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A survey of race relations in : 1961

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Author/Creator Horrell, Muriel Publisher South African Institute of Race Relations, Date 1962 Resource type Reports Language English Subject Coverage (spatial) South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa Coverage (temporal) 1961 Source EG Malherbe Library Description Survey of race relations in South Africa in 1961 and includes chapters on: South Africa becomes a Republic and leaves the Commonwealth; Political Party developments; Demonstrations planned for the end of May; Unrest and disturbances; The Treason Trial; Attitudes of the churches to race relations; Work by lay organizations for better race relations;The population of South Africa, and measures for its registration and control; The African reserves; Administration of Africans in urban areas; The municipal franchise; General matters affecting Africans; General matters affecting Coloured people; General matters affecting Asians; Liquor; Group areas and housing; Employment; Education; Health and nutrition; Welfare; Recreation; Justice; External affairs; Some recent publications dealing with race relations; Legislation of 1961. Format extent 326 pages (length/size)

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ONE RAND FIFTY CENTS - Compiled by MURIEL HORRELL SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS 19 61 _ _ _ _ _ 1961! J

A SURVEY OF RACE IN SOUTH RELATIONS AFRICA 1961 Compiled by MURIEL HORRELL Research Officer South African Institute of Race Relations I SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS P.O. Box 97 JOHANNESBURG 1962

NOTE ON PERIOD COVERED It was stated, in last year's Survey, that it was for the year 1959-60, and that, in fact, it covered the period mid-November 1959 to mid-November 1960. A similar system had been followed in previous years. Some readers have said that they feel this method to be confusing. For this reason the present Survey is stated to be for the year 1961. As it was desirable to have it published by January 1962, however, it was impossible to include events that occurred during the last weeks of the year. Reports on any such events will be made in the next issue. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Once again the writer's very great appreciation is expressed to Dr. Ellen Hellmann, who gave gracious and invaluable help by reading the entire manuscript and making detailed suggestions for its improvement. Very grateful thanks are due, too, to Mrs. B. Y. Jordi who did the typing, Mrs. A. Honeywill who checked the proofs, and Mr. L. Reyburn who did some of the summaries of legislative measures and other matters that are included in the text. The writer is deeply indebted, also, to all those who supplied information on a variety of subjects, notably Mr. Dennis Brutus, Mr. G. J. Golding. Mrs. J. Kinghorn, Mr. J. C. M. Mbata. Miss M. McLarty, M.P.C., Mr. H. G. Oxley, Miss Sheila Robertson. Mr. F. J. van Wyk and the Venerable Archdeacon S. W. Wade. Members of the National Council of Women in very kindly sent material on education; numbers of Members of Parliament helped by putting questions in the Assembly; Municipal officials sent details about housing schemes in their areas: officials of the Government Departments of Bantu Administration. Bantu Education, the Interior and Labour supplied information about the work of their Departments; and numerous trade unionists gave very willing help. To all these most grateful thanks are given. Finally, gratitude is expressed to the staff of the Institute's library, and to the officials of the Natal Witness (Pty) Limited. MURIEL HORRELL.

