NASA CR-72377
SEVENTH QUARTERLY REPORT
ELECTROCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF NONAQUEOUS SYSTEMS FOR SECONDARY BATTERY APPLICATION
November 1967 - January 1968
M. Shaw, 0. A. Paez, D. A. Lufkin, A. H. Remanick
prepared for
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
February 16, 1968
CONTRACT NAS 3-8509
Technical Management Space Power Systems Division National Aeronautics and Space Administration Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio Mr. Robert B. King
NARMCO RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT DIVISION
OF
WHITTAKER CORPORATION 3540 Aero Court San Diego, California 92123 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page ABSTRACT i SUMMARY ii INTRODUCTION iii I I. CYCLIC VOLTAMMETRY A. Analysis of Cyclic Voltammog rams 1
a. Systems Involving Chlorides and Perchlorate Electrolytes 6
b. Systems Involving Fluoride Electrolytes 9
B. Tables of Cyclic Voltammetric Data 27
11. RECOMMENDED SYSTEMS 37
111. ELECTRODE COMPATIBILITY
A. Introduction 65
B. Experimental 66
C. Results and Discussion 67
IV. REFERENCES 73 * CYCLIC VOLTAMMOGRAMS
Figure Page
1. ZnF in Dimethylformamide - LiC104 15 2 2. ZnF in Dimethylformamide - Mg(C104)2 2 16
3. InF in Propylene carbonate - LiC104 17 I 3 - 4. InF in Propylene carbonate 18 3 - aci3+- &lo4 5. ZnF in Dimethylformamide - 19 2 PF5 6. ZnF2 in Dimethylformamide - LiPF 20 6 7. ZnF in Dimethylformamide - KPF6 21 2 8. ZnF in Propylene carbonate - 22 2 PF5 9. ZnF in Propylene carbonate - Mg(PF6)2 23 2 10. InF in Propylene carbonate - PF 24 3 5 11. InF in Propylene carbonate - Ca(PF ) 25 3 62 12. FeF3in Propylene carbonate - LiBF 26 4
Recommended Systems
13. Zn in Propylene carbonate 6 39 14. Znin Butyrolactone - KPF6 40 15. Cd in Butyrolactone - 41 KPF6 16. Zn in Dimethylformamide - 42 KPF6 17. Cd in Dimethylformamide 43 - KPF6 18. Ago in Butyrolactone - aC13 + LiCl 44 19. CuF in Propylene carbonate - LiClO 45 2 4 20. in Propylene carbonate - LiBF4 46 AgF2 2 1. CuF in Dimethylformamide LiPF 47 2 - 6 22. CuF in Propylene carbonate - LiPF 48 2 6 2 3. CuCl in Propylene carbonate - LiClO 49 2 4 24. CuCl in Butyrolactone - MC13 50 2 25. CuCl in Dimethylformamide - LiCl t LiC104 51 2 26. CuCl in Dimethylformamide - LiPF 52 2 6 Figure -Page 2 7. CuCl in Acetonitrile - LiPF 53 2 6 28. Zn in Dimethylformamide - KPF (2. 0 m) 54 6 I 29. Zn in Dimethylformamide - LiClO (0.5 m) 55 4 30. Cd in Dimethylformamide - LiClO (1. 5 m) 56 4 31. Zn in Dimethylformamide - LiPF 57 6 32. Zn in Acetonitrile LiClO 58 - 4 3 3. Cu in Acetonitrile - KPF t LiPF 59 6 6 34. Cd in Dimethylformamide - LiBF4 60 35. ZnF in Dimethylformamide - KPF 61 2 6 36. ZnF in Dimethylformamide - LiC104 62 2 LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
I. Electrolyte Conductivity 3
11. Electrochemical Systems Screened - Chloride and I Per chlo rate Electrolytes 4 111. Electrochemical Systems Screened - Fluoride Electrolytes 5 IV. Systems Causing Voltage Overload of Instrumentation 28 V, Peak Current Density Range - Chloride and Perchlo rate Electrolytes 29 VI. Peak Current Density Range - Fluoride Electrolytes 30 VII. Sweep Index 32 VIII. AV , Coulombic Ratio, and Discharge Capacity 33 P IX. Systems Exhibiting Anodic Peak Only 35 X. Systems Exhibiting No Peaks 36 XI. Recommended Positive -Electrolyte Systems 38 XII. The Ten Best Recommended Systems in Terms of Peak Current Density 63 I XIII. Best Recommended Systems in Terms of Peak C. D., Peak Displacement, and Sweep Index 64 XIV. Capacity Retention After 5 and 15 Minutes of Stand Time 68
LIST OF FIGURES*
Figure Page
37. Capacity Retention as a Function of Stand Time and Charge Density for a Silver Electrode in 8.0 m KOH 70
Other than Cyclic Voltammograms ELECTROCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF NONAQUEOUS SYSTEMS FOR SECONDARY BATTERY APPLICATION
M. Shaw, 0. A. Paez, A. H. Remanick, D. A. Lufkin I
ABSTRACT
Multisweep cyclic voltammograms have now been obtained for over 950 systems comprising silver, copper, nickel, cobalt, zinc, cadmium, molybdenum, indium, iron, vanadium, chromium, and manganese electrodes in acetonitrile, butyrolactone, dimethylformamide, and propylene carbonate solutions of chlorides, perchlorates, and fluorides. This completes the screening of the positive plat'e - electrolyte combina- tions. Twenty-four systems are recommended on the basis of their electrochemical characteristics at the molecular level of the electrode reaction.
-1 - SUMMARY
The electrochemical characterization of nonaqueous battery systems by multisweep cyclic voltammetry has been continued. Cyclic voltammograms are now available on over 950 systems comprising silver, copper, nickel, cobalt, zinc, cadmium, molybdenum, indium, iron, vanadium, chromium, and manganese in chloride, perchlorate, and fluoride solutions of aceto nitrile, but yrola c to ne, dimethy If o rmamide, and propylene carbonate. Solutes consist primarily of AlCl LiC1, MgC12, CaCIZ, Mg(C1O4I2 , 3’ and Ca(BF ) 4 2’
During this reporting period, cyclic voltammograms were obtained on fluorinated electrodes of zinc, cadmium, indium, and iron. In general, iron fluoride systems exhibited only anodic peaks or none at all. Although indium fluoride gave both anodic and cathodic peaks, the peak displacement was usually in excess of 0. 5 v .
A list of twenty-four recommended systems is presented. In order to lessen this to a workable number, a micro-compatability test was devised, consisting of the potentiostatic discharge of electrodes after various periods of wet stand time following a sweep charge. Evidence exists that this test may not be valid, because apparent loss of discharge capacity on stand cannot be explained by electrode dissolution in the electrolyte. IN T RO DU CTION
The purpose of this program is to conduct a molecular level screening by the cyclic voltammetric method on a large number of electrochemical systems in nonaqueous electrolytes, and to characterize them as to their suitability for use in high energy density secondary batteries.
Since the release and storage of energy in a battery is initiated at the mole- cular level of the reaction, and therefore dependent on the charge and mass transfer processes, it is essential that screening be conducted at this level, in order to eliminate those systems whose electrode processes are inadequate for secondary battery operation. I. CYCLIC VOLTAMMET Ry
A. ANALYSIS OF CYCLIC VOLTAMMOGRAMS
Table I lists the conductivities of the solutions used in preparing the electro- chemical systems screened during this quarter. The systems screened are shown in Tables I1 and 111, representing a total of 97 systems. To date, cyclic voltammograms have been obtained for over 950 different positive- e le c t r o 1yt e combinations .
Curve analysis was accomplished by dividing all systems into two major groups :
1. Systems involving chloride and perchlorate electrolytes. 2. Systems involving fluoride electrolytes.
Each main group was then subdivided according to the identity of the working electrode. Each of these subgroups was further broken down according to the identity of the solvent portion of the solution. The cyclic voltammograms are then discussed in terms of the total solution. This classification facili- tates data analysis, and has permitted a more significant correlation among the electrochemical systems.
