popi Rejekiningrum1*and Budi Kartiwa1
1 Indonesian Agroclimate and Hydrology Research Institute (IAHRI), Indonesian Agency for Agricultural Research and Development (IAARD), Ministry of Agriculture
(Received April 9, 2018; Accepted April 29, 2018)
ABSTRACT. During 1980-1997, the management of water resources was done with a supply-driven approach. This approach results in the expensive maintenance of water resources and the disregarded resources utilization of environmental sustainability. Since 1998, The Government of Indonesia began to reform institutional irrigation with the financing supported by the World Bank. However, the institutional reforms of the irrigation have not yet reflected the exact changes as expected. Therefore, it is necessary to study the process of strengthening the institutional management of irrigation based on the local wisdom through the inventory of history series of irrigation management policy and empowerment of capacity building and institutional program of irrigation management. This paper presents an effort to develop the institutional irrigation management by exploring the local wisdom in the community. It can be used as a guide for future sustainable management of irrigation. Keywords: agriculture, Subak, Ulu-ulu, water resources, farmers’ union JEL Classification: B30, Q15, Q25
INTRODUCTION people's demand for renewal towards irrigation management which prioritizes community In general, the irrigation management policy participation. All policies are the main programs issued by the government includes the protection within the Development and Management of of water resources and the arrangement of its Participatory Irrigation System (PPSIP) as the utilization. The latest government policy on mandate of Government Regulation No. 20 of 2006 irrigation management is Instruction of President on Irrigation. The implementation of the No. 3 of 1999 on Renewal of Irrigation government policy brings major changes in the Management Policy. The policy contains five main pattern of irrigation management, both of roles and contents, as follows: (a) redefinition of tasks, responsibilities of irrigation management authorities and responsibilities of irrigation institutions as well as funding for the operating and management institutions, (b) empowerment of maintenance activities of irrigation networks. Water User Farmers' Union (P3A); (c) handover of Irrigation Management (PPI) to P3A, (d) payment In term of technical and socio-cultural for operation and maintenance (OM) of Irrigation conditions in each region, it is necessary to have networks, and (e) Sustainability of Irrigation clear and detailed irrigation management guidelines Systems. which are in accordance with local conditions and situations. It is expected that the implementation of These five policy items are a reflection of the OM of irrigation networks are efficient, effective and sustainable through the active role of society and institutional empowerment P3A or the * Corresponding author email: [email protected], ISSN 2615-6075 online; ISSN 2615-6946 print combined P3A. The absence of a legal basis @UWG Press, 2018 underlying the implementation of guidelines will OJS http://publishing-widyagama.ac.id/ejournal- v2/index.php/jsed/ cause the problem of the transfer mechanism,
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 53 particularly with the extent of coverage, authority, development of irrigated agriculture for rice crops and liabilities in the implementation of irrigation. revealed the Kingdom of Majapahit and Demak as rice exporters. On another area, Bali has also During 1960 until the end of 1980, the priority already constructed traditional irrigation buildings of irrigation water management was the long before the colonization period. The local development of resources and infrastructure. name of the irrigation of Subak still functions well Irrigation water management policy was with the several improvements. implemented based on the centralized government administration. This was primarily due to limited During cultivation system (Dutch: cultuurstelsel) technical capability. In the second period, end of under Dutch colonization in the mid-19th century, 1980 to 1997, the management of water resources a large number of the irrigation infrastructure were was carried out by the supply-driven approach that built. The large irrigation networks whose a strong resulted unsustainable in the maintenance and the construction was developed by the Dutch utilization of water resources infrastructure. The government. As an illustration, the area of technical third period coincided the occurrence of monetary irrigation in 1885 as a result of cultivation system crisis in 1997 where the Indonesian government reached about 210 thousand hectares. The initiated the Water Resources Sector Adjustment development of irrigation in this period was Loan Program (WATSAL, Loan No 4469-IND), considered to be the beginning of technical which was financed by the World Bank. development and irrigation development.