CONTENTS Page SOUTH AFRICA BECOMES A REPUBLIC AND LEAVES THE COMMONWEALTH Significance of these events ...... 1 Republic of South Africa Constitution Act, No. 32 of 1961 ...... 1 Election of first President ...... 3 South Africa's withdrawal from the Commonwealth ...... 4 Prior statement by Dr. Verwoerd ...... 4 Events at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers' conference ... 4 Consequences of South Africa's withdrawal ...... 7 Commonwealth Relations (Temporary Provision) Act, N o. 41 of 1961 ...... 7 Reactions in South Africa ...... 8 POLITICAL PARTY DEVELOPMENTS Nationalist Party ...... 9 Dissension within the Party ranks, and its temporary suppression ...... 9 Nationalists' bid for the support of English-speaking South A fricans ...... 13 Decision to hold a general election ...... 14 The National Union ...... 14 Conservative Workers' Party ...... 15 The United Party ...... 15 United Party policy ...... 15 Election pact with the National Union ...... 17 The Progressive Party ...... 18 The Liberal Party ...... 18 Results of the general election ...... 18 Coloured political organizations ...... 21 Disunity among Coloured people in the past ...... 21 People's Organization ...... 22 Establishment of the Coloured National Convention ...... 23 Attitudes of Coloured people to the elections ...... 25 Results of the elections ...... 26 African political organizations ...... 26 Renewal of the ban on the A.N.C. and P.A.C ...... 26 "All-in" conference ...... 27 Award of Nobel Peace Prize to ex-Chief A. J. Luthuli ... 29 Indian political organizations ...... 30 The Federation of S.A. Women ...... 30 iv A SURVEY OF RACE DEMONSTRATIONS PLANNED FOR THE END OF MAY Prelim inary planning ...... 31 Action taken by the Government ...... 32 Statement by the Prime M inister ...... 32 General Law Amendment Act, No. 39 of 1961 ...... Possible detention for twelve days without any charge having been proved ...... Defence Amendment Act, No. 12 of 1961 .34 Defence Further Amendment Act, No. 42 of 1961 ... Police Amendment Act, No. 53 of 1961...... 35 Banning of meetings during May and early June ...... Raids and demonstrations by the Police and Defence Force 36 The demonstrations ...... 36 Aftermaths ...... 9 Lifting of the ban on public meetings .39 Fate of the leaders of the demonstrations . 39 Others who were detained ...... 41 UNREST AND DISTURBANCES THE TRANSKEI Violence that occurred between March and November 1960 42 Action taken by the Government ...... 43 Chiefs empowered to arrest White "agitators" ... 43 Regulations for the Transkei ...... 43 Certain action taken under these regulations ...... 47 News to be reported through official channels only 47 Arrival of troops. and provision of body-guards foi Chiefs ...... 47 I hreatened dismissals. and banishment, 48 Further disturbances ...... 48 ihe Ngqusa Hill inquest ..49 Trials resulting from the disturbances . 50 Gradual relaxation of restrictions .... 51 InvestigationsbytheGovernment 52 .\FTERMATH OF THE 1960 DISTURBANCES Persons detained under the emergency regulations...... 52 Anniversary of and Langa ...... 53 Commissions of Enquiry into events at Sharpe ille and Langa 54 Claims for compensation ...... 55 Indemnity Act,No.61 of 1961 ...... 55 Committee established to consider ex graiia payments ...... 56 Trials resulting from the declaration of a tate of emergency 56 Africans accused of incitement or public violence 56 Prosecution of the editors of certain journals .. 7 Aftermath of the Cato Manor murder' . 58 FURTHER UNREST AND DISTURB\NCES Zululand ...... 59 Warmbaths 59 Mabieskraal ... 59

RELATIONS: 1961 Port E lizabeth ...... Sekhukhuneland ...... Unessa ...... The Ku Klux Klan 60 ... 60 ...... 6 0 ...... - 6 1 THE TREASON TRIAL The background ...... 62 The end of the trial ...... 62 Costs incurred ...... 63 ATTITUDES OF THE CHURCHES TO RACE RELATIONS The Cottesloe Consultations ...... The background ...... Arrangements for the consultations ...... Statem ent issued ...... Reactions of the Dutch Reformed Churches ...... Statements issued after the consultations ...... Opposition to the Cottesloe resolutions ...... Decision of the N.H. Kerk ...... Decisions of the Transvaal N.G. Kerk ...... Decisions of the Cape N.G. Kerk ...... Other developments within the Dutch Reformed Churches ... "Delayed Action" ...... Discussion groups ...... Attitudes and actions of certain "English-speaking" churches M ethodist Church ...... Church of the Province of South Africa ...... Catholic Church ...... O ther churches ...... Further action by the World Council of Churches ...... 63 ... 63 64 ... 64 66 66 ... 66 ... 67 67 ... 68... 68... 68... 70... 70... 70... 71... 72... 72... 72 WORK BY LAY ORGANIZATIONS FOR BETTER RACE RELATIONS Inter-racial conventions ...... The Natal Convention ...... Calls for a National Convention ...... The S.A. Institute of Race Relations ...... Meeting of the Institute's Council ...... Mid-year Executive Committee meeting 1961 Hoernld Memorial Lecture Institute's activities ...... S.A. Bureau of Racial Affairs ...... Other work for better race relations ...... Chair of inter-racial studies at Border Regional Development Foundation Christopher Gell Memorial Award ...... Acts of goodwill in Rustenburg ...... 7 3 ...... 7 3 ...... - 7 5 ...... - 76 ...... 7 6 ...... 7 8 79 ...... 79 ...... 7 9 ...... 80 ...... 80 ...... 80 ... 8 1 81 vi A SURVEY OF RACE THE POPULATION OF SOUTH AFRICA, AND MEASURES FOR ITS REGISTRATION AND CONTROL 1960 Census ...... 81 Total population ...... 82 Provincial distribution ...... 82 Urban population ...... 82 Further details in respect of Africans ...... 83 Population registration ...... 84 Identity cards ...... 84 Test applied in race classification ...... 84 Investigation of borderline cases ...... 85 Cases of delay and hardship ...... 86 Control of publications deemed undesirable ...... 87 Publications and Entertainments Bill ...... 87 Undesirable Publications Bill ...... 87 Attitude of the Prime Minister ...... 88 Passports and Visas ...... 89 Confiscation of passports ...... 89 Refusal of passports ...... 89 Passports granted to Non-White people ...... 89 Refusal of visas ...... 90 Banning orders ...... 91 Banishment of Africans ...... 92 Pleas for an amnesty ...... 95 Re-arrest of an exile who escaped ...... 95 Control of entry into rural African areas ...... 95 Tapping of telephone lines ...... 96 Telephonic Communications Interception Bill ...... 96 THE AFRICAN RESERVES Future political development ...... 97 Statement by the Prime Minister ...... 97 Reactions by members of the Transkeian Territorial Authority 97 Statements by the Minister ...... 98 Development of the Bantu Authorities system ...... 99 Territorial Authorities ...... 99 Regional and tribal authorities ...... 99 Financing of community services provided by Bantu Authorities 100 School for the sons of chiefs ...... 101 The development of the Reserves ...... 102 The extent of the Reserves ...... 102 Removal of squatters and people living in "Black spots" ... 104 Funds voted for development schemes ...... 106 Five-year plan ...... 107 Agricultural development, afforestation, etc ...... 107 Industries on the borders of the Reserves ...... 109 Industrial and commercial development within the Reserves 112 Rural villages ...... 112

