Microsoft® Combat Flight Simulator 3.0 Historical Research Agency Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air

UNDERSTANDING THE TACTICAL AIR WAR handbook Subject: CONTENTS

Contents Welcome to the Tactical Air War! ... 1 Events and People in the Tactical Air War ...... 7 Key Players in the Tactical Air War: The CFS3 Hall of Fame ...... 21 Acknowledgements...... 30

Recommended Reading... 32 National Archives and Records Administration Photo Administration Records and Archives National Air ForceHistoricalAir ResearchAgencyPhoto Glossary...... 36 REMEMBER: OUR MEN AND MACHINES ON THE GROUND LOOK A LOT LIKE * * * THEIRS. A B-26 MARAUDER FLIES OVER THE NORMANDY INVASION FLEET.

Authorized licensees of this game may print (or have printed at their

expense) a single copy of this Air Force Historical Research Agency Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air manual for their personal home use RAIL CARS AFTER A POUNDING BY in conjunction with the play and ALLIED FIGHTER . use of the game on this CD. Subject: TACTICAL AIR WAR

Welcome to the Tactical Air War! “Schlachtfliegerei” Schlacht means slaugh- So you thought you were going to be ter. Schlachtfliegerei a “knight of the air,” jousting high in means ground attack, the the clean blue sky, far above the clouds most dangerous and least and even farther from the mud and squa- glamorous part of wartime lor of the war on the ground. flying. There is no room Instead you fi nd yourself in a fi ghter here for romantic illusion, , scraping over hostile territory no pretense of chivalry; at 200 feet with the terrain rising to one is down on the deck meet you. You’re fl ying down the muzzles where the targets (people, of massed antiaircraft guns and dodging vehicles, installations, small arms fi re to attack enemy airfi elds, and fortifications) may be trains, tanks, trucks, and troops. clearly seen. The ground Performing masthead-level attacks on attack pilot is exposed to enemy shipping adds its own thrills and every bit of flak, every threats. Some of your targets have more machine gun, every rifle, and bigger guns than a whole formation every pistol. Denied him of bombers. If enemy fi re doesn’t get is the acclaim accorded you, the blast and debris from your own fighter pilots. The chances low-level bombing and strafi ng can bring of winning fame as a you down. In this kind of war there’s Schlachtflieger are as slim more danger and less glory for everyone. as those of survival.... Welcome to the tactical air war, --From Jay P. Spenser, pal! Focke-Wulf 190: Workhorse of the

Air ForceHistoricalAir ResearchAgencyPhoto

“WE TOOK A BIT OF A BEATING ON THE GROUND BUT BOY DID WE DISH IT OUT IN THE AIR.” --General Elwood “Pete” Quesada

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WHAT REALLY HAPPENED: The lowdown on the tactical air war - GERMANY INCREASED THE LUFTWAFFE’S NEED FOR HIGH-ALTI BY MID-1943 THE AIR WAR IN EUROPE HAD SETTLED TUDE INTERCEPTORS. BF 109 AND FW 190 PILOTS HAD TO INTO A DEADLY PATTERN FOR FIGHTER PILOTS ON BOTH STRAFE AND DIVE BOMB TO STOP OR SLOW THE FLOOD OF SIDES. MOST WERE INVOLVED IN THE STRATEGIC AIR WAR; MEN AND MATERIEL OF THE INVADING ARMIES. JU 88 MEDIUM ESCORTING OR ATTACKING BOMBERS WAS THEIR PRIMARY ROLE, BOMBERS SWOOPED DOWN FROM NORMAL BOMBING ALTITUDE AND COMBAT IN THE FRIGID SKIES AT 20,000 TO 30,000 TO PLACE THEIR ORDNANCE WHERE IT WOULD DO THE MOST FEET WAS THE NORM. GOOD: RIGHT IN THE LAPS OF THE ENEMY. EVEN THE NEW AS THE POSSIBILITY OF AN ALLIED INVASION OF - GERMAN JETS SAW SOME SERVICE IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR. THE CONTINENT TOOK ON GROWING CERTAINTY, THE TACTI THE ALLIES TOOK LONGER TO FULLY EMBRACE THE CAL AIR WAR IN THE WEST HEATED UP AND EMPHASIZED A POTENTIAL OF A TACTICAL ROLE FOR COMBAT AIRCRAFT, DIFFERENT PILOT ROLE--FLYING . THIS BUT PERFECTED CLOSE AIR SUPPORT BETWEEN 1943 AND 1945 ROLE PUT WOULD-BE HIGH FLYERS DOWN ON THE DECK FOR A - - BY ADDING NEW TECHNOLOGICAL VARIATIONS TO THE TAC DIFFERENT KIND OF WARFARE BASED ON AIR-GROUND TEAM TICAL THEME. ALLIED PILOTS (BEING DIRECTED BY AIR WORK. FIGHTER-BOMBER PILOTS WERE PART OF THE ARMY FORCE LIAISON OFFICERS ON THE GROUND TO ENEMY GROUND TEAM, WITH DIRECT RESPONSIBILITY TO ASSIST THE ADVANCE TARGETS, FRIENDLY FORMATIONS IN NEED OF ESCORT, OF FRIENDLY FORCES ON THE GROUND, WHILE KEEPING ENEMY OR INCOMING BANDITS) CARRIED OUT A OF TROOPS AND SUPPLY LINES REELING UNDER BULLETS, BOMBS, THEIR OWN AGAINST ANYTHING THAT MOVED IN THE ENEMY AND ROCKETS. SECTOR. THUNDERBOLTS, LIGHTNINGS, MUSTANGS, TYPHOONS, THE GERMAN ARMY HAD ALWAYS VIEWED AIR POWER AS TEMPESTS, AND SPITFIRES FLEW FIGHTER BOMBER DUTY SUBORDINATE TO THE FORCES ON THE GROUND. CLOSE AIR TO SUPPORT THE WAR ON THE GROUND, WHILE MITCHELL, SUPPORT, USING AIRCRAFT TO ASSIST THE ADVANCE OF - MARAUDER, AND MOSQUITO BOMBERS ADDED THE FORMIDABLE TROOPS AND MOBILE FORCES ON THE GROUND, WAS A CEN POWER OF MULTIPLE GUNS AND CANNON TO THE TRAL PART OF THE BLITZKRIEG ACROSS EUROPE BETWEEN 1939 DESTRUCTIVE FORCE OF THEIR BOMBS. AND 1940. IT WAS ALSO A BASIC FEATURE OF COMBAT IN FOR BOTH SIDES, DETERMINING THE PRECISE LINE THE CAULDRON OF THE EASTERN FRONT. AS THE WAR IN THE - BETWEEN FRIENDLY AND ENEMY TERRITORY IN A FLUID AND WEST INTENSIFIED, ESPECIALLY AFTER THE ALLIED INVA - CLOSE-FOUGHT SITUATION ADDED TO THE DIFFICULTIES TAC SION OF FRANCE COMMENCED IN JUNE 1944, THE GERMANS - TICAL PILOTS ALREADY FACED. PRESSED MORE AND MORE AIRCRAFT INTO TACTICAL SER VICE EVEN AS THE CAMPAIGN AGAINST

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Altitude is still your friend...but For a fi ghter bomber pilot alti- “The Mission of the you’ve got less of it to work with! tude is still your friend, but you’ve Tactical Air Force” From a tactical pilot’s point of got a lot less of it to work with since MISSIONS--The mission view, you’ve got one strike against most missions are fl own at 12,000 feet of the tactical air force you as soon as you leave your base and or lower (usually much lower), right consists of three phases of head into enemy territory--you’re fl ying on down to the deck. operations in the following close to the deck without the luxury of order of priority: altitude. Altitude is life to a fi ghter pilot, providing the high ground from First priority--To gain which to attack enemy aircraft, as the necessary degree of well as room in which to dive away from air superiority. This will attackers. Flying fi ve or six miles above be accomplished by attacks the ground provides plenty of room for against aircraft in the maneuvering, attacking, and evading. air and on the ground, and against those enemy instal- lations that he requires for the application of air power. Second priority--To pre- vent the movement of hos- tile troops and supplies into the theater of opera- tions or within the the-

ater. Air Force Historical Research Agency Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air Third priority--To participate in the com- bined effort of the air DOUGLAS A-20 IN and ground forces, in the LOW-LEVEL ATTACK ON CHERBOURG battle area, to gain objec-

USAF Museum Photo Archives Photo Museum USAF PENINSULA. tives on the immediate front of the ground forces. --From War Department Field Manual FM 100-20: Command and Employment of A THUNDERBOLT CARRIES THE COM- PLETE GROUND ATTACK ARSENAL: Air Power (21 July 1943) GUNS, BOMBS, AND ROCKETS.

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A few additional worries sure whose cause will profit from the Three Critical Factors In addition to reduced altitude bombs you just dropped. for Fighter Bomber and the hail of flak and small arms fire - And finally, getting caught in your Pilots coming up at you as you approach targets own explosions. When you attack sur- ...strafing passes... on the ground, you have a few additional face targets from low altitude you bring out three critical worries as a fighter-bomber pilot: risk getting caught in explosions of factors in a fighter bomber - Encountering airfield defenses. If you your own making. Trains and motor- pilot’s war.... One, any and your buddies swoop down to beat ized transport full of fuel and ammo, misjudgment, target fixa- up an enemy airfield, the guy who flies the volatile contents of fuel and tion, or too-late attempts through first is the lucky one, because ordnance dumps, and even locomotives at aiming corrections will he might catch the antiaircraft with a boiler full of high-pressure send the airplane into the defenses off guard. By the time the steam--all of these targets can blow target, ground, or nearby rest of you approach the target those up in a big way, filling a once empty trees or other obstruc- gunners are wide awake and filling the piece of sky with pinwheeling chunks tions. Two, if the target air with flak. of shrapnel. Even the roadway beneath is a load of ammuni- - Pulling up in time. Diving a heavy, enemy vehicles can be hazardous, as tion or other explosives, powerful aircraft from low alti- bomb blasts can heave hunks of pave- it can--and very likely tude makes for a thrilling pullout, ment into the same airspace you’re will--explode right in the if you’re lucky. If you’re not both occupying. pilot’s face, sending up attentive and lucky, you may fixate a fireball, truck parts, on the target until it’s too late slabs of highway, still- to pull out. to-explode ammo, and other debris right into the path - Identifying appropriate targets--now! of the airplane. Three, if While you’re thinking about the a pilot is seriously hit by target, the flak, and the need to pull flak in [a] low-altitude out before you become part of the attack, his chances of ever landscape, you also need to make reaching enough altitude sure that the target you’re attack- to allow a bailout are slim ing belongs to the enemy. Skimming indeed.... along at low altitude and high speed over a crowded battlefield doesn’t give --From Bill Colgan, World you a lot of time to make vital deci- War II Fighter Bomber Pilot sions. Are those enemy troops? Are you sure the squat form of a heavy tank glimpsed through foliage is an appro- priate target? You may never know for

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Another little problem: Enemy fighters the nose up at what appears to be the Results You Can See While you’re concentrating on the last moment and discover that your “There were times we enemy below, don’t forget the most dan- plane simply won’t cooperate. With all could actually see our gerous and persistent threat any combat its weight and power, it will continue troops move forward after pilot faces: enemy fi ghters attacking to sink despite your best efforts and we had knocked out a German from superior altitude. Getting bounced “mush” right into the ground. 88 or tank that was holding from above while going after ground tar- up the column. We knew we gets is an ever-present danger, so you “I don’t believe in all this dive- were making a difference.” and your buddies have got to take turns bombing [stuff], it ain’t natural.” fl ying combat air patrol over the target --Veteran fighter bomber area to keep the opposition busy while Many new fi ghter-bomber pilots pilot Quentin Aanenson the rest of the team beats up targets longed for the classic fi ghterpilot role on the ground. they’d read and dreamed about, in which the ground was for the ground-pound- Now this kind of teamwork is what ers and the sky above the clouds was you joined up to do, right? Not quite. reserved for dashing aviators. This You’ll be craning your neck and strain- made for a diffi cult adjustment: ing your eyes to spot incoming bandits, mixing it up with enemy fi ghters as you ...fighter pilots were slow to match your skills against skilled adver- appreciate the value of close-sup- saries, but remember, this is dogfi ght- port operations. One flyer aptly ing with a difference. Even if you’re summarized the rank-and-file per- fl ying a relatively light and nimble ception of the new task when he fi ghter, your plane’s ordnance load makes said... “I don’t believe in all it heavier and less responsive; you can this dive-bombing [stuff], it drop like a rock in a dive. Power and ain’t natural.” gravity combine to eat up altitude in --Thomas A. Hughes, Over Lord: a hurry, and the ground is never very General Pete Quesada and the far away. Triumph of Tactical Air Power If you’re fl ying one of the heavy- in World War II weights in your air force’s inventory, the ground can reach up and grab you. In a P-47 Thunderbolt or a Do 335 Arrow, or even a big German jet, you’ve got to juggle the need to get the target in your sights against the need to pull Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air out in time. If you cut it too fi ne, A GERMAN MK IV TANK DESTROYED you can haul back on the stick to point BY AERIAL ATTACK.