A large-scale implementation of the institutional In the following periods, the intensification reform of water resources and irrigation program on rice farming encouraged the management is implemented in Java Irrigation development of more demanding irrigation Improvement and Water Management Project networks. The program included rehabilitation and (JIWMP, Loan No. 3762-IND) and Indonesia Water upgrading of irrigation networks, construction of Resources and Irrigation Reform Implementation large dams, construction of new irrigation Project (IWIRIP, TF NO 027755). However, the networks, and construction of tidal irrigation institutional reform of irrigation in those three networks. As a result, the rice production had periods has not reflected the expected changes increased sharply in 1984 in which it exceeded the accurately. Therefore, it is necessary to study the amount of national rice demand and achieved self- process of institutional strengthening of irrigation sufficiency in rice. management based on the local wisdom through The irrigation infrastructure also plays an an inventory of the historical series of irrigation important role in increasing a sugar production. management policies, capacity building program The growth of plant cane requires an abundant and institutional empowerment of irrigation amount of water in the dry season, especially for management. tillage, plant seedling, and maintenance. Thus, This paper presents an effort to develop the irrigation development has increased the institutional of irrigation water management by productivity of sugarcane in many estates. This also exploring the local wisdom in the society all over affects the increase of sugar production at the Indonesia so that it can be used as a guideline for national level and the improvement of national water management especially in the sustainable sugar industry performance. Such description development of irrigation in the future. proves the willingness of sugarcane plantation companies to finance the construction of irrigation DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION and reservoirs with large amounts of funds. MANAGEMENT Furthermore, the development of irrigation History of Irrigation institutions cannot be separated from the Irrigation support for farming activities has traditional irrigation development. The existing been going on for a long time. In Java, irrigation irrigation institutions are a continuation of the has been developed since the time of the kingdom development of existing traditions. The existence of before the arrival of the Dutch colonization. The an irrigation institution is strongly influenced by
54 Rejekiningrum and Kartiwa, Institutional Development of Irrigation.. local geographical features, the development of irrigation network development planning process agricultural cultivation and the government's strong (Pasandaran, 1991). interference with the policy of irrigation water The development of irrigation institutions has management institutions. shaped the institutional and socio-economic In Indonesia, one of the well-known irrigation dynamics of rural communities in several regions of heritages is Subak in Bali and some places in Java. Indonesia. The linkage between the development This irrigation is generally located on the surface of of irrigation (physical) and institutional (irrigation the sloped land, which has high erosion potential, system) technologies creates a new institutional with a relatively small management area. formation process. Based on the argument above, Physically, the small irrigation is not able to survive institutional manifestations require the support of in the long run due to the inundation process, the rule of law to regulate economic activity in erosion and landslide by surface run-off. society. Centralized and general government policies have According to Ambler (1991), the water reduced local irrigation management institutions management organization is not only for technical although some still survive today such as Subak in activities, but rather regulates the utilization of Bali. Pasandaran and Taryoto (1993) revealed that irrigation building facilities. Water use activities in irrigation policies that are detached from local traditional farming establish a profit-sharing norms often face obstacles. culture. Workers who assist with water According to Geertz (1963) in Pasandaran management receive profit sharing in kind. In Java, (1991), Subak is a manifestation of the interaction it has still found the traditional culture of profit- of a collection of characters of irrigation society, sharing such as ceblokan, kedokan, and bawon. agricultural production units, autonomous entities The irrigation technical network has various and religious communities. The results of a study of characteristics. Based on the size scale, The Windia (1996) show that Subak system can support irrigation network is divided into three groups, agri-business and agro-industry oriented the including (i) large-scale irrigation such as Brantas farming system. Furthermore, Sedana (1996) watershed and Jatiluhur watershed; (ii) medium- suggests that Subak in Bali has potential as an scale irrigation such as Sadang reservoir in South embryo of rural economic institutions. The Subak Sulawesi; and (iii) small-scale irrigation such as the system contains written rules in the Balinese Leuwinangka reservoir in Subang Regency. On a language called awig-awig and unwritten rules in large scale, irrigation water management in primary the Balinese language called perarem based on the networks (reservoirs, primary and secondary local culture. channels and supporting buildings) is under the The rapid development of irrigation occurred at management of Perum Jasa Tirta I for Brantas the beginning of the twentieth century after the watershed and Perum Jasa Tirta II for Jatiluhur introduction of ethical politics by the colonial watershed. In which Perum Jasa Tirta does not government. In this period, modern irrigation operate, the irrigation management conducted by system through the use of technology was applied public works office (Dinas PU Pengairan). in the lowlands for overcoming the famine that Meanwhile, the tertiary irrigation networks are occurred in Central Java. It should also be noted as handed over by the management of P3A foundation framework of the establishment of an institutions and the P3A Association. irrigation organization during the colonial period, On another region, lowland and rainfed lowland including (1) the working area of the irrigation irrigation areas, farmers independently develop the organization does not follow the administrative pump irrigation. The pump irrigation system is territory but is based on the OM of the irrigation generally held by the private sector, government- network; (2) separation of construction work affairs formed farmer Group and NGO-oriented farmer from units dealing with the exploitation and Group. The existence of P3A in pump irrigation maintenance of irrigation; (3) understanding the management is to assist farmers when negotiating irrigation system requires a review of the integrated with investors the owner of pump irrigation.
