Information Seeking Behavior and Technology Adoption: Theories and Trends

Mohammed Nasser Al-Suqri Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Ali Saif Al-Aufi Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

A volume in the Advances in Knowledge Acquisition, Transfer, and Management (AKATM) Book Series Managing Director: Lindsay Johnston Managing Editor: Austin DeMarco Director of Intellectual Property & Contracts: Jan Travers Acquisitions Editor: Kayla Wolfe Production Editor: Christina Henning Development Editor: Erin O’Dea Typesetter: Tucker Knerr Cover Design: Jason Mull

Published in the United States of America by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA, USA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com

Copyright © 2015 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Information seeking behavior and technology adoption : theories and trends / Mohammed Nasser Al-Suqri and Ali Saif Al- Aufi, editors. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4666-8156-9 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-8157-6 (ebook) 1. Information behavior. 2. Information technology--Psychological aspects. I. Al-Suqri, Mohammed Nasser, 1973- editor. II. Al-Aufi, Ali Saif, 1975- editor. ZA3075.I56 2015 025.5’24--dc23 2015000397

This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Knowledge Acquisition, Transfer, and Management (AKATM) (ISSN: 2326-7607; eISSN: 2326-7615)

British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.

For electronic access to this publication, please contact: [email protected]. 94

Chapter 6 Wilson’s Information- Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

Devendra Potnis University of Tennessee at Knoxville, USA

ABSTRACT This chapter analyzes and compares the goals, key concepts, key features, strengths, and weaknesses of Wilson’s information-seeking behavior models. Wilson’s models grounded in multi-disciplinary research serve as milestones shaping the information behavior research. The models steered the direction of information behavior research from “system-centric” to “person-centric” inquiries by proposing information-seeking behavior as a new lens in combination with information use to study the dynamic process experienced by users for satisfying information needs. Wilson also introduced “observations to be the “root” method of data collection. The ability of Wilson’s models to continue serving as frameworks for developing and testing new combinations of information behavior constructs and theories illustrate the rigor, relevance, and utility of the models in rapidly changing landscape of information environments. As researchers from diverse disciplines employ Wilson’s models as a basis for solving the problems of information behavior experienced by well-defined groups from different parts of the world, the models are likely to evolve in the future.

INTRODUCTION face-to-face communication and passive reception of information where information is received by the Human information behavior, also known as person without any intention to act on it. Informa- information behavior, can be defined as “the tion behavior is an umbrella term that covers human totality of human behavior in relation to sources and technological factors and their interaction and channels of information, including both active related to seeking, searching, storing, retrieving, and passive information-seeking, and information processing, and using information. Information- use” (Wilson, 2000, p.49). Information behavior seeking behavior with information searching as includes active searching of information through its subset is a major part of information behavior.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8156-9.ch006

Copyright © 2015, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

Hence, it is a common practice to use the terms – the revised model of information (1996) and the “information behavior” and “information-seeking revised general model of information behavior behavior” – interchangeably. Therefore, any model (1999), keeping up with the theoretical develop- on information-seeking behavior should be seen ments in the information science and allied fields as a part of information behavior (Wilson, 1996). focusing on the person-centric research. Wilson’s Research contributions from science, tech- information behavior models serve as milestones nology, and social sciences dating back as late in the “person-centric” research on information as 1940s, have enriched the field of information behavior. behavior and helped it evolve significantly. In Key contributions made by Wilson’s models in 1948 for the first time, public presentations on advancing information behavior research warrant the information behavior of scientists and tech- for the need to study their evolution. For instance, nologies were delivered at the Royal Society until 1981 “information need” construct alone Scientific Information Conference (The Royal dominated the information behavior research. Society, 1948). In the early phase (1948 to 1965) Wilson’s (1981) original concept suggested that of information behavior research, a number of due to our inability to observe “information need,” document-centric studies explored the ability an internal state of mind, it was not helpful to of documents including answer providing tools rely heavily on information needs to study one’s to satisfy information needs of library patrons. information behavior. Instead a new approach – With the increasing use of tools and technologies information-seeking behavior – was necessary to for storing and retrieving documents in libraries, observe the user behavior. As researchers across the information behavior research experienced the world commenced employing various ver- the emergence of system-centric approach where sions of Wilson’s models to analyze information manual and computer-based document manage- behavior of users in diver contexts, it became clear ment systems were of prime interest to library and that studying information needs is not enough – it information science (LIS) researchers. is the context of information needs that plays a Since the 1980s, information behavior research central role in shaping overall information behavior experienced a gradual shift from the system-centric of the users. Another prime contribution of his to the person-centric approach which focused models is to illustrate the utility of “information primarily on information needs. Wilson (1994) use” which had received a little attention until then. quotes several reviews to show that the beginning While developing these models his goal was to of a move towards more person-centered studies link interdisciplinary theories in action rather than in information behavior was attributed to his proposing a standalone theoretical framework. As 1981 article, together with independent work by a result, all of his models are conceptual models Belkin and Dervin. The significance of informa- for information behavior research. They are based tion environment and information context, which on observations. Wilson introduced “observations included information-seeker’s characteristics and to be the “root” method of data collection, divid- their role and features of the external environment, ing it into direct and indirect variants and further emerged with the development of person-centric subdividing it into more familiar types, such as research approach. ethnographic observations, survey questionnaires, and interviews” (Case, 2006, p. 312). Why Study Wilson’s Work? The following section elaborates the evolution in Wilson’s models by synthesizing them Over a period of 30 years, Wilson’s original con- and pointing out the key differences in them. cept of information behavior (1981) evolved into The next section illustrates the significance of

95 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

context of information needs for the information Person may demand information from formal behavior of users in developing nations, one of or informal information sources, services, and the contributions made by the Wilson’s models systems (e.g., libraries, online databases, com- in diversifying the information behavior research. munity centers, etc.) to satisfy information needs. The concluding section highlights the overall In case of a successful attempt, the person uses contribution of Wilson’s models in advancing the information to satisfy their information need fully information behavior research. or partially. Reiteration of the search process is possible (Wilson, 1981). The model also depicts that the person may involve others for exchanging EVOLUTION IN WILSON’S and using information, which indicate the element INFORMATION BEHAVIOR MODELS of reciprocity, a characteristic feature of human interactions (Wilson, 2006). Original Concept: Three The third model suggests a three-fold view of Models – 1981 information seeking. The context of the seeker, i.e., overall life of the person, the system employed Wilson proposed his original concept of infor- (e.g., computer or machine-based system used mation behavior in the form of three models, directly or with the help of a mediator), and the representing a way of thinking about the field of information resources (e.g., print or digital) form person-centric studies. the three components of the model. Technology The most cited model from his original concept represents any set of devices, tools, or mechanism focuses on the origin of information needs and that aids information-seeking behavior. The model barriers to seeking information (Wilson, 2005). underlines the dynamic nature of information The model states that the interplay between (a) seeking and presents it as an ongoing process. personal primary needs (e.g., physiological needs, The three models filled in a significant re- affective needs, and cognitive needs), (b) person’s search gap in the information science literature. social role (e.g., work-related responsibilities and They became of quick interest for scholars in performance expectations from the individual), information systems, consumer behavior, health and (c) external environmental factors (e.g., work sciences, and other fields. However, they were environment, socio-cultural environment, politico- not generalizable enough for various user groups economic environment, and physical environment) to capture their contextual factors that affect in- makes the person realize about their information formation behavior. Hence, Wilson proposed the needs. As a result, the person attempts to seek in- revised model of information behavior in 1996, formation by overcoming personal, interpersonal, which integrated studies from decision-making, and environmental barriers. psychology, innovation, health communication, The second model states that any need and consumer research. General systems theory perceived by the person prompts them to seek and phenomenology influenced the construction information. The model identifies basic needs in of the revised model (Wilson, 2005). the form of physiological, cognitive and affective needs. Importantly, the needs and barriers to Revised Model – 1996 pursue the needs arise in the same context which may be a combination of personal characteristics, The revised model provides a more general frame- person’s role at work or in life, and the environ- work by integrating contemporary models on the ments (political, economic, technological, etc.). information behavior research. The model draws

96 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

attention to the interrelated theories on informa- Context of Information Needs tion behavior in the LIS and other disciplines (Wilson, 2005). Wilson defines need as a subjective experience The model is based upon two key prepositions. that occurs only in the mind of a person in need The first is that information needs are a secondary (Wilson, 1997). Various ways in which one discov- type of needs that arise out of a set of primary ers or realizes information needs can be classified needs in everyday life; the second preposition based on the motives behind them. The model focuses on various personal and external barriers recognizes the following motives: (a) unlearned encountered by users during information search motives, which cover curiosity and sensory stimu- and acquisition (Beverley et al., 2007). lation; (b) social motives which cover the desire The revised model (see figure 1) identifies for affiliation, approval or status, or aggression; three constructs: context of information needs, (c) economic motives which address financial information-seeking, and information processing gains, savings, and other monetary enhancements; and use; and two moderating variables: activating (d) physiological motives such as hunger, health- mechanism and intervening variables. Activating related motives, and thirst; (e) affective needs such mechanisms and intervening variables serve as as escapism, emotional release, companionship, moderating variables that represent effects of social utility, reality exploration, and value rein- various external conditions on the information forcement; and (f) cognitive needs which include behavior of individuals. the desire to learn new information, the psycho-

Figure 1. Wilson’s Revised Information Behavior Model (Wilson 1996, p. 569) © TD. Wilson 1995 (Used with Permission)

97 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

logical state resulting from perception, the pursuit information-seeking behavior. Risk-taking atti- of reasoning for existing form of knowledge, and tudes of individuals affect the process of seeking the attempt to confirm values and beliefs held by information and developing information sharing users. Different types of user needs are considered and awareness in a group-setting (Sonnenwald a part of the context in which information-related & Pierce, 2000). Individuals often exchange in- needs are realized and pursued. formation with others depending upon sources’ political, social, and economic contexts, which, Activating Mechanisms in turn, create risks or rewards for the individuals to seek information. Finally, depending on their Since information need is a subjective experi- prior experience, individuals may prefer certain ence, its consequences also vary by individuals. sources of information over others. Every information need may not prompt every The factors that incentivize information- individual to seek information. So what triggers seeking behavior may not be necessarily always information-seeking behavior? Lack of informa- external; they could be pertinent to individual tion often creates uncertainty, a cognitive state characteristics as well. For instance, in spite of of mind, which leads to anxiety and stress. When favorable external conditions, some individuals individuals cross person-specific threshold level may not feel confident about achieving their target of stress caused by information needs, they tend of seeking information. Lack of self-efficacy may to seeking information. refrain them from pursuing information needs. The stress/coping theory (Folkman, 1984) de- Self-efficacy also known as a sense of personal fines stress as: “A relationship between the person mastery can be explained as: “An efficacy expec- and the environment that is appraised by the person tation is the conviction that one can successfully as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and execute the behavior required to produce the as endangering his or her well-being” (Folkman outcomes. Outcome and efficacy expectations are 1984, p. 840). People may cope with their stress differentiated, because individuals can believe that by emotionally or focusing on solving the prob- a particular course of action will produce certain lems that cause stress. The stress/coping theory outcome, but if they entertain serious doubts takes into account people’s orientations towards about whether they can perform the necessary threats and turning away their attention from those activities such information does not influence their threats. It refers coping as cognitive and behavioral behavior” (Bandura, 1977, p. 193). Self-efficacy effects to master, reduce, or tolerate the internal is the central construct in the social cognitive and external demands that are created by stressful theory which covers a conviction possessed by situations (Folkman & Lazarus, 1985). Therefore someone, that they would successfully execute the the revised model positions stress/coping theory behavior to produce desirable outcomes. Hence, as the activating mechanism for the whole process the revised model introduces social learning theory of seeking information. to measure the level of self-efficacy and its effect Various factors including sources of informa- on information-seeking behavior. tion, available choices, and types of search efforts may encourage or discourage individuals to Information-Seeking Behavior continue seeking information. Such factors create positive or negative incentives for the informa- Wilson (2000) defines information-seeking behav- tion seeker. The revised model introduces risk/ ior as: “The purposive seeking for information as reward theory (Murray, 1991; Settle & Alreck, a consequence of a need to satisfy some goal. In 1989) to explain the influence of incentives on the course of seeking, the individual may inter-

98 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

act with manual information systems (such as a radio or television, or the reception of messages newspaper or a library), or with computer-based on cell phones. Thus, passive attention does not systems (such as the World Wide Web)” (p. 49). cover any sort of intentional information-seeking. For a long time, active information-seeking was implicitly considered as information-seeking be- Intervening Variables havior. Eventually, the term acquisition (Aacker et al., 1997) was introduced to stratify information- Barriers to pursuing information needs are termed seeking behavior into active and passive – attention as “intervening variables” that suggest their sup- and search components. portive and interruptive role in the process of The revised model segments the process seeking information. For instance, the format of of information-seeking into active and passive information (electronic, print, verbal, etc.) may modes, with the active mode consisting of active constitute a barrier or a help, or both, since the searching and ongoing searching and the passive format might play a key role in resource selection mode consisting of passive attention and passive (Al-Suqri, 2007). The revised model proposes searching. When an individual actively seeks out six categories of intervening variables, namely, information, it is called an active search, and this psychological, demographics, role-related or in- establishes a basic framework of knowledge, ideas, terpersonal, source characteristics, environmental, beliefs, or values. Typically, active search involves and economic, which are explained below. specific information as an output of the search Our beliefs and value systems often times that was initiated by individuals or organizations. reflect in our actions, including our information- The revised model introduced “active search” seeking behavior. Any attempt to prove or disprove mode of information seeking by deriving ideas those beliefs and values act as psychological from Ellis’ (1989) behavioral characteristics of intervening variables for the information-seeking information seeking. The ongoing search builds behavior. For instance, many conflicting ideas upon the active search with an occasional continu- may confuse naïve users, affecting their overall ing search to update or expand one’s established information behavior. basic framework of knowledge, ideas, beliefs, or Age, gender, and other relevant factors con- values. The frequency of updating original base of stitute demographic intervening variables which information may vary from a few minutes to more possibly affect information seeking, searching, and than a few years. Varying user needs – a function possibly, the overall behavior of users (Wilson, of time – shape information collected as a part 1997). Employment status, socioeconomic status, of ongoing search (Wilson, 2000). In contrast, ethnic origin, marital status, and co-habitation are passive searching signifies those occasions when common demographic factors that affect informa- one type of search (or other behavior) results in tion behavior. For instance, a research study sug- the acquisition of information that happens to be gests that the amount of health-related information relevant to the individual. Passive search typically used by users appears inversely proportional to the leads to gaining unintended type(s) of information. age groups of a population (Beverley et al., 2007). Listening to the radio or watching television pro- In general, women are more active in searching grams could lead to passive attention during which and receiving information compared to men, which information acquisition may take place without confirms women’s role as care givers. A study intentional seeking. Erdelez’s (1997) “information in a consumer research reveals that women with encountering” inspired Wilson to introduce pas- children care more about information of nutrition sive attention in the revised model. Passive atten- and ingredients on specific products than women tion involves user’s exposure to information from without children. Concerns with children are

99 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

key motivating factors for information-seeking, and a variety of technologies such as cell phones, searching, and their overall information behavior Internet, and computers act as the most common (Wilson, 1997). sources of information. However, certain sources One’s role in the society and their relation- of information may have pre-requisites to qualify ship with others influence several aspects of for receiving information. For example, to be able their information behavior. For instance, some to read news from newspapers, literacy is one of researchers prove the high degree of correlation the major pre-requirements; this is not the case for between the socio-economic status of users and hearing news from friends or families. Sometimes their need for inter-personal communication to selection of information sources also depend upon seek information (Dervin and Greebberg, 1972). the available resources. For instance, results of a Such studies advise marginalized people to look research study involving electronic reserve auc- forward to interpersonal communications and tions suggest that the significance of information non-establishment channels for seeking substan- and information sources heavily depends upon tial portion of information through local news. In strict time constraints and the overall information contrast, a study titled impoverished life-world intensive nature of the electronic auction process of outsiders suggests that users seek information (Losch & Lambert, 2007). from outside the community rather than from Immediate social milieu, i.e., environment in- inter-personal communications inside a group fluences people’s choice of processing information (Chatman, 1996). This conclusion was based upon and acting on it. For disadvantaged populations, a key finding that information of the most critical the process of understanding information needs kind such as employment was not being asked or is grounded in social environments which define shared among community members. Although information from users’ perspectives (Chatman, there is no consensus on the correlation between 1996). Sometimes individuals receive information the need of inter-personal communication and the in bits and pieces from various sources and com- degree of socio-economic status of disadvantaged munication channels. Surrounding environment populations, interpersonal relations affect infor- often encourage or discourage them for select- mation behavior. ing or rejecting received sources of information Characteristics of sources of information af- (Schramm, 1973). fect the process of selecting information from a The revised model takes into account the particular source. For instance, individuals are direct cost of products or services and the value often choosy when it comes to selecting informa- of time as economic factors. Direct cost can be tion from a set of facts available from different further categorized into the cost of searching sources. From a surrounding environment full information, the cost of retrieving information, of messages, an individual selects the pieces of and the cost associated with shopping done for information or messages that fit the majority of just enjoyment and entertainment. A consumer their needs and interests (Schramm, 1973). People research study indicates that gains associated may receive or seek information from formal with search results diminish significantly due to and informal channels of information including similar alternatives; this circumstance reduces conversations with colleagues and friends (Spink search efforts. This observation is also supported et al., 2002). Information is often bombarded by the fact that the value of time for information by more than one source of information. For search associated with people with high income instance, family, schools, friends, broadcasting is usually greater than that of people with low media such as television, newspapers, and radio, income (Stigler, 1961).

100 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

Information Processing and Use different than the news derived from television or mobile. The need for information-seeking in Gathering and acquiring information do not combination with a context in which information necessarily guarantee the use of information. is searched, shape the entire process of informa- For instance, an illiterate user might not be able tion usage. For instance, a research study in the to make use of information broadcast through a Swedish context examining information-seeking, newspaper. The “information processing and use” use, and learning in the school context found that construct explains the information behavior of us- students’ ability to use information, the nature of ers after they get hold of information from various school assignments, the quality of access tools, sources through different information-searching and their experiences and knowledge significantly mechanisms. Wilson defines the construct in terms influence their learning outcomes (Hultgren & of human barriers and technical barriers. When Limberg, 2003). Learning outcomes emerge as beliefs, perceptions, and knowledge of others act end-products of processing information. as barriers to information processing and usage, In the private sector markets, data smog makes they form human barriers for the information- it harder for consumers to make decisions about seeker. Technical terminology, lack of technical a particular product or a service since consumers support, and other technology-related problems could hardly encode anything specific in their create technical barriers for information users. memories (Varian, 1998). Data smog refers to Information gathered from various sources a combination of data which makes a very little does not necessarily guarantee its incorporation sense for making decisions based upon that data. with the users’ frame of knowledge, beliefs, or This situation is similar to information overload. values. Also, information available in different Information overload is a scenario in which users formats does not necessarily lead to changes in are bombarded with a variety of information pre- the user’s state of knowledge, behavior, values, sented in different forms (Varian, 1998). Informa- or beliefs (Wilson, 1997). There are many factors tion intermediaries prove to be very effective, and related to economic and personal abilities, namely, hence, are in-demand, especially, in the context of (a) direct economic cost to process information information overload. Information intermediaries, and value in terms of time, (b) cognitive abilities a human or a non-human party designed to assist and knowledge required to process information users in information processing, are often used in by the user, and (c) basic literacy and reading markets to assist potential consumers processing abilities, which decide the possibility and rate at and applying those different pieces of information which information can be processed and applied for desired tasks (Lee & Cho, 2005). A research (Hultgren & Limberg, 2003; Wilson, 1999b). study of financial markets indicates that various Information sources and forms of information factors increase the dependency on information have an intimate relation with the process of ap- intermediaries by a majority of potential consum- plying received or gathered information through ers who are bombarded by loads of information a variety of information-searching methods. For (Waldfogel & Chen, 2003). A low-level of per- instance, high level use of newspapers and dense ceived expertise in the financial management area, networking in a community give individuals a a large amount of total financial assets, and a high leverage to make use of information more pro- opportunity cost of time exponentially enhances ductively (Dervin & Greebberg, 1972). Sources of the perceived value of information intermediaries information leave different impacts on different us- (Lee & Cho, 2005). The introduction of informa- ers; for example, information derived from radio- tion intermediaries in markets completely changes broadcasted news has varied degrees of influence the dynamic of information search and overall

101 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

information behavior demonstrated by information of a public agency, a study found that employees’ users. In the Internet environment, the information inability to separate task from information needed intermediary emerged as a tool for information to complete the task deviated their attention from gathering as well as information sorting, affect- basic issues, problems, and sense-making of tasks ing the overall information processing, use, and and situations (Solomon, 1997). In particular, information relevant decision-making (Caillaud this observation holds true in the organizational & Jullien, 2001; Waldfogel & Chen, 2003). settings that depend upon technological systems (for example – information systems) to gather, Revised General Model of store, and process information. Hence, to main- Information Behavior – 1999 tain the quality of information and its appropriate applications for specific issues and problems, it In 1999, Wilson proposed a problem-solving is necessary to ground and align the design and model as a way of integrating the research in the implementation of information systems in the field of information behavior. The model consid- organizational goals and vision (Solomon, 1997). ers information seeking, searching and use to be This caution highlights the utility of Wilson’s associated with the following stages of a goal revised general model of information behavior, directed problem-solving process: problem rec- especially to avoid problems associated with infor- ognition, problem definition, problem resolution, mation management, design, and implementation and solution statement (Wilson, 2000). According of information systems. to the model, information-seeking behavior can be Table 1 lists key differences in the three models. seen as goal-determined behavior (Wilson, 2005) where a particular type of information helps to Key Strength of Wilson’s Models solve a set of problems. Thus the latest model is compatible with its previous versions once the Wilson’s models exist within a “universe of user overcomes barriers to seeking information. knowledge” where the information seeker or the While seeking, searching, and using informa- intermediary might exhibit human behavior portion for solving a problem, a user can interact with trayed by constructs and theories integrated in the problem information, domain information, or information behavior models. As a result, there problem solving information. Problem information is always a scope for introducing new constructs can be described as the structure, properties and and new theories from multiple disciplines, and requirements of the problem at hand. User can testing the newly proposed models with user access it in the problem environment or document. groups in different contexts. For instance, Al-Suqri Facts, concepts, laws and theories form domain (2011) developed an integrated model of social information. The methods of problem treatment, science information-seeking behavior by blend- i.e., how a particular problem should be formulated ing Wilson’s (1996) revised model of information and solved, are covered by problem-solving infor- behavior with other established models, to study mation, which is critical for solving the problem the information-seeking among social science and mostly available only from experts. faculty in an Omanian university and promote Sometimes people may not think of informa- future development in LIS in the Middle East. tion as separate from the information-intensive Potnis (2010) applied constructs from Wilson’s task or a problem at hand. For instance, while models to study the role of information behavior in making sense out of participants’ behavior and shaping socio-economic opportunities for female exploring the social elements of their information mobile phone owners earning less than a dollar a behavior in the context of an annual work-planning day in rural India. The ability of Wilson’s models

102 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

Table 1. Differences in Wilson’s information behavior models

# Original Concept: Revised Model (1996) Revised General Model (1999) Three Models (1981) Goal To define key concepts by proposing the To expand the original concept To propose a problem-solving basis for a theory of the motivations for through an analysis of the literature in model as a way of integrating information seeking fields other than information science the research in the field of Behavior information behavior Key Concepts Information, User studies, Information Stress-coping theory, Risk-reward Problem-oriented information Covered needs, and Consequences theory, Self-efficacy, Context, seeking, searching, and use Information-seeking behavior, and Goal-oriented information- Information processing and use seeking behavior Other Features Recognition of information need was Stress caused by the information need Inclusion of problem-related believed to be enough for the user to seek recognized by the user was believed to contextual features for information prompt the user to seek information information seeking, personal, Recognition and introduction of Barriers to seeking information are and psychological factors information providers and informal represented by “intervening variables” Depicts explicit relationship information systems in the process of Information-seeking behavior is made between information needs and using information an explicit part of the model seeking Emphasizing the role of “information Reference made to Acquiring information is not exchange” which indicates that the “user’s life,” a philosophical always an end in itself information flow is always a two-way concept with phenomenological process approach useful for understanding Non-linear representation of information information behavior provider and receiver More pronounced social dimension Discussion of “information in context” of information, and the value of the concept investigative methods of the social Demonstrates interdisciplinary approach science by studying user behavior from sociology and psychology Proposal for studying information behavior for “well-defined groups” Strengths They identify gaps in the information It is a richer source of hypotheses and Most clear and much science research furthers research than the original needed depiction of the Relative simplicity of the three concept inter-relationship between conceptualizations built a consensus The model can be easily related to information behavior, understanding for information behavior other information-seeking behavior information among information science researchers theories (e.g., theories proposed by seeking and information and practitioners Ellis and Kuhlthau), which strengthens retrieval They continue serving as a reference the claims made by the model It provides a framework framework with the same validity as that The model draws attention to the to explain goal-oriented of at the time of inception totality of information behavior and information-seeking behavior shows how a specific piece of research contributes to an understanding of the whole phenomenon Weaknesses The original concept does not suggest any It does not integrate original concept It is limited to defining and causal relationship among information with the related concepts from all the solving problems behavior concepts fields It does not assume barriers to seeking It cannot explain everything to do with information have any effect on the user information behavior motivation for seeking information It does not provide sufficient attention to contextual factors It does not provide any direct or explicit hypotheses to be tested

103 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

to continue serving as frameworks for develop- process.” Moreover, conferences like Information ing and testing new combinations of information Seeking in Context provide a visible platform for behavior constructs and theories with a wide researchers and practitioners all over the world to range of user groups from different parts of the make contributions that enrich our understand- world illustrate the rigor, relevance, and utility ing of information behavior in distinct contexts. of the models in rapidly changing landscape of Research studies applying Wilson’s models to information environments. study information behavior in the context of disadvantaged populations and various professional Key Weakness of Wilson’s Models from developing nations promote the diversity in information behavior research. This section The models primarily focus on the general pro- illustrates the significance of context of informa- cesses of information seeking, and not on the tion needs for the information behavior of users context of the information search or the types in developing nations. of information available. As a result the generic models may not fully explain the information Interplay between Context behavior of various actors in different contexts and Information Needs in seeking a variety of information (Al-Suqri, 2007). Developing Nations For instance, Wilson (1999a) acknowledges that his original concept (1981) paid insufficient atten- Context is a very multifaceted concept which can tion to contextual factors: “The limitation of this be defined in multiple ways in the field of informa- kind of model, however, is that it does little more tion behavior (Pettigrew, 1999). Several personal, than provide a map of the area and draw attention professional, and social aspects of individual’s life to gaps in research: it provides no suggestion of define and affect the context of information needs. causative factors in information [behavior] and, Context of information needs construct reviews the consequently, it does not directly suggest hypoth- context in which information needs are realized eses to be tested” (Wilson, 1999a, p. 251). and its impacts on information users. Since need is a subjective experience it is not directly accessible to an observer (Wilson, 1997) except in situations CONTEXT OF INFORMATION NEEDS like (need of food) hunger. Subjective judgment AND DEVELOPING NATIONS of someone else’s need is a cognitive representation of a future goal that is desired (Burnkrant, The significance of context of information needs 1976). However, information need is sometimes in shaping user information behavior became difficult to specify, even by the user (Belkin et al., quite evident with the maturity of person-centric 1982). In any event, different needs experienced research approach bolstered by Wilson’s work. In by human beings can be broadly categorized into fact, the context of information needs often seems the primary needs – food, clothing, and shelter, to be the most influential construct shaping the and the secondary needs – health, education, and entire process of information behavior (Potnis, monetary support. 2010; Reddy & Jansen, 2008; Sonnenwald & Context influences the nature of information Pierce, 2000). To underline the significance needs and the nature of information perceived to be of context for information behavior research, satisfying to the users. For instance, studies show Kuhulthau (1999, p. 10) states “to neglect context that information needs of users practicing the same is to ignore the basic motivations and impetus profession do not necessarily coincide. Instead, the that drives the user in the information-seeking objectives and goals of the process that gives rise

104 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

to the information needs significantly influence Information needs of an individual determine the information needs of users. For instance, an whether the process of searching for information information needs study of the artisan fishing com- needs to be carried out individually or in a group munity in Uganda reveals that information needs (Reddy & Jansen, 2008). If information needs of those fishermen were heavily clustered around are associated with communities, then internal their work related practices and information that changes and features associated with community promote their jobs. These information needs were greatly shape the information needs identified, rooted in contexts formed by climatic conditions associated, and satisfied, using limited resources for fishing, illiteracy affecting entrepreneurial ca- available to the communities. Changes internal to pabilities, general fishing habits, cost of equipment the communities in South Africa and the nature used for fishing, and poor management facilities of those communities are reflected in importance, for storing fish (Ikojo-Odonogo & Ocholla, 2003). magnitude, and priorities of information needs However, the results from a similar research study of those communities (Kaniki, 1995). A focus conducted for information needs of fishermen in group study examined the information needs of Niger Delta region in Africa were quite different. 164 low-income, primarily African-American The most essential information need concerned the residents in a community; the study confirmed that ways in which loans and credit could be obtained information needs such as community services and for the expansion of fishing operations (Dekur, activities information, crime and safety informa- 1996). Despite being from the similar regions in tion, and general reference tools were grounded Africa with the same profession – such as fishing in the context in which they lived, whereas the – fishermen had different information needs. This information needs such as resources for children, difference illustrates the significance of context healthcare information, employment information, in which information needs arise. and education information were based upon their There are varieties of information needs highly personal and family lives (Bishop et al., 1999). correlated with the contexts presented in various For marginalized populations in developing research studies. After studying the informa- nations, information needs can heavily influence tion needs of rural women in Botswana, Africa, not only their way of life but also their existence. Mooko (2005) found that health, agriculture, While exploring the intimate connection between employment, family violence, and basic familial information needs with the existence of local needs were the key information needs of rural communities in South Africa, Kaniki (1995) women in Botswana. Their information needs were states “information needs manifest themselves grounded in the context of families. Some of the in the form of tasks of users or potential users … secondary information needs were information the information needs of people were basically on government-aided funding, welfare subsi- related to personal existence, survival and devel- dies and policies, and training. Artisan farmers opment… all these problems, even if solved, were were another marginalized African population not ultimate goals in themselves. Solving these studied. A five-layered schema of information problems seemed to provide ‘avenues’ for attain- needs developed for artisan farmers includes ing a better life or livelihood, that is, overcoming socio-economic conditions, socio-institutional and unemployment or finding means of earning an macro-economic factors, production technology income” (p.5). and economic efficiency status, cost structure A feedback mechanism is observed in terms and profitability state, and the marketing system of contexts and information needs. For instance, respectively (Panayotu, 1985). the context shapes information behavior which, in

105 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

turn, reinforces features of the context. Features as- making, innovation, consumer behavior research, sociated with information contexts vary according marketing, psychology, health communication to user needs, types of users, and types of processes research, and information systems design (Wilson, implemented in satisfying information needs. In an 1994). Wilson has contributed significantly to the ethnographic study of the information behavior of information behavior research by introducing a community clinic attendees, four types of contex- new approach – information-seeking behavior – in tual factors such as physical environment, clinic combination with information use. His original activities, the nurses’ situation, and the seniors’ concept (1981) of information behavior was in- situation were identified as controlling variables strumental in strengthening person-centric studies shaping their information behavior (Pettigrew, in information behavior research. His conceptual 1999). The context of information needs may be models are rooted in field observations. Hence, his formed due to the physical disabilities as well. At data-driven conceptual models propelled person- the end of a study of a visually impaired population centered user studies in information behavior over seeking health information, researchers found that the last 30 years. a visually-impaired person’s independence, their Wilson’s models exist within a “universe of acceptance of their own visual impairment status, knowledge” where the information seeker or the their interactions with health service providers, intermediary might exhibit human behavior por- support from friends and families influenced their trayed by constructs and theories integrated in the information needs and their overall information information behavior models. As a result, there behavior (Beverley et al., 2007). is always a scope for introducing new constructs Context specific insights can be applied in de- and new theories from multiple disciplines, and riving knowledge about information flow among testing the newly proposed models with user various users in those contexts. In turn, the same groups in different contexts. The ability of Wil- information flow could potentially influence the son’s models to continue serving as frameworks composition of the contexts. Interactions among for developing and testing new combinations of various contextual factors responsible for infor- information behavior constructs and theories with mation behavior form a common information a wide range of user groups from different parts of ground which is useful to understand information the world illustrate the rigor, relevance, and utility flow in community settings (Pettigrew, 1999). of the models in rapidly changing landscape of Sonnenwald and Pierce (2000) discovered that bi- information environments. directional information flow among individuals in Multi-disciplinary foundation of his models dynamic contexts helps to build team-spirit and to inspires practitioners and researchers to test and improve team performance. Thus, the continuous apply his models in the areas outside of LIS. The flow of information builds a dense social network information behavior studies inform practitioners through which interwoven situational awareness including human-computer interaction experts can be established. for developing ICT user interfaces customized for well-defined groups of users. For instance, Jan Chipchase, Nokia’s human behavior expert, CONCLUSION studies the primary and secondary needs including information needs of potential mobile users Wilson’s models are based upon the formal body of for developing mobile interfaces that fit into the scholarly research, and explore different aspects of user lifestyle (Corbett, 2008). Thus information information behavior informed by allied research behavior models and theories shaped by Wilson’s areas including, but not limited to, decision- models have valuable practical applications to

106 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

serve a wide range of user populations worldwide, Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Towards a uni- especially for incorporating context-specific in- fying theory of behavioural change. Psychologi- formation needs with product development. cal Review, 84(2), 191–215. doi:10.1037/0033- Wilson’s models are general and hospitable to 295X.84.2.191 PMID:847061 theories capable of explaining information behav- Belkin, N. J., Oddy, R. M., & Brooks, H. M. (1982). ior, information-seeking behavior, and information ASK for information retrieval. Part 1. Background searching. His models provide a basis for several and theory. The Journal of Documentation, 38(2), hypotheses useful in advancing the information 61–71. doi:10.1108/eb026722 behavior research. As more researchers from diverse disciplines use Wilson’s models as a basis for Beverley, C. A., Bath, P. A., & Barber, R. (2007). solving the problems of information behavior, the Can two established information models explain models are likely to evolve and address problems the information behaviour of visually impaired even in Web 2.0 era. For instance, user-generated people seeking health and social care informa- content in the form of “big data” has tremendous tion? The Journal of Documentation, 63(1), 9–32. latent potential to create knowledge, and hence, doi:10.1108/00220410710723867 value for society, governments, and businesses. Bishop, A. P., Tidline, T. J., Shoemaker, S., & Obviously the need to understand users, their Salela, P. (1999). Public libraries and networked information needs, and their ways of satisfying information services in low-income communities. information needs is more than ever of practical Library & Information Science Research, 21(3), significance in the age of social media and mobile 361–390. doi:10.1016/S0740-8188(99)00017-1 technologies. The theoretical tradition of information behavior enriched by Wilson’s models could Burnkrant, R. E. (1976). A motivational guide researchers and practitioners to identify model of information-processing intensity. The and interpret patterns hidden in the big data for Journal of Consumer Research, 3(1), 21–30. helping the users to meet their information needs. doi:10.1086/208647 Caillaud, B., & Jullien, B. (2001). Software and the European REFERENCES internet: Competing cybermediaries. Economic Review, 45(4-6), 797–808. doi:10.1016/ Al-Suqri, M. (2007). Information needs and seek- S0014-2921(01)00123-4 ing behavior of social science scholars at Sultan Case, D. (2006). Information Behavior. Annual Qaboos University in Oman: A mixed-method Review of Information Science & Technology, approach. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). 40(1), 293–327. doi:10.1002/aris.1440400114 Emporia State University, Emporia, KS. Chatman, E. A. (1996). The impoverished life world Al-Suqri, M. (2011). Information-seeking be- of outsiders. Journal of the American Society for havior of social science scholars in developing Information Science, 47(3), 193–206. doi:10.1002/ countries: A proposed model. The International (SICI)1097-4571(199603)47:3<193::AID- Information & Library Review, 43(1), 1–14. ASI3>3.0.CO;2-T doi:10.1016/j.iilr.2011.01.001

107 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

Corbett, S. (2008, April 13). Can the cellphone Hultgren, F., & Limberg, L. (2003). A study of help end global poverty? New York Times. research on children’s information behaviour in a school context. The New Review of Information Dekur, E. (1996). An analysis of information Behaviour Research, 4(1), 1–15. doi:10.1080/14 needs of rural fisheries in Buguma Rivers State. 716310310001631408 University of Calabar. Ikojo-Odongo, R., & Ocholla, D. N. (2003). Dervin, B., & Greebberg, B. S. (1972). The com- Information needs and information-seeking be- munication environment of the urban poor. In F. G. havior of artisan fisher folk of Uganda. Library Kilne & P. J. Tichenor (Eds.), Current perspectives & Information Science Research, 25(1), 89–105. in mass communication research (pp. 195–233). doi:10.1016/S0740-8188(02)00167-6 Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Kaniki, A. M. (1995). Exploratory study of infor- Ellis, D. (1989). A behavioural approach to information needs in the Kwa-Ngwanese (Natal) and mation retrieval design. The Journal of Documen- Qumbu (Transkei) communities of South Africa. tation 45 , (3), 171–212. doi:10.1108/eb026843 South African Journal of Library and Information Ellis, D., Cox, D., & Hall, K. (1993). A comparison Science, 63, 9–18. of the information seeking patterns of researchers Kuhlthau, C. C. (1999). Investigating patterns in the physical and social sciences. The Journal in information seeking: Concepts in context. of Documentation, 49(4), 356–369. doi:10.1108/ In Thomas D. Wilson & David K. Allen (Eds.) eb026919 Exploring the contexts of information behaviour: Erdelez, S. (1997). Information encountering: A Proceedings of the second international confer- conceptual framework for accidental information ence on research in information needs, seeking, discovery. In P. Vakkari, R. Savolainen, & B. and use in different contexts, Sheffield, United Dervin (Eds.), Information seeking in context: Kingdom, (pp. 10-20). London: Taylor Graham. Proceedings of the international conference on Kuhulthau, C. C. (1991). Inside the search process: research in information needs, seeking and use, Information seeking from the user’s perspective. in difference contexts Tampere, Finland , (pp. Journal of the American Society for Information 412-421). London: Taylor Graham. Science, 42(5), 361–371. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097- Folkman, S. (1984). Personal control and stress 4571(199106)42:5<361::AID-ASI6>3.0.CO;2-# and coping processes: A theoretical analysis. Lee, J., & Cho, J. (2005). Consumers’ use of Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, information intermediaries and the impact on 46(4), 839–852. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.46.4.839 their information search behavior in the financial PMID:6737195 market. The Journal of Consumer Affairs, 39. Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. (1985). If it changes Losch, A., and Lambert, J. S. (2007). E-Reverse it must be a process: Study of emotion and cop- auctions revisited: An analysis of context, buyer– ing during three stages of a college examination. supplier relations and information behavior. The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , Journal of Supply Chain Management: A Global 48(1), 150–170. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.48.1.150 Review of Purchasing and Supply Copyright, 43, PMID:2980281 47-63.

108 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

Mooko, N. P. (2005). The information behaviors of Solomon, P. (1997). Discovering informa- rural women in Botswana. Library & Information tion behavior in sense making. II. The social. Science Research, 27(1), 115–127. doi:10.1016/j. Journal of the American Society for Informa- lisr.2004.09.012 tion Science, 48(12), 1109–1126. doi:10.1002/ (SICI)1097-4571(199712)48:12<1109::AID- Murray, K. B. (1991). A test of services market- ASI5>3.0.CO;2-Y ing theory: Consumer information acquisition activities. Journal of Marketing, 55(1), 10–25. Sonnenwald, D. H., & Pierce, L. G. (2000). doi:10.2307/1252200 Information behavior in dynamic group work contexts: Interwoven situational awareness, dense Panayotu, A. (1985). Small scale fisheries in Asia: social networks and contested collaboration in socioeconomic analysis and policy. Ottawa, Can- command and control. Information Processing ada: International Development Research Centre. & Management, 36(3), 461–479. doi:10.1016/ Pettigrew, K. E. (1999). Waiting for chiropody: S0306-4573(99)00039-4 Contextual results from an ethnographic study Spink, A., Ozmutlu, H. C., & Ozmutlu, S. (2002). of the information behaviour among attendees Multitasking information seeking and search- at community clinics. Information Processing ing processes. Journal of the American Society & Management, 35(6), 801–817. doi:10.1016/ for Information Science and Technology, 53(8), S0306-4573(99)00027-8 639–652. doi:10.1002/asi.10124 Potnis, D. (2010). Mobile technologies and socio- Steinerova, J., & Susol, J. (2005). Library economic opportunities for disadvantaged women: users in human information behaviour. On- A study of information behavior in a developing line Information Review, 29(2), 139–156. nation context. (Doctoral dissertation). The Uni- doi:10.1108/14684520510598020 versity at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY. Stigler, G. (1961). The economics of information. Journal of Political Economy, 69(3), 213–225. Reddy, M. C., & Jansen, B. J. (2008). A model for doi:10.1086/258464 understanding collaborative information behavior in context: A study of two healthcare teams. The Royal Society. (1948). The Royal Society Information Processing & Management, 44(1), Scientific Information Conference. 21 June–2 July 256–273. doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2006.12.010 1948, The Royal Society, London. Schramm, W. (1973). Men, messages, and media: Varian, H. R. (1998). Markets for Information a look at human communication. New York: Goods, June 18-19, 1998. Harper and Row. Waldfogel, J., & Chen, L. (2003). Does informa- Settle, R. B., & Alreck, P. (1989). Reducing buy- tion undermine brand? Information intermediary ers’ sense of risk. Marketing Communications, use and preference for branded web retailers. 14, 34–40. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. doi:10.3386/w9942

109 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

Wilson, T. (1981). On user studies and informa- Aina, L. O. (1985). Information needs and in- tion needs. The Journal of Documentation, 37(1), formation seeking involvement of farmers in six 3–15. doi:10.1108/eb026702 rural communities in Nigeria. Quarterly Bulletin of the International Association of Agricultural Wilson, T. (1994). Information needs and uses: Libraries, 30, 35–40. Fifty years of progress? Paper presented at the Fifty years of information progress: Journal of Bates, M. J. (1989). The design and browsing and Documentation review, London, UK. berrypicking techniques for the on-line interface. Online Review, 13(5), 407–424. doi:10.1108/ Wilson, T. (1997). Information behaviour: An in- eb024320 terdisciplinary perspective. Information Process- ing & Management, 33(4), 551–572. doi:10.1016/ Dervin, B. (1983). An overview of sense-making S0306-4573(97)00028-9 research: concepts, methods and results to date. Paper presented at the International Communica- Wilson, T. (1999a). Models in information tions Association Annual Meeting, Dallas, Texas. behaviour research. The Journal of Docu- mentation, 55(3), 249–270. doi:10.1108/ Dervin, B. (1989). Users as research inventions: EUM0000000007145 How research categories perpetuate inequalities. Journal of Communication, 39(3), 216–232. Wilson, T. (1999b). Exploring models of infor- doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1989.tb01053.x mation behaviour: The ‘uncertainty’ project. Information Processing & Management, 35(6), Dervin, B. (1997). Given a context by any other 839–849. doi:10.1016/S0306-4573(99)00029-1 name: Methodological tools for taming the un- ruly beasts. In Pertti Vakkari, Reijo Savolainen Wilson, T. (2000). Information Behavior, Special & Brenda Dervin (Eds.). Information seeking in Issue on Information Science Research. Inform- context: Proceedings of an international confer- ing Science . ence on research in information needs, seeking Wilson, T. (2005). Evolution in information and use in different contexts, Tampere, Finland. behavior modeling Wilson’s mode. In K. Fisher, (pp. 13-38). London: Taylor Graham. S. Erdelez, & L. McKechnie (Eds.), Theories of Gross, M. (2004). Children’s information seek- Information Behavior (pp. 31–36). Medford, NJ: ing at school: Findings from a qualitative study. ASIST Monograph Series – Information Today In Youth information seeking behavior. In M. K. Inc. Chelton & C. Cool (Eds.), Theories, models and Wilson, T. (2006). 60 years of the best in infor- issues (pp. 211–240). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow mation research: On user studies and information Press. needs. The Journal of Documentation, 62(6), Herold, K. R. (2001). Librarianship and the phi- 658–670. doi:10.1108/00220410610714895 losophy of information. Library Philosophy and Practice, 3, 1–15. Iacono, C. S. (1996). The demise of meaning- ADDITIONAL READING making and social agency as critical con- Afifi, W. A., & Weiner, J. L. (2002). Introduc- cepts in the rhetoric of an information age. The Information Society 12 tion: Information seeking across contexts. Human , (4), 449–450. Communication Research, 28, 207–212. doi:10.1080/019722496129413

110 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

Jaeger, P. T., & Thompson, K. M. (2004). Social Miller, S. M. (1987). Monitoring and blunting: information behavior and the democratic pro- Validation of a questionnaire to assess styles of cess: Information poverty, normative behavior, information seeking under threat. Journal of Per- and electronic government in the United States. sonality and Social Psychology, 52(2), 345–353. Library & Information Science Research, 26(1), doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.2.345 PMID:3559895 94–107. doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2003.11.006 Miller, V. D., & Jablin, F. M. (1991). Information Järvelin, K., & Repo, A. (1984). A taxonomy of seeking during organizational entry: Influences, knowledge work support tools. In B. Flood, J. tactics, and a model of the process. Academy of Witiak, & T. Hogan (Eds.), 1984: Challenges to Management Review, 16, 92–120. an Information Society. Proc. 47th ASIS Annual Nahl, D. (2001). A conceptual framework for Meeting, Vol. 21, Philadelphia, PA, Oct. 21-25, explaining information behavior. SIMILE: Stud- 1984. (pp. 59-62). White Plains, NY: Knowledge ies in Media & Information Literacy Education, Industry Publications. 1(2). Online article. Johnson, D. (1996). Information seeking: An or- Rowley, J. (1999). Towards a consumer perspective ganizational dilemma. Westport: Quorum Books. on information behaviour research. Information Julien, H., & Michels, D. (2004). Intra-individual Services & Use, 19, 289–298. information behaviour in daily life. Information Saracevic, T., Kantor, P., Chamis, A., & Trivi- Processing & Management, 40(3), 547–562. son, D. (1988). A study of information seeking doi:10.1016/S0306-4573(02)00093-6 and retrieving, I. Background and methodology. Kuhlthau, C. C. (1993a). A principle of uncertainty Journal of the American Society for Information for information seeking. The Journal of Documen- Science, 39(3), 161–176. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097- tation, 49(4), 339–355. doi:10.1108/eb026918 4571(198805)39:3<161::AID-ASI2>3.0.CO;2-0 Kuhlthau, C. C. (1993b). Seeking meaning: A Savolainen, R. (1995). Everyday life information process approach to library and information seeking: Approaching information seeking in the services. Norwood: Ablex Publishing. context of “way of life”. Library & Information Sci- ence Research, 17(3), 259–294. doi:10.1016/0740- Leydon, G. M., Boulton, M., Moynihan, C., Jones, 8188(95)90048-9 A., Mossman, J., Boudini, M., & McPherson, K. (2000). Cancer patients’ information seek- Solomon, P. (1997). Discovering information ing behavior: In depth interview study. British behavior in sense making: III. The person. Medical Journal, 320, 909–913. doi:10.1136/ Journal of the American Society for Informa- bmj.320.7239.909 PMID:10742000 tion Science, 48(12), 1127–1138. doi:10.1002/ (SICI)1097-4571(199712)48:12<1127::AID- Meyers, E. M., Fisher, K. E., & Marcoux, E. ASI6>3.0.CO;2-W (2007). Studying the everyday information behavior of tweens: Notes from the field. Library Sonnenwald, D. H., & Iivonen, M. (1999). An & Information Science Research, 29(3), 310–331. integrated human information behavior research doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2007.04.011 frameworks for information studies. Library & Information Science Research, 21(4), 429–457. doi:10.1016/S0740-8188(99)00023-7

111 Wilson’s Information-Seeking Behavior Models (1981, 1996, 1999)

Urbany, J. E., Dickson, P. R., & Wilke, W. L. Data: Raw facts which may or may not make (1989). Buyer uncertainty and information search. sense. Journal of Consumer Research in Nursing and Information: Contextualized data or pro- Health, 16(2), 208–215. doi:10.1086/209209 cessed data. Information Behavior: “The totality of hu- Vakkari, P. (1998). Growth of theories on informa- man behavior in relation to sources and channels tion seeking: An analysis of growth of a theoretical of information, including both active and passive research program on the relation between task information-seeking, and information use” (Wil- complexity and information seeking. Information son, 2000, p. 49). Processing & Management, 34(2-3), 361–382. Information Need: Internal state of mind doi:10.1016/S0306-4573(97)00074-5 resulted after experiencing primary needs such as Wicks, D. A. (1999). The information-seeking affective needs, physiological needs, hunger, etc. behavior of pastoral clergy: A study of the interac- Information Use: One’s ability to process and tion of their work worlds and work roles. Library apply information to achieve a set of objectives. & Information Science Research, 21(2), 205–226. Access to information does not necessarily mean doi:10.1016/S0740-8188(99)00003-1 the use of information (Potnis, 2010). Several personal factors like skills, literacy, etc. and external Widen-Wulff, G. (2003). Information as a resource factors like resources, social norms, etc. play a in the insurance business: The impact of structures significant role in influencing one’s ability to and processes on organization information behav- process and apply information. iour. The New Review of Information Behaviour Information-Searching Behavior: “The Research, 4(1), 79–94. doi:10.1080/14716.3103 ‘micro-level’ of behavior employed by the searcher 10001631453 in interacting with information systems of all Wilson, T., & Walsh, C. (1996). Information kinds. It consists of all the interactions with the behaviour: an interdisciplinary perspective. Shef- system, whether at the level of human computer field, England: University of Sheffield Department interaction (for example, use of the mouse and of Information Studies. clicks on links) or at the intellectual level (for example, adopting a Boolean search strategy or Zhang, Y. (1988). Definitions and sciences of determining the criteria for deciding which of two information. Information Processing & Man- books selected from adjacent places on a library agement, 24(4), 479–491. doi:10.1016/0306- shelf is most useful), which will also involve 4573(88)90050-7 mental acts, such as judging the relevance of data or information retrieved” (Wilson 2000, p.49). It is also known as information retrieval. KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Information-Seeking Behavior: “The purposive seeking for information as a consequence Context of Information Needs: A multi- of a need to satisfy some goal. In the course of faceted concept affecting the realization, in- seeking, the individual may interact with manual terpretation, and pursuit of information needs. information systems (such as a newspaper or a Personal, social, environmental, economic, and library), or with computer-based systems (such several other dimensions of one’s life form the as the World Wide Web)” (Wilson, 2000, p. 49). context for information needs.

112