Lent Term 2014

THE HISTORIAN

The Historian 1 INDEX

Editor: Mr Ian Haworth Assistant Editor: Theo Simmons

Emily Davison 3

7 Portrait of two Queens

Militant Atheism 9

11 History at Manchester

2 Lent 2014 EDITORIAL

Dear readers, issues per year, I hope that – and examines why Mary’s Society last term, including Welcome to the first edi- there’ll be plenty of oppor- bid for the throne failed a review by Helena Irvine of tion of Shrewsbury School’s tunity for many of you to so spectacularly.Forty-five Dr Richard Rex’s talk on the new history magazine, The contribute in the future, but years on from what proved English Reformation in the Historian. With so many first may I thank the several to be the decisive moment 17th century, while Sean talented pupils studying students who have worked in America’s disastrous in- Sawyer reviews the lecture the subject throughout the hard to contribute some ex- volvement in the Vietnam given by Dr Michael Broers School, we thought it would cellent articles to this first conflict in the 1960s and on the question of whether be a good idea to showcase edition. As 2013 draws to 70s, Oli Beressi examines the Napoleon Bonaparte was a some of your work, as well a close and we welcome in effects of the Tet Offensive military genius. There’s also as highlighting some of the the new year, Nicola Spruyt of 1968 and explains how a review of the final lecture things going on in terms looks back to the events it contributed to America’s of the term, by Professor of trips, lectures, achieve- of a hundred years ago as ultimate, humiliating with- Jonathan Phillips in Decem- ments and other news. It’s Emily Davison fatally threw drawal from Vietnam seven ber, on the motivations of also a good opportunity for herself in front of the King’s years later. Elsewhere, Jamie crusaders in the 12th and those thinking about taking horse at the Derby in 1913, Nugent looks at how France 13th centuries. There’s also history as a subject at the and investigates wheth- went about trying to rid it- an in-depth look at what next level – whether that’s er it was suicide or a prank self of Christianity during it’s like to study a degree in GCSE, A level, or university gone wrong. Dan Edwards the French Revolution, and History at the University of – to broaden their histori- compares the personalities the problems they encoun- Manchester, a look ahead cal understanding by look- of two of history’s greatest tered in their attempt. We to upcoming lectures and ing at new topics, debates, rivals for power – Elizabeth also have three reviews of news, and a quiz page to ideas and issues. With two I and Mary, Queen of Scots lectures given at the Bastille get those historical brains working! Mr Haworth 14 The ‘Tet offensive’

Lecture reviews and Quiz 16-21

The Historian 3 Emily Davison ANALYSIS

A martyr or

just unlucky?

By Nicola Spruyt

his year is the itant organisation in centenary an- the United Kingdom Tniversary of at the time fighting Emily Davison, a for women’s rights. militant , The organisation killed by King George was renowned for its V’s horse as she ran more violent ways out onto a race track. of getting its views Her death has, for heard, which can be many years, been a seen in their motto subject of great de- “Deeds not Words” bate amongst histo- and in some of its ac- rians as to whether it tivities which includ- was really her inten- ed members chaining tion to commit sui- themselves to rail- cide that day. Emily ings, burning build- Wilding Davison was ings, cutting tele- born on the 11th Oc- phone wires, spitting tober 1872 in Black- at police and politi- heath, London and in cians, sending letter 1906 at the age of 34 bombs and blowing she joined the WSPU up houses to name (Women’s Social and but a few. Approxi- Political Union). The mately 1000 women WSPU, founded by were imprisoned in sisters Emmeline and Britain due to their Christabel violent movements, in 1903, was the larg- the majority of whom est and leading mil- would go on to stage

4 Lent 2014 Emily Davison’s death made the young woman an instant martyr of the suffragette cause

The fateful incident occured at the 1913 Epsom Darby hunger strikes in protest; ple gathered around the and then trodden on Da- thousands of crying suf- the government’s re- race track at the Epsom vison, managed to carry fragettes. At the inquest sponse, from 1909, was Derby to watch the horse on with the race, drag- into Emily Davison’s to force-feed them. In races, one of whom was ging Herbert Jones, now death, a verdict of ‘mis- her years as a member of Emily Davison. The track unconscious, along with adventure’ was reached the Davison was shaped like a horse him until Jones’ foot be- rather than suicide, which gained a reputation as a shoe, and so as the horses came loose. Although suf- was illegal at the time. militant and violent cam- sped around the corner a fering significant injuries However, in spite of this paigner with the police woman ran out in front of Herbert Jones survived verdict, it is still unknown and within the organisa- the on-coming racers. It after recovering from exactly what Davison’s tion itself. Emily was ar- was Davison herself, and mild concussion, Davi- intentions were on the rested and imprisoned 9 as the horses ran at full son, however, did not. Her 4th June. When her pos- times on various charges speed towards her she injuries were fatal and de- sessions were found on by the police and sub- was knocked down and spite being taken to hos- the day, it was seen that sequently, after staging lay unconscious on the pital almost immediately she was carrying a return hunger strikes while in ground. The jockey, Her- after the incident, she train ticket, a ticket for prison, was force-fed by bert Jones, was thrown by died 4 days later. At her a summer festival later the prison-wardens 49 his horse, Anmer, owned funeral, WSPU members that day and two WSPU times. This seemed only by King George V, in the portrayed her as a martyr flags pinned to the inside to make her more de- process, but was unable and tens of thousands of of her jacket. These were termined and violent in to help Davison as his leg people filled the streets alongside the customary her actions. On the 4th was caught in the stirrup. of London to watch her writing paper, envelopes June 1913, 300,000 peo- Anmer, having fallen over funeral procession, with and stamps which suf-