Except in those cases where the metal is converted to a cathodic material prior to assembly in the measuring cell, the working electrode is the base metal itself. During the voltage sweep, the metal is oxidized to some anodic product which serves as the cathode subsequently reduced during the cathodic portion of the sweep. Each sweep cycle thus corresponds to a charge -discharge cycle. In the absence of complicating factors, it is assumed that chloride cathodes would be formed in chloride electrolytes, and fluoride cathodes in fluoride electrolytes.
-1- ,
Each cyclic voltammogram is identified by a CV number and labelled according to the electrochemical system, sweep rate, temperature, and zero reference representing the open circuit voltage (ocv) of the working electrode with respect to the indicated reference electrode. The current axis is in 2 units of rna/cm , each unit being of variable scale depending on the X-Y , 2 recorder sensitivity setting. A maximum sensitivity of 0. 1 ma/cm /cm division has been established to avoid exaggerating the current background of poor systems. The sweep is always in a clockwise direction, the poten- tial becoming more positive to the right. Positive currents represent anodic (charge) reactions, and negative currents represent cathodic (discharge) reactions. The voltage axis units are relative to the ocv so that voltage units are in terms of electrode polarization.
For comparative purposes, current density magnitude is classified according 2 2 to very high (more than 300 ma/cm ), high (100-300 ma/cm ), medium high 2 L.. L .. (50-100 ma/cm ), medium low (10-50 ma/cm ), -low (1-10 ma/cm ), and 2 very low (less than 1 ma/cm ).
Analysis is based on the cyclic voltammograms obtained at the lowest sweep rate, 40 mv/sec, except where additional information is required from the higher sweep rate curves to aid in the analysis.
-2- TABLE I
ELECTROLYTE CONDUCTIVITY *
Elect rolyt e Molality Co nduc tivity -1 -1 m ohm cm
Dimethylfo rmamide -LiClO 1. 0 4 2.6 x Dimethylfo rmamide -KPF 0. 75 2.1 6 x Dimethylfo rmamide - Mg (C10 ) 0. 75 2.0 x 42 Dimethylformamide -AlC1 +LiC1 (1) 1.0 3 0.5 x Dimethylfo rmamide -LiPF 0. 5 o 6 9. Dimethylfo rmamide -LiC1 0. 5 7.7 Dimethylfo rmamide -LiBF 0. 7.3 4 5 Dimethylfo rmamide -MgC1 0. 2 5 7. o Propylene carbonate-LiC10 1. 0 4 5.8 x Propylene carbonate -AlC1 tLiC10 0. 5 (1) 3 4 5.6 x Propylene carbonate-KPF 6 0. 75 4.5 Dimethylfo rmamide - CaCl 25 (s) 5.3x 2 ELECTROCHEMICAL SYSTEMS SCREENED CHLORIDE AND PERCHLORATE ELECTROLYTES Solvent Dimethylfo rmamide Propylene carbonate Solute LiCl ZnF2, CdF2, InF 3’ FeF 3 LiC1-tLiC104 ZnF CdF2’ InF 2’ 3’ FeF3 LiC104 ZnF CdF2, InF ZnF CdF2, InF 2’ 3’ 2’ 3’ FeF FeF 3 3 L ZnF2, CdF2’ InF 3 ZnF2, CdF2’ InF 3’ FeF3 I ZnF2, CdF2, InF ZnF CdF2’ InF 3’ 2’ 3’ FeF 3 IAlCl tLiC1 ZnF CdF2’ InF 3 2’ 3’ FeF 3 AlCl tLiC104 ZnF2, CdF2’ InF 3’ FeF L 3 -4- TABLE I11 ELECTROCHEMICAL SYSTEMS SCREENED FLUORIDE ELECTROLYTES Dimethylfo rmamide Propylene carbonate ZnF CdF2, FeF3 PF5 2’ ZnF2’ CdF2, InF3’ FeF I 3 KPFb ZnF CdF2, InF 2’ 3’ FeF 3 Li PF ZnF CdF2, InF 6 2’ 3’ ZnF2’ CdF2’ InF3 FeF 3 ZnF2, CdF2’ InF ZnF InF FeF Mg (PF6I2 3 2’ 3’ 3 ZnF CdF InF ZnF2’ CdF2, InF 2’ 2’ 3’ 3’ FeF FeF 3 3 ZnF CdF2, InF 2’ 3’ FeF 3 ZnF CdF2, InF ZnF CdF2, InF 2’ 3’ 2’ 3’ FeF3 FeF 3 ZnF CdF2 ZnF CdF2, InF 2’ 2’ 3’ FeF 3 ZnF2, CdF2, InF ZnF2, CdFZ, InF3, 3’ FeF FeF 3 3 -5- a. Systems Involving Chloride and Perchlorate Electrolytes (1) Zinc Flu0 ride Electrode (a) Dimethylfo rmamide solutions The cyclic voltammogram for zinc fluoride in LiClO solution is shown in 4 Figure 1 (CV-3700). The curve is similar to that for the base metal (Ref. 1, I p. 38) obtained earlier except that peak current densities are about twice as large in the present case. Zinc fluoride in Mg(C10 ) solution shows a single, sharp, medium low anodic 42 peak and a broad low current density cathodic peak. The shape of the curve is significantly different from that of zinc metal in this electrolyte, and the peak current densities are less by an order of magnitude. The cyclic voltammogram is shown in Figure 2 (CV-3670). Zinc fluoride electrodes in AlCl tLiC1 solution show broad, high anodic 3 peaks and medium low cathodic peaks. The anodic area is one hundred times larger than the cathodic area. Earlier work on zinc metal indicated anodic voltage overload. This suggests that fluorination reduces the effective surface decreasing the extent of the anodic reaction. The results for zinc fluoride in LiCl solution are similar to those in AlCl +LiC1 solution. 3 Earlier work indicated that zinc metal in LiCl solution results in current overload due to extensive anodic activity. Similar behavior results for zinc fluoride in MgCl solution. Tests on zinc fluoride electrodes in CaCl 2 2 solution result in anodic voltage overload. Cathodic current was negligible. (b1 Propylene carbonate solutions The cyclic voltammogram for zinc fluoride in AlCl +LiClO solution shows 3 4 low cathodic activity and an anodic peak of medium low current density. Similar results were obtained for the base metal in previous work. Low anodic, and very low cathodic activity, are observed for zinc fluoride in LiCl+LiClO solution. Similar results are obtained in LiClO and CaCl 4 4 2 solutions. -6- (2) Cadmium Fluoride Electrode (a) Dim ethylfo rmamid e s olu ti on s The cyclic voltammogram for cadmium fluoride in LiClO solution shows 4 broad multi-peak anodic and cathodic activity in the low current density range. Anodic and cathodic areas are equal. Earlier work with cadmium, metal indicated very high anodic and cathodic current densities. Similar results are observed in Mg(C10 ) solution, in that very low anodic and 42 cathodic activity results for the fluorinated metal, whereas the metal itself shows very high activity. Cadmium fluoride in LiCl solutions shows very low anodic and cathodic peaks compared with very high anodic and medium high cathodic activity for cadmium metal alone. Low anodic and cathodic activity is found in MgCl and AlCl tLiC1 solutions, which is comparable to the behavior of 2 3 cadmium metal. The curve for cadmium fluoride in CaCl solution shows 2 very low anodic and cathodic activity. Earlier work on the base metal shows high anodic and cathodic peaks. (b1 Propylene carbonate solutions Cadmium fluoride electrodes in LiClO and in CaCl solutions show very 4 2 low electrochemical activity, compared with current overload in LiClO 4 and voltage overload in CaCl solutions for cadmium metal. Cadmium 2 fluoride in LiCltLiClO solution shows low anodic and cathodic activity. 