RELATIONS: 1961 ADMINISTRATION OF AFRICANS IN URBAN AREAS Bantu in European Areas Draft Bill ... Proposed curtailment of rights of local authorities ... The "Church clause" ...... Urban areas commissioners ...... Power to make regulations ...... Proposed stricter control of the movement of labour Proposed further curtailment of the rights of Africans The Government's decision in regard to the Bill ... The Urban Bantu Councils Act, No. 79 of 1961 ...... Provisions of the Act ...... Remarks by Government representatives ...... Plans for a council in Daveyton, Benoni ...... THE MUNICIPAL FRANCHISE The existing position ...... The Cape ...... N atal ...... Transvaal and Free State ...... Statement by the Institute of Race Relations ... Action by certain local authorities ...... Estcourt ...... East London ...... D urban ...... GENERAL MATTERS AFFECTING AFRICANS The "" ...... Tightening of influx control in 1961 ...... New legislation foreshadowed ...... Findings by the Council of the Institute of Race Relations ... "Foreign" Africans ...... Legal rights of African women ...... Taxation of Africans ...... Urban sites for African separatist churches ...... GENERAL MATTERS AFFECTING COLOURED PEOPLE Policy statements ...... Statement by the Prime Minister, 7 December 1960 ...... Further statement made on 10 April 1961 ...... Union Council for Coloured Affairs ...... Coloured mission stations and reserves ...... Mission Stations and Communal Reserves Act of 1909 as am ended ...... Preservation of Coloured Areas Act, No. 31 of 1961 ...... Coloured Persons Communal Reserves Act, No. 3 of 1961 ... Regulations for Coloured mission stations and reserves ... Development and Investment Corporation ...... Existing Coloured mission stations and reserves ...... 128 ...... 128 ...... 129 ......

SM\ SU.RVI-Y OF RAC 1 GEfNEFRAL MATT[1ERS AlFFC [ING XSIANS Policy- -,ttcrncnt-ý b\ thQ h Pimc \1imici 141 1)cpi-tilicil et Inkhl \tidi, 142 I)it1cti1icle å~ dx c 142 Inian insn igmvtio 1 43 rhc xi'en'te 144 RennuiendcIV1iinN hy tde Institute of RdIce Relåtions 145 0ibiiic,c nd 1 gl'p ian pceple .146 1 he Luoi .ienduunt Atý '\o. -'? et f 140 bce tervn oet ct 146 1 hc e m stcrn 148 Kaffir bcu 148 Dc ce~flcuts~incc tbe c Xt xx is passed 148 GROUP 5ASEAS ANI) HOUSING (1 eup A-Ni Avne\mndient Act. 'Ne.) 23 et 19~6 1 150 Tbe 1n1c ef puNemniscs fer paic(1nL uf .C (w~~ cg. tji flnineu 150 The dire en ux hch ci elp dIes preclmaiies S. ciient itol cet .1.1. ..1. . 1 1 . . 152 Rc;trietiens, en eLetiuti n of Pi euty in cenit eiled cre 153 Deput umcn eto ( emm nity \ coIpn uicit ., , 154 Reguåltiens undet thc (l run Au cas Dcx cloiecn Äct ..154 L etter cent te Ilecal autheriics by tbc Gro up Aräý Board in N -1Tu . 154 Pre i si en ef churi cs tnLd ,eciul an uus155~ Decloipnicnts it cciir te gup tu cas drdbeunsn 155 i ehdrmnucsbn c 155 Rcct tex~n 161 Prcteu i,, 163 (Itbcu Vi unsx texu fs 165 Capuex on and adfåeing iu ntniCipdlhics 166 Port Eilhei 170 Eamt 1 nden 172 KuimbecIl e 173 Quecnstev 173 Pait 1 173 Oihcexx ns in %t (i pe 174 Durrban 175 Pitiruuiubnui- 180 Dundcc 181 [ble ()ixungc 1- cC Statc 181 Protestsi' iný icits ti uiu ulns; en ist ,cnc in ucstaiuuxunts 18? E- MIPLON51EN 1 Tbc ecenem ic si tunn en 184 0)nttlexx of privaile cipu)titl 184 ( etiu ls inipoed hl tbe (terncinmn 18 S