The Historian 5 ens of thousands of people filled the streets of London to

ANALYSIS “Twatch her funeral procession, with thousands of crying suf- fragettes. At the inquest into Emily Davison’s death, a ver- dict of ‘misadventure’ was reached

fragettes carried in case ever, this now seems un- only in sustaining cruel died in the” way that she of being arrested so that likely from enhanced vid- injuries’. It seems possible did which raised peo- they could write home to eo footage of the event therefore that Emily Da- ple’s awareness further their families. However, where Emily can be seen vison could have wanted for women’s rights, not Davison’s belongings sug- stopping directly in front to commit suicide, not what her intentions gest that she was plan- of the horse. Another in- only to end her life, as Dr were. I believe that Emi- ning on leaving the race terpretation has been Atkinson believes that ly Davison was a mar- track alive that day, which that Davison was in fact she was depressed due tyr either way because many others have since trying to pull the King’s to a shortage of money commented on, for exam- horse down, after hearsay and lack of job leading whether her intentions ple Dr , that she and her friends up to the Derby race, but were in fact suicide, is of the great-granddaughter had been practising pull- also to do it in a way that no matter, she still died of , ing horses down weeks would bring the right to for her cause and is re- who doesn’t believe that before the Derby. There vote to British women. membered 100 years martyrdom was what are those, on the other Emmeline Pankhurst also later for her actions. Da- Emily Davison was seek- hand, who believe that wrote that Emily believed vison became a figure- ing. It is thought that she suicide was Emily Davi- ‘the conscience of the head for the WSPU and may just have been trying son’s intention. Davison people would awaken arguably played a great to attach one of her WSPU was clearly a risk taker and only to a sacrifice of hu- part in finally getting flags, or a banner, to the strong believer in wom- man life’. Davison seemed the voting rights for all King’s horse, so that it en’s rights and apparently like a woman who would women passed in 1928, would cross the finish line wrote herself that the suf- be willing to die for her wearing it, perhaps not fragettes’ cause needed cause, and perhaps this 15 years later. Her ac- realising the danger she a ‘last consummate sac- seemed like the best way tions got people think- faced in trying to do so. rifice of a militant’. It was to do it, she thought that ing, and it was perhaps There were also rumours also written in a book by it would ‘put an end to these thoughts which at the time that Davison Emmeline Pankhurst that the intolerable torture began to change peo- was trying to cross the Davison had previously of women’. Whether or ple’s attitudes towards race track, but chose the tried to commit suicide not Emily Davison did her cause. wrong moment to do so, by throwing herself from commit suicide, howev- thinking that all of the an upper gallery, from er, now seems irrelevant horses had passed. How- which she ‘succeeded as it is the fact that she

6 Lent 2014 ANALYSIS A portrait of two Queens

Dan Edwards compares the life of Elizabeth I and Mary Queen of Scots

It is 1603. Prince James of Scotland rides south tri- Elizabeth I umphantly to inherit the English throne from his mother, Mary II, Queen of England and of Scotland who ruled successfully for many years, having united the thrones of England and Scotland and restoring Ca- tholicism to the heart of the British Isles. This of course did not hap- pen. King James did come south, but not to inherit the English throne from his mother but rather his dis- tant Tudor cousin Queen Elizabeth. His mother, Mary Stuart, had faced execution some 16 years beforehand. Elizabeth had won this ri- Elizabeth kept an effective She was a divinely ordained for Scotland. She too was valry of queens, but why council under the leader- monarch, yet was not fool- prepared to dance with did these two women, who ship of William Cecil, and ish enough to declare her- the enemy, allowing her were so very similar in many was very much reliant on self absolute. Indeed she protestant half-brother and ways, had to face such dif- her privy council. She ap- was the queen for England. potential rival, the Earl of ferent fates? Indeed it is pointed councillors, who Mary Stuart was also, on her Moray, to remain chief min- quite surprising how similar were openly against her reli- return from France to Scot- ister and only four of Mary’s were the attitudes and pol- gion and foreign policy, like land in 1561, a monarch councillors were catholic, as icies of the two monarchs. the catholic Sir James Croft. who wished to be a queen she was. On religious mat-