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 55
Flashback of Irrigation Policy In the framework of guidance to farmers, the government issued Instruction of President No. 2 of The government policy during the Pelita I and II 1984 which basically gave direction to all relevant periods (1969-1979), the attention was focused on agencies in guiding farmer organizations in using the rehabilitation and construction of new irrigation existing irrigation water for the agricultural systems to support the achievement of rice self- development. Moreover, the policy was described in sufficiency programs. The policy then continued on the Permendagri No. 12 of 1992 concerning the Pelita III-IV (1979-1989) which was accompanied establishment of a farmer organization handling the by the consolidation in the institutional irrigation management called the Water User management of irrigation water to maintain the rice Farmers Union (P3A). Since the mid-1980s, the self-sufficiency (Febriamansyah, 1996). central government began to formulate a strategy Furthermore, during the Pelita V-VII period with the to form a farmer organization (P3A) which was implementation of regional autonomy, there is a expected to help manage the irrigation networks. tendency for a legal aspect to irrigation water Even since the late 1990s, a number of small management at farmer level (tertiary plot). It is irrigation networks (under 500 ha) have been operated by the P3A and the P3A Association handed over to farmers through the Small (secondary plot) which should replace the Irrigation Transfer Program (Program Penyerahan government tasks in the operation and Irigasi Kecil/PIK). maintenance of the irrigation network.
Figure 1. Distribution of irrigation networks in Indonesia (KemenPUPR, 2014)
The implementation of P3A and P3A Association Therefore, once the program is finished, the by the government through the Public Works existence of irrigation water management Authority tended to pursue quantity targets and institutions is questionable. ignoring the quality aspect. In fact, P3A and P3A Instruction of President No. 3 of 1999 on the Associations are not ready to do operation and renewal of irrigation management is felt to be very maintenance of irrigation although it is limited to a unfair. The rule states that P3A / P3A Association tertiary network. The fundamental weakness of the has authority in primary, secondary and tertiary process of establishing and developing P3A/P3A channel OM activities, but funding is derived from Association is more project-oriented approach and water management fee (IPPAIR and P3A not through an integrated social process. contributions) from farmers. This suggests that
56 Rejekiningrum and Kartiwa, Institutional Development of Irrigation..
Delegation of authority remains unclear with The results of a research by Saptana et al. respect to a legal basis, implementation guidance (2001) provides some basic information as follows: and institutional preparedness of P3A (i) there has been a friction in farmers' perceptions regarding water as public goods towards water as General guidelines for implementation of P3A an economic good; (ii) the perception of farmers institutions cover one sub-district area, while the who regard water as an economic good is P3A Association includes one District. In Central increasingly evident in relatively water-poor areas Java, the establishment of the P3A Association is of rice fields; (iii) the economic calculations are based on a hydrological unit (secondary channel). actually applied to semi-technical irrigation rice The results of Saptana et.al. (2001) in Sidrap, areas, simple irrigation and rainfed rice fields that South Sulawesi, indicates that the establishment of use pump irrigation. the P3A Association has a pattern as found in East Java. THE LOCAL WISDOM IN THE IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT The results of a research by Sumaryanto et. al. (1999) and Saptana et al. (2000) in Saptana et al. Period of Old Javanese (2001) state that the water allocation of irrigation A historical record of the use of irrigation water obtained through four patterns: (i) Performance of for agricultural cultivation is found in ancient irrigation management at farmer level is very inscriptions and writings. King Sri Maharaja diverse and irrigation water allocation is still not Airlangga issued a written order in the form of optimal; (ii) Large scale irrigation network inscription Kelagen (1037 AD) in the hamlet management systems implemented through Kamalagyan or Kalagyan, Tropodo Krian (Sidoarjo). regional water distribution based on the water class The inscription is located close to Bengawan Purba system; (iii) Small and medium irrigation water Telung (Cahyono and Suprapto, 1999 in Prabowo management systems implemented through water et al., 2006). The main content of the inscription is distribution with rotation between upstream, middle the command of Sri Maharaja Airlangga so that the and downstream rice fields; (iv) in all systems, people work to create