RELATIONS: 1961 ix Commonwealth Preferential Arrangements ...... 186 Unemployment ...... 187 Main industries affected ...... 187 Official statistics ...... 188 Comments on the situation as affecting Non-Whites ... 189 Action taken by workers ...... 190 Immigration and emigration ...... 191 Reservation of work ...... 191 Determinations published prior to 1961 ...... 191 Determinations republished in 1961 ...... 192 Suspension of Determinations Nos. 3 and 7 ...... 193 Comments on job reservation as so far applied ...... 193 Further investigations in progress ...... 194 Wages and the cost of living for urban Africans ...... 195 Recent studies of the cost of living ...... 195 195, Pretoria 197, South Africa generally 198 Recent wage increases ...... 199 Recommendations that minimum wages should be raised ... 201 Trade unionism ...... 202 Industrial Conciliation Amendment Act, No. 18 of 1961 ... 202 The splitting of mixed unions ...... 203 African trade unions ...... 205 Membership of trade unions in 1961 ...... 205 The working of the Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) Act 208 The machinery of the Act ...... 208 Representations in regard to wages ...... 208 Handling of labour disputes ...... 209 W orks committees ...... 210 Strikes or lock-outs of African workers ...... 210 bus strike 210, Natal leather workers 212, Strikes organized by Sactu 212 Employment of African juveniles ...... 213 Employment in various branches of the economy: Agriculture ...... 215 M anufacturing ...... 217 Mining ...... 217 Construction ...... 218 Commerce ...... 218 The Public Service and Railways Administration ...... 219 Personal services ...... 220 The professions ...... 220 EDUCATION L egislation ...... Union Education Advisory Council Bill ...... Bantu Education Amendment Act, No. 55 of 1961 Financing of Bantu Education ...... Estimates of expenditure for 1961-62 ...... Likely increase in expenditure ...... 222 ...... 222 ...... 223 ...... 224 ...... 224 ...... 225

A SURVEY OF RACE R evenue ...... 226 Means by which expenditure has been pruned ...... 226 Reorganization 226. Financing of buildings 226, Equipment 227. Leases of church buildings 227 Per capita expenditure ...... 228 Numbers of African schools and pupils ...... 229 Schools and teaching posts ...... 229 Enrolment ...... 229 Adequacy of primary school facilities ...... 230 Percentage distribution of scholars ...... 230 M edian ages of pupils ...... 231 Various conditions in African schools ...... 231 Prom otions ...... 231 Vernacular medium ...... 232 F arm schools ...... 232 Examination results ...... 233 Senior posts for Africans in the Department ...... 235 Roman Catholic schools ...... 236 Findings on Bantu education by the Institute of Race Relations ... 236 Disturbances at African schools ...... 238 Schools for Coloured and Indian children ...... 241 The ...... 241 Orange Free State ...... 243 Transvaal ...... 244 N atal ...... 246 Schools for White children ...... 247 Provincial expenditure ...... 247 Percentage distribution of pupils ...... 247 Race studies in Transvaal schools ...... 24( Special schools ...... 248 Vocational and technical education ...... 249 Vocational Education Amendment Act, No. 20 of 1961 ... 249 Numbers of students ...... 249 Training for Coloured students ...... 250 Training for Indians ...... 251 Training for Africans ...... 251 University Education ...... 252 Enrolment at universities, 1959 ...... _52 Degrees, diplomas and certificates awarded in 1959 ...... 252 W hite and open universities ...... 253 Admission of Non-White students to open universities ... 253 Action taken at the University of the Witwatersrand ... 253 Student organizations ...... 254 Loss of staff and of bursaries ...... 255 The "conscience clause" ...... 255 University Colleges for Africans ...... 256 Financing of the colleges ...... 256 Staff ...... 256 Advisory Senates ...... 257