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The payoff: Unique satisfactions - There’s also plenty of encourage- The “Moral” Effect of So given the catalog of dangers, why ment in knowing that your contribu- Attack from the Air would you want to fl y close air support tion isn’t just emotional--all armies Moral Effect--The moral missions? Because this job provides some understand that close air support effect of heavy air attack unique satisfactions: plays an important role in making against land forces can - Even if you’re a loner--and many progress on the battlefi eld and in the hardly be exaggerated. fi ghter pilots are--there’s a lot to theater of operations. Your missions Not only will air attack be said for being part of a team; are a signifi cant part of the bigger lower the morale of the especially if it’s a winning team. picture. What you do or fail to do enemy, but the sight of Protecting your guys on the ground and every day can contribute to the larger our own aircraft over the helping them to advance by suppress- success or failure of your nation’s battlefield raises the ing enemy troops and weapons adds real forces in this war. morale of our own troops meaning to your part of the struggle. to a corresponding degree. - There’s also a lot to be said for Seeing enemy aircraft shot instant gratifi cation--and few things down has an encouraging are as gratifying to a combat pilot as effect.... On the other seeing a tempting target blow up in a hand, the constant appear- big way. ance of unmolested enemy aircraft tends to demor- - Seeing close-up the effect of your alize troops and disorga- guns, bombs, and rockets on the enemy nize plans. Apprehension does a lot for your confi dence and your of heavy air attack feeling that the results are worth the restricts military activ- risks. Flying close air support also ity by ...confining troops provides a sense of personal power and to areas that afford con- effectiveness that is only tempered by cealment, and by preventing the fact that the “clean blue sky” of movement during daylight. high-altitude plane-to-plane combat is Soldiers are naturally

replaced by distressing glimpses into Air Force Historical Historical Force Air

Research Agency Photo Agency Research quick to react to the gen- the hellish landscape of the war on eral air situation in their the ground. neighbourhood.... - Another plus for the tactical pilot --Army/Air Operations is the knowledge that just being there (British War Office, 26/GS over the front lines gives a real lift to your guys on the ground, while A THUNDERBOLT SCORES A DIRECT Publications/1127, 1944) HIT ON AN AMMUNITION TRUCK. depressing the spirits of the enemy.

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Events and People in the Tactical Air War

The campaign in CFS3...... and what really happened As a pilot in Microsoft Combat The campaign in northwest Europe Flight Simulator 3, you fl y in the his- during 1943 and 1945 marked a dramatic torical framework of the tactical air high point in the events of WWII and war in northwest Europe starting in the fortunes of the warring nations. mid-1943, but there’s a signifi cant It began with the Third Reich in fi rm difference. The skill and perseverance control of “Fortress Europa,” and ended you and your squadron or Staffel bring with Germany--and much of Europe--in to each battle can alter the tacti- ruins. cal situation and the timeline of the campaign. This open-ended and fl exible campaign means you can infl uence events, alter history, and extend the timeline to add new technology to your arsenal. How you handle these tactical and tech- nological advantages will determine the outcome. Before you take to the sky, it helps to understand what really happened during WWII. This will not only give you something to shoot at--but also some- thing to shoot for. In CFS3, it’s 1943, and no one knows what’s going to happen, or how the war will turn out--but here’s the way it was. Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air

ACES OF THE 354TH “PIONEER MUSTANG” FIGHTER GROUP.

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The situation in mid-1943 Pre-invasion activities In mid-1943 there were no dedicated In 1943 the U.S. tactical air forces operating in north- moved from Italy to England, and the RAF west Europe. Of course the tactical role created the Second Tactical Air Force was always part of the Luftwaffe’s man- (2TAF). These Allied tactical air forces date, but most of its tactical efforts faced two daunting pre-invasion tasks: were focused against Russia. The Allied - To disrupt the German army’s ability focus was on a strategic goal--using to transport reinforcements and sup- forces, escorted by fi ght- plies by road, rail, or river. ers, to destroy Germany’s ability - To reduce the Luftwaffe’s ability to to make war. German day- and night- seriously impede the planned Allied fi ghter pilots’ fi rst responsibility was invasion. to attack the bomber formations that threatened the expanding Reich. For its part, the Luftwaffe had to do its best to resist the mounting tide All this began to change as plan- of Allied air and land forces, and to ning for the Allied invasion of Europe support the German army. Even in reduced took shape. It became clear to the circumstances, the Luftwaffe’s best Allies that the invasion would never efforts remained formidable. take place without air power. Air power techniques worked out in North Africa and Sicily during 1943 showed how effec- tive tactical air power could be, and plans were put in motion to use this weapon to the fullest. Air power would pave the way for forces on the ground by providing close air support.

Air Force Historical Research Agency Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air BRIDGE AT BULLAY, GERMANY AFTER ATTACK BY THUNDERBOLT FIGHTER BOMBERS.

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The “Mighty Eighth” goes looking for In February, the trouble on the ground launched its “Big Week” operation with Even before tactical air forces a series of heavy bomber raids against were in place, fi ghter pilots of the the German aircraft industry coordinated strategic U.S. Eighth Air Force (the with medium bomber and fi ghter bomber Mighty Eighth) assigned to escort the attacks on Luftwaffe assets in France, heavy bombers into Germany were increas- Belgium, and Holland. Throughout the ingly freed to roam further afi eld from spring, German fi ghter losses in the air their lumbering charges in search of and on the ground mounted; more signifi - enemy fi ghters. The idea was to fi nd cantly, the Luftwaffe lost half of its trouble before trouble found the bomb- irreplaceable veteran pilots before the ers. To meet this threat, more Luftwaffe invasion began. fi ghter pilots were ordered to take on the Allied escorts instead of focusing entirely on the bombers. By January 1944, General , in charge of the Mighty Eighth, made destroying the German fi ghter force a top priority. To encour- age his fi ghter pilots, Doolittle offered ace status to those who destroyed fi ve aircraft on the ground. Some pilots who had won aerial victories by outfl y- ing their opponents complained that this was the “easy” way to become an ace, but fl ying into a wall of fl ak and small-arms fi re while attacking an airfi eld didn’t seem so easy to those who tried it.

Air Force Historical Research Agency Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air

B-26G MARAUDER MEDIUM BOMBERS IN ATTACK FORMATION.

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The tactical air forces join the fray Phase 3: Airfields. At D-21, the “If I didn’t have The U.S. Nineth Air Force and the Allies added German airfields within air superiority, RAF’s Second Tactical Air Force soon 130 miles of the invasion area to I wouldn’t be here.” joined these efforts and, as winter their target list. This phase continued On June 24, Eisenhower’s turned to spring, the pre-invasion air until D-Day. son John, a recent West campaign intensified. Two Tactical Air Between these attacks and the Point graduate, rode with Commands of the U.S. Ninth Air Force demands on German fighter resources his father to view the (IX TAC under General Ellwood “Pete” resulting from the Allies’ strate- invasion area. Quesada and XIX TAC under General O.P. gic bombing campaign, by June 6 the “The roads we traversed “Opie” Weyland) combined efforts with Luftwaffe simply wasn’t a factor in the British Second Tactical Air Force were dusty and crowded. Normandy. This situation wouldn’t last Vehicles moved slowly, to smash rail transport, bridges, and for long, as the German fighter force airfields. bumper to bumper. Fresh wasn’t finished yet. Within weeks the out of West Point, with all Phase 1: Railways. Sixty days Luftwaffe increased its strength in its courses in conventional before D-Day (D-60), the Allies’ focus Normandy, flying from small, improvised procedures, I was offended fell on rail centers, with fighter bomb- airstrips to avoid attack by Allied at this jamming up of traf- ers (as well as medium and heavy bomb- fighter bombers. Soon, the tactical fic. It wasn’t according ers) striking marshaling yards and major air war would reach its furious height to the book. Leaning over rail junctions. The railway phase con- as the American, British, and German Dad’s shoulder, I remarked, tinued right up to and after the Allied armies engaged in their winner-take-all “You’d never get away with armies fought their way onto the shores struggle for control of Europe. this if you didn’t have air of France on June 6. supremacy.” I received an Phase 2: Bridges. At D-46, the impatient snort: Allies began to isolate the German “If I didn’t have air troops that occupied the invasion supremacy, I wouldn’t be battlefield from reinforcements and sup- here.” plies by destroying bridges on the Seine below Paris and on the Loire below --Richard P. Hallion, Orléans. Both medium bombers and fighter Air Power Over the Normandy bombers participated in this phase, but Beaches and Beyond the nimble fighter bombers proved to be the best tool to achieve the pinpoint accuracy this task required. Like the rail phase, this bridge-busting duty continued on after the Allied invasion had begun.

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The invasion: Off the beaches-- enclosed by towering ancient hedges saw General Quesada on the and into the bocage some of the most vicious infantry combat Hedgerow Stalemate Once the invasion was under way, of the war. American troops groped their “We were flabbergasted the Allied tactical air forces took on way into the maze of hedgerows, which by the bocage.... Our their toughest task: direct participa- the Germans had already infi ltrated, infantry had become para- tion in the land battle. This included and came under attack from three sides lyzed. It has never been attacking enemy forces and providing in each gloomy enclosure. Every fi eld adequately described how close air support for friendly troops was like a small fortress with pre- immobilized they were by and armor on the ground. planned fi elds of machine gun, mortar, the sound of small-arms On June 6, 1944, 150,000 Allied and fi re. With no more than a fire among those hedges.” troops stormed ashore on the Calvados hundred yards of visibility this deter- mined defense was unnerving. The bocage --General Elwood Quesada, coast of Normandy. A cloud of Allied U.S. IX TAC aircraft, newly adorned in black and had been there for a thousand years, white “invasion stripes” to make their but nothing in the Allied planning had identity clear to nervous gunners on addressed fi ghting through this nightmar- the ground, controlled the air over the ish terrain. beachhead. American and British fi ghters fl ew continuously over the invasion area, ending their patrols with attacks on coastal defenses, enemy strong points, bridges, and rail targets. These attacks slowed the arrival of German reinforce- ments, giving the invading armies addi- tional time to consolidate their toehold on the Continent. Both invading armies made initial progress inland, but they soon ground to a halt as German resistance stiff- ened. The British were stuck outside

Caen, blocked by the armor of Panzer Air Force Historical Research Agency Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air Group West. The Americans punched their way off the beaches, only to fi nd themselves stymied north of Saint-Lô by what General Omar Bradley called “the damndest country I’ve seen,” the Norman hedgerow country, or bocage. This 20-mile swath of small fi elds P-38 LIGHTNING WITH BLACK AND WHITE “INVASION STRIPES.”

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Ending the impasse In the American sector, operation No Headlines for Goals set to be attained within COBRA benefited from the British break- Tactical Pilots, days by the Allied command remained out out effort. Devised by General Omar but High Praise from of reach for weeks, and each small gain Bradley, COBRA began on July 25 with Omar Bradley of ground came at a staggering cost. a massive but botched aerial bombard- ...On June 20, Bradley To end this impasse, the Allies once ment that blasted holes in the enemy asked Quesada to thank again turned to air power. Two opera- lines and sent German forces reeling, his pilots for “the fine tions, codenamed GOODWOOD and COBRA, but also killed or wounded hundreds of work they have been doing were intended to break the stalemate on U.S. troops. Bradley quickly capitalized and the close cooperation the ground by pouring ordnance onto the on these gaps; his First Army forces they have given the ground battlefield from the air. attacked across a moonscape of bomb troops. Their ability to GOODWOOD was designed to help the craters in an advance that moved four disrupt the enemy’s com- British break out of the stalemate armored divisions almost 35 miles--all munications, supply, and around Caen and into the open country the way from the hedgerows around Saint- movement of troops has been to the east, where tanks could oper- Lô to the open country near Avranches. a vital factor in our rapid ate effectively. The operation began As the speed of the assault increased, progress in expanding our on July 18 when 4,500 aircraft from good weather allowed IX Tactical Air beachhead. I realize that the RAF Bomber Command and the U.S. Command fighter bombers, under the com- their work may not catch Eighth and Ninth Air Forces attacked mand of General Elwood “Pete” Quesada, the headlines any more than the area held by Panzer Group West. to provide devastating close air sup- does the work of some of This enormous bombardment, violent port. Guided onto targets by Army Air our foot soldiers, but I enough to flip 60-ton tanks and drive Force liaison officers riding in command am sure that I express the hardened combat veterans into hyste- tanks, Thunderbolts and Mustangs lit- feelings of every ground- ria, allowed the British to force their tered the roads with the burning wrecks force commander, from squad way onto the Caen-Falaise plain. This of German vehicles. This air-ground leaders to myself as Army forward movement was supported by the teamwork proved to be a winning combi- Commander, when I extend tactical air forces, which blasted enemy nation that would come into its own in my congratulations on their tanks, suppressed mortar and antitank the Allied dash across France and into very fine work.” Germany. fire, and delivered ordnance beyond the --Thomas A. Hughes, Over range of friendly artillery. However, Lord: General Pete Quesada within two days the advance lost its and the Triumph of Tactical momentum, in part due to this opera- Air Power in World War II tion’s success in achieving its sec- ondary goal of drawing German armor away from the American sector, where Bradley’s forces were stuck in the bocage.

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The breakout: Air-ground teamwork friendly and hostile territory. They Armored Column Cover and the dash across France also reported threats on the ground Speeds the Allied On August 1, with the momentum of and hammered enemy troops, tanks, and Advance the breakout growing, Bradley acti- guns wherever they found them. Four- and eight-ship vated the Third Army under the com- - At the same time, armored column cover flights hovered over the mand of General George S. Patton. From missions coordinated air power with lead elements of armored now on, Weyland’s XIX TAC would support tanks by radio to protect the advance columns, ready to attack on the Third Army advance, while Quesada’s of friendly armor while suppress- request, to warn the tanks IX TAC was assigned to aid Bradley and ing enemy resistance. With little air of hidden opposition, to the First Army. opposition, pilots were often given eliminate delaying actions. Patton’s forces raced west from permission to sweep the roads up to These flights never returned Normandy into Brittany, and then pushed 30 miles ahead of the columns they to base until new flights south into the Loire valley before were assigned to protect, clearing came to relieve them. With swinging east toward Le Mans. Bradley’s the way for a rapid advance. this airplane cover always First Army also swung to the east to The result of using these two present...obstacles, which provide added pressure on the Germans. new types of missions was a far more might have taken hours to Meanwhile, General Bernard Montgomery rapid advance than even the Allies had surmount, were eliminated coordinated the advance of his British anticipated, creating a growing threat in a few minutes. and Canadian forces in a drive south to all German forces west of the Seine. --Air-Ground Teamwork from Caen, catching German General von This threat became reality when the on the Western Front Kluge’s Seventh Army between Allied pin- Germans planned a counterattack. (published by Headquarters, cers and effectively encircling it. The Allies intercepted and decrypted Army Air Forces, To support this increasingly rapid von Kluge’s orders and, combining resis- Washington, D.C.) movement, the tactical air commands had tance on the ground with air strikes, to revise their priorities and methods. they stopped the German counterattack Pre-planned missions didn’t work in a at Mortain. fluid and rapidly changing situation-- On August 15, the Canadian First by the time the fighter bombers arrived Army took Falaise, and the Allied armies, at their objective, friendly forces converging from the north, south, and might already have taken it. Two types west, squeezed the retreating German of impromptu missions proved especially forces into a “pocket” between Falaise effective in this environment: and Argentan. This pocket was less than - Flying armed reconnaissance missions, 15 miles wide and was shrinking rapidly, pilots received radioed updates on with the only exit to the east. the current location of the “bomb line” that marked the boundary between

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The Falaise “pocket”: Tac air in all to prevent the Germans from escaping and Falaise: A Scene its glory and horror reforming the remnants of the Seventh from Dante--or The next four days demonstrated Army to fight another day. Hieronymous Bosch the full and terrible potential of Thus bottled up, 10,000 German sol- “The battlefield at tactical air power. As more and more diers died along a road that came to Falaise was unquestionably German troops and armor were crowded be called the le Couloir de la Mort-- one of the greatest “kill- into the shrinking pocket, British and the “Corridor of Death.” Another 50,000 ing grounds” of the war. U.S. fighter bombers reduced the milling were taken prisoner. And the remnant of I encountered scenes which men and vehicles to a bloody, burning von Kluge’s army--perhaps 20,000 men-- could be described only by shambles. managed to escape to the east only after Dante.” Rocket-firing Typhoons and strafing abandoning almost all their vehicles --Allied Supreme Spitfires, in coordination with Allied and heavy weapons. Some fighter bomber Commander Dwight Eisenhower infantry and armor, relentlessly pounded pilots who swooped down to strike the the packed enemy columns. U.S. Ninth fleeing enemy were shocked by the dev- * * * Air Force pilots flew deep interdic- astation and carnage. What they found Perhaps the twisted alle- tion missions against enemy road, rail, was a hellish scene beneath a black- gories of Hieronymous Bosch and bridge targets, as well as aggres- ened sky full of the smoke and stench would have been more fit- sive sweeps to maintain air superiority, of the battlefield. The piled corpses of ting a choice, for Dante, swatting down Luftwaffe fighters before men and horses, the shattered and burn- at least, offered hope. they could get into the air. ing remnants of soft-skinned and armored --Air Force Historian Allied tactical pilots stayed on vehicles, and a litter of abandoned Richard P. Hallion, Air the job as long as the daylight lasted, equipment were all that remained along Power Over the Normandy flying as many as five or six missions a the cratered roads near Falaise. Beaches and Beyond day, stopping only to refuel and re-arm. For those who had wondered about The air over the Falaise pocket was so the effectiveness of tactical air power, crowded with aircraft that coordination Falaise was a gruesome revelation. Even became an issue, and midair collisions for those who had counted on its effec- took a toll among pilots focused on tiveness, the results, while beneficial destroying the enemy. to the Allied cause, were disturbing. As the Allied advance gained momen- tum and the carnage reached a crescendo, one Allied air objective changed sig- nificantly. Instead of destroying bridges and routes by which German forces and supplies could enter the area, bridges were to be left intact for the pursuing Allied ground forces; the goal now was

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The race toward the The Jack Stafford Follows As the remnants of the shattered Like many major actions of the Orders on His First Seventh Army fled eastward, additional Second World War, the outcome of the Mission German forces in Normandy swelled the Battle of the Bulge was decided by air “Ready for your first retreat. However, like all major German power. When the Germans began their show, Staff?” asked Woe retreats of the war, this was an orga- last major offensive of the war on Wilson. “Keep up with me. nized and disciplined process. Despite December 16, the dense, heavy cloud I’ll be busy enough with- hot pursuit by the Allied armies and cover over the battle zone made low- out looking after you--just continuing harassment by the tacti- level fighter bomber patrols difficult watch my arse.” cal air forces, 240,000 Germans got to impossible, temporarily negating We took off for the across the Seine in the last dozen days Allied air superiority, but also limit- French coast. Woe watched of August and streamed toward Belgium, ing the effectiveness of the German the heading--I watched Luxembourg--and Germany. Patton’s army tactical aircraft assembled to assist Woe’s tail. began its pursuit on August 21 by cross- the offensive. When we returned the ing the Seine, and in the next ten days For this fight all Allied tacti- intelligence officer asked pushed almost 200 miles eastward to the cal air power--including the U.S. Nineth if we had encountered much river Meuse. Other British and U.S. Air Force’s IX and XIX Tactical Air flak. “Yes, quite a bit,” forces liberated Paris on August 25 and Commands and the British Second Tactical said Woe. “Dieppe was the pushed on into Belgium and Luxembourg. Air Force--was concentrated under heaviest but they hosed us Seeking an opportunity to counterat- the command of RAF Air Marshal Arthur a bit from all the other tack, the Germans deployed troops near Coningham, who in turn assigned General ports.” the mouth of the river , deny- “Pete” Quesada of the U.S. IX TAC to con- I stood there, my mouth ing the Allies use of the vital port trol air power on the north side of the open. “Flak! What bloody of . This move was part of a bulge, while the British 2TAF focused on flak?” Good-natured laugh- plan (called “Autumn Mist”) to drive the south side. There were three Allied ter rocked the room. an armored wedge through the Ardennes air priorities: Woe said, “He was watch- forest and across the Meuse to Antwerp, - To achieve and maintain air superior- ing my arse and doing it separating the British in the north ity over the battlefield. from the Americans in the south. The well.” Just then a ground - To cooperate with ground forces in resulting struggle, which began with staff man approached with the destruction of enemy weapons and an assault that bulged and almost broke a jagged piece of steel in transport. the Allied lines, is better known as his hand. “This was just the Battle of the Bulge. - To interdict enemy supplies by attack- removed from your air- ing road, rail, and communication craft’s spinner, Staff.” centers. —Veteran and CFS3 historical advisor Jack Stafford

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Strict radio silence had kept the To restrict enemy supplies and slow Germans’ plans from being intercepted, the German advance, Eisenhower’s strat- and the surprise was complete when 24 egy required U.S. forces to take and divisions crashed through hold the crossroads at Saint Vith and the Allied lines. Twenty-four hundred , an already perilous task that tactical aircraft had been assembled became practically impossible without to support this thrust, and a 60-mile- tactical air support. The “bulge” soon wide breech in the Allied line quickly grew to its maximum depth, extending became the westward “bulge” that gave about 50 miles west of what had been the this battle its name. For three days the American lines. U.S. forces soon evacu- Allied air forces fought the Luftwaffe ated Saint Vith, but the 101st Airborne above the cloud cover, keeping the Division hung on at Bastogne. German fi ghters from carrying out their close-support duties beneath the over- cast and claiming 136 victories in the process. The Luftwaffe pilots were hampered not only by bad weather, but also by inadequate training and lack of experience in tactical air support, since by this stage of the war their leadership understandably emphasized air-to-air combat skills to counter the tactical bombing campaign that was reducing German cities to rubble. The Battle of the Bulge took place over some of the roughest terrain in Europe, during the hardest winter in memory. The weather soon deteriorated to the point that, for the four days between December 19th and the 22nd, Allied and German aircraft alike could hardly get off the ground. Once again, U.S. SOLDIERS GET SOME CHOW Photo Administration Records and Archives National the opposing air forces were fi ghting IN THE WINTER LANDSCAPE OF THE on equally unfavorable terms. “BATTLE OF THE BULGE.”

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Patton’s “weather prayer” pays off timed airfield attacks to coincide with The Tactical Air War Chafing at the uncooperative weather the return of fighters low on fuel and from Two Points that made life miserable for infantry- ammunition. of View man and airman alike, General George Now Allied medium bombers joined “We took a bit of a Patton ordered the Third Army chap- in to cut off rail transport into the beating on the ground but lain to devise a “weather prayer” to be area, while U.S. and British fighter boy did we dish it out in published throughout the Third Army by bombers pursued enemy tank columns down the air.” December 14, two days before the Battle increasingly narrow roads. Once they --General “Pete” Quesada, of the Bulge began: hit the lead tank, the immobilized column IX TAC after the “Almighty and most merciful could be destroyed in detail, a scene Battle of the Bulge God, we humbly beseech thee, of played out over and over again. German * * * thy great goodness, to restrain troop concentrations suffered the same these immoderate rains with which fate as the tank columns. Thunderbolts “The Third Reich received we have had to contend. Grant us bombed enemy positions just a few hun- its death blow in the fair weather for battle. Graciously dred yards from friendly forces. German Ardennes offensive.... The American fighter bomber hearken to us as soldiers who call road and rail traffic fell under the same hammer blows. destroyed us.” upon thee that, armed with thy power, we may advance from victory By Christmas Eve, the German advance --General der Jagdflieger to victory, and crush the oppres- ground to a halt. On Christmas day, the sion and wickedness of our enemies, Allies counterattacked, Patton relieved and establish thy justice among men the 101st Airborne in Bastogne, and and nations. Amen.” Montgomery’s forces attacked from the north to cut off a German retreat. This higher version of “air-ground Allied tactical aircraft ruled the skies teamwork” apparently did the trick, over the battlefield, but they would soon and on December 23 the murky weather face the Luftwaffe in a decisive air that had hung over the Ardennes broke, battle. unleashing Allied air and ground forces and dooming the last major German offen- sive of the war to failure. With massive numbers of American and British fighter bombers filling the sky and blasting ground targets at will, the Luftwaffe could no longer affect the situation on the ground. Even returning from a mission was dangerous for German pilots, as their Allied counterparts

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The Luftwaffe’s last gamble: knew was on the ropes, least of all on Operation Bodenplatte New Year’s morning. Some Allied air- With their fi nal ground offen- fi elds suffered extremely heavy damage, sive collapsing under the intoler- while others were visited ineffectually able pressure of Allied tactical air by very small numbers of fi ghter bombers. power, the Luftwaffe planned an all-out It took awhile for the Allied air forces air assault on 27 Allied airbases in to react, but they were soon fl ying mul- Belgium, Holland, and France. The goal tiple sorties to blunt or entirely stave of Operation Bodenplatte (“Baseplate”) off the low-level attacks. was to break the of the By the end of the day nearly 500 Allied fi ghter force and allow the weak- Allied aircraft had been destroyed, ened Luftwaffe to focus on the strategic almost all of them on the ground, with bomber threat. Set for early morning on the heaviest damage falling in the New Year’s Day--, 1945--it was British sector. This was a weighty blow, a desperate gamble that would cost the but all of these wrecked aircraft were Luftwaffe dearly. replaced within a couple of weeks, while Poor planning, inadequate brief- German losses, especially in pilots, were ings, a lack of experienced pilots, and irreplaceable. Now the full weight of poor coordination with fl ak gunners on the Allied tactical air forces fell on the ground cost the Luftwaffe a third the German army, making of the 900 aircraft it threw into this it impossible to move large-scale surprise attack. More sig- troops or supplies nifi cantly, over 200 pilots, including on the ground without almost 80 experienced leaders and com- drawing the unwelcome manders, never lived to see more than attentions of free- the fi rst day of 1945. About a third of roaming fi ghter bomb- the aircraft lost fell to “friendly” ers with their guns, antiaircraft gunners, some of whom bombs, and rockets. remained uninformed about the fl ight schedule. In other cases, bad weather delayed takeoff, putting pilots in the air over batteries that had expected Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air them earlier. WRECKED THUNDERBOLT ON U.S. AIRFIELD AT , FRANCE AFTER The one thing Bodenplatte pilots GERMAN ATTACK, JANUARY 1, 1945. had going for them was surprise. The last thing the Allies expected was a massive attack by an air force they

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By January 18, the Battle of the To the Rhine--and beyond Bulge was over. For Germany, the out- In February, the western Allies come was a double catastrophe: its last started their push toward the Rhine. offensive in the west was decisively Their goal was to drive the German defeated on the ground, with the loss armies back into Germany and encircle of 100,000 men and 600 tanks, and the them. To achieve this, forces under Luftwaffe was fi nished as an effective Montgomery pushed toward the southeast, fi ghting force at a time when Allied while the U.S. Ninth Army drove north- air power had never been greater. With east. To slow the Allied advance north Russian armies advancing into Germany of the Rhine, the Germans had fl ooded from the east and British and American the Ruhr valley (the gateway to the armies advancing toward the Rhine from industrial heart of the Reich), but by the west, the outlook for the Third February 23 the waters had subsided. Reich was bleak. American armies crossed the Ruhr into Germany, while to the south, the Allies pushed through the remnants of the “West Wall” into west-cen- tral Germany. (The West Wall, also known as the Siegfried Line, was an array of concrete pillboxes and antitank defenses stretching 300 miles from Basel to Cleves.) On March 7, the Americans achieved a major coup by captur- ing, intact, the Ludendorff bridge

over the Rhine at Remagen. Allied Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air troops and vehicles poured across OUT WITH THE OLD, IN WITH and soon established a solid THE NEW: THE USAAF OCCUPIES A bridgehead east of the Rhine. Over GERMAN AIRBASE AT FRANKFURT. the next two weeks, U.S. forces crossed the Rhine and built up their bridgehead to solidify their posi- tion. In the last week of March, the British crossed the Rhine at several Air Force Historical Research Agency Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air points north of the Ruhr.

EIGHT RAF SPITFIRES ON PATROL.

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The situation as it was in the spring west France, in the Normandy campaign and The Nighttime Air War of 1945... the Allied breakout, in the battle for Adds Extra Dangers These aggressive Allied moves in France, in the Battle of the Bulge, in “In 1942 I flew 40 mis- March, supported by tactical and strate- the fight for the Rhine and the Ruhr, and sions for the RAF. Piloting gic air power, clinched the encirclement in the final run to victory or defeat. a Wellington bomber on of German Army Group B and opened the Along the way you can increase your night missions was the most way for the Allied drive eastward to the advantage by earning the privilege of hair-raising duty I ever Elbe River. On April 25, U.S. and Rus- flying advanced aircraft that would have did. Everyone was trying sian forces linked up at Torgau on the remained out of reach in a strictly his- to put you out of action-- Elbe, effectively splitting Germany in torical scenario. While you may be able enemy night fighters, two and ending organized German resis- to take advantage of assets, including antiaircraft guns, search- tance. With the fall of Berlin to the personal skill and advanced technology lights, mid-air collisions, Russians and the suicide of Hitler on to take lesser objectives or even the and weather all teamed up April 30, control of the crumbling Reich enemy capital, one major aspect of the to make it miserable and fell to the Führer’s chosen successor, tactical air war as it really happened hazardous. Admiral Doenitz. A cascade of regional remains: No matter how good you and your surrenders--in Italy, Holland, Denmark, In 1943 I transferred squadmates are, no matter how awesome to the USAAF, flying 48 and Germany--culminated in the uncondi- your aircraft and weapons may be, the tional surrender of all German forces, night missions in P-61 grim realities of your job as a tactical Black Widows. To locate signed for Doenitz by General Alfred pilot never change. Flying at low alti- Jodl, on May 7, 1945. and destroy targets such tude over masses of enemy troops, guns, as trains, vehicles, and and vehicles leaves no room for roman- airfields, we would enter ...and the flexible timeframe and tic illusions about the glamour of war. enemy territory at low tactical situation in CFS3 Danger is ever-present, and glory is hard altitude--200 to 500 feet. While the tactical air campaign to come by. We used radar and the radio in CFS3 is rooted in the historical altimeter to avoid obsta- events described in this Handbook, as cles and the terrain, and a CFS3 pilot, you have more opportu- followed the rail lines and nity to influence short- and long-term highways until sighting a events and outcomes than any pilot on target, which was diffi- either side enjoyed between 1943 and cult unless the moon was 1945. Your own performance and persis- out. Then we would use our tence can alter the tactical situation bombs, cannon, and machine and the timeline at every major turn- guns.” ing point in this long and grueling --Veteran combat pilot struggle--in the pre-invasion battle and CFS3 historical advisor to control transport routes in north- Al Jones

- 20 - Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR

Key Players in the Tactical Air War: The CFS3 Hall of Fame

The tactical air war didn’t grab a 1936-1939 as a proving ground for new lot of headlines, and didn’t produce many weapons and techniques. This experience aces. Like the foot soldiers who formed paved the way for the Blitzkrieg of 1939 the other side of the air-ground team, to 1940, when Germany stunned the world tactical pilots had a rough job to do, by rapidly defeating Poland, France, and faced many dangers without much Belgium, Holland, and Denmark with coor- chance of winning individual fame. For dinated attacks by armor, air power, that reason this “Hall of Fame” focuses and mobile infantry. Throughout the war primarily on leaders of the tactical air Germany used this combination of forces war, individuals who formulated doc- wherever possible. However, the Luftwaffe trine on the use of tactical air power leadership failed to refine its use of and then put that doctrine into practice air power, while the Allies embraced new in the air over Europe. The pilots who technologies and techniques that made translated doctrine into combat reality their tactical air forces into sharper, are represented by our three histori- more focused and effective weapons. cal advisors, men who stepped up to the This failure put German pilots at dangerous job of teaming with the guys a double disadvantage. As Allied mate- on the ground during the momentous events rial superiority grew to an overwhelming of WWII, and then returned to their flood of military power directed against lives as veterans who put those events Germany, the problem was compounded by behind them. leaders preoccupied with maintaining favor and casting blame instead of assum- About Leadership and ing responsibility for the success of Pilot Initiative their pilots. A look at the leaders on both sides What made the Luftwaffe a formi- who were instrumental in forming tactical dable weapon as the war went on was the air doctrine in WWII reveals an inter- dedication, skill, and perseverance of esting difference of approach, a differ- its pilots. The often murky nature of ence with important implications for the combat in the air low over the battlefield pilots who had to transform doctrine into always demanded a high degree of pilot ordnance on the battlefield. initiative for all nationalities, but Germany took an early lead in devel- for German pilots that initiative took oping the collaboration of air and ground on greater importance, given decreasing forces, and used the Spanish Civil War of direction from above.

- 21 - Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR

GENERAL WILLIAM “BILLY” MITCHELL (1879-1936)

“Billy” Mitchell was an air power dismay of naval offi cers who saw pioneer, visionary, and evangelist. He the battleship as the ultimate was also an irritant to American mili- expression of military power, tary commanders who lacked his vision Mitchell led Army bombers in and enthusiasm. As commander of American trials that sank a variety of combat squadrons in Mitchell vessels, including a subma- was one of the fi rst to show what the air- rine, a destroyer, a cruiser, Images Archive/Getty Hulton plane could do to advance the war on the and fi nally the captured German ground, proving it to be a potent weapon battleship Ostfriesland. This against enemy positions and surface tar- earned him enemies in high gets on land or sea. places, as did his criticism of Mitchell joined the U.S. Army government policies and defi ance in 1898 and showed an early interest of the military leadership. in technology, fi rst as a telegrapher In 1924, after a visit to in the Signal Corps. When the Signal Japan, Mitchell wrote a report Corps formed its Aeronautical Division, that warned of Japanese ambitions Mitchell bought his own fl ight lessons. in the Pacifi c. He foresaw a war By 1913 he informed a congressional com- with Japan that he said would mittee that America was falling behind begin with an aerial attack on in what he saw as a vital new technol- American naval and air facilities “BILLY” MITCHELL: IN THE 1920S ogy. In 1917 he was sent to observe air at Pearl Harbor, starting with HE SHOWED THE SKEPTICS WHAT AIR POWER COULD DO. operations in Europe, and, with America’s bombardment of the base on Ford entry into the war, he was soon in charge Island at 7:30 a.m., to be fol- of fi ghting units and promoted to Briga- lowed by an attack on Clark Field dier General. in the Philippines. In September 1918 Mitchell planned In 1925, after accusing Army lead- and led a bombing attack on the German- ership of criminal negligence in the held St.-Mihiel salient in which almost loss of the airship Shenandoah, he was 1,500 aircraft dropped their bombs on court-martialed for insubordination and German positions in coordination with resigned from the service. Mitchell died an infantry assault on the ground. in 1936, before he could see air power After the war, Mitchell tirelessly triumphant in World War II. In 1941 Lee advocated an independent Air Service and Atwood, vice president and chief engi- sought every opportunity to demonstrate neer of North American , pro- what air power could do. In 1921, to the posed naming the new B-25 medium bomber

- 22 - Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR in honor of Billy Mitchell, and although Billy Mitchell it was unusual to name aircraft for real on the Tasks of people living or dead, the Army Air Corps Tactical Air Power agreed. No one could have devised a more Billy Mitchell’s defini- appropriate honor, as the B-25 Mitchell tion of the air objectives went on to prove its worth as a potent of the St.-Mihiel offensive weapon in all theaters of operation, from was one of the first sys- Doolittle’s Tokyo Raid in 1942 through tematic statements about the end of the air war in Europe. the role of what would Although his court-martial was never become tactical air power: reversed, Mitchell was honored posthu- “We had three

y m mously in 1946 with a unique Special s u

e e tasks to accomplish:

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o one, to provide

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ing a likeness of Mitchell in aviator’s c d r

e o accurate information

d F helmet and goggles. i

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o i for the infantry and

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p

. o S adjustment of fire t .

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h P for the artillery of “Billy” Mitchell’s special the ground troops; Congressional Medal second, to hold off of Honor, awarded the enemy air forces posthumously in 1946. from interfering with either our air or ground troops; and third, to bomb the back areas so as to stop the supplies from the enemy and hold up any movement along the roads.” --Alan F. Wilt, Coming of Age: XIX TAC’s Roles During the 1944 Dash Across France

- 23 - Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR

GENERAL ELWOOD “PETE” QUESADA (1904-1993)

A year after General Billy Mitchell ters in Normandy on D-Day+1, was ejected from the U.S. Army Air Corps, and moved it constantly to keep 21-year-old Elwood “Pete” Quesada won his up with the rapidly advancing wings as a fl ying cadet. In WWII he would front lines. gain fame as head of the IX Tactical Air Under Quesada’s leader- Command, a role in which he was both an ship, IX TAC provided close active leader and an innovator, adopt- air support for the American ing new technologies to refi ne and perfect invasion forces. He was quick air-ground teamwork. to appreciate the command-and- The son of a Spanish businessman control possibilities of radar and an Irish-American mother, Quesada and radio coordination, and Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air was born in Washington, D.C. in 1904. originated the idea of enhanc- As part of the crew of an Army Fokker ing air-ground cooperation by General Elwood “Pete” Quesada, head of monoplane called the Question Mark, he sending Army Air Force liaison offi cers the U.S. IX . helped set a sustained fl ight record in with ground forces, often in the lead 1929 by remaining aloft for over 150 tank of a moving column. One of his big- hours, during which the plane was refu- gest challenges was to convince “seat eled in the air 42 times. In 1934 he of the pants” pilots to put their trust was chief pilot on the Army’s New York- in “newfangled gadgets.” His leadership Cleveland airmail route. in directing IX TAC’s air campaign, his Quesada’s career moved rapidly once support of General Omar Bradley’s First WWII began. Promoted to Brigadier General Army after the breakout in Normandy, and at the end of 1942, within months he led his leadership of American tactical air the XII Fighter Command in North Africa power in the Battle of the Bulge were and fl ew combat missions in Tunisia, major contributions to the Allied success Sicily, Corsica, and Italy. in Europe. In 1943 he was sent to England as Promoted to the rank of Lt. General head of the IX Fighter Command to pre- in 1947, Quesada retired from the Air pare for the Allied invasion of Normandy. Force in 1951 and was named fi rst head His primary responsibility was to teach of the Federal Aviation Administration what he had learned in tactical opera- in 1959. He died in 1993. tions in Italy. At the end of 1943, he was put in charge of the IX Tactical Air Command and directed its operations in the fi eld. He set up his headquar-

- 24 - Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR

GENERAL OTTO PAUL WEYLAND (1902-1979)

As head of the XIX Tactical Air for a pounding by the tactical air com- Command from 1944 to 1945, O.P. “Opie” mands. The port of Brest fell in part Weyland provided the perfect partner in due to the relentless assault of XIX TAC the air to George S. Patton’s hard-driv- on shipping and port facilities, and by ing Third Army on the ground. Together the end of December, Weyland’s fi ghter they made history during Patton’s dash bombers were attacking the enemy near across France and into Germany after the German border. the Normandy invasion. This was the high Patton called Weyland “the best point in a long and distinguished career damn general in the Air Corps,” and that began with a commission in the U.S. offered this commendation for the

Air Force Historical Research Agency Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air Army Air Service in 1923 and culminated unwavering support of XIX TAC: with Weyland’s appointment as commanding general of the Air Force’s The superior efficiency and coop- Tactical Air Command in 1954. eration afforded this army by the forces under your command is the Weyland arrived in Europe as a new best example of the combined use of DYNAMIC DUO: GENERAL O.P. brigadier general in November, 1943, and WEYLAND (RIGHT) WITH GENERAL air and ground troops I have ever four months later was assigned to head GEORGE S. PATTON. XIX TAC. Under his leadership XIX TAC witnessed. wrote new chapters on the possibilities Due to the tireless efforts of of air-ground teamwork, becoming a fast- your flyers, large numbers of hos- moving and hard-hitting force that kept tile vehicles and troop concentra- pace with and protected Patton’s armored tions ahead of our advancing columns columns and lines of supply as the Third have been harassed or obliterated. army surged forward, at times covering The information passed directly to 20 miles a day. Once the Allied armies the head of the columns from the air managed to break out of the invasion has saved time and lives. beachhead, XIX TAC set records for mobil- I am voicing the opinion of all ity, moving its headquarters fi ve times the officers and men in this army during the month of August. when I express to you our admiration In conjunction with General “Pete” and appreciation of your magnificent Quesada’s IX TAC, Weyland’s XIX TAC efforts. pilots fl ew three, four, or even fi ve mis- sions a day, bombarding road and rail transport and bridges. German tanks, trucks, guns, and troops all came in

- 25 - Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR

SIR TRAFFORD LEIGH-MALLORY (1892-1944)

Trafford Leigh-Mallory fought on In November 1944 Leigh-Mallory the ground in WWI until 1916, when he was assigned to head Allied air transferred to the . forces in Southeast Asia, but died By 1918 he commanded a squadron, and in a plane crash before he could by 1938 had risen to the rank of Air assume command. Vice-Marshal. During the from 1940 to 1941, he led RAF Fighter Command’s No. 12 Group in the English Midlands.

In 1942 Leigh-Mallory became head Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air of RAF Fighter Command, and in 1943 he TRAFFORD LEIGH-MALLORY was knighted and made Chief Air Marshal. BRIEFS RAF PILOTS IN FRANCE, In 1944 he was named commander-in-chief SEPTEMBER 1944. of the U.S. and British units that formed the Allied Expeditionary Air Forces, which included the U.S. Ninth Air Force and the British Second Tactical Air Force. In this role he was responsible for the air component of air-ground teamwork in the invasion of Europe. One of his major achievements in this period was the “Transportation Plan,” to devas- tate rail transport and facilities vital to the German resupply effort. His col- laboration with Allied leaders, includ- ing Bradley and Montgomery, provided some high points in the Anglo-American mili- tary alliance.

- 26 - Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR

SIR ARTHUR “MARY” CONINGHAM (1895-1948)

Arthur “Mary” Coningham was born In 1945 Coningham took in Australia and educated in New Zealand. charge of the RAF Flying This New Zealand connection earned him Training Command. He retired the nickname “Maori,” which over the in 1947; the following year his years became “Mary.” He served with the aircraft disappeared while on New Zealand Expeditionary Force in WWI a commercial fl ight to Bermuda. before transferring to the Royal Flying Photo Museum War Imperial Corps in 1916. Assigned to a squadron in 1917, by the end of the war he had scored 14 aerial victories and won numerous decorations for gallantry. Early in WWII Coningham led RAF forces in support of Montgomery’s cam- Sir Arthur “Mary” Coningham. paign in North Africa, and developed an approach to air power ultimately adopted by Eisenhower in Europe. He called for the concentration of air power against key objectives, under the command of air offi cers. His most successful applica- tion of this doctrine came in 1944 when, as commander of the RAF’s Second Tactical Air Force (2TAF) and the Advanced Allied Expeditionary Air Force (AAEAF), he unleashed 2TAF on German forces from Normandy to the Battle of the Bulge and beyond. In cooperation with the U.S. IX and XIX TAC, Coningham’s airmen made signifi cant contributions to the success of the Normandy invasion and Allied victory.

- 27 - Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR

REICHSMARSCHALL HERMANN GÖRING (1893-1946)

Göring’s career as an airman got With the collapse of the Reich, off to an impressive start in the First Göring surrendered to American forces. World War, in which he amassed 22 aerial Ever ingratiating when it served his victories and won his nation’s highest purpose, he sang the praises of the Bettmann/Corbis decoration, the Pour le Mérite, popularly USAAF, while ignoring the dogged six- called the “Blue Max.” He fi nished the year contribution of the RAF: war in charge of the squadron formerly “The Allies must thank the led by WWI’s ace of aces, Manfred von American Air Force for winning the Richthofen, the “Red Baron.” war. If it were not for the American In postwar Germany Göring became Air Force the invasion would not second only to Hitler in the hierarchy have succeeded. Even if it had suc- of the Third Reich, and in 1935 was put ceeded it could not have advanced in charge of the resurgent Luftwaffe. without the American Air Force. Early successes in Spain and during the Further, without the American Air Blitzkrieg of 1939 to 1940 showed the Force Von Rundstedt would not have world what air power could do, but his been stopped in the Ardennes. And Hermann Göring. leadership had reached its pinnacle. who knows but that the war would In the Luftwaffe, Göring had created still be going on.” a magnifi cent fi ghting machine, but squan- dered it by refusing to adapt to chang- --Hermann Göring, ing circumstances. His management of the in Thomas A. Hughes, Over Lord: Battle of Britain during 1940 and 1941 General Pete Quesada and the was a debacle of miscalculation for which Triumph of Tactical Air Power he blamed his own pilots. This pattern in World War II continued as Germany’s military situa- tion deteriorated and pilots came to view the grandiose with con- tempt. Given this leadership vacuum at the top, the responsibility for using the air weapon with any degree of effective- ness fell to the fi eld commanders who had to lead from the cockpit, and pilots who were willing to push themselves to the limit to achieve some success against the enemy.

- 28 - Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR

FELDMARSCHALL WOLFRAM VON RICHTHOFEN (1895-1945)

A cousin of Germany’s “Red Baron,” Once WWII began, von Richthofen Wolfram von Richthofen became an early served in the Polish, French, Balkan, exponent and practitioner of close air Greek, and Russian campaigns as com- support in Europe in the 1930s and in mander of Fliegerkorps VIII. In this role WWII. He served in the Imperial army he became a foremost promoter and prac- until 1917, and then transferred to titioner of close air support using the the Flying Service. He won eight vic- dive-bombing capabilities of the Junkers

Imperial War Museum Photo Photo Museum War Imperial tories as a pilot in Ju 87 Stuka. Richthofen, the fi ghter squadron named During the siege of Stalingrad von for his famous cousin. After the war Richthofen was tasked with supplying he earned an engineering doctorate, and the encircled Sixth Army. By 1942 he rose returned to the newly reformed Luftwaffe to command the nearly 2,000 aircraft of as a technical expert in 1933. a Luftfl otte (“Air Fleet”), and, early In 1936, von Richthofen became com- in 1943, Hitler made him the young- mander of a small air force sent to est fi eld marshal in the German army. Spain on behalf of the Fascists under He assumed command of Luftfl otte 2 in Wolfram von Richthofen. Francisco Franco. In 1938 he was sent the Mediterranean, but in 1944 was diag- back to Spain in charge of the much nosed with a brain tumor, and ended his larger Legion Kondor, a force that tested active service late that year. He died in dive-bombing and other close air support July, 1945. techniques that would later be part of Germany’s Blitzkrieg, the “Lightning War” of mobile forces.

- 29 - Subject: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Acknowledgements As always, a lot of diligent Archivists Lynn Gamma, Ronald XP-55 Ascender more accurate than it research has provided the realis- Myers, Dennis Case, Joe Caver, otherwise could have been. tic underpinnings for this latest and Milton Steele provided invalu- * * * version of Microsoft Combat Flight able assistance in guiding us to Simulator. In addition to review- documents and photos that have Pima Air and Space Museum, Tucson, ing some of the huge volume of made a significant contribution to Arizona, USA. published materials documenting the depth, realism, and atmosphere The Pima Air and Space museum the WWII air war (see Recommended of CFS3. maintains an enormous fleet of air- craft and related documentation, Reading in this handbook for a * * * sampling), we visited archive including an international archive and museum venues to conduct The Me 262 Project, Everett, of data on the B-26 Marauder. research, ensuring that Combat Washington, USA. Archivist Stephanie Mitchell has Flight Simulator remains “as real We had the rare opportunity to been extremely helpful in providing as it gets.” We thank the following see, photograph, and record the first access to copies of Marauder wind organizations and people for their of the Me 262 Project’s newly built tunnel and flight test data, the B-26 assistance. replicas of this historic aircraft. erection and maintenance manual, Our thanks to Jim Byron, and Bob pilot reports, and other details * * * Hammer, and Chief Pilot Wolfgang that help make our Marauder “as real Air Force Historical Research Czaia for providing access and as it gets” in CFS3. Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, USA. information that helped us model our * * * Located on Maxwell Air Force own simulated Me 262 for CFS3. Museum of Flight, Seattle, Base in Montgomery, Alabama, the * * * Air Force Historical Research Washington, USA. Agency (AFHRA) is the primary Kalamazoo Aviation History Museum, Craig Spencer, Jennifer repository of Air Force historical Kalamazoo, Michigan, USA. Hawkins, and the Restoration Staff materials. This archive contains This museum is currently of the Museum of Flight have pro- some 70,000,000 pages of original restoring one of the Curtiss XP-55 vided access to their archive, and Air Force documents dating back to Ascender prototypes. Registrar have put us in touch with a number 1918, including WWII-era unit his- Bill Painter and Executive Director of veteran pilots, including mem- tories, combat reports, and period Robert Ellis provided some rare bers of “Pappy” Boyington’s “Black photos. The AFHRA also authors and reference material on this exotic Sheep.” Information and input from translates historical studies on aircraft, including copies of the these resources have been instru- many aspects of military aviation, original flight and erection manual mental in our efforts to accurately including the WWII air war. and maintenance manuals. Their help model WWII aircraft and their flight has made our modeling of the Curtiss characteristics. * * *

- 30 - Subject: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our Historical Advisors And on April 12, 1945 he shot down German retreat up the Italian boot) No WWII fl ight simulation can be a long-nosed Fw 190D. For these and in Belgium early in 1945. His complete without input from those achievements he was awarded the primary missions were to intercept who fl ew the real thing, and we have Distinguished Flying Cross. Retired German nocturnal air activity, and been fortunate to recruit the fol- but still vigorous, Jack lives to stop road and rail movement of lowing two veteran aviators as his- in Rotorua, New Zealand, where he enemy troops and equipment. After torical advisors. enjoys boating, water skiing, and the war Al became a test pilot with * * * an occasional fl ight (now as a pas- Boeing and rose to become Chief senger) with local pilots. Pilot of Flight Crew Training. Jack Stafford left his native New Zealand in January 1943, and was assigned to the RAF’s 486 (New Zealand) squadron as a Sergeant Pilot in November. Based at Tangmere, he fl ew Hawker Typhoons Photo Seal J. in dive-bombing and ground-attack

operations. In 1944 he fl ew Hawker

Photo courtesy Al Jones Al courtesy Photo Jones Al courtesy Photo Tempests on fi ghter sweeps, ship- ping strikes, and ground-attack Stafford Jack courtesy Photo missions before D-Day. He shot down eight V1 “buzz bombs” over south- RNZAF Flight Jack Stafford on Anzac USAAF Al Jones on the Boeing ern England between June 19 and Lieutenant Jack Day, 2000. pilot Al Jones, 1944. 747 simulator. August 29, 1944, including two Stafford, 1944.. on the 4th of July. In September * * * 1944 Jack fl ew fi ghter cover for * * * the airborne attack to capture American pilot Al Jones’ war the and Nijmegen bridges started early, when he became a in the Netherlands. As part of the volunteer in the Royal Canadian Air RAF Second Tactical Air Force in Force in 1940. He was assigned to Belgium, he attacked locomotives a squadron in England, then went to in the campaign against enemy rail North Africa where he fl ew 40 mis- transport. On Christmas Day 1944 sions in RAF Wellington bombers. he shot down a German Me 262 when In 1943 Al transferred to the USAAF his squadron intercepted two of the and was assigned to a night fi ghter jets. He also shot down a Bf 109 squadron, fl ying Bristol Beaufi ghters south of Munster, one of a group before switching to the P-61 Black of seven orbiting over a group Widow. He fl ew night intruder mis- of American P-47 Thunderbolts. sions in Italy in 1944 (during the

- 31 - Subject: RECOMMENDED READING

Recommended Reading

Case Studies in the Development into the life of a Thunderbolt Army/Air Operations (1) General of Close Air Support, ed. Benjamin fi ghter-bomber pilot in the thick Principles and Organization (British Franklin Cooling. Washington, D.C.: of the European campaign, from D-Day War Office, 26/GS Publications/ Office of Air Force History, United to the end of the war. What makes 1127, 1944). States Air Force, 1990. Aanenson’s account so compelling This wartime publication sum- This Air Force University pub- is its modest, yet resolute tone marizes the British view of air- lication contains a series of stud- in narrating dramatic and danger- ground teamwork, and provides a ies on the evolution and techniques ous events. His humanity and his clear understanding of tactical air of close air support. Its chapters sense of duty combined to make this objectives, especially when read on Sicily and Italy and the battle thoughtful man a veteran who still in conjunction with its American for France during WWII provide a struggles with some of his war- counterpart, War Department Field short but comprehensive view of the time experiences. For more informa- Manual FM 100-20: Command and tactics and techniques that made tion on Aanenson, or to acquire a Employment of Air Power (21 July close air support a vital ingredient copy of this documentary, see http: 1943), described below. //pages.prodigy.com/fi ghterpilot/. of the Allied victory. * * * * * * * * * Aanenson, Quentin, A Fighter Pilot’s Air-Ground Teamwork on the Western Story. Produced in association with Front: The Role of the XIX Tactical WETA-TV, Washington, D.C. Air Command During August 1944. (An Interim Report Published by This 1994 PBS documentary pro- Headquarters, Army Air Forces, vides a harrowing three-hour look Washington, D.C., Office of the Assistant Chief of Air Staff, Intelligence.) This Army Air Force study pro- vides a lucid overview of the hectic and pivotal events in the tactical

air war during August, 1944, when Air Force Historical Historical Force Air Research Agency Photo Agency Research cooperation between American ground and air forces defi ned the modern concept of tactical air power.

* * * Air Force Historical Research Agency Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air

Little schlepper, big gun. German medium bomber.

- 32 - Subject: RECOMMENDED READING

Colgan, Bill, World War II Girbig, Werner, Six Months to Hughes, Thomas A., Over Lord: Fighter-Bomber Pilot. Manhattan, Oblivion: The Defeat of the General Pete Quesada and the KS: Sunflower Press, 1988. Luftwaffe Fighter Force Over the Triumph of Tactical Air Power Colgan’s account of a Western Front, 1944/1945. Atglen, in World War II. New York: Crown Thunderbolt fi ghter-bomber pilot’s PA: Schiffer Publishing, Ltd., 1991. Press, 1995. duties in Italy and Southern France Girbig’s history of the Hughes’ biography of General dramatically depicts the special Luftwaffe’s fi nal months in WWII “Pete” Quesada provides a detailed dangers of fl ying close air support. throws a dramatic light on pilots analysis of the contribution his * * * who fought on against all odds, IX Tactical Air Command made to culminating with an exhaustive Allied victory. Its account of the Galland, Adolf, The First and the account of the disastrous Operation momentous events of 1944 and 1945 Last: The Rise and Fall of the Bodenplatte on New Year’s Day, 1945. and the role of tactical air power German Fighter Forces, 1938-1945. * * * in shaping those events provides a New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1954. helpful perspective on the workings Galland’s history of the German Hallion, Richard P., Strike from the of the Allied air-ground team. fi ghter forces gives a glimpse into Sky: The History of Battlefield Air * * * the workings of the Luftwaffe fi ghter Attack, 1911-1945. Washington, D.C.: force during its best and worst Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989. Rust, Kenn C., The 9th Air Force in times. It also chronicles, in highly Hallion’s study of battlefi eld World War II. Fallbrook, CA: Aero readable fashion, the career of this air attack puts the tactical air war Publishers, 1967. 104-victory ace, who survived many a world of CFS3 into historical per- Rust provides a comprehensive scrape and lived to tell the tale. spective. Starting with the earli- look at the workings of this key * * * est examples of the tactical use of tactical air force and its partici- aircraft, it traces the development pation in the battle for France. of this technique from its begin- * * * nings as a novelty and sideshow to its WWII high point as an essential Shaw, Robert L., Fighter Combat and war-winning component of the Tactics and Maneuvering. Annapolis: air-ground team. Naval Institute Press, 1985. Many consider Shaw’s textbook * * * on fi ghter tactics to be the bible for those who seek combat success in aircraft, either real or simu- lated.

* * * Air Force Historical Research Agency Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air Wrecked P-38 Lightning.

- 33 - Subject: RECOMMENDED READING

Sortehaug, Paul, The Wild Winds: The Spick, Mike, The Ace Factor: Air War Department Field Manual History of Number 486 RNZAF Fighter Combat and the Role of Situational FM 100-20: Command and Employment Squadron with the RAF. Dunedin, NZ: Awareness. Annapolis: Naval of Air Power (U.S. War Department, Otago University Press, 1998. Institute Press, 1988. 21 July 1943). Through interviews and pho- In this study Mike Spick This document sums up what the tographs Sortehaug brings to life focuses on a key factor for fi ghter U.S. Army Air Force had learned the history of this aggressive team pilot success: maintaining a con- about air power and its application of New Zealand Tempest pilots and stant awareness of an ever-chang- up to the middle of WWII. It pro- their contribution to Allied success ing situation and reacting to the vides an invaluable understanding in the air war over Europe. Jack threats and opportunities of the of USAAF objectives and the tech- Stafford, one of our Combat Flight moment. niques used to attain them. Simulator historical advisors, fl ew * * * * * * Hawker Tempests in 486 Squadron, and some of his most colorful experi- Spick, Mike, Allied Fighter Aces ences are narrated here. of World War II: The Air Combat Tactics and Techniques of World War * * * II. London: Greenhill Books, and Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1997. Spick, Mike, Luftwaffe Fighter Aces: The Jagdflieger and Their Combat Tactics and Techniques. London: Greenhill Books, 1996. In these two volumes Spick demystifi es the tactics and tech- niques of combat pilots. His dis- cussion of the aircraft and the men who fl ew them, and his description of Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air air combat maneuvers all contribute

Air Force Historical Research Agency Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air to this excellent overview of the fi ghter pilot’s job in WWII. Heavy bomber contrails mark the way to Germany. * * *

German patrol boat with triple 20-mm antiaircraft guns.

- 34 - Subject: RECOMMENDED READING

Wilt, Dr. Alan F., Coming of Age: The “Osprey Aircraft of the Weal, John, Bf 109 F/G/K Aces on XIX TAC’s Roles During the 1944 Aces” series, which includes the the Western Front. (Osprey Aircraft Dash Across France. http://www.air following volumes: of the Aces, vol. 29). London: power.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/ Morgan, Hugh, and Weal, John, German Osprey Publishing, 1999. aureview/1985/mar-apr/wilt.html Jet Aces of World War 2 (Osprey Weal, John, Focke-Wulf Fw 190 Dr. Wilt prepared this study Aircraft of the Aces, vol. 17). Aces of the Western Front (Osprey for the Air War College, Maxwell London: Osprey Publishing, 1998. Aircraft of the Aces, vol. 9). AFB, Alabama. Focusing on Patton’s Price, Alfred, Late Marque Spitfire London: Osprey Publishing, 1996. dash across France, supported by Aces 1942-45 (Osprey Aircraft of This series, published by Gen. O.P. Weyland’s XIX Tactical Air the Aces, vol. 5). London: Osprey London-based Osprey Publishing, Command, it clarifi es the missions Publishing, 1995. includes a volume on the aces and doctrines that defi ned the his- who fl ew every major fi ghter air- toric success of XIX in the crucial Scutts, Jerry, Mustang Aces of the Ninth & Fifteenth Air Forces & the craft in each theater of WWII. months of August and September, The authors are leading experts 1944. RAF (Osprey Aircraft of the Aces, vol. 7). London: Osprey Publishing, who have published numerous titles, * * * 1998. and each volume includes excel- lent drawings, photos, and color Smith, J.R. and Kay, A.L., German Scutts, Jerry, P-47 Thunderbolt Aces plates of the unique aircraft Aircraft of the Second World War. of the ETO/MTO. (Osprey Aircraft of fl own by individual aces. These are Baltimore: The Nautical and Aviation the Aces, vol. 24). London: Osprey great reference books, except that Publishing Company of America, 1972. Publishing, 1998. they lack an index, so expect your Swanborough, F.G. and Bowers, P., Scutts, Jerry, P-47 Thunderbolt copies to become well-thumbed as United States Aces of the Ninth and Fifteenth you discover, and rediscover, key Since 1909. Washington, D.C.: Air Forces. (Osprey Aircraft of information. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989. the Aces, vol. 30). London: Osprey * * * Thetford, Owen, Aircraft of Publishing, 1999. the Since 1918. Stanaway, John, P-38 Lightning Aces Baltimore: The Nautical and Aviation of the ETO/MTO. (Osprey Aircraft of Publishing Company of America, 1988. the Aces, vol. 19). London: Osprey These three volumes cover air- Publishing, 1998.

craft fl own by the Luftwaffe, U.S. Thomas, Chris, Typhoon and Tempest Air Force Historical Historical Force Air forces, and the RAF in admirable Aces of World War 2. (Osprey Photo Agency Research detail. Their drawings, photos, and Aircraft of the Aces, vol. 27). comprehensive text make them excel- London: Osprey Publishing, 1999. lent, in-depth research tools. * * * Two B-26 medium bombers with “invasion stripes” to discourage fire from nervous Allied gunners.

- 35 - Subject: GLOSSARY

Glossary

A airspeed: The rate at which an air- altimeter: A highly sensitive AA, AAA: Antiaircraft fi re, antiair- craft moves through the surrounding barometer which shows an aircraft’s craft artillery. air. Pilots use several types of altitude above mean sea level by abschuss: (German) A fi ghter victory; airspeed during fl ight. For example, measuring atmospheric pressure. literally a “shoot down.” indicated airspeed (IAS) is the angle of attack: The angle between speed shown on the airspeed indi- (Luftwaffe) An evasion the and the oncoming airfl ow-- Abschwung: cator (usually in knots). Pilots maneuver allowing a pilot under the relative wind. The angle of use IAS to control an aircraft and attack to reverse direction, trad- attack is related to the direction manage its performance. Calibrated ing altitude for speed. Consists of in which an aircraft is moving, not airspeed (CAS) is IAS corrected for a half-roll followed by a half loop. to the angle the wing makes with instrument and installation error. (USAAF) Split-S. (RAF) Half-roll. the horizon. As angle of attack True airspeed (TAS) is IAS corrected Can also be used to attack an air- increases, so does the amount of for changes in atmospheric tempera- craft fl ying in the opposite direc- lift a wing produces. ture and pressure. Pilots use TAS tion at a lower altitude. (German) Slang for American. to solve navigation problems. Ami: ace: Since WWI, a pilot who has shot angels: Altitude expressed in thou- down at least fi ve enemy aircraft. sands of feet. aerodrome: (RAF) An airfi eld or air- Anzac: (British Commonwealth) A base; includes airfi eld and related military man from Australia or New facilities. From the French, but Zealand (originally a WWI acronym adopted into English and sometimes for the Australian and New Zealand (later) called an “airdrome.” Army Corps). ailerons: Movable control surfaces API: (U.S.) Armor-Piercing on the outer trailing edge of an Incendiary ammunition. aircraft’s wings that cause it to Ascender: A Curtiss XP-55 rear- bank or roll left or right. engine fi ghter with pusher propel- air force: (USAAF) A fi ghter unit ler. consisting of 16 fi ghter groups, ~768 Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air ASP: Antisubmarine patrol. aircraft. ASW: Antisubmarine warfare. airspeed indicator: The instrument Ground crew attaches a fuel drop tank to a Crashed. that displays an aircraft’s speed P-47 Thunderbolt. augered in: relative to the air in which it is moving.

- 36 - Subject: GLOSSARY

B Bomphoon: RAF pilot slang for a chattanooga: (USAAF) Air-to-ground B-25: A North American Mitchell bomb-carrying . attacks on rail targets. twin-engine medium bomber. boresight: The aligning of guns and circus: (USAAF, RAF) A ruse, using B-26: A Martin Marauder twin-engine gunsights. Having a target in per- many fi ghters and few or no bombers, medium bomber. fect fi ring position is “boresighting to decoy enemy fi ghters. bail out: To parachute out of an him.” close air support: The air objec- aircraft. “bought the farm”: Crashed. tive in air-ground teamwork; bandit: (USAAF) Enemy fi ghter. Originated when USAAF pilots were low-level operations to remove obliged to pay for damages incurred obstacles (such as enemy tanks, The minor rotation of an air- bank: after crashing on private property. troops, and guns) from the path of craft about its longitudinal (nose friendly troops on the ground. to tail) axis, causing one wing or bounce: To attack unsuspecting enemy the other to dip or rise; controlled aircraft, usually from above and close escort: A fi ghter mission in by the ailerons; see roll. behind. which the fi ghters must remain in close contact with the bombers they A single-engine fi ghter break!: A warning to friendly fi ghter Bf 109: are escorting, not searching for or designed for the Bayerische aircraft that they are under attack pursuing enemy fi ghters. Flugzeugwerke by Willy and must break formation to take Messerschmitt. immediate evasive action. CO: Commanding Offi cer. bingo: (U.S.) The point in a mission bunk fl ying: Hashing over (discuss- at which remaining fuel dictates an ing) a mission in the barracks. immediate return to base. buster: (U.S. terminology) To pro- Blitzkrieg: (German) “Lightning ceed at best-sustained speed. war”--the highly mobile form of war- fare used most successfully by the C Wehrmacht between 1939 and 1941. CAP: Combat Air Patrol (over/in the bocage: The Norman hedgerow coun- vicinity of friendly forces). try, a 20-mile swath of small fi elds

CAVU: The weather term for Ceiling Air Force Historical Historical Force Air enclosed by towering ancient hedges Photo Agency Research and Visibility Unlimited. south of the D-Day invasion beaches. Chandelle: This evasive maneuver bogey: (USAAF) Slang for an uniden- is simply an abrupt climbing turn tifi ed aircraft. almost to the point of stalling. German halftrack mounts a 37 mm It allows the pilot to quickly gain antiaircraft gun. altitude while changing direction.

- 37 - Subject: GLOSSARY combat box: (USAAF) A large, mutu- division: (USAAF) 16 aircraft (two finger four: (RAF) A four-aircraft ally defensive heavy bomber forma- eight-plane sections). formation. (Luftwaffe) Schwarm. tion, generally consisting of 18, Do 335: A Dornier “Pfeil” twin- (USAAF) Flight. 27, 36, or 54 aircraft; devised by engine fighter. firewall: The partition immedi- Curtis LeMay. dumbo: An air-sea rescue aircraft. ately aft of the engine. Opening crate: (USAAF) Slang for plane. the throttle to maximum position is “going to the firewall.” E “fish”: (U.S.) Slang for a torpedo. D element: (USAAF) A two-plane for- flak: Antiaircraft fire; acronym from D-Day: (USAAF, before the Allied mation; equivalent of the German the German FlugAbwehrKanonen. Light invasion of Europe 6/6/44) The Rotte. planned day on which a major flak batteries might consist of mul- Movable control sur- operation was to be launched (at elevators: tiple 20- to 40-mm cannon. Heavy faces on an aircraft’s horizontal “H-Hour”). After the success- flak guns ranged from 75 to 150 mm, tail surface that control its pitch ful invasion, D-Day came to mean throwing shells that exploded above (nose-up or nose-down attitude). the famous Sixth of June, when the 20,000 feet, spraying out 15-30 Allies landed in France. ETA: Estimated Time of Arrival. pounds of steel shrapnel. dead reckoning: The navigation of ETD: Estimated Time of Departure. flaps: Movable control surfaces an airplane solely by computations ETO: European Theater of Operations. on the inner trailing edge of an based on airspeed, course, heading, aircraft’s wings that increase lift wind direction and speed, ground when deployed, usually for takeoff speed, and elapsed time. The term F or landing. derives from “deduced” reckoning. feathering: Aligning stopped propel- flare: To pull back on the stick Also known as “ded reckoning.” ler blades with flight path to reduce just prior to landing. Flaring drag and stop rotation. deadstick: A powerless landing. bleeds off airspeed and makes sure fighter group: (RAF) A fighter orga- your rear wheel touches first. In “the deck”: Ground (or sea) level; nization consisting of ~350 fighter carrier landings, flaring also helps the surface over which you are aircraft, about 20 squadrons. put your tail hook low enough to flying. (USAAF) 48 . catch the cable. deflection: The angle of a target (RAF) An offensive “flat-hatting”: (U.S.) Making very aircraft relative to the aircraft fighter sweep: sortie without escort responsibili- low, spectacular, unauthorized shooting at it. ties. (USAAF) Rodeo. (Luftwaffe) flights; showing off. dicke Autos: The Luftwaffe code word Freie Jagd (“free chase”). flight: (USAAF) A unit consisting of for Allied heavy bombers; literally, four aircraft (two two-plane ele- “fat cars.” ments); also called a division.

- 38 - Subject: GLOSSARY fl ipper turn: (U.S.) A sharp, steeply G H banked turn. Gs: A measurement of the load half-roll: (RAF): An evasion Fw 190: Focke-Wulf “Würger” single factor, or apparent gravity, expe- maneuver allowing a pilot under engine fi ghter. rienced by an aircraft during fl ight. attack to reverse direction, trad- One G represents the force of grav- ing altitude for speed. Consists (RAF) An offensive free chase: ity exerted on a body at rest. of a half-roll followed by a half fi ghter sweep without escort respon- When an aircraft climbs, turns, loop. (USAAF) Split-S. (Luftwaffe) sibilities, used to draw up enemy or changes speed, it experiences Abschwung. Can also be used to fi ghters. G forces. For example, a level turn attack an aircraft fl ying in the freie Jagd: (German) Literally with a 60-degree bank imposes a 2G opposite direction at a lower alti- “free chase”--an offensive fi ghter load on an airplane and its occu- tude. sweep without escort responsibili- pants. hangar fl ying: Pilots comparing ties, used to draw up enemy fi ghters. Go 229: A Gotha twin-engine jet ideas and impressions about fl ying (USAAF) Rodeo. fi ghter bomber, designed by the specifi c aircraft. (See also bunk full bore: Maximum engine power. Horten brothers as the Ho IX fl ying.) fuselage: The body of an airplane and manufactured by the Gothaer heading: The direction in which the that holds the crew and passengers Waggonfabrik; thus assigned the aircraft is pointed, usually refer- or cargo. From the French fuselé, offi cial designation Go 229. enced to magnetic north. for “spindle-shaped.” group: A fi ghter unit consisting of “hit the silk”: Parachuting; bail- (USAAF) 48 aircraft or (RAF) up to ing out. 350 aircraft. “Holy Moses”: U.S. pilot slang for Gruppe: (Luftwaffe) A fi ghter unit the fi ve-inch High-Velocity Aircraft consisting of 30-40 aircraft. Rocket (HVAR), refl ecting its Gustav: Luftwaffe slang for the “G” destructive power and pilot enthu- model of the siasm. fi ghter (the E and F models were homeplate: (U.S. slang.) A pilot’s called “Emil” and “Franz”). “home” airfi eld. Horrido!: (Luftwaffe) Fighter code word: “I’ve shot down an enemy air- craft!”

Air Force Historical Research Agency Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air Hun: (RAF, USAAF) Slang for Bad news for Allied aircraft: a German Germans. 88 mm Flak gun and crew. HVAR: (U.S.) High-Velocity Aircraft Rockets (fi ve-inch diameter); slang name “Holy Moses.”

- 39 - Subject: GLOSSARY

I Jagdstaffel: (German) A fi ghter Kette: (German) A v-shaped three- IFF: Identifi cation, Friend or Foe; squadron consisting of 10-12 air- plane formation. (RAF) A “Vic.” an electronic system for identifying craft. An airshow formation used early in friendly or hostile aircraft. : (German) A Luftwaffe the Battle of Britain and replaced Immelmann: An aerobatic maneuver fi ghter force, consisting of single- by the “Finger Four” or Schwarm in which an airplane reverses its engine fi ghters and twin-engine formation. direction while gaining altitude Me 110 and Ju 86 “destroyers.” KIA: Killed in Action. (said to have been invented by WWI Jim Crow: (RAF) Reconnaissance kite: (RAF) Slang for plane. ace Max Immelmann). The maneuver fl ights over the English Channel Short for nautical miles per begins with a half loop, at the top knot: in search of shipping targets for hour. One nautical mile (nm or NM) of which the pilot rolls the plane attack by fi ghters and fi ghter bomb- = 6,076 ft (1,852 m) or about 1.15 upright. ers. statute miles per hour. Therefore Indianer: (German) Fighter slang Ju 88: A Junkers twin-engine medium 100 knots equals about 115 mph for American fi ghters; literally bomber. (185 km/h), 150 knots equals about “Indians.” “Jug”: (U.S.) The nickname for the 172 mph (278 km/h), and 200 knots intruder mission: An offensive, Republic P-47 Thunderbolt fi ghter, equals about 230 mph (370 km/h). small-scale sortie over enemy ter- due either to the plane’s resem- Note that “knots” by defi nition ritory to destroy enemy aircraft blance to a milk jug, or as a com- assumes “per hour.” near their own airfi elds while they mentary about its squat, blunt-nosed are taking off or landing. A second- appearance. The British believed ary aim is to dislocate the enemy it to be an abbreviation for defense. Mostly, but not always, “Juggernaut” because of the P-47’s fl own at night. massive power, size, and weight.

J K (German) A fi ghter bomber, from Jabo: (German) Slang for Historical Force Air

Katschmarek: Photo Agency Research Jagdbomber. wingman, the pilot of the trail- jackpot: (USAAF) Air-to-ground ing aircraft in a two-plane Rotte attacks on German airfi elds. who is required to stick with his Jagdfl ieger: (German) A fi ghter pilot. leader (i.e., following his lead). Literally, “a dim-witted recruit.” German halftrack with four-barreled 20 mm Jagdgeschwader: (German) A fi ghter Flakvierling can ruin a pilot’s day. unit consisting of ~120 aircraft.

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L Luftwaffe: The German air force. Mustang: A North American P-51 landing gear: The wheels, struts, LVT: Landing Vehicle, Tracked. fighter. and other equipment that an aircraft uses to land or maneuver on the N ground. M magneto: A device that creates noball: Missions against V 1 and LCI: Landing Craft, Infantry. an electric current by rotating a V 2 rocket sites. LCT: Landing Craft, Tank. magnet. The crankshaft turns the nose-over: To rapidly lower the lift: The upward force produced by magnetos, which provide the elec- nose relative to the horizon; an airfoil such as a wing interact- trical energy to fire the spark decrease pitch. On the ground, nose ing with the air. Lift acts at right plugs. This arrangement ensures over refers to an aircraft tipping angles to the relative wind or the that the spark plugs fire even if the forward or doing a somersault. aircraft’s flight path. Lift, one aircraft’s battery and electrical of the four fundamental forces in system fail. O flight, is opposed by weight. Marauder: A Martin B-26 twin-engine ops: Shorthand for “Operations.” Lightning: A Lockheed P-38 twin- medium bomber. “Fighter ops” refers to fighter engine fighter. Marsden Matting: Pierced Steel operations in general. Each mission loop: An aerobatic maneuver in Planking (also called “PSP”) used to is called a Fighter Operation, or which an aircraft flies in a complete create temporary airstrips; notori- “F.O.” vertical circle. An outside loop, ously slick in wet conditions. (RAF) To circle a given begun at the top of the circle, is orbit: meatwagon: Slang for ambulance. point or present position. considerably more difficult to per- A Messerschmitt “Schwalbe” form, because the pilot encounters Me 262: twin-engine jet fighter (also built negative G-forces throughout the as the “Sturmvogel” fighter bomber). P maneuver. P-38: A Lockheed Lightning twin- MIA: Missing in Action. LST: Landing Ship, Tank. engine fighter. Mitchell: A North American B-25 Lufbery: A (WWI) defensive maneu- A Republic single-engine twin-engine medium bomber. P-47: ver in which several fighters circle Thunderbolt fighter. “Mossie”: (RAF) A nickname for the for mutual protection. Because of A North American Mustang bomber, also P-51: the power, speed and firepower of single-engine fighter. WWII aircraft, this maneuver was not called the “Wooden Wonder” for its A Lockheed Shooting Star very successfully employed in either plywood construction. P-80: single-engine jet fighter. theater. “mush”: The tendency for a diving pancake: The radio code for “land Luftflotte: (German) An air fleet, aircraft to keep losing altitude immediately.” consisting of ~350 fighter aircraft despite being pulled into a “nose- and ~1,500 bombers. up” attitude.

- 41 - Subject: GLOSSARY pauke-pauke: (German) The fi ghter razorback: Describes early ver- rhubarb: (USAAF, RAF) A small-scale code word for “Attack!” Literally, sions of the P-47 and P-51 fi ght- harassing fi ghter operation against “rat-a-tat.” ers in which the aft fuselage deck ground targets. Pfeil: (German) “Arrow”; the Dornier rises behind the pilot’s head and roadstead: Operations by fi ghters, Do 335 twin-engine fi ghter. the canopy can provide only limited or bombers escorted by fi ghters, to rearward vision. Eventually these An aircraft’s rotation about attack by dive-bombing or low-level pitch: were replaced by “bubble canopy” its lateral (wing tip to wing tip) bombing attacks on ships at sea or versions in which the aft fuselage axis, determining its nose-up or in harbor. deck was cut down to the level of nose-down attitude; controlled by RAF pilot slang for a the pilot’s shoulders. rockoon: the elevators. rocket-fi ring Hawker Typhoon. relative wind: The speed and direc- A small metal probe, (USAAF) Offensive sortie pitot tube: tion of air striking an airfoil; rodeo: usually attached to an aircraft’s without escort responsibilities, that is, the air fl ow caused by wing, that measures ram air pres- used to draw up enemy fi ghters. an aircraft or airfoil’s movement sure. This data is used to calcu- (RAF) Fighter sweep. (German) Freie through the air. late aircraft speed. The pitot tube Jagd (“free chase”). revetment: A horseshoe-shaped usually has a heater to prevent ice An aircraft’s rotation about embankment used for protecting roll: from blocking the device. (Named its longitudinal (nose to tail) parked aircraft against bomb blasts. after Henri Pitot (1695-1771), axis, controlled by the ailerons. a French scientist.) See also: bank. POW: . Rotte: (German) A minimum fi ghting PSP: Pierced Steel Planking, also unit of two aircraft; leader and known as Marsden Matting--used to wingman. create airstrips; notoriously slick rudder: The movable control sur- in wet conditions. face on the vertical portion of an PTO: Pacifi c Theater of Operations. aircraft’s tail (attached to the fi xed portion, or fi n); controls the aircraft’s yaw, causing the plane R to skid left or right. R.A.F.: Britain’s Royal Air Force. RV: Rendezvous. ramrod: (USAAF, RAF) A bomber-escort mission. Photo Agency Research Historical Force Air ranger: Operations of squadron or German troop carrier with 37 mm antiaircraft wing strength (12-36 aircraft), gun. as free-lance intrusions over enemy territory, the main aim being to wear down the enemy fi ghter force.

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S sortie: A combat mission; originally Stuka: A (specifi cally, “saddle, in the”: (U.S.) Being imme- an armed attack made from a place the famous dive diately behind a target aircraft and surrounded by enemy forces. bomber); from Sturzkampffl ugzeug. ready to attack. Spitfi re: A supermarine single-engine Sturmbock: (German) A specially sandwich: A tactic by which two fi ghter. armed and armored version of the fi ghters turn to keep an attack- splash: (U.S. slang) Enemy aircraft Focke-Wulf Fw 190 fi ghter carry- ing fi ghter between them, making shot down into the water. ing 30 mm cannon and 21 cm rockets. the would-be attacker the target. Literally, “battering-ram.” Split-S: (USAAF) An evasion maneu- saunter: (RAF) Minimum cruising ver allowing a pilot under attack to Sturmvogel: “Stormbird”; the fi ghter speed. reverse direction, trading altitude bomber version of the Messerschmitt Schwalbe: “Swallow”; a Messerschmitt for speed. Consists of a half-roll Me 262 twin-engine jet fi ghter. Me 262 twin-engine jet fi ghter (also followed by a half loop. (RAF) half- sweep: An offensive formation fl ight built as the “Sturmvogel” fi ghter roll. (Luftwaffe) Abschwung. Can of fi ghters or fi ghter bombers, made bomber). also be used to attack an aircraft with the object of drawing the Schwarm: (German) A four-aircraft fl ying in the opposite direction at enemy fi ghter force into combat. formation consisting of two Rotten a lower altitude. (see Rotte). squadron: A British or American scramble: (RAF) To jump up, run to fi ghter unit consisting of 12 (some- the aircraft, and take off in the times 16) aircraft. shortest possible time. Staffel: (German) A squadron of section: (USAAF) A unit consisting 10-12 aircraft. of eight aircraft (two four-plane strafi ng: (RAF/USAAF) To attack a

fl ights). position or troops on the ground Air Force Historical Historical Force Air Shooting Star: A Lockheed P-80 jet with machine gun or cannon fi re from Photo Agency Research fi ghter. a low-fl ying aircraft. Adapted into English from a WWI German slogan, (U.S.) The military (C-47) Skytrain: “Gott strafe England” (“God punish version of the Douglas DC-3 trans- England”). port. strike: Combat fl ight against ground In Microsoft® Combat Flight Watch out for this one: a Panzer IV tank slewing: or sea targets. Simulator and Flight Simulator, a chassis with quadruple 20 mm flak guns. method of rapidly changing aircraft stud: (USAAF) A dive-bombing mis- position, direction, location, or sion. altitude without fl ying there in real time.

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T vector: (RAF) The course the pilot X TAC: (USAAF) Tactical Air Command is following. XP-55: A Curtiss Ascender rear- (as in IX TAC and XIX TAC). Vic: A basic British three-plane engine fi ghter with a pusher propel- TAF: The British Tactical Air Force formation, in the shape of a “V.” ler. (as in 2TAF). Vmax: Sustained top speed in level Tail End Charlie: The last plane in fl ight. Y a formation. yaw: An aircraft’s rotation in the Tallyho!: (RAF) Am about to attack W horizontal plane, about its verti- (or have sighted enemy). cal axis (turning left or right); (U.S.) Women’s Auxiliary WAFS: controlled by the rudder. Tempest: A Hawker single-engine Ferrying Squadron. fi ghter bomber, successor to the (U.S.) Women Airforce Service Typhoon. WASPs: Pilots. Thunderbolt: A Republic P-47 fi ghter. waveoff: A signal from the landing Tommy: (German) Slang for signal offi cer not to land aboard Englishman. the carrier, but to go around for Typhoon: A Hawker single-engine another try. fi ghter bomber. Wehrmacht: The German army.

WIA: Wounded in Action. Historical Force Air Research Agency Photo Agency Research U windmilling: The action of a freely USAAF: The Air rotating propeller on a dead or Forces; until 1947 the Air Force was stalled engine. part of the U.S. Army, not a sepa- wing: (RAF) A fi ghter unit consisting rate service branch. of three squadrons (36 aircraft). (USAAF) A unit consisting of several Thirsty fighter: ground crewman refuels a V 48-plane groups. P-38 Lightning. Valhalla: (German) A large formation wingman: (RAF, USAAF) The pilot of of aircraft. the trailing aircraft in a two-plane element; required to stick with his “Victory in Europe” day, VE Day: leader (i.e., following his lead). 5/8/45, when the Germans surrendered unconditionally to the Allies. Würger: “Shrike”; A Focke-Wulf Fw 190 single-engine fi ghter. Vampire: A de Havilland single- engine jet fi ghter.

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