a reservoir (tambak, irrigation networks of farmers are not ready to bear dawuhan) to withstand the flow of Bengawan the burden of irrigation operations and Terung river flood. Floods cause damage to the maintenance, where farmers face high prices of crop, worship places, sima (prone land) and input and low prices of agricultural products. transportation routes to Hujung Galuh Harbor Based on the existing regulatory policies in term thereby lowering taxes for the kingdom. Airlangga's of irrigation management in many locations in success in building Bengawan Terung dike is able Indonesia, it shows that the development of to restore tax revenues, support from farmers, irrigation water is not based on the local culture. traders, and religious leaders. The developed program is more centralized- The Canggu inscription was found Canggu oriented and only intended to cover costs of the Village, Kediri in the year of 1358. The inscription operation and maintenance of irrigation networks. stated the designation of the Canggu region as the The irrigation management should be directed to sima of the Brantas River (Cahyono and Suprapto, become an independent rural economic institution, 1999, in Prabowo et al., 2006). The consequence of especially in regional autonomy. the establishment of the sima region was the tax Farmer Perception exemption from Majapahit kingdom. Along the Brantas River, there were many sima called nadi Farmers' perceptions of irrigation water tira pradesa or riverside villages that managed determine how far farmers appreciate the irrigation trade in the Brantas River (Cahyono and Suprapto, water. If farmers consider that irrigation water is an 1999 in Prabowo et al., 2006). Nadi tira pradesa is economic good, then they will use it more thought to have grown into a kind of an efficiently. Conversely, if water is still considered autonomous area of watershed management not economic goods then the efficiency efforts in directed by the royal center. Similarly, the profits the utilization of irrigation water is difficult to be realized.
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 57 are handed over in the form of tribute to the royal d. Because the people had tried several times to center. build the dam but always failed, then the king mobilized all the people to build the dam again The Rakai Warak Dyah Manara of the Mataram e. The positive impact of dam construction was royal authority based in Central Java has been that the dam actually facilitates trade and published. Harinjing inscription in Saka 726 (804 transportation along the Brantas river AD). The text of the inscription explains that the f. Another positive impact was the resumption of dam construction was carried out by Bhagawanta agricultural land cultivation Bari on the Harinjing River (Cahyono and Suprapto, g. Because of the success, the dam was named 1999 in Prabowo et al., 2006). As a result of the Dawuhan Sri Maharaja development of the dam (dawuhan), the land h. Residents around the dam were involved in owned by Patih Atuha (patih kingdom of Mataram maintaining the safety of the dam in East Java named Dapu Bhi) covering 1 (one) i. The inscription also contained praise for the flood plot has turned into a small reservoir. Another king's leadership as the queen cakrawati benefit of the existence of dawuhan is the community land get irrigation water, thus Irrigation in Java, 1800-1950 generating people's welfare and tax revenue for the During the early period of the Dutch state. For his efforts, Bhagawanta Bari was then colonialism, rice was already a major source of awarded a piece of land / swatantra (sima). carbohydrates for food, and most people depending Meanwhile, the land belonging to Dapu Bhi who on the rice cultivation. Increased rice production is was inundated due to the construction of dawuhan, supported by irrigation facilities such as reservoirs, the kingdom gave compensation. dikes, and canals. Although irrigation facilities in Airlangga Kingdom supporting the fulfillment of food production were available, the colonial government planned in 1950 During the King Airlangga was in control, there had been achieved a technical irrigation system was a technological development related to the with 1.3 million hectares area. river water management technology. The explanation of the river water management The process of achieving the technical irrigation technology documented in Kamalagyan Inscription program was divided into 3 stages, as follow: (a) in 1037. Kamalagyan inscription contains the tax the period 1830-1885 was the phase of physical reductions and construction of water buildings in construction of the network facility; (b) in 1885- Waringin Sapta area. The inscription told about the 1920 was the establishment of the irrigation royal policy related to tax reductions in Kamalagyan system; (c) the period 1920-1942 was the steady and surrounding villages. Tax reduction in operation of the system. Kamalagyan, Kalagyan Sandungan, and Kakalangan During the stage of achievement of the process, villages