RELATIONS: 1961 xi Students ...... 257 State study loans and grants ...... 258 University College of the ...... 259 University College for Indians ...... 259 Natal Medical School ...... 260 Findings on university education by the Institute of Race Relations ...... 261 HEALTH AND NUTRITION Vital statistics ...... 262 Notes on health services ...... 262 Nutritional surveys ...... 262 Plan to supply skimmed milk powder to African children ...... 263 Surplus of dairy products ...... 263 "Coffee-carts" in Johannesburg ...... 264 WELFARE W elfare services ...... 265 Welfare Organizations Amendment Act, No. 75 of 1961 ... 265 Curtailment of the welfare activities of Transvaal local authorities ...... 266 Services for Africans taken over by the Department of Bantu Administration and Development ...... 266 Welfare projects for Africans ...... 266 Pensions ...... 267 Pension Laws Amendment Act, No. 78 of 1961 ...... 267 Unemployment Insurance Amendment Act, No. 13 of 1961 268 Workmen's Compensation Amendment Act, No. 7 of 1961 ... 268 Amounts paid in social pensions and grants ...... 268 RECREATION The arts ...... 270 Literature ...... 270 Painting ...... 270 M usic ...... 271 Entertainment ...... 271 The theatre ...... 271 Radio ...... 272 Sports ...... 272 The Government's views on inter-racial sport ...... 272 Campaign for non-racial sport ...... 273 Commonwealth Games ...... 274 Athletics ...... 275 Soccer ...... 276 Cricket ...... 277 Boxing ...... 278 G olf ...... 279 Chess ...... 280 Holiday resorts and facilities ...... 280

JUSTICE Crim inal statistics ...... The police force ...... Non-White prison warders Youth rehabilitation centres Legal aid ...... Penal Reform League ...... A SURVEY OF RACE ...... 281 ...... 281 ...... 282 ...... 282 ...... 282 ... . 283 EXTERNAL AFFAIRS Visit by the late Mr. Dag Hammarskjbld ...... 284 Boycotts ...... 284 United Nations consideration of . April 1961 ...... 285 M otion of censure ...... 285 Consideration of apartheid in November 1961 ...... 286 United Nations' consideration of South-West Africa ...... 287 Proceedings instituted at the International Court of Justice ... 287 Proceedings at the United Nations, December 1960 to April 1961 ...... 289 Proposed visit by the Special Committee ...... 290 Proceedings at the United Nations, November 1961 ...... 291 South African citizens of Indo-Pakistan origin ...... 292 International Commission of Jurists ...... 293 Membership of the International Labour Organization ...... 294 Diplomatic representation and membership of international organizations ...... 294 Proposed visit by the United States Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs ...... 295 United States-South Africa Leadership Exchange Programme ... 295 Non-W hite visitors ...... 295 Political refugees from South Africa ...... 296 SOME RECENT PUBLICATIONS DEALING WITH RACE RELATION S ...... 297 IN D EX ...... 300

RELATIONS: 1961 LEGISLATION OF 1961 Bantu Education Amendment Act, No. 55 of 1961 ...... Bantu in European Areas Draft Bill ...... Coloured Persons Communal Reserves Act, No. 3 of 1961 Commonwealth Relations (Temporary Provision) Act, No. 41 Defence Amendment Act, No. 12 of 1961 ...... Defence Further Amendment Act, No. 42 of 1961 ...... General Laws Amendment Act, No. 39 of 1961 ...... Group Areas Amendment Act, No. 23 of 1961 ...... Income Tax Act, No. 80 of 1961 ...... Indemnity Act, No. 61 of 1961 ...... Industrial Conciliation Amendment Act, No. 18 of 1961 ... Influx control-new legislation foreshadowed ...... Liquor Amendment Act, No. 72 of 1961 ...... Pension Laws Amendment Act, No. 78 of 1961 ...... Police Amendment Act, No. 53 of 1961 ...... Preservation of Coloured Areas Act, No. 31 of 1961 ...... Publications and Entertainments Bill ...... Republic of South Africa Constitution Act, No. 32 of 1961 Telephonic Communications Interception Bill ...... Undesirable Publications Bill ...... Unemployment Insurance Amendment Act, No. 13 of 1961 Union Education Advisory Council Bill ...... Urban Bantu Councils Act, No. 79 of 1961 ...... Vocational Education Amendment Act, No. 20 of 1961 ... Welfare Organizations Amendment Act, No. 75 of 1961 ... Workmen's Compensation Amendment Act, No. 7 of 1961 Page ...... 223 ...... 115 ...... 139 of 1961 7