4 Curves are not reproducible and the current decreases on cycling. Low anodic and cathodic activity had also been found for cadmium metal. Cadmium fluoride electrodes in AlCl tLiC10 solution show very low 3 4 anodic and cathodic activity, whereas curves for cadmium metal obtained previously show peaks in the medium high range. (3) Indium Flu0 ride Ele c t rode (a) Dimethy 1f o r mamide s o lu ti on s Indium fluoride shows excessive anodic dissolution in solution. The Liclo 4- 7 solution turned black at about the third cycle, and the anodic currentin- 2 creased rapidly to greater than 300 ma/cm , at which time it dropped to ' a low value. Examination revealed that the working electrode had dis- solved and fallen off. Indium fluoride in Mg(C10 ) solution shows high 42 anodic and low, broad cathodic peaks. The curve is similar to that obtained earlier for indium metal. In LiCl and CaCl solutions; the 2 curves for indium fluoride show decreasing cathodic peak height with I decreasing sweep rate, indicating soluble cathodic reactants. Similar results were obtained with indium metal in these electrolytes. Indium fluoride in MgC1 solution shows very high anodic and medium low 2 cathodic current densities. Sweep rate behavior was not obtained because of anodic voltage overload at the high sweep rate. Indium fluoride in AlCl tLiC1 solution shows high anodic activity over a 3 broad voltage range and low cathodic activity. Sweep rate behavior indicates soluble cathodic reactants. (b 1 Propylene carbonate solutions The cyclic voltammogram for indium fluoride in LiClO solution is shown 4 in Figure 3 (CV-3665). The curve is almost identical to that for the.base metal (Ref. 1, p. 49). Broad, single anodic and cathodic peaks with 1 volt separation between them are observed in each case. The peak currents for the fluorinated electrode fall in the medium high anodic and medium low cathodic current range, and are twenty percent lower than obtained for indium metal. Voltage overload is obtained in LiCltLiClO solution in 4 both the anodic and cathodic directions. The curve for indium fluoride in AlCl tLiC10 solution is almost identical to that obtained previously for 3 4 indium metal. The cyclic voltammogram for the fluoride electrode is shown in Figure 4 (CV-3799). Sharp, medium low anodic peak, and broad, low cathodic peaks, occur for both metal and fluoride systems. Indium fluoride electrodes in CaCl solutions result in anodic voltage overload, 2 the cathodic sweep was not recorded. The base metal indicated anodic and cathodic voltage overload. -8- (4) Iron Fluoride Electrode (a) Dimethylfo rmamide solutions Iron fluoride in LiClO solution shows very low anodic and cathodic activity. 4 Earlier work with iron metal showed a sharp, high anodic peak and negligible cathodic activity (Ref. 1, p. 50). Iron fluoride in LiC1, CaCl 2' Mg(C104)2, and AlCl tLiC10 solutions show very low anodic and I 3 4 cathodic activity. These results are significantly different from those obtained for the corresponding iron metal systems, where anodic activity in the medium low to very high range was indicated. (b) Propylene carbonate solutions Iron fluoride in LiClO solution shows very low anodic and cathodic 4 activity, which is comparable to behavior of iron metal. Iron fluoride electrodes in CaCl LiCltLiClO and AlCl +LiClO solutions show very 2' 4 3 4 low anodic and cathodic activity. Similar results were reported earlier for iron metal in these electrolytes. b. Sy s terns Involving Flu0 ride Electrolytes (1) Zinc Fluoride Electrode (a) Dimethylfo rmamide solutions Results on zinc fluoride in PF solution show sharp anodic and cathodic 5 peaks, increasing steadily with cycling until voltage overload occurred. A cyclic voltammogram obtained prior to instrument overload is shown in Figure 5 (CV- 397 1). Voltage overload with very high anodic and cathodic currents densities was reported earlier with zinc metal. The cyclic voltammogram for zinc fluoride in LiPF solution is shown in 6 Figure 6 (CV-3599). The curve shows a single medium low anodic and cathodic peaks separated by about 400 mv, and a coulombic ratio of 0. 16. Peak heights for zinc electrodes in this electrolyte (Ref. 1, p. 54) are twenty times larger than that found for the fluorinated metal. -9- The sweep curve for the system, ZnF /DMF-KPF shows sharp, very high 2 6 anodic and cathodic peaks with only 30 mv separation. The curve is shown in Figure 7 (CV-3684). A steady increase in peak height occurs during the preliminary phase of the cycling (i. e., first ten cycles). The curve is similar to that reported earlier (Ref. 1, p. 52) for zinc metal in this electrolyte. Broad, medium low, anodic and cathodic peaks with 700 mv separation result for zinc fluoride electrodes in Ca(PF ) solution. Peak heights 62 for zinc metal were larger by a factor of ten. Low anodic and very low cathodic peaks result in Mg(PF ) solution, compared with voltage over- 62 load obtained for the base metal. The curve for zinc fluoride in BF solution shows a broad, high anodic 3 peak and multiple cathodic peaks of medium high range and poor repro- ducibility. Similar curves of medium low range are obtained in LiBF and 4 Mg(BF4)2 solutions. Zinc fluoride in Ca(BF ) solution shows a broad, 42 medium low anodic peak and multiple cathodic peaks with poor reproduci- bility. The current density of the highest cathodic peak falls in the high range and occurs 700 mv negative to the anodic peak. As reported earlier, voltage overload was obtained for zinc metal in BF 3# and Ca(BF4)2 solutions, whereas zinc metal in LiBF solution Mg(BF42 ) 4 gave peaks larger than that of the fluorinated metal by a factor of ten. (b1 Propylene carbonate solutions The cyclic voltammogram for zinc fluoride in PF solution is shown in 5 Figure 8 (CV-3763). The curve shows sharp anodic and cathodic peaks of medium high and medium low current density respectively. This is significantly different from that obtained with zinc metal where broad Zinc fluoride in KPF peaks and lower current densities were observed. 6 solution shows a single anodic and two cathodic peaks of medium low current density. Earlier results with zinc metal in this electrolyte showed single sharp, medium high, anodic and cathodic peaks. - 10 - The curves for zinc fluoride electrodes in LiPF solutions show irrepro- 6 ducible, medium low anodic and cathodic peaks spread over a half volt range. Zinc metal in this electrolyte shows single anodic and cathodic peaks with very high current density. Better reproducibility is observed in Mg(PF ) solution where single anodic and cathodic peaks of medium 62 low current density, and 0.2 volt peak-to-peak separation are observed. The cyclic voltammogram for this system is shown in Figure 9 (CV-3812),' for comparison with that of metal (Ref. 2 , p. 29) where broader peaks and higher currents are obtained. Zinc fluoride in Ca(PF ) solution 62 results in broad peaks of low anodic and very low cathodic activity. Zinc fluoride electrodes in LiBF solution result in single, low anodic and 4 cathodic peaks whereas the base metal gave currents larger by an order of magnitude. In Ca(BF4)2 solution, zinc fluoride electrodes give broad, medium low anodic and low cathodic peaks. Very low anodic and cathodic activity and no peaks result for zinc fluoride in Mg(BF ) solutions. 42 Voltage overload had resulted earlier with zinc metal. (2) Cadmium Fluoride Electrode la) Dimethvlformamide solutions Cadmium fluoride in PF solution causes voltage overload for both anodic 5 and cathodic sweeps, with very high current densities. Results from previous work on cadmium metal show broad, high anodic, and medium low cathodic peaks. Cadmium fluoride in hexafluorophosphate solutions shows, generally, medium low to very low anodic and cathodic activity. In LiPF solution, 6 low anodic and medium low cathodic peaks with more than 1 volt peak to peak separation, result. Least activity occurs in KPF6 solution with very low anodic and cathodic current and no peak formation. Low anodic and cathodic peaks result in Mg(PF ) and Ca(PF ) solutions. Cadmium 62 62 metal in these systems resulted in both anodic and cathodic current over- load. Similar low current curves result for cadmium fluoride electrodes . in tetrafluoroborate solutions. Generally, multiple anodic and single - 11 - cathodic peaks are observed. Earlier work on the metal indicated very high anodic and cathodic activity. (b) Propylene carbonate solutions Cathodic voltage overload results for cadmium fluoride in LiPF solution. 6 Previous results on cadmium metal in this electrolyte indicate current overload. Cadmium fluoride in KPF solution results in very low anodic 6 and cathodic peaks. In Ca(PF ) solution the curve shows a sharp, high 62 anodic peak and a broad cathodic peak in the medium low range. Cadmium fluoride in PF solution results in voltage overload. Very low anodic 5 and cathodic peaks result for LiBF and Ca(BF ) solutions, where earlier 4 42 work on the base metal resulted in voltage overload. Cadmium fluoride in Mg(BF ) solution results in voltage overload, similar to that obtained 42 for the base metal. (3) Indium Fluoride Electrode (a) Dimethylfo rmamide solutions Indium fluoride in Ca(PF ) solution shows high anodic and cathodic 62 activity spread over the 2-volt scan. The sweep curve shows a single, broad anodic peak, and a broad, medium low cathodic peak, followed by a steady increase in cathodic current, which continues to the negative extreme of the sweep. Examination revealed that the electrode diameter was reduced to half its original size. The solution showed black dis- coloration, and a dark deposit had settled to the bottom of the cell. Indium fluoride in BF LiPF and Mg(PF ) solutions result in anodic 3' 6' 62 voltage overload. Earlier work with indium metal showed voltage over - load with very high anodic and cathodic currents in these electrolytes, except for LiPF solution, where very high anodic activity was indicated 6 (Ref. 2, p. 32). Indium fluoride in KPF solution shows a'very high anodic and a medium 6 high cathodic peak. Sweep rate behavior indicates formation of a soluble - 12 - anodic product. Similar results were recorded earlier for indium metal. Indium flu0 ride in LiBF solution results in voltage overload. Examination 4 of the working electrode revealed that its diameter was reduced to one- third of its original size. In Ca(BF ) solutions, indium fluoride shows 42 very high anodic and medium low cathodic activity. Voltage overload results at the fast sweep rate. Indium metal had earlier shown voltage I overload at all sweep rates. (b1 Propylene carbonate solutions The curve for indium fluoride electrodes in PF solution shows broad, 5 high anodic and cathodic peaks with 0. 6 v separation. Examination of the electrode revealed a black reaction product on its surface and a reduction of its diameter. The curve is shown in Figure 10 (CV-3770). Previous work on indium metal failed to show any peaks, and the current densities fell in the medium low range. Indium fluoride electrodes in KPF solution result in voltage overload. 6 In this system, voltage overload occurred after several cycles during which time anodic and cathodic peak heights were increasing. Previous work on the metal also showed voltage overload. The cyclic voltammogram for indium fluoride in Ca(PF ) is shown in 62 Figure 11 (CV-3882). The curve shows broad, medium high anodic, and high cathodic peaks, separated by 0.65 V. The coulombic ratio (cathodic Similar results were observed in Mg(PF ) to anodic peak area) is 0. 90. 62 solution but with less reproducibility. Earlier work on indium metal in these electrolytes indicate anodic and cathodic voltage overload, with very high currents. Indium fluoride in LiBF solution shows broad, medium 4 high anodic and medium low cathodic peaks. Similar results (but at higher current densities) were reported for indium metal (Ref. 2, p. 34). Anodic voltage overload results for indium fluoride in Mg(BF ) and 42 C a(BF } solutions. Results observed for the base metal indicated 42 anodic and cathodic voltage overload with very high anodic and cathodic currents. - 13 - (4) Iron Fluoride Electrodes (a) Dimethylformamide solutions Iron fluoride electrodes in PF LiPF Ca(PF6)2, BF3 and LiBF 5' 6' 4 solutions show very low anodic and cathodic activity. These results are significantly different from those for the base metal in these electrolytes I where generally high or very high anodic activity is indicated. The cyclic voltammogram for a typical system (FeF /PC-,LiBF ) is shown in 3 4 Figure 12 (CV-3913). Iron fluoride electrodes in KPF solution shows peaks and only very 6 no low anodic and cathodic activity. Earlier work on iron metal gave current densities four times larger. Iron fluoride electrodes in Ca(BF ) solution 42 show a single, low anodic peak and very low cathodic activity, compared with earlier data on iron metal which showed very high anodic activity. (b1 Propylene carbonate solutions The curve for iron fluoride in PF solution shows very low anodic and 5 cathodic activity, comparable with results obtained on iron metal. Results in propylene carbonate for indium fluoride in hexafluorophosphate and tetrafluoroborate solutions are the same as in dimethylformamide. The anodic and cathodic currents are in the very low range. Tests were made on solutions of hexafluorophosphate and tetrafluoroborate salts of lithium, magnesium, and calcium. - 14 - 0 d co 0 a 0 * d N d ------.-. .__ O* 0 G j" I N Q a d 3 l k * 0 l a 0 I a 0 I 0 d 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I d s' ni co 4 d 4 co N' N m N a a N (3\ m ,N I d d I I -15- 0 d nli co d 9 I 0 9 d N d 0 N d w d 9 0 I Ill 00 d I I I I I 0 4 I 9 m 9 0 9 N 4 d d 0 w P-l A 4 I 39XVH3 uI3,leuI 33XvH3SIa Z - 16- 0 r 4 i I I co 0 ! i 9 I 0 * d i ! ! N ! 0 i i I 0 i I N i 0 I I ! i I * i d f I ! 9 d Ill co d I 0 A 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 d 0 0 0 0 d d co 9 * N N * I I 33XVH3 3. 4 W 5 9 d dc d N dc 0 d G .I4 4 + rr) 0 url 2 I N a, c, cd d C 0 -E cd V dc 0' 9 d II 'u co 0' 0. I I I r( I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 d d d d d d N d 4 N d! rr) I I 39XVH3SIa 39XVH3 -18- 0 .--I Q) 0 9 d * d N d 0 N d * d 9 d Q) d I 0 4 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a d N ca * 00 9 m * 9 * I I. 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TABLES OF CYCLIC VOLTAMMETRIC DATA Included in this section are tables listing parameters derived from the cyclic voltammograms. These parameters are as follows: 1. Sweep index - This is a relative figure of merit taking into, account peak heights, sweep rate, and discharge capacity. This parameter is described in more detail in an earlier report (Ref. 3, p. 80). 2. Peak current density range - Relative magnitude of peak currents classified according to page 2. 3. AV - Peak-to-peak displacement in volts of charge and dis- P charge reactions giving a measure of overall electrode reversibility, or in mo re practical terms , a measure of suitability of the electrochemical system for second battery application. 4. Coulombic ratio - Ratio of cathodic to anodic peak area. Values significantly in excess of unity for the pre-formed electrodes (chlorinated and fluorinated metals) are indicative of the contribution of the original cathodic material to the discharge reaction independent of the material formed by the preceding charge sweep. 5. Discharge capacity - Measure of discharge utilization per unit area of electrode surface, when compared with the coulombic ratio except for values of the latter greater than unity. Also included are tables listing the systems causing voltage and current overload of the instrumentation preventing recordable voltammograms as well as those systems failing to exhibit either anodic or cathodic peaks. In cases of solutions having varying molality, the concentrations are included with the designated system. The concentration of all solutions are listed in Table I. - 27 - TABLE IV SYSTEMS CAUSING VOLTAGE OVERLOAD OF INSTRUMENTATION Max. hod. Mix. Cath. Svstems cv C. D. C. D. - I 2 2 ma/cm ma/cm ZnF /DMF-PF 397 1 440 48 0 2 5 ZnF /DMF-CaC1 3942 4000 ni1 2 2 CdF /DMF-PF 3972 1200 1600 2 5 CdF2 / PC - PF 35 30 1600 nr* 5 CdF2/ PC -LiPF 3964 40 2000 6 CdF2 /PC - Mg (BF ) 3749 56 120 42 InF /DMF-LiPF 3862 3200 150 3 6 InF3/DMF-Mg(PF ) 386 1 2000 1400 62 InF /DMF-BF 3930 4800 3200 3 3 InF /DMF-LiBF 361 1 3200 320 3 4 InF3 / PC - KPF 377 6 1600 440 6 InF /PC-Mg(BF ) 3924 40 nr 3 42 * InF /PC-Ca(BF ) 3936 4800 nr * 3 42 InF /PC - LiC1tLi C10 3694 45 0 320 4 InF /PC -CaC12 3875 40 nr * 3 * - Not recorded DMF - Dimethylformamide PC - Propylene carbonate - 28 - * TABLE V PEAK CURRENT DENSITY RANGE CHLORIDE AND PERCHLORATE ELECTROLYTES Svstem cv An0 dic Cathodic ZnF /DMF-LiC1 3565 low low I 2 ZnF /DMF-LiClO 3700 high high 2 4 ZnF /DMF-MgC12 3624 me dium high low 2 ZnF2/DMF -Mg ( C104)2 3670 medium low low ZnF /DMF-AlC13tLiC1 37 12 high medium low 2 ZnF /PC-LiClO 3660 very low very low 2 4 ZnF /PC-LiCl+LiClO 3687 low very low 2 4 ZnF /PC-AlC1 tLiC10 3787 medium low low 2 3 4 CdF /DMF-LiClO 3706 low very low 2 4 3629 very low very low CdF2/DMF-MgC1 2 CdF /DMF-CaC1 3944 very low very low 2 2 CdF2 /DMF-Mg (C10 ) 3668 very low very low 42 CdF /DMF-AlC1 tLiC1 37 18 very low very low 2 3 CdF2/PC -LiCltLi C104 3695 low low 37 98 ve ry low very low CdF2/PC -AlCl3tLiC10 4 InF /DMF-LiC104 3711 very high high 3 InF /DMF - Mg ( C10 ) 3852 high medium low 42 InF /DMF-LiC1 38 39 medium high low 3 InF /DMF-MgC12 3631 very high medium low 3 InF /DMF-AlCl tLiC1 3724 high low 3 3 InF /PC-LiC10 3665 medium high medium low 3 4 InF3/PC-AlC1 tLiC10 3804 mediuw low medium low 3 4 DMF - Dime thylfo rmamide PC - Propylene carbonate - 29 - TABLE VI PEAK CURRENT DENSITY RANGE FLU0RIDE ELECTROLYTES System cv Anodic Cathodic -\ __-~~ ~ ZnF /DMF-PF5 397 1 very high very high 2 ZnF /DMF-LiPF 3599 medium low low 2 6 ZnF /DMF-KPF6 3684 very high very high 2 ZnF /DMF-Mg(PF6)2 3555 low ve ry low 2 ZnF /DMF-Ca(PF6)2 358 3 medium low medium low 2 ZnF /DMF-LiBF4 3604 medium low medium low 2 ZnF2/DMF -Mg (BF4I2 3545 medium low medium low ZnF /DMF-Ca(BF4)2 36 37 high very high 2 ZnF2/DMF -BF 357 3 high medium high 3 ZnF2/ PC -KPF6 3750 medium low medium low ZnF2/PC -Mg(PF ) 38 12 medium high medium high 62 ZnF2/PC-Ca(PF ) 36 36 low very low 62 ZnF2/PC - PF 3763 medium high medium low 5 ZnF /PC-LiPF 3958 medium low medium low 2 6 ZnF /PC-LiBF 3731 low low 2 4 ZnF2/PC - Ca(BF ) 3594 medium low low 42 CdF /DMF-LiPF 3524 low medium low 2 6 CdF /DMF-Ca(PF ) 358 9 low low 2 62 CdF /DMF-LiBF4 3610 low very low 2 CdF2/DMF - Mg (BF4) 3550 low low CdF2/DMF-Ca(BF 42) 3642 low low CdF2/DMF -BF 3578 low low 3 CdFZ/ PC - KPF 3762 very low very low 6 CdF2/PC-Ca(PF ) 3540 high medium low 62 CdF / PC-LiB F 3742 very low very low 4 CdF2/ PC- Ca(BF4)2 35 35 low very low InF /DMF-KPF6 367 5 very high medium high 3 DMF - Dimethylformamide PC - Propylene carbonate - 30 - TABLE VI (Cont'd. ) Svstern -cv Anodic Cathodic _- InF /DMF-Ca(PF ) 38 95 high high 3 62 InF 3/DMF - Ca(BF ) 3644 medium low medium low 42 InF /PC-PF 3770 high high I 3 5 InF,/PC -Mg (PF ) 3919 high high 62 InF /PC-Ca(PF ) 3882 medium high high 3 62 InF /PC-LiBF 3907 me di urn high medium low 3 4 FeF /DMF-LiBF 3919 very low very low 3 4 DMF - Dimethylfo rmamide PC - Propylene carbonate - 31 - TABLE VII SWEEP INDEX* System -cv Anodic Cathodic I -1 -2 -1 -2 ohm cm ohm cm ZnF /DMF-LiClO 3700 - 85. 1 2 4 ZnF2 /DMF -Mg (C10 ) 3670 22.5 0.6 42 ZnF /DMF-PF 397 1 137s 206. 2 5 ZnF2/DMF-LiPF 3599 1.8 1. 7 6 ZnF2/DMF -KPF 3684 92. 3 6 559, ZnF2/PC -PF 3763 183. 5.6 5 ZnF2/PC-Mg(PF ) 38 12 6.2 6. 3 62 InF /PC-LiC10 3665 12.8 9. 3 4 0 InF ,/PC - PF 3770 142. 55.8 5 InF /PC - Ca(PF ) 3882 10.4 31. 0 62 DMF - Dimethylfo rmamide PC - Propylene carbonate 2 *(peak C. d.)’ x 10.0 2 sweep rate x coul/cm TABLE VI11 AV 9 COULOMBIC RATIO, AND DISCHARGE CAPACITY P- Coul. ** Dis ch. System -cv -AV * Ratio Capac. P coul/cm I ZnF /DMF-LiClO 3700 0. 17 0. 24 0. 75 2 4 ZnFZ/ DMF - Mg ( C104) 3670 0. 14 0. 42 0. 09 ZnF /DMF-PF 397 1 0. 34 0. 52 2. 70 2 5 ZnF /DMF-LiPF 3599 0. 40 0. 16 0. 14 2 6 ZnF /DMF-KPF 3684 0. 01 0. 26 1. 10 2 6 ZnF2/DMF-Mg(PF ) 3555 0. 40 - - 62 ZnF2 /DMF- Ca(PF ) 358 3 0. 65 - - 62 ZnF /PC-LiCltLiClO 3687 0. 90 - - 2 4 ZnF2 /PC- LiPF 3958 0. 15 - - 6 ZnF /PC-KPF6 3750 0. 35 0. 78 0. 32 2 ZnF2 /PC-Mg(PF ) 38 12 0. 20 0. 37 0. 40 62 ZnF2 /PC -Ca(PF ) 36 36 0. 40 - - 62 ZnF /PC-PF 3763 0. 05 0. 97 0. 58 2 5 CdFZ /DMF-Mg(C104 )2 3668 0. 45 - - CdF2 /DMF - Ca(PF ) 3589 0. 50 - - 62 CdF /DMF-Ca(BF ) 3642 0. 50 - - 2 42 CdF2/PC-KPF 3762 0. 80 - - 6 CdF2 /PC - Ca(PF ) 3540 0. 80 2. 4 0. 09 62 CdF2/PC-LiBF 3742 0. 60 - - 4 CdF2/PC - Ca(BF ) 35 35 0. 60 - - 42 InF3 /DMF -KPF 3675 0. 19 - - 6 InF3 /DMF-Ca(PF ) 38 95 0. 50 - - 62 InF /DMF-Ca(BF ) 3644 0.70 - - 3 42 InF3/DMF- CaC12 395 1 0. 70 - - 3665 0; 95 0. 44 0. 36 InF3/PC-LiC10 4 * Voltage separating anodic to cathodic peaks JC * Ratio of cathodic to anodic peak areas DMF - Dimethylformamide PC - Propylene carbonate - 33 - . TABLE VI11 (Cont’d. ) Coul. ** Disch. tern Ratio Capac. Sys -GV e 2 P coul /cm InF ,/PC - AlCl tLiC10 37 99 - 0.73 0. 22 3 4 InF / PC - PF 3770 0. 55 0. 85 2. 31 5 InF /P C - Ca (PF ) 3882 0. 65 0. 90 1. 67 62 3907 0. 70 - - InF3/PC-LiBF 4 * Voltage separating anodic to cathodic peaks ** Ratio of cathodic to anodic peak areas DMF - Dimethylfo rmamide PC - Propylene carbonate - 34 - TABLE IX SYSTEMS EXHIBITING ANODIC PEAK ONLY * Peak Current Density System -cv Ranae I CdF2 /DMF-LiC1 3570 very low CdFZ/DMF -Mg(PF ) 3560 low (a) 62 CdF /PC-AlC13tLiC104 37 98 very low 2 FeF /DMF-LiPF 3863 very low 3 6 FeF /DMF - AzCl 3tLiC1 3869 low 3 FeF /DMF-Ca(PF ) 3902 very low 3 62 FeF /DMF-Ca(BF4)2 36 49 low 3 FeF3/PC -Ca(BF4)2 3937 very low FeF 3/PC - PF 3778 very low 5 FeF / PC -Mg(PF ) 38 26 very low 62 FeF ,/PC - Ca(PF ) 3889 very low 62 FeF /PC-AlC1 tLiC104 38 06 very low 3 3 * Maximum cathodic current density in very low range ((1 ma/cm 2 ) unless otherwise noted. (a1 Maximum cathodic current density in low range DMF - Dimethylfo rmamide PC - Propylene carbonate - 35 - TABLE X SYSTEMS EXHIBITING NO PEAKS* System -cv ZnF2/PC -Mg (BF4I2 3743 ZnF /PC -CaC12 36 16 2 CdF /DMF-KPF6 368 2 2 CdF2/PC -LiC104 3650 CdF2/PC-CaC12 3619 FeF /DMF-LiC1 38 46 3 FeF /DMF-LiC104 378 3 3 FeF /DMF-Mg(C104)2 3856 3 FeF /DMF-CaC12 395 3 3 FeF /DMF-PF5 3972 3 FeF /DMF-KPF6 3679 3 FeF /DMF-BF 393 1 3 3 FeF3/PC -LiCltLiClO 38 33 4 3653 FeF3/PC-LiC104 FeF /PC-LiPF 3965 3 6 3877 FeF3/PC-CaC1 2 3913 FeF3/PC-LiBF 4 FeF3/PC -Mg(BF ) 3925 42 2 * Maximum current density in very low range (el ma/cm ) unless otherwise noted. DMF - Dimethylformamide PC - Propylene carbonate - 36 - I I. RECOMMENDED SYSTEMS A total of 950 positive-electrolyte combinations have now been electro- chemically characterized by multisweep cyclic voltammetry. Twenty- four of these have been recommended for further study. The systems are listed in Table XI, and the cyclic voltammograms are shown in Figures 13 - 36. Recommendation was based on the height, shape, and , displacement of the peaks. Sharp, high current density peaks displaced only a few millivolts from each other represent the ideal case. The value of the sweep index gives a relative measure of peak shape, so all recommended systems will have high index values. Weighting these 24 systems according to order of peak current density, 2 and in excess of 450 ma/cm , ten best systems have been selected, and are listed in Table XII. Being more restrictive, the 5 best systems are li sted in Table XIII. These have been chosen on the basis of having -all parameters, i. e., peak current density, peak displacement, and cathodic sweep index, within the first best of ten, The systems are shown in the order of decreasing discharge current density, but this same sequence is obtained by listing the systems in order of increasing total weighted parameters (e. g. CV-1525 is 2nd best in AV , 1st in cathodic peak C. d. , P 1st in anodic peak c. d. and 2nd best in cathodic sweep index, giving 2-1-1-2 or a total of 6. In comparison, CV-2675 is 9-10-8-9 or 36). - 37 - TABLE XI RECOMMENDED POSITIVE-ELECTROLYTE SYSTEMS* -cv Sys tem 95 9 Zn/PC-KPF 6 Zn / B L -KPF 992 6 997 Cd/BL-KPF 6 1048 Zn/DMF-KPF (a) 6 1053 Cd/DMF-KPF 6 108 1 Ago / BL-LiClt AlCl 3 1419 CuF2 /PC-LiC104 149 1 AgF2/PC-LiBF4 1525 CuF2/DMF-LiPF 6 1614 CuF2/PC -LiPF 6 1999 CuC12/PC-LiC104 2208 CuC12/BL-AlC1 3 2236 Cu C1 /DMF - LiCl+LiC10 2 4 2300 CuCl /DMF-LiPF 2 6 2454 CuCl /AN-LiPF 2 6 2652 Zn/DMF-KPF6 (b) 2675 Zn/DMF -LiClO 4 2690 Cd /DMF-LiC104 27 33 Zn /DMF -LiPF6 27 39 Zn /AN -LiC104 2751 Cu/AN-LiPF +KPF6 6 327 3 Cd/DMF-LiBF 4 3684 ZnF2/DMF KPF - 6 3700 ZnF /DMF-LiC104 2 * In 1 rde r of measurement (a) 0. 75 m KPF6 BL - Butyrd actone (b) 2.0 m KPF6 DMF - Dimeth y If o rm ami de PC - Propylene carbonate AN - Acetonitrile 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9’ ni 00 4 d 4 00 hi s’ Ln * fu A rl N In I I 7 I 33XVH3SICT -39- VI NOs 0' -* I * 6I 9 6 I- 00 6 I 0 d I - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 s' 49 i cr) 9 O\ I I I J 3 e 4 *) f d' e 0- hl 6 0 N b" I 0' I 0' IL 0 1 sI I I I I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 d d d d d 0' d 6 9 a0 9 1 N 0 M l--l O? A h] m * I I I I 39XVH3 Zm='ew -41- * d I 9 0' I nl co '* 0 * nl 9 b 0 s' 4 d rc; d 0 9 Vl m 0 N r) d d'. * I I -42- c 34 04 0 PI G;"a k4 I Q) * d I 9 --d I ua 00 I d I a0 0 k c, V 0 d I 1 I I I 0 0 0 0 0. 0 0 0 0 d 0 0 d 0' d * 9 co hl 0 nl 4 I crt dc I I 33XVH3 39lTVH3SIa -43- I I .\ . 1 I I I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0' d d 0 d. co * N Al N 9 m rr) d 1 I 398VH3 33ITVH3SICI -44- 0 4 00 d 9 d * d N d 0 M 0" d ti 3 I a, c, * dc d 0 .f: d u 9 0 I * nl 0 ol) 0 I 0 4 I . ' IU? i I I I I 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 9 co Q) 9 m h) N I I 4 4 I 33XVH3 -46- 0 4 00 0 9 0 v 0 z nl 0 0 0 9 N I& I& pc 0 3 1 I 0 1 9 0 1 a3 0 1 0 I-( 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N m 0 oc) nl 0 l-l 9 1 4 d N I I 1 39xVH3SIa -47- , , 0 4 00 0 I 9 d * 0 N z 0 0 Y E-c < N U cr; 0 3 0 a cn E-c N 4 d 0> * 0 I Is 9 % d 3 00 0 I 6 'u +* 00 cl 0 92 I k I 0 :> 0 NU d I d 0 0 0 0 m In 4 I -48 - 0 4 00 0 9 0 *. 0 N 0 0 w 0 rlu 2 N a, 0 .i) I rd c 0 .a k i 0 I N d 9 0 Yu I I 00 aa, 0 k P c) u a,. rl w 0 4 1 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 w N N w 9 00 9 M rr) 9 o\ N I I I 4 I 39XVH3 SIa ZwJ’ew -49- dl. 3 I 9 0 I al d I 0 4 I I I I 0 0 I 0 -50- 3 4 r) I 5 9 d dl d N d 0 N. 0 i 0 I 9 - d I a0) 0 co k d c,u I Q) i3 0 I . I rl I I 1 1 1 I c 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 L I 00 4 0 4 9 00. N 9 Q\ h) 9 d rl I I I 39NVH3 39XVH3SICI -51- 0 +. 00 d I 9 d * 0' N N Y VI ;s t. I NJ 3Q dpI E" dc d I 9 0' I 00 d I 0. A I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0' d d d 0 0 0 n) N 9 I I 39IlVH3SICI 39XVH3 zuI='eur -52- ~ 0 d 00 d 9 d * d N d 0 N 0 0 * 0 I 9 d I 00 d 0 4 I I 1 I 0 0 0 0,0 0 r4 ni 9' d s' d d 0 0 N A d N I I Z98VH3 398 vH3SIa -53- p!N W /L a, a .-.1 k wu0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 d d d d 0 0 d d 9 * ry N * 9 co d N cr) A 7 rcl N I I I 3WVH3 332TVH3SICI -54- 0 4 00 0 9 1. 0 -+ 0 N d 3- 0 N N N d -+ 0 I 9 d co d I 0. d I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N 4 9 co d 00 s' 4 N' 4 00 m N N m co d m M N d 4 N M m I I I I 39XVH3 ur3/eur 33XVH3SICI Z -55- l-4 Y 3 I u Q) cn \ 9 6 d 0. A I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 d d d d d d 9 N dc 9 00 Q\ rr) 9 o\ N I I I l-4 39wH3SIa 1 Zur=’eru -56- 4 cr) Q, k 7 M iz co N 9 . 9 N co s' 0: m' 9' 0 s' r; 0: s' N d 4 0 0 d d r\l * cr) N 4 A r\l cr) w I I I I 39XVH3SICI 39XVH3 Zm='eur -57 - I N # " 0 0' s' c.i 0' 4 s' * N 8-l rl N 9 * N N * I I 39?3VH3SICI 39XVH3 Zurs'- -58- 0 4 I co d 9 d * d N d m n 0 P) k 1 Gp M PI i;l 3 nl + d * c' 9 0' I 0 co d u 0 x c u.; 0 0 rl 9 4. CO 9 * N I s' rc CO t- s' m 9 tc CO r- 9 m N 4 I rl N m I I I 39HVH3SICI -59- 0. r( co d 9 d dc d N d 0 c9 N d * d 9 d a0 dI 0. r( I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 d d d d d d d d Q) 9 N N dc 9 cx) r\l QI cr) cr) 9 QI nl I I I .) #-I I 39xvH3sIa 39XVH3 Zm='- -60- 0. rl a3. 0 9 d + d N d 0 9 N d &I al a * *zId d E I 9 d II I * a3 a3 9 cc) d I + 0 u I. I I I I I rl I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 d 0 d d d 0 d N 9 9 N * rl 9 rr) I+ rr) 3 I I I I m:,/t?w 39XVH3SIa 7 -61- 0 8-4 00 d I 9 d * d N d 0 0"A N u 0 0 3 I I dr 6I 9 d 00 d 0. d I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . . a0 mi 00 4 0 4 0 9 9 N o\ N LD N' 9 8-4 I d 4 m N I I 398VH3 398VH3SICI -62- TABLE XI1 THE TEN BEST RECOMMENDED SYSTEMS IN TERMS OF PEAK CURRENT DENSITY9; Cathodi c An0 dic System -cv C.D. C.D. AVp ** amps /cm amps /cm volts CuF /DMF-LiPF 1525 1. 86 1. 06 0. 04 I 2573 2 6 CuCl /BL-AlCl 2208 1. 60 0. 91 0. 30 1350 2 3 Cd /DMF - Li B F4 327 3 1. 22 1. 22 0. 06 1400 Ag 0 / B L - L i C 1t Al C 1 1081 1. 04 0. 62 0. 23 3 955 CuC12 /PC - LiClO 1999 1. 01 0. 40 0. 20 847 4 Cd /DMF - Li C10 2690 0. 78 1. 04 0. 08 1267 4 CuCl /DMF-LiPF 2300 0. 70 0. 59 0. 04 1080 2 6 Zn / DMF - KPF 1048 0. 59 0.45 0. 32 333 6 ZnF /DMF-KPF 3684 0.49 0. 40 0.01 559 2 6 Zn/DMF -Li ClO 2675 0. 47 0. 47 0. 09 56 3 4 ::< In order of decreasing peak discharge c. d. ::: + AVp - Peak displacement 2 S, - Cathodic sweep index= (peak c. d. ) x 100 2 sweep rate x coul/cm BL - Butyrolactone DMF - Dime thylfo rmamide PC - Propylene carbonate -63- TABLE XI11 BEST RECOMMENDED SYSTEMS IN TERMS OF PEAK C. D., PEAK DISPLACEMENT, AND SWEEP INDEX* I C athodic Anodic AV ** s *** C.D. C.D. P C System -cv amps /cm amps /cm volts CuF /DMF-LiPF 1525 1. 86 1. 06 0. 04 2573 2 6 Cd/DMF-LiB F4 3273 1. 22 1. 22 0. 06 1400 Cd/DMF-LiC104 2690 0. 78 1. 04 0. 08 1267 CuCl /DMF-LiPF 2300 0. 70 0. 59 0. 04 1080 2 6 ZnF /DMF-KPF 3684 0.49 0. 40 0. 01 559 2 6 Zn/DMF-LiClO 2675 0.47 0. 47 0. 09 56 3 4 XC In order of decreasing peak discharge c. d. ::: Xc AV - Peak displacement P :;: >;: >:: S - Sweep index = (peak c. d. )2 x 100 2 C sweep rate x coul/cm DMF - Dimethylfo rmamide -64- 111. ELECT RODE COMPATIBILITY A INTRODUCTION Although 24 systems represent only a small percentage of the total number screened, this quantity is nevertheless a large number to evaluate in an , extensive cell development program. It is therefore necessary to decrease this to a workable value by a process of elimination. The most obvious approach is to eliminate those cathodic materials least compatible with their electrolyte counterpart. It is recognized that the degree of com- patibility of a given material is probably a function of its method of preparation and physical state. Since, however, electrochemical characterization was done using wire electrodes, this same form should be screened in terms of compatibility. Generally, compatibility tests are made by observing solution color changes, and analysis of the solution for dissolved electrode material. The prime consideration, however, is the capacity retention of a battery as a function of wet-stand during either its operating or shelf life. (In the case of secondary batteries whose electrochemical systems permit restoration of active material by charging, then the consideration of a suitable membrane becomes an important practical consideration). Capacity retention of the wire electrodes was chosen as the basis for determining the relative compatibility of the recommended systems. Essentially, the procedure consists of charging the electrodes and allowing them to remain at open circuit for various stand time intervals, after which they are discharged. Compatibility was then measured by comparing the amount of discharge obtained after a given stand time interval with that obtained at zero stand time. - 65 - B. EXPERIMENTAL I 1. Standard Compatibility Test The electrode was preconditioned by sweep cycling at 40 mv/sec over a 2-volt range (*l. 0 v relative to the ocv) for a maximum of ten cycles, I by which time reproducible sweep curves were obtained. It was then 2 completely discharged galvanostatically at 1 ma/cm to assure the absence of cathodic material. The electrode was then charged by a single anodic sweep which was cut off just prior to entry into the cathodic region, 2 at which point it was again discharged at 1 ma/cm . The length of this discharge was expressed in terms of millicoulombs (mcoul) delivered per 2 cm of electrode area at zero stand time. The same procedure was repeated, but allowing the electrode to stand in the charged condition for progressively longer periods of time, after 2 2 which it was discharged at 1 ma/cm . The number of mcoul/cm delivered after various stand times was then compared with that delivered at zero stand time, and expressed as a percentage of the latter. Test stand times of 15 minutes, 1 hour, 24 hours, and 1 week were to be selected, or until the system suffered a loss of discharge 50% or greater relative to the initial discharge at zero stand time. 2. Effect of Charge Method on Compatibility In addition to charging the electrodes by anodic sweep, electrodes were also charged galvanostatically and potentiostatically for various time periods. Electrode pretreatment, prior to charging at constant potential, involved cycling the electrode at positive and negative values of the applied potential several times to obtain an active surface. Pretreatment for constant current measurements involved cycling by sweep voltammetry several times at 200 mv/sec. In one instance, constant current charge was employed without pretreatment. - 66 - For tests made with silver electrodes in aqueous KOH solution, a minimum of three zero stand time discharge measurements were taken for each test run (a test run comprises a set of measurements performed at various time intervals on a given cell). Zero stand time reproducibility was better than 10% for the sweep charge method. Reproducibility of the zero stand ' time for constant current charging was better than *l%for the low charge density electrodes, and within 10% for the high charge density electrodes. The Wenking TR61 potentiostat was used in the galvanostatic mode for the constant current measurements. The sweep and constant potential charge methods were performed using the operational amplifier equipment described in an earlier report (Ref. 3, p. 93). C. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1. ' Standard Compatibility Test Seven systems, comprising zinc, cadmium, copper, and silver difluoride in dimethylformamide or propylene carbonate solutions of KPF LiPF 6' 6' LiBF4 or LiClO were subjected to the standard compatibility test. 4' Since all systems suffered greater than 50% loss of discharge after 15 minutes stand time, an additional 5-minute stand time interval was measured in all cases. A minimum of three zero stand time measurements was recorded in all tests. The reproducibility of the zero stand time varied with each system from a few percent to as much as 50% in one or 2 two instances. Table XIV lists the zero stand time capacity (mcoul/cm 2 delivered at 1 ma/cm immediately after completion of the sweep charge), and the percent of zero stand time capacity retained after 5 and 15 minutes of stand, for the systems evaluated. 2. Comparison with Silver Oxide in KOH The rapid loss of capacity in less than 15 minutes of stand time, made it mandatory that these results be compared with a state-of-the-art battery - 67 - f TABLE XIV CAPACITY RETENTION AFTER 5 AND 15 MINUTES OF STAND TIME* Zero Stand 7% Retention After Time Capacity 5 min 15 min 2 System Millicoul / cm % % Zn/DMF-KPF6 (0.75 m) 204 - 1. 5 Zn/DMF-KPF6 (2.0 m) 256 - 1. 0 Zn/PC-KPF (0.75 m) 106 29. 0 2. 0 6 Zn/DMF-LiC104 (1.0 m) 89 0.0 0. 0 Cd/DMF-LiClo (1.0 m) 230 1. 6 0. 0 4 AgF /PC-LiBF (0.5 m) 249 14. 5 2. 0 2 4 Cu/DMF-LiPF (0.5 m) 276 17. 0 4. 0 6 * Electrodes charged by anodic sweep and discharged galvanostatically at 1 ma/cm2. DMF - Dimethylfo rmamide PC - Propylene carbonate - 68 - system. Measurements were therefore repeated with a silver wire electrode in an aqueous 8. 0 m KOH solution. Not only was the capacity retention much greater (82% after 15 minutes stand time), but there appeared to be an improvement in compatibility (measured as capacity retention) by increasing the charge density, i. e., the number of I 2 coulombs/cm of electrode surface. This is shown in Figure 37.. Curve A shows the capacity retention of a silver oxide electrode formed by 2 constant current charge of 1 ma/cm for 30 minutes (equivalent to 1800 2 mcoul/cm ). The charge density obtained by discharging the electrode 2 2 at 1 ma/cm at zero stand time, is 1500 mcoul/cm . (This is equivalent to 83. 5% utilization efficiency). Curve B, with a charge density of only 2 230 mcoul/cm shows a greater loss of capacity, such that after 15 hours of stand time, only 30%of the original silver oxide (at zero stand time) 2 remains, compared with 65%for the higher charge density (1500 mcoul/cm ). Although Curve C represents silver oxide formed by sweep charge, the 2 charge density of 170 mcoul/cm results in a still lower capacity retention, which is more marked during the initial hours. Even though the results shown in Figure 37 indicate enhancement of compatibility for the high charge density electrodes, additional experiments in solutions saturated with charged-state reactants should be carried out before any definite conclusion can be made. 3. Effect of Charging Method Based on the observation that silver electrodes exhibit greater capacity retention by increasing the initial charge density, a limited effort was made to increase the charge density of the wire electrodes, using charging methods other than by sweep charging. Zinc electrodes were charged in DMF-KPF and PC-KPF under constant current and constant 6 6 2 potential conditions, and then discharged at 0. 1 and 1. 0 ma/cm . Only in the case of PC-KPF under potentiostatic charging, was there an increase 6 - 69 - 100 ( 2 1500 mcoul/cm 80 z 0H b 60 230 mcoul/cm *2 E 40 u 170 mcoul/cm u5 ' A, B - constant current charge .. 20 C - sweep charge 0 I I 1 1 I I I 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 11 TIME (hours) Figure 37. Capacity retention as a function of stand time and charge density for a silver electrode in 8.0 m KOH. - 70 - b in charge density. In all cases, galvanostatic charging gave lower charge densities. These electrodes had been charged without preconditioning, however, in one case, where the electrode was given the standard pre- treatment (cyclic sweep at 200 mv/s), there was a decided increase in charge density over the non-treated electrodes. I None of the charging methods tested resulted in significant improvement of capacity retention. An apparent improvement in retention was observed when discharge was carried out at the lower current density (0.1 ma/cm2 ). 4. Measurements in Saturated Solution The observed loss of capacity during stand time leads one to the immediate conclusion that active electrode material must be dissolving in the electro- lyte, and therefore the systems evaluated are not compatible. If electrode dissolution exists, then a given electrode should exhibit a much longer discharge time in a solution saturated with the electrode active material, than in one initially free of such material. A zinc electrode was therefore potentiostatically charged with continuous stirring for several hours in KPF solution of dimethylformamide, until approximately 300 coulombs 6 of zinc had reacted. Since the solution appeared cloudy, and clumps of dark grey material were evident at the bottom of the electrolysis cell, a saturated solution was indicated. In confirmation of this, the solution was analyzed polarographically, and the zinc ion concentration was found to be -3 5. 9 x 10 M. The total electrolyte volume in the cell was 20 ml. If all 300 coulombs of zinc had been able to dissolve, this would have given a -3 zinc concentration of 78.0 x 10 M, more than an order of magnitude larger than found by analysis , thus confirming solution saturation. Using this solution (saturated with Zn ion introduced under charging condi- tions) a fresh zinc electrode was charged and discharged according to the standard procedure for determining compatibility. No improvement in charge retention was evident. These results suggest that the loss of - 71 - discharge on standing is not caused by solution of the electroactive material from the electrode surface. Related measurements on zinc- plated nickel wire demonstrated significantly larger capacity retention, suggesting that the physical nature of the electrode surface may be an important criterion of charge retention. If this is so, then compatibility measurements on smooth wire electrodes may not be valid. - 72 - e IV. REFERENCES 1. Whittaker Corporation, Narmco R and D Division, Fifth Quarterly Report. NASA Contract 3-8509, NASA Report CR-72293, August 1967. I 2. Whittaker Corporation, Narmco R and D Division, Sixth Quarterly Report, NASA Contract 3-8509, NASA CR-72349, November 1967. 3. Whittaker Corporation, Narmco R and D Division, First Quarterly Report, NASA Contract 3-8509, NASA Report CR-72069, August 1966. DIST RIB U TION LIST National Aeronautics and Space Admin. National Aeronautics and Space Admin. Washington, D. C. 20546 Scientific and Tech. Information Facility Attn: E. M. Cohn/RNW P. 0. Box 33 A. M. Greg Andrus/PC College Park, Maryland 20740 Attn: Acquisitions Branch (SQT- 34054) National Aeronautics and Space Admin. (2 cys. + 1 repro. ) I Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland 20 77 1 National Aeronautics and Space Admin. Attn: T. Hennigan, Code 716. 2 George C. Marshall Space Flight Center J. Sherfey, Code 735 Huntsville, Alabama 35812 P. Donnelly, Code 636. 2 Attn: Philip Youngblood E. 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