will be the people's incentive to maintain there was always a reciprocal interrelation between dam benefits in Waringin Sapta. Kamalagyan the Western technology and the local technology. inscriptions provide preliminary information on The irrigation system was a joint venture with water management during the King Airlangga ownership or control to seek relatively low profits. periods which is distributed for the benefit of the The advantages in this regard included if the people, namely: irrigation facility was privatized. At this stage, there a. The reduction of taxes by the kingdom was for was also a clear division of responsibility that was the interest of dam construction primary network facilities (dike, main channel), b. The Brantas River often caused the occurrence conducted by Dutch engineers as planners. of floods, so that some downstream villages and sacred buildings are affected Meanwhile, the local farmers were responsible c. The immediate impact of floods was the for tertiary channels to the land plots. After the decrease in agricultural production which in turn initial phase of cooperation had been going well results in reduced taxes to the kingdom and mutual trust over the results of each work, then the local farmers began to be involved in the management. The involvement of local people
58 Rejekiningrum and Kartiwa, Institutional Development of Irrigation.. provides experience and enhances technological Setten van der Meer, 1979 in Prabowo et al., understanding in irrigation management. The 2006), for example from bronjong wire or bamboo, Dutch engineers learned from the local technology a pile of wood, or banana stems. The construction (e.g. natural reservoirs and water distribution of village irrigation networks with permanent methods) including design methods. Farmers also buildings is recognized to produce a water learned from the western technology, for example withdrawal efficiency. This creates irrigation water in understanding the quality of construction collection from the upstream area intensively. This materials according to the design. often causes the volume of the river flow to decrease and the to slows down. During The Old Order Government to The Reform Order THE LOCAL INSTITUTION OF THE IRRIGATION Free intake approach remains the most widely used by the community to take water from the Values and traditions of life work together river. This approach is simple, easy, and found in society in Indonesia. One such tradition is inexpensive to construct irrigation infrastructure. A referred to as gotong-royong. Gotong-royong free intake commonly uses material rocks that means cooperating with each other among people available along the river. However, later plastic in the region. The tradition of gotong-royong is also sacks filled with sand are more often used because found in the management of water resources, the stone becomes a valuable commodity to sell. including irrigation. This case occurs in the flow of the Logawa River Local institutions of this irrigation grow and (Banyumas), Elo (Magelang), and Pabelan operate in accordance with the dynamics of (Magelang). development. A well-known local institution is Community in the upstream Logawa River took Subak in Bali and in some areas of Lombok. Other the initiative to built a free intake passing through institutions that can still be traced to their existence the ridge of Mount Slamet along the 16 km. This include Panriahan Pamokkahan in North Sumatra effort resulted in Kalpataru award from the New and Panitia Siring in South Sumatra and Bengkulu. Order government in 1998. The current condition of At the end of Pelita V, the institutional Panitia Siring the irrigation still operates well. On the downstream -siring (channel) can be found in some rural area of Magelang, the irrigation network use irrigation areas. These traditional institutions are permanent construction by the District Government better known as office positions in village in the form of concrete construction cast, with government administration. The holder of the coverage area about 600 ha. The free intake of the position sets the pattern of cooperation in the Pabelan River use the material of sandstone and management of irrigation water, for example, Ulu- sand sandblast and able to irrigate a 10 ha of the ulu in Central Java, Ili-Ili in East Java, Tuo Banda or rice fields. This shows a collaborative illustration of Siak Bandar in West Sumatra, Raksabumi in West mutual support between the community and the Java, Malar or Ponggawa in Sumbawa, Tudung government. Sipulung in South Sulawesi and Kejruen Blang in Aceh. Collaboration between the community and the government in the irrigation management has been The existence and role of local institutions are established since the colonial period. In Magelang increasingly stronger with the support from the District, Central Java before 1995, there were many government. The government directs the local Rural Irrigation Areas (Daerah Irigasi institutions to transform into an organization called Pedesaan/DIP) that constructed their own network Perkumpulan Petani Pemakai Air (P3A), which system cooperating with the government's Village means Water User Farmers Association (WUA). Irrigation Development (Pengembangan Irigasi However, the establishment of WUA is trapped in Desa /PID). Currently, village irrigation networks the project-based approach rather than improving are in the form of the permanent building. Before, the effectiveness and institutional sustainability in the non-permanent dikes buildings had been widely the irrigation management. It creates a new used since colonial or earlier (Gelpke, 1976, van awareness has emerged that the role of local