SOUTH AFRICA BECOMES A REPUBLIC AND LEAVES THE COMMONWEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF THESE EVENTS Early in 1961 South Africa became a republic and withdrew from the Commonwealth. These events are likely to have farreaching effects on political attitudes in the country, and on its economic well-being. REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA CONSTITUTION ACT (No. 32 of 1961) Representations by certain Provincial Councils It was reported in our last Survey(') that, after the referendum on 5 October 1960, when a majority of those entitled to vote indicated that they were in favour of the establishment of a republic, the Natal Provincial Council decided to request that the new republican constitution should include five entrenched "fundamental rights", and should preserve and extend the powers of provincial councils. These requests were rejected by the Prime Minister; as were somewhat similar representations made by the Cape Provincial Council and United Party Provincial Councillors in the Transvaal. Opposition to the introduction of the Bill In the Assembly on 23 January 1961(") Dr. Verwoerd moved for leave to introduce the Republic of South Africa Constitution Bill. Sir , leader of the United Party, moved, as an amendment('), that such leave should not be granted unless and until: "(a) it is unequivocally established that the proposed republic will remain in the Commonwealth; and (b) the Government gives an assurance that provision is or will be made in such legislation for guaranteeing such basic rights as will advance national unity in South Africa". A counter-amendment was moved by the leader of the Progressive Party, Dr. J. van A. Steytler(4). He proposed that permission to introduce the measure should not be granted unless and (1) Page 9. (2) Hansard 1 col. 16. (3) Col. 17. (4) Col. 24.

2 A SURVEY OF RACE until the Government gave assurances that it would contain provisions, inter alia: (a) for a rigid constitution and the protection of minority rights; (b) for adequate decentralization of power to the provinces; (c) for the participation of all responsible citizens in the government of the country irrespective of race or colour. Both amendments were defeated. Terms of the Act The Bill was referred to a Select Committee after its Second Reading. In its final form, (Act 32 of 1961) the measure provided that South Africa would become a republic on 31 May, 1961, with a State President replacing the Queen as the country's constitutional head of state. The office of Governor-General would thus fall away. The State President would be elected by an electoral college consisting of the members of the Senate and the House of Assembly at a meeting presided over by the Chief Justice or a Judge of Appeal designated by him. The President will normally hold office for a period of seven years, but can be removed from office on a resolution passed by both Houses of Parliament during the same Session declaring that this should be done on the ground of misconduct or of inability to perform his duties efficiently. The Act laid down that the flag of the Union will be the national flag of the Republic, and Die Stein van Suid-Afrika the national anthem. It repeated the declaration contained in the South Africa Act that English and Afrikaans are the official languages and must be treated on a footing of equality. As before, this provision cannot be repealed or altered unless by the decision of a two-thirds majority at a joint sitting of both Houses. Parliamentary debate When moving the Second Readingr), the Prime Minister said that the attainment of a republic was a long-cherished ambition of the Afrikaner people. In order that the various sections of the population, despite former strife, might be welded into one nation within the republic, the Afrikaners had made several concessions. While many republicans, for example, would have preferred a President who was both the head of State and the head of the Government, the traditions of the "other section of the population" had been kept in mind, and the two offices would be kept separate. The Nationalists had accepted, too, that the republic should (5) Assemb!y, 30 January 1961, Hansard 2 cols. 324-7.

RELATIONS: 1961 3 continue to be a member of the Commonwealth, which was so ardently desired by the English-speaking people. Sir de Villiers Graaff maintained(" that the Government could not claim the support of the majority of the people of South Africa for the republic. Registered Coloured voters had not been allowed to vote in the referendum, and no attempt had been made to obtain the views of Africans. Even so, 48 per cent of the electorate had voted against a republic, fearing that relations with the Commonwealth would be endangered and that a vote in favour would be interpreted as an endorsement of the Government's rigid and negative policies. From its inception the republic would be sectional. The onus rested on the Government whether it would ever become a truly South African republic. The leader of the United Party in Natal, Mr. D. E. Mitchell, went further. He said(7, "We do not accept the republic .... We do not propose to live permanently under it. . . . We will seek the first opportunity to make our own laws. . . . If the opportunity presents itself we in Natal will grasp it in both hands". Dr. Steytler dissociated the Progressive Party from the stand taken by Mr. Mitchell. He said(8 that despite deep differences with the Government on the exclusion of Non-Whites from the referendum and on cardinal principles of the constitution, his party regarded the result of the referendum as a mandate for the establishment of a republic. Refusal to accept this would re-open a dispute which had clouded South Africa's public life for fifty years. The Progressives had set themselves the object of granting rights to persons of all colours who deserved them, and would strive to achieve that object whether under a monarchy or a republic. They regarded the establishment of a republic as a mistake, however. At the conclusion of the Second Reading debate, Mr. J. D. du P. Basson of the National Union voted with the Government, but the United and Progressive Parties and the Coloured representatives opposed the measure. Election of first President On 10 May 1961 Mr. C. R. Swart, the previous GovernorGeneral, was elected the first State President, receiving 139 votes to the 71 cast for the Opposition's candidate, Mr. H. A. Fagan('). As is reported in the next chapter, Mr. Fagan subsequently became head of the National Union Party. (6) Cols. 353-62. (7) Cols. 453-4. (8) Co's. 463-7. (9) Star report, 10 May 1961.