The Historian 7 the Scots felt like Mary had sold her throne to a useless halfwit and a dangerous earl. Elizabeth did not sell Today in Westminster Abbey, the tombs of up. Elizabeth survived be- the two Queens lie opposite one another, cause of many factors – in- rivals in death as in life. cluding luck, taking good advice, and timing – but one should not overlook her marriage choice. Today in Westminster Abbey, the tombs of the two queens lie ters, Elizabeth and Mary had surprisingly personal: men. Elizabeth, in contrast dis- opposite one another, rivals strikingly similar policies. Historians almost unani- tanced herself from the in death as in life. Elizabeth’s Nowadays we paint Mary mously agree that Mary was pursuit of a husband. She body lies there, a woman as a devout catholic martyr, a disaster with the oppo- was nevertheless a woman who could and should have who championed her reli- site sex. The choice of Lord often in love. She seriously borne an heir but didn’t. gion above all else. Indeed, Darnley, a useless drunkard considered marrying Rob- Mary did have an heir, who whilst imprisoned after of a cousin, as her second ert Dudley, and even in the would inherit both England fleeing to England in 1568, husband was probably 1570s flirted with the idea of and Scotland on Elizabeth’s Mary certainly played on the turning point for Mary. marrying the French Duke death. In death then per- her catholic heritage to gain Darnley’s intense desire to of Anjou. But she sustained haps, Mary was victorious. support from English Catho- be a ruling monarch led to herself as the virgin queen, In life however, Elizabeth lics and the catholic powers Mary’s private secretary, an image that won her af- succeeded in doing the only of Europe alike. While rul- Rizzio, being killed right in fection. This seems to be thing a female monarch ing in Scotland however, front of her. Within a year, the fundamental difference. could do to remain in effec- she managed to retain a Darnley himself was also When Mary Stuart rode tual control of both body tolerant policy on religion. murdered. Clearly, it would into Edinburgh in 1561, she and realm at the time – she Elizabeth herself had a very have been wise for Mary to was Scotland’s queen. After married her country. similar religious policy, at distance herself from these her disastrous marriages, least for the first 20 years events, but Mary soon mar- of her reign. The Acts of Su- ried the main suspect, the premacy and Uniformity, Earl of Bothwell. Scotland although establishing Prot- was now in outrage at a estantism as the religion of queen who had given away England, did retain catholic everything. She was forced elements, like bishops and to abdicate in favour of her catholic vestments within infant son James. Mary had the Church. Indeed the fail- self-destructed, and after ure to conform to this new 16 years of confinement in religious order only resulted Elizabeth’s country, she was in a relatively small fine. executed after desperately So how did it come about conspiring the overthrow- that it was Mary, rather than ing of Elizabeth. Marriage, Elizabeth, who met her end more than anything, had on the executioner’s block? destroyed any likelihood of Indeed the answer may be successful rule for Mary.

8 Lent 2014 A study of militant atheism

De-Chris- By Jamie Nugent

tianisation One of the founding com- France too was Anti-clericalism – ponents of our modern once a clerically domi- the practice of removing society, whether we agree nated nation. The Catho- the influence of religion with it or not, is the role of lic Church was one of the from society – was one of and religion. We still celebrate country’s main landowners, the many results of the Christmas and Easter, we and under the Ancien Re- French Revolution, espe- name our days of the week gime owned between 20 cially in Paris. It took many and months after religious and 25% of the land. Local forms, perhaps most nota- anti-cleri- tenets – such as Sunday priests were responsible for bly the violent iconoclasm (‘Son’ day) and January collecting tithes, which took and ransacking of churches, (named after the Roman a tenth of the harvest for renaming them Temples of calism god, Janus), and in court we the Church. Many attempts Reason. An extreme reac- still swear on the Bible. Our at financial reform were op- tion against the Church society in Britain was once posed by the nobility and was the Cult of Reason, set utterly dominated by the the clergy alike, because up by Jacques Hébert and in the Church of England, which both orders (or ‘estates’ as Anacharsis Cloots with the still retains its status as the they were known) had the purpose to create an en- nation’s official religion.privilege of being exempt lightened society based on Many atheists and Christian from taxation. However, the principles of Liberty, French sceptics dream of a secular with the coming of the Rev- Reason and Truth. The Cult society, free of such an es- olution in 1789, all of these was based on the works Revolution tablishment, based on the privileges were abolished of Enlightenment philoso- qualities not of ‘God save by order of the National As- phers like Rousseau and Vol- the Queen’ but perhaps re- sembly, France’s new legis- taire. However, it has been volving around ideas of ‘lib- lative body, paving the way called the ‘Dark Side of the erty, equality, fraternity’. for a secular republic. Enlightenment’, which bred

The Historian 9 both widespread indecency the Cult of Reason which In conclusion, I would like to in ‘wild masquerades’, and he established. Reprisals in add that for whoever thinks outright persecution of cler- the Vendée against Catho- a society based on atheist gy and religious people. For lic Royalist rebels in 1793 ideals is a Utopia should example, nuns who had not took the lives of as many as think of history to back up taken the oath to support 450,000. that logic. The French Rev-