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 59 communities and their participation in the entire 1979 to 1990. The program covered an irrigation development process. The government has network on an area of 45 thousand hectares. It established new policies in the irrigation covered almost all irrigation networks in Bali that management that prioritize the interests of the had more than 100 hectares per unit management. farming community. Water user farmer These comply with the applicable condition for the associations are positioned as the key decision construction of modern irrigation networks. makers and all at once as the actors that are Through the program, the government had also responsible for irrigation management. carried out a series of efforts to improve the capability of Subak, including technical, Subak management, and as well as its organization. The existence of the subak tradition can not be Merging several Subak required the management, separated from the very strong tradition of the operation, and maintenance aspects that should be Balinese community hereditary of kings’ traditions improved. in Bali who recognize their land rights and water At the beginning of the program, the acquisition for those who clear land. This institution improvement of irrigation in Bali became problems. also can not be separated from its relation with the It triggered conflicts among Subak. These conflicts belief of their Hindu religion. The rules of Hinduism continued from generation to generation. The are used as the basis for guidance (awig-awig) for government implemented more technical and subak in carrying out its activities. economic approaches rather than local religious Subak activities include operation and and cultural approaches. Some irrigation networks maintenance, as well as the irrigation water were combined into a larger irrigation network with management combined with an agricultural a building size that considered only efficiency cultivation, such as determining planting schedule factors regardless of the history and background of and watering schedule, plant species, crop rotation, Subak, culture, and religion. Based on these pest control efforts and other aspects. Subak experiences, in the next period of irrigation network serves its members by establishing complete development and the improvement of the irrigation networks, from dikes (empelan), ducts government, it is considered not only technical and (kecabah), tapping buildings (tembuku), water economic approach but also concerns the cultural dividers (pemaron) and other related matters. and traditional approach.
In colonial periods, the number of Subak Ulu-Ulu institution reached 2.484 and then decreased to The Ulu-ulu is a village institution that has 1.230 in 1951 with 96.243 hectares of acreage existed before the colonial period. The name of area. The decreased amount of Subak due to Ulu-ulu was derived from the name of the position government activities in the improvement of of a village official who was assigned to take care irrigation network by combining Subak network into of irrigation, including arranging the distribution of a larger irrigation network. The development of an water to farmers' fields, organizing mutual agricultural land lease system and the degradation cooperation to maintain channels and irrigation of irrigation infrastructure increase the pressure to buildings, and communicating and reporting to the the Subak in operating and distribution water so head of the village as well as irrigation officers. that the number of Subak decreases. In line with the phenomenon, there is also an increased Ulu-ulu can be found almost all over Java with occurrence in water tapping on one river by several different names, except in Pemali Comal with the Subak. This encourages the government's division of the ulu-ulu system. Sometimes there are intervention to regulate water allocation through several variations in the mechanism of the work of various ways so that the limited water can be ulu-ulu. But in general, there are similarities, the shared equitably and fairly. position ulu-ulu selected by the community as part of village autonomy. The working area of ulu-ulu Massive and significant improvements occurred follows the boundaries of village administration. when the government implemented an irrigation development and rehabilitation program during
60 Rejekiningrum and Kartiwa, Institutional Development of Irrigation..
Now, the ulu-ulu became a member of the During 1945-1950, raksabumi acquired bengkok village pamong and is a subordinate of the head of of 3.5 hectares. Because the area of agricultural the village. As the village officials, ulu-ulu generally land decreased, the area of bengkok given to granted the right to manage on a plot of land raksabumi in 1990 decreased to 3 hectares. But, (bengkok). The acreage of the land varies from one they still receive a right of land rent of 0.5 hectares to three balls. Not all ulu-ulu villages are granted at half price. with bengkok, some of them get compensation in In the irrigation management, the raksabumi the form of salary either annual or seasonal in generally have close relationships with irrigation accordance with the land area of their technician and raksabumi from the surrounding responsibility. villages, especially villages that use water from the Raksabumi same water sources. Where water crisis happened, raksabumi should be able to divide water equitably, In several areas of West Java such as Cirebon, fairly, and securely. Raksabumi should often look Indramayu, Kuningan, and Majalengka were found for alternative water sources such as rivers or the existence of a village officer called raksabumi. drainage channels that may be tapped to increase His duty was to manage everything related to land water debit for the benefit of people. use, including irrigation. It was estimated that raksabumi had emerged since the Dutch At the end of Five Years Development Stage I colonialism as happened at the ulu-ulu. Raksabumi (Pelita I), the existence and roles of the raksabumi as a village officer generally is granted with experienced a small change along with the bengkok. They also have the right to hire 0.5 establishment of P3A. Those years were a hectares of village land at a half price. Due to transitional period in which raksabumi still existed limited availability of land, some of them did not together with P3A had begun to be established. get bengkok but they earned a salary. Some
of the changes were related to compensation of leaders appoint a person who is trusted to be a tuo bengkok land and salary. Raksabumi received only (head/leader). Tuo Banda is given the right to 0.3-1 hectare bengkok, or a salary equal in kind regulate water in the rice fields, and solve all (rice) of about 20-25 kg per hectare. Many regions problems arising from irrigation. He is finally called provided both the compensation of bengkok and in as tuo banda, which eventually becomes the kind respectively. The availability of agricultural traditional institution of irrigation management in land and land productivity took into account in the West Sumatra. Similar institutions also exist in provision of bengkok and salary. In the last 1979, North Sumatra under the name of raja bondar. raksabumi had been transformed into the Head of The name of these traditional institutions varies Economic Affairs of Development and Cooperation for each nagari. However, the name of tuo banda is which was in charge of all things related to the widely used in most of the nagari. Someone can be village economic development. chosen as tuo banda is a person who works as a Tuo Banda or Datuak Ampek farmer, mature enough, respected for his honesty and authority. The area of West Sumatra is mostly a mountainous area. Therefore, the rice fields This tuo banda institution has been known since developed by the government and the community the Dutch colonial era. The traditions and cultures are generally small. The tradition of establishing have still obeyed by ninik-mamak and penghulu in irrigation areas has long been owned by the each nagari. The existence and role of tuo banda in communities in the area. managing irrigation at the village level is recognized by the colonial government. The tuo banda's duties For the Minang community, especially the tetua are formalized in the form of the written document nagari (village leaders) - and its farmers, the figure including to maintain the irrigation network, to of tuo banda as irrigation water manager is distribute water and to implement the activities common. According to them, to manage the related to water use. channel, the traditional leaders and penghulu
Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, Vol 1, No 1, April 2018 61
During the war of independence until the The existence of local institutions such as implementation of Pelita I, the role of tuo banda Subak, village ulu-ulu, raksabumi, tuo banda, raja gradually diminished, following the changes bondar was more stable with the issuance of PP. 23 occurred such as kenagarian then was divided into of 1982 on Irrigation. This is reinforced by the several villages. The role of ninik-mamak also issuance of Instruction of President No. 2 of 1984 gradually diminished along with the dynamics of dated January 26, 1984, and Regulation of the the time. The selection of tuo banda which was Minister of Home Affairs No. 12 of 1992 which usually carried out by ninik-mamak, penghulu, and regulated the guidance and establishment of P3A. the community by consensus and agreement is With the enactment of Goverment Regulation now rarely carried out. Now, the election of tuo No 77 of 2001, the presence of local irrigation banda is officially conducted through P3A with the management became more recognized. The guidance of the village head. regulation affirms that P3A or P3A associations are Water User Farmers' Union (P3A) organizations for water user farmers in an irrigation service area, including local irrigation management The existence of local irrigation institutions is agencies. The existence of local irrigation experiencing dynamics following the need of institutions such as Subak became more increasing agricultural production. Organizations of recognized. The regulation states that P3A is a local institutions tend to be specific according to general term for irrigation management social and environmental conditions. This often organizations that recognize the position of local shows a difference in performance when irrigation management in different areas. implementing a central government program. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION As explained before, Ulu-ulu as a traditional institution shows a tendency as a non-formal Irrigation development strategies as supporting organization. Ulu-ulu does not have a standard infrastructure for agricultural development can not organizational structure and clear provisions and be fully implemented centrally or using a single sanctions. Meanwhile, Subak can be considered as pattern. The strategy should be able to solve the a formal institution, because it fulfills provisions of problem by considering the socio-cultural aspects of an organization in general. the local environment.
Around 1950, in Sragen, Central Java. an Development of irrigation water management irrigation institution emerged under the name of not only emphasizes the achievement of Persatuan Air Surakarta (PAS). The institution then quantitative growth and physical goals but also spread to several regions under the name of more emphasis on community empowerment. Dharma Tirta. PAS is believed to be an embryo for Efforts to empower communities in the the establishment of existing P3A. The management and conservation of water resources establishment of PAS could not be separated from are conducted by exploring local wisdom in people's the problems of damage to irrigation infrastructure lives and building awareness about the value and and the low volume of water availability. This benefits of water resources. situation often causes disputes among farmers. To accomplish this, some village administrators form REFERENCES PAS with a clear organizational structure and include sanctions provisions to be imposed. Ambler. 1991. Dinamika Kelembagaan Petani, dalam Irigasi di Indonesia, disunting oleh Furthermore, in 1967, PAS succeeded in Effendi Pasandaran. LP3ES, Jakarta. repairing almost the entire irrigation network. In Febriansyah, R. 1996. Meningkatkan Manfaat 1968, the Governor of Central Java changed the Ekonomi Air Irigasi dan Menjamin Keberlanjutan name of PAS to Dharma Tirta. Dharma Tirta OP Irigasi: Beberapa pemikiran awal, rancang institution was then adopted into P3A and bangun dan manajemen irigasi mendukung continues to grow in some areas with good sistem usahatani rakyat yang berorientasi agribisnis dan agroindustri. Fakultas Teknologi performance. Pertanian, Universitas Gajah Mada. Yogyakarta.
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Kemen PUPR. 2014. Rencana Strategis (Midterm Kerajaan sampai Reformasi). Makalah Seminar Review) Kementerian Pekerjaan Umum dan Hari Air Dunia XIV. Dirjen Pengelolaan Lahan Perumahan Rakyat Tahun 2015-2019 dan Air Departemen Pertanian. Pasandaran, E. 1991. Pengembangan Pengairan Rachman. B. dan Pasandaran, E. 2000. Sistem Jangka Panjang Tahap Kedua: Pemikiran kelembagaan pengelolaan air irigasi dalam Tentang Kebijaksanaan Strategi Pengembangan perspektif otonomi daerah dan ketahanan Sumberdaya Air Jangka Panjang di Indonesia. pangan. Makalah Disampaikan dalam Seminar Makalah disampaikan pada Seminar Nasional Air, Lahan, dan Ketersediaan Pangan, Bogor, “Kebijakan Strategi Pengembangan Sumberdaya 16-17 November 2000. hlm. 109-114 Air Jangka Panjang di Indonesia” di Bappenas, Saptana, Hendiarto, Sunarsih, dan Sumaryanto. 4 – 5 Desember 1991. Jakarta. 2001. Tinjauan historis dan perspektif Pasandaran, E dan Taryoto, A.H.. 1993. Petani dan pengembangan kelembagaan irigasi di era Irigasi: Dua sisi mata uang. Lokakarya otonomi daerah. FAE. Volume 19, No. 2, Pembangunan Berkelanjutan dan Penanggula- Oktober 2001 : 50 - 65 ngan Kemiskinan di Tingkat Lokal, Bogor 15-17 Sumaryanto dan Pakpahan, A. 1999. Peran Juni 1993 Pusat Penelitian Sosial Ekonomi strategis irigasi pompa dalam mendukung Pertanian, Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan pengembangan produksi pangan. Prosiding Pertanian. Bogor. Perspektif Keswadayaan Petani dalam Prabowo, A., Arif, S. S., Putra, H.T.A. dan Cahyono. Pengembangan Irigasi Pompa. Hasil Kerjasama 2006. Kolaborasi pemerintah dan masyarakat: Pusat Penelitian Sosial Ekonomi Pertanian sejarah perjalanan irigasi di Indonesia (Periode dengan Ford Foundation. Bogor.
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