4 A SURVEY OF RACE SOUTH AFRICA'S WITHDRAWAL FROM THE COMMONWEALTH Prior statement by Dr. Verwoerd In a special broadcast made during January, Dr. Verwoerd said that at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers' conference in London in March he would sincerely endeavour to ensure that South Africa remained a member. However, he added, "It must remain understood that South Africa will not be prepared to pay the price for this of allowing interference in her domestic policies, of sacrificing principles on which her Government has been repeatedly elected since 1948 or of submitting to any reflection on her sovereignty or her national honour". Race problems within the Union's borders were created by a situation which required its own solution('0 . Dr. Verwoerd apparently thought that if he made himself available in person at the conference to explain South Africa's peculiar problems he could correct what he regarded as the outside world's mistaken ideas about his policy of separate development, and that South Africa's request to remain a member of the Commonwealth after she became a republic would be granted automatically, as was done in the cases of India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Ghana and Nigeria("). Events at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers' conference The British Prime Minister, Mr. H. Macmillan, hoped to keep separate the issues of South Africa's racial policies and of her continued membership of the Commonwealth. In a speech subsequently made in the House of Commons he said("2), "In my view there were very strong arguments for taking the course of allowing the application of South Africa on constitutional grounds". He was not satisfied that her exclusion would best help all the Whites there who did not accept the doctrine of apartheid, nor the millions of Africans. "But at the same time I felt it was right that there should be expressed strong disapproval of her racial policies" which "were even threatening to damage the concept of the Commonwealth itself as a multi-racial association". "Although it is an established convention with these meetings that we do not discuss the domestic affairs of a member country without the consent of that country", Mr. Macmillan continued, "the Prime Minister of South Africa agreed that on this occasion the racial policy of the Union Government should be discussed". Dr. Verwoerd is reported1") to have made it clear that while he would tolerate no interference in South Africa's domestic affairs., (10) Modern South Africa, published by S.A. Director of Information, London. January 1961. (11) Statement made by Dr. Verwoerd after the Prime Ministers' conference, as reported in the Cape Times, 15 March. (12) As reported in the Rand Daily Mail, 23 March. (13) Cape Times. 14 March.

RELATIONS: 1961 5 he was prepared to answer criticism, but did not wish this to be regarded as a precedent for procedure at future meetings. Strong disapproval of South Africa's racial policies was unanimously displayed, particularly scathing attacks being made by the Afro-Asian countries backed by Canada. New Zealand and Nigeria took the line that all the citizens of the country should not be condemned for the existing Government's attitude. Mr. R. G. Menzies of Australia tried, with Britain and South Africa, to keep the apartheid and membership issues separate, but said that in his opinion apartheid would not work and its continuation could cause trouble which could inflame the whole of Africa, bringing bloodshed and misery('"). Dr. Verwoerd explained his policy of separate development (which he called "co- existence"), gave figures showing that South Africa spent more on educational, health and welfare services for Africans than did other territories on the continent, and pointed out that thousands of Africans came annually to work in the Union from outside its borders. But he failed to convince the others that the apartheid policy was a just one. Mr. Macmillan said later in the speech quoted above, "What shocked the conference was that the policy of the present South African Government appeared to set up what we should regard as an unhappy practice-inherited from the past, perhaps-as a philosophy of action for the future". Hardly any country could stand blameless, he added. All kinds of discrimination had been, or were, still practised. "But the fundamental difference between ours and the South African philosophy is that we are trying . . . to move away from the concept in any form . . . It was not, therefore, because all of us were without sin that we felt as strongly, but because this theory of apartheid transposes what we regard as a wrong into a right". Other Prime Ministers tried to wring some concessions from Dr. Verwoerd. Mr. Macmillan subsequently said, "But the Prime Minister of South Africa, with an honesty which one must recognize, made it abundantly clear, beyond all doubt, that he would not think it right to relax, in any form, the extreme rigidity of his dogma, either now or in the future". Dr. Verwoerd later told the South African House of Assembly(") that in his opinion the request for small concessions was made with the ultimate object of undermining his policy and creating the prospect of full equality, full and equal political rights, for White and Black. The Leader of the Opposition described this as an attitude of "granite stubbornness"("). One of the turning-points of the conference was on the question of diplomatic representation between South Africa and (14) Cape Times, 14 and 20 March. (15) 23 March, Hansard 9 col. 3492. (16) Col. 3522.