ANALYSIS the Revolution were sub- After Maximillian Robe- olution has shown us that jected to public spankings spierre sent most of the there is just as much scope in Paris. The enthronement Hébertists to the guillotine for hatred, lawlessness and of the goddess of Reason in spring 1794, the Cult of confusion as in religious so- was performed with real Reason practically ceased cieties at their worst. A rev- women replacing statues. to exist. Robespierre’s own olution can breed many evil More extreme forms of an- religion, the Cult of the things, including a rejection ti-Catholicism took place in Supreme Being, was cel- of the institutions that make the provinces, where French ebrated in the Festival of society stable. Those who military commanders were the Supreme Being on the view religion as a problem- allowed free rein in dealing 8th June 1794, but failed to atic force in society should with those they thought garner much support out- be wary of what it might were counter-revolution- side of Paris despite being a be replaced with, given the ary. In Nantes, Jean-Baptiste deist belief system that ac- events of the French Revo- Carrier (who was a member knowledged the existence lution. of the Hébertist faction) of a god and the immortal- amongst other atrocities, ity of the human soul. It felt tied nuns and priests to- too much like Robespierre gether and drowned them was seeking to become im- in the Loire, a practice mortal, so he was deposed which came to be known as only six weeks later in the ‘underwater marriages.’ The Thermidor Reaction, as he Republican General Joseph was consumed by the very Fouché ordered that all Revolution he had radical- graveyards should have the ised. Only six years later, all inscription ‘Death is an eter- cults were banned by Na- nal sleep’ written over their poleon during his tenure as gates, and in Lyons he used First Consul (and then Em- cannon with grapeshot to peror) of France. execute clergy and nobili- ty alike, all in the name of

“ROBESPIERRE’S OWN RELIGION, THE CULT OF THE SUPREME BEING, WAS CELEBRATED IN 1794, BUT FAILED TO GARNER MUCH SUPPORT OUTSIDE PARIS”

10 Lent 2014 UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY

HISTORY AT MANCHESTER

The Historian takes a look into the ‘History experience’ at the Univeristy of Manchester.

The Historian 11 Facts and figures: UNIVERSITY

Ranking*: Employability: Fees: Number of annual ap- plicants: 750 61% of History Contact: 5th in the UK, 40th in graduates from £9000pa for UK resi- Tel 0161 306 the world Manchester were in dents, £14,000pa for a professional/man- overseas students 1251 Email ug-hist@ Entry requirements: agerial role within Number of students: manchester.ac.uk six months of grad- 40,000 (28,000 doing Web www.alc.man- Typically AAA-AAB, uating. 28% were an undergraduate de- chester.ac.uk/sub- including an A in in further academic gree) jects/history History study such as a Mas- ters degree. Places available per *According to the Shanghai Jiao year (History BA Tong University Academic Rank- Hons): 120 ing of World Universities, based on research and teaching.

The Course: cialise more and more, in- pendent research, with physics (Ernest Ruther- cluding the opportunity third-year courses rang- ford first ‘split the atom’ The breadth offered by to choose your own top- ing from ‘Pagans, Priests as a lecturer here in 1917) the University of Man- ics and title as the focus and Power: the English and computing (Alan chester’s History de- of your extended essay Conversion to AD670’ Turing built the world’s gree course is probably (6000 words in the second to the intriguingly titled first stored-programme its most attractive fea- year, and a 12,000-word ‘Death in Britain: The computer in 1948). To- ture. While the first year dissertation in the third). Good, The Bad and The day, it boasts the largest is comprised of a core Alongside this, it’s pos- Ugly, 1830 to the present’. student body in the UK course studied by every- sible to choose non-his- at just fewer than 40,000, one, the other modules tory modules in all three The University: and can also claim to available even in this first years, such as languages, be the most competi- year are extremely dis- philosophy, theology and Though they will tell you tive for places, with over parate, allowing you to many others. Teaching is it was founded in 1824, a 60,000 undergraduate get involved in a massive comprised of a mixture more accurate date may applications each year. range of different topics of lectures, seminars (in be 1880, when it received The university is situated and periods, from Ancient groups of around 12-15) its Royal Charter as the on a site of around one Greece and Rome, medi- and one-to-one tutorials, Victoria University (which square mile centred on eval Europe, the growth allowing for a range of also included campuses Oxford Road, one of the of nationalism and ear- learning methods. As the in Liverpool and Leeds). main thoroughfares into ly-modern British history three years progress, the Since then, it’s had a piv- the city centre (which is to name just a few. The modules get more chal- otal role in 20th-Century about 30 minutes’ walk to second and third years lenging, more specialised academic research, es- the north, or a five-min- offer the chance to spe- and more reliant on inde- pecially in the fields of ute bus ride). Accom-

12 Lent 2014 modation is spread in A relatively small and getting around on foot past twenty years and halls a little further away peaceful town up to the very easy, though further it’s said you could eat south in the suburbs of end of the 18th Century, out it’s served by an ex- food from a different na- Rusholme (famous for the Industrial Revolution cellent tram and bus net- tionality every night for the ‘curry mile’) and Fal- transformed it into the work (Oxford Road, run- two months in the city lowfield (one of the larg- beating heart of Britain’s ning through the centre centre alone. The mas- UNIVERSITY est student areas in the manufacturing econo- of the university precinct, sive number of students country), though there my in the 19th Century. is said to be the busiest in the city – numbering are some in the city cen- Though they’ve all long- bus route in Europe!). around 70,000 in total – tre itself. Sports facili- since been closed down Manchester offers a huge means that much of the ties aren’t quite up there (an mostly renovated into amount by way of enter- leisure industry is geared with the likes of Bath and trendy apartments), the tainment, with theatres towards this market. Loughborough, though hundreds of cotton mills (the Royal Exchange and are extensive enough for which employed the vast the Lowry are the best), everyone but budding majority of the city’s pop- bars (try the Northern professional athletes, ulation until the 1960s re- Quarter near Piccadilly and the university’s foot- main a visible reminder of Station) and shops (King ball, hockey, rugby and the city’s industrial past. St, Deansgate, Market St cross-country squads are Today the city is much or – if you want to keep nationally very compet- more famous for its foot- out of the rain – the Traf- itive. Because it’s not a ball, its music and its vi- ford Centre). The range campus-based universi- brant nightlife. A relative- and quality of restaurants ty, it probably suits those ly small city centre makes has sky-rocketed in the students ready to get in- volved in city life, as the close-knit-community feel found in closed-cam- pus universities like Exeter The Student Union and Lancaster is noticea- bly absent. That said, be- cause there are so many students, you’re bound to find a group who share similar interests and the Student Union on Ox- ford Road provides a really good focal point. “There are so many students, The City: you’re bound to find a group who share similar interests and The city of Manches the Student Union on Oxford Road ter is home to just over provides a really good focal point.” 500,000 people, though the area of Greater Man- chester has a population five times that, making it the largest urban area in the UK outside London.

The Historian 13 The Tet Offensive

By Oliver Beressi

How did the Tet offensive change attitudes in the USA towards the Vietnam war?

ent in American attitudes The Tet offensive, begun towards the conflict, and on 31st January 1968, many historians have re- marked a significantgarded the Tet Offensive change in the attitudes of as the key turning point. the American population So how and why did towards a war that cost these attitudes change America $30bn a year. so dramatically, and what The US invaded Vietnam was the Tet Offensive’s as a result of the commu- impact on this? nist forces in the north of Before the Tet Offen- the country threatening sive, the general opinion the south. Initially the in the US was that both war was to have a signif- the North Vietnamese icant amount of popular and America’s South Vi- support in the atmos- etnamese allies (the Na- phere of the Cold War tional Liberation Forces) and the traditional Amer- were weak and that the ican hatred towards com- war would not last long, munism that resulted with only minimal casu- from this. However, as the alties. Many Americans war progressed, signifi- possessed a strong ha- cant changes were appar-

14 Lent 2014 tred of communism and the US had taken part in funded by Communist Offensive to an American everything that it stood during that century. The China – were formidable population which was for. This was the most sig- continual loss of life was opponents . This point much more used to the nificant reason as to why of great concern to the was illustrated when the propagandised ‘romantic’ US population who did supposedly ‘safe’ Amer- view of war in the days “Before the Tet not want a repeat of the ican embassy in Saigon of Senator McCarthy dur- Offensive the gen- mass loss of life that had was overrun by the Viet- ing the 1950s. I believe eral opinion in the accompanied the First cong, showing that the and Second World Wars. American position in Vi- US was that the The Tet Offensive of 1968 etnam was much weaker North Vietnamese led to much more wide- than had been made out. were weak” Opinion polls during the period show that 49% many Americans in the of the US population did early stages of the war not support the war, illus- supported the US inva- trating a dramatic decline sion as the saw the con- from the pre-Tet polls flict as a way to ‘liberate’ a where 79% of Americans communist-held country were apparently in fa- and to halt the Soviet aim that the Tet Offensive to expand their sphere “The Tet was the most significant of influence across the Offensive was the event in the changing of globe. This can be sup- most American attitudes to- ported by the fact that spread pessimism among wards the continuation in August 1965, 76% of Americans about the war; significant event in of the War. It showed the Americans supported the after this, most US citi- the changing of American public that the involvement of Ameri- zens believed that it was attitudes” communists were not as ca in Vietnam. That said, unlikely that victory was disorganised as the US significant anti-war dis- achievable. The American government had depict- sent among Americans population felt that after vour of continued action ed them as being. As a did exist: on March 24th four years of war that the in Vietnam. Whilst this result it proved to be the 1965, a protest organized government was lying to suggests that the was turning point in popu- by professors against the them. The American gov- a significant decline in lar support for the war. war at the University of ernment had convinced American support for the However, support for Michigan was attended the population that it war after the Tet Offen- the war was still present by 2,500 participants. would be a quick and sive it was still clear that after 1968 and had not This was to be repeated easy victory and that the at least some elements totally disappeared even at 35 campuses across North Vietnamese and Vi- of American society still in the 1970s, but year on the country. This illus- etcong had put up little voiced their support for year after the event it de- trates the fact that the US fight. The Tet Offensive the conflict. However, clined. The Offensive was pre-Tet view was not en- changed this. The simul- far fewer still possessed also to have other effects tirely one of support for taneous attack by the the view that the conflict in the US. Support for the war. US citizens had north against all of the was worth fighting than the Johnson administra- a number of grievances American bases in the had done before. The tion fell from 48% before towards the continuation south convinced Ameri- media had a huge hand January 1968 to 36% a of the war such as the cans that the war was far in this change – newsreel year later, as faith in the fact that it was the third from being won, and that showed in vivid colour US government wavered large-scale conflict that the North Vietnamese – the brutality of the Tet and discontent grew

The Historian 15 Richard Rex: The English Reformation “ Religious change wasn’t just about what you did for an hour or two on Sunday morning: it was about your life, your universe, your everything”

By Helena Irvine

‘My principal aim this easy feat. There was a large and went on to say that ‘it is boundary between the sa- evening is to impress upon contingent that arrived and, a fundamental network of cred and the profane. Mask- you what religious change introduced by Alex Walker, assumptions and messages ing change possible, thinka- really meant in mid-Tudor we sat down to hear what and beliefs and practises ble, was the most important England. It wasn’t just about the Cambridge scholar and responses and relation- change.’ But this wasn’t all what you did for an hour or had to say. He began with ships that enable human he had to say on the King two on Sunday morning: it a discussion of religion as societies to function.’ whose Pope called him ‘De- was about your life, your uni- a concept, describing it as Having given his defini- fender of the Faith’. ‘In the verse, your everything.’It’s ‘a human way of structur- tion of religion he moved 1520s there was an arson difficult to understand quite ing experience and soci- onto his first subject, Hen- attack on the parish church how obsessed the Tudors ety, conferring value and ry VIII – discussing the idea of St Mary, Rickmansworth. were with religion but Dr meaning upon what might that Royal Supremacy was We know about it from an Rex managed to convey it otherwise be the brutal the key to his reign. ‘Henry indulgence granted by Car- to us in the space of an hour, physical and physiological undermined the sense of dinal Wolsey to encourage and believe me that is no realities of bodily existence’ the sacred. He blurred the donations to the repair fun,

16 Lent 2014 and local wills in the ear- not just a whatever mo- guilds and Confraternities; ing post on the road to the ly 1530s record numerous ment.’ Dr Rex pronounced ‘Edward’s regime complete- New Jerusalem. For Catho- gifts. The indulgence relates Edward’s introduction of ly changed the nature of lics, it was another tragic a little miracle story, which overt Protestantism a fail- the imagined community interlude, one to which the encapsulates the religion of ure, claiming that ‘if Christo- to which the English people succession of the Catholic

LECTURE that world. The community pher Haigh is to be trusted,’ belong.’ Rex summarised Mary Queen of Scots might was horrified at the sacri- then ‘Edward’s reign did not the two reigns by saying well put a timely end. Nor lege perpetrated in their suddenly generate a nation ‘Henry VIII, while leaving the was what was done in 1559 church, but was reassured of Protestants.’ Apparently structure of religion largely done with quite the facility by the manifestation of dive ‘the most Protestant place unchanged, had sapped of previous Tudor Reforma- providence that it had called in England boasted no dangerously at its founda- tions. The Church of Eng- forth by the miraculous more than 5% Protestants tions for his own private land itself rejected change preservation from flames by the time he died in 1553’ reasons. Edward VI’s gov- outright, as Convocation of those ultimate symbols, – definitely a poor statistic ernment undermined those published ringing endorse- the holy Rood, or crucifix, for a ruler (granted he was foundations completely, ment of Catholic faith and and the blessed sacrament, eleven when he came to and took away much of the practise in February and safe in its sacred pyx. This power) who was attempt- building too. Yet the fabric the necessary legislation was the religious world that ing to introduce overt Prot- still stood, at least in peo- crept through the House of Henry did at once so little estantism. Rex then went ple’s hearts.’ Mary’s Refor- Lords only be the narrowest and so much to undermine.’ on to discuss the four main mation was dealt with only of margins.’ Rex went on to Following his anecdote, elements of the Reforma- very briefly, offering his suggest that Elizabeth can which definitely caught the tion under Edward. After opinion that historians have be blamed for a real lack of attention of his fifty-strong discussing the elimination in general been too hard on achievement in the first five audience, Rex discussed of sacred images, Rex de- her, given the fact that she years of her reign. Protestantism – ‘Henry’s at- scribed the ‘domestication was England’s first female The English Reformation tacks may only have been of the clergy’, or clerical monarch in a very misogy- is undoubtedly a complex upon externals – but it is a marriage as ‘a shattering nist age.Dr Rex was begin- and difficult subject to -ex very Protestant thing to de- break with the past’, argu- ning to round up his talk plain in one evening, but scribe things as only exter- ing that the special status when he reached Elizabeth Dr Richard Rex, through his nals in matters of religion. of the priesthood was one – ‘Nobody, with the possi- eloquence and obvious love In most religions, including of the structural features of ble and unique exception of for the topic, had given an Catholicism, the externals medieval Catholicism. Celi- Elizabeth herself, thought excellent introduction and do matter, if only because bacy and, ideally, sexual pu- of what was agreed in 1559 made me leave feeling very they embody and realise rity and separation marked as a settlement at all. For keen to learn even more or actualise the internals, the priests out as holy, as Protestants, it was a stag- about the period. the inner meanings and special, as sacred. Encum- significances of belief. Even bering them with wives and Protestantism, of course, children ‘put them on the has its externals. Most no- same level as everyone else.’ table the Bible considered Next, the abolition of the as a physical artefact. So mass. This notoriously pro- when Henry VIII started an voked the fiercest response uprising church jurisdiction as it cut out the very heart and taking church land and of the Catholic faith. Finally, ripping down monasteries Rex discussed the abolition and smashing or burning of the chantries and obits, shrines or relics, this was requiem masses, the Mass,

The Historian 17 Michael Broers: Napoleon as a military commander

By Sean Sawyer

18 Lent 2014 irstly, Broers point- commander, his opposition chine ever seen up to that ed out that Napoleon was simultaneously slow to point.’ Broers confirmed benefited from recent adopt the same methods that by keeping recruits in LECTURE F advancements in military which afforded him such a friendship groups, Napole- theory, particularly in terms great advantage in this pe- on had created a situation of the formation of a corps riod; namely the flexibility where the regiment was system. He highlighted and speed championed by essentially the home-from- the influence of the ideas the corps system. Prrofes- home of his new soldiers. of others upon Napoleon, sor Broers was equally ac- roers also praised Na- most notably Frederick the cepting of Napoleon’s mas- poleon’s system of Great. Thus, his argument tery of timing as evidence Brewarding success followed that Napoleon’s which he felt was indicative through medals and pro- ideas were not new but, of his prodigious talent. Ex- motions which in his view Broers acknowledged that amples were manifold and certainly helped him to in- Napoleon ‘did the basics included events such as spire, motivate and get the well’ in an age where there the Battle of Eylau where very best out of his troops. was little scope for original- Napoleon ordered a heavy He also praised Napoleon’s n late November we were ity. Rather Broers suggest- cavalry charge by Murat in selection of a team of ex- fortunate enough to be ed that Napoleon can be cohesion with the artillery ceptional marshals to lead visited by Professor Mi- I commended for putting his which essentially reversed each corps. In criticism how- chael Broers for the second ‘own twist’ upon the corps the fortunes of the French. ever, Broers suggested that time. Professor Broers is a system, when he was given Part of Napoleon’s intrinsic Napoleon was subject to a distinguished authority on the opportunity to build a sense of timing was his abil- geographical comfort zone the Napoleonic Wars and new army from the ground ity to scramble and adjust which was limited to west- is widely published on the up between 1801 and 1805. quickly to the movements ern and central Europe, and subject. His works include Most importantly though, of his opposition. Argua- finished by saying that if Europe Under Napoleon, Broers feels that Napoleon bly the greatest testament Napoleon was to be viewed 1799-1815, The Napoleonic should be recognised for his to Napoleon’s military flair as a military genius, then Empire in Italy, 1796-1814, ability to ensure that ‘each was his formation of the that title would surely have Cultural Imperialism in a and every arm was able to Grande Armeé. Broers notes to be confined to that par- European Context and Na- function within his strate- that 1801-5 ‘provided a ticular region. Outside this, poleon’s Other War: Bandits, gic plan.’ That is to say he unique opportunity to have he was far less effective. As Rebels and their Pursuers in viewed Napoleon’s greatest a large number of men in a finishing note he suggest- the Age of Revolutions.Pro- strength as his promotion one place at one time’ and ed that the fact that Napo- fessor Broers was charged of coordination across the Napoleon aptly used this leon rose through the ranks with evaluating Napoleon’s corps system, but also the period to train his forces. so quickly, surely meant role as a military command- awareness of Napoleonic Although Broers did admit that he was reliant upon the er and the extent to which By Sean Sawyer forces to work beyond the that Napoleon was fight- natural ability synonymous he could be termed a mil- constraints of the corps as ing with inherited troops, with a genius. Napoleon’s itary genius. In line with and when they were re- he rubbished claims that legacy, Broers concluded, this, I shall seek to provide quired to do so. Napoleon essentially inher- would be an army cantered you with a brief outline of rucially though, Bro- ited the key to his success around the importance of a the arguments Broers em- ers was keen to stress and he commended Napo- rapidity of movement and a phatically put forward as that whilst Napoleon leon for turning a hitherto command structure which evidence for and against C clearly possessed unpar- ‘unprepossessing group’ was well informed. Napoleon’s genius. alleled skill as a military into ‘the greatest killing ma-

The Historian 19 in European history, which standable. However, Phillips had largely been lost since ruled this motive out for the Romans. The First Cru- the vast majority of those sade was the first pan-Eu- who travelled, pointing out ropean event that people that of the 60-100,000 who wrote about on a large made the trip, only 200-300 scale, clearly fascinating actually stayed in Jerusa- them as much as it does lem after it had been tak- historians today. Howev- en. The rest (those roughly “THE END OF THE 11TH CENTURY IS AN ISSUE er, their own perspectives 65% lucky enough to have THAT HAS DIVIDED HISTORIANS FOR CENTURIES” indicate that they saw the survived that far) had had First Crusade as merely one enough and simply went home again. Phillips’s main thesis on this point was Jonathan Phillips: that there must have been several different motives driving this multitude of On the crusades people, individually as well aspect of a series of impor- as collectively. What comes Shrewsbury School’s Bas- er in life becoming one of tant clashes with the Mus- from a close study of Caffa- tille Society welcomed Jon- the city’s most significant lim world, spanning three ro of Genoa is that a hatred athan Phillips on a wet and military leaders. But trade continents and several cen- of the Muslim race or reli- windy Friday night at the was always at the heart of turies before and after this gion was not among them, tail-end of the Michaelmas his outlook, and his written very specific four-year cru- at least for the Genoese. Term to deliver a lecture account of his experiences sade to Jerusalem. Moreo- Genoa had built its name on the motives of crusad- travelling to the Holy Lany ver, what Caffaro’s account on trade with the whole of ers, with a particular focus (a journey made by sea very gives us is an indication of the Mediterranean, includ- on the merchants of the soon after Jerusalem had how vital trade proved to be ing much of Moorish Spain, great medieval trading city fallen to the Christians in to the survival of these new and the entirely Muslim of Genoa. Having just com- 1099) shows this mercantile crusader states. Cities like north coast of Africa. They pleted a book studying the bias very clearly. The mo- Genoa and Venice provid- were comfortable dealing life and work of Caffaro of tives of those who made the ed a lifeline with the West with these groups and did Genoa – a wealthy and very 1500-mile journey – most of and a much-needed source not see them as a natural important man, and one of them on foot – from West- of income and taxation, as enemy. Phillips pointed out the first Genoese to trade ern Europe to Jerusalem at they sent ships back and that because almost all of with the newly established the end of the 11th Century forth across the Mediterra- the contemporary accounts Crusader States from 1101 is an issue that has fascinat- nean. Not only did they sup- of the First Crusade were – Jonathan Phillips used ed and divided historians ply the gold to keep these written by churchmen, we what he’d discovered about for centuries. It had long states viable, but these sea- have been left with a very Caffaro as a model to dis- been held that a hunger for faring states frequently sup- ecclesiastical view of events cuss what drove those early land, in an early example of plied fresh troops to help that may not represent the crusaders. Caffaro played an a sort of colonialism, was maintain control. Jonathan feelings and attitudes of the interesting and important what drove many of those Phillips’s fascinating talk many thousand lay people role in Genoese society. who took the cross. Given on the First Crusade was who made the journey, in- Having come from a trading that four crusader states hopefully of great use cluding Caffaro. Caffaro’s family, he made his name were established by some and interest to those cur- account formed an early as a lawyer, a diplomat and of the leaders of this expedi- rently studying the sub- example of a growing tra- as a politician, before lat- tion, this is perhaps under- ject at AS level. dition of written narrative

20 Lent 2014 HISTORY QUIZ

What sport was Sir Francis Drake famously playing when the first reports of the Spanish Armada’s arrival were received?

What was the most recent decade in history to see three different people on the 20Q. British throne? Which English king signed the Magna Carta in 1215?

What was Manchester’s nickname in the Nineteenth Century because of its importance in the production of a particular material?

Winston Churchill was born on which estate, his family’s ancestral home since the Eighteenth Century?

What was Operation Sea Lion in the Second World War? The youngest and oldest men to be elected President of the

United States took office on the same day twenty years apart. Who were they?

Who was the first person pictured on a postage stamp?

What is the most popular name for a pope?

What is the only country in Southeast Asia never colonised by a European power?

In 1579, the Netherlands achieved independece from which country? In which war did jet aircraft first fight each other? What was the Volstead Act?

In which year did all four of the following events happen: The collapse of the Ottoman Empire Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia became independent Women over 30 were given the vote in Britain In the Second World War, what was the ‘British Free Corps’? What did the acronym MAD stand for, coined by the then US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles? Which Twentieth-Century dictator ordered that all sparrows in the land be killed?

Who was Alexander the Great’s famous tutor?

The names of two items of clothing originated in the Crimean War. Which 20Q. ones? The American M4 tank was better known by a General’s name. What was it?

The Historian 21 THE HISTORIAN

22 Lent 2014