6 A SURVEY OF RACE the Asian and African states. Dr. Verwoerd said"7 that he could not establish such relations with unfriendly countries. If the unfriendly attitude of Ghana and other countries changed, then friendly visits would follow, and as the public in both countries became used to this changed attitude the exchange of missions could be raised between the countries concerned. But if the basis of friendship was absent on the part of other states, and if they threatened to incite the people of South Africa, then diplomatic missions could not be accepted. Mr. Menzies said later(") that he thought that this statement had a bad psychological effect. "It seemed to be carrying it pretty far". Mr. Duncan Sandys, the British Secretary for Commonwealth Relations, stated that Dr. Verwoerd's attitude on this matter was "something which bit very deeply into all the other members"("). Considerable time was spent on searching for a formula that would satisfy honour all round. In the statement quoted above Mr. Menzies said, "For some time it looked as if we could evolve a form of communiqu6 which would confirm South Africa's membership while at the same time containing a fair summarized statement of the criticism of South Africa's racial policy, and of Dr. Verwoerd's reply . . . Mr. Macmillan . . . was told by several of the Prime Ministers that it was not good enough. One or two of them indicated quite plainly that they did not accept his (Dr. Verwoerd's) continued membership, and that if it became necessary to move the expulsion of South Africa they would do so. At least half the Prime Ministers there made it clear that they would pursue this matter every time there was a meeting and between meetings on every convenient opportunity". According to Dr. Verwoerd("°), "certain members reserved the right to themselves to reconsider their own position in regard to membership if South Africa should remain a member". Finally, Dr. Verwoerd withdrew South Africa's request for continued membership. He stated at a Press conference("), "I am sure that the great majority of the people of my country will appreciate that in the circumstances no other course was open to us. National pride and self-respect are attributes of any sovereign independent state". South Africa wished to remain friendly with the older members of the Commonwealth: his decision had been taken so as not to put them in the invidious position of having to choose between South Africa and the Afro-Asians. In his statement on the matter Mr. Menzies said that, if (17) As reporzed by him in the House of Assembly, Hansards 9 and 12, cols. 3492, 4303. (is) As reported in the Cape Times, 20 March 1951. (19) Star report, 23 March. (O) Assembly. Hansard 9 col. 3336. (21) Cape Times reports. 15 and 16 March.

RELATIONS: 1961 7 Dr. Verwoerd's application for continued membership had not been withdrawn, he would have divided his colleagues into those who would continue to want to be rid of him, and those who would continue to want to have South Africa as a member of the Commonwealth. Dr. Verwoerd stated at the Press conference held in London that the proceedings which had obliged him to take "this regrettable step" in his opinion marked the beginning of the disintegration of the Commonwealth. Mr. Menzies was apprehensive too: he said, "To have a member of the Commonwealth virtually excluded . . . on a matter of domestic policy presents, in my opinion, a rather disagreeable vista of possibilities for the future"("). But Mr. Macmillan regarded South Africa's case as an exceptional one. He told the House of Commons, "I do not accept that this means the Commonwealth will, in future, turn itself into a body for passing judgment on the internal affairs of member countries". Consequences of South Africa's withdrawal from the Commonwealth On his return to South Africa, Dr. Verwoerd gave the impression that South Africa's relationship with Britain would remain largely unchanged; but, in the speech quoted earlier, Mr. Sandys said, "We must be careful not to destroy the value of Commonwealth membership by giving to those who are not members all the privileges of those who are". Some of the immediate economic effects are described in the chapter entitled "Employment"; but it will be a considerable time before the full consequences of South Africa's withdrawal become evident. The United Kingdom Government passed a Republic of South Africa Act which was designed to maintain unchanged for a year the relationship between the two countries while the implications were worked out. Shortly afterwards the Commonwealth Relations (Temporary Provision) Act, No. 41 of 1961, was passed in South Africa. This stated that the provisions of any law relating to Commonwealth relations that were in force in the Union immediately prior to 31 May 1961 would not be affected by the establishment of a republic, nor by the fact that South Africa had left the Commonwealth. If, however, in the GovernorGeneral's opinion any corresponding law in any other Commonwealth country was amended or repealed after the date mentioned, he would be entitled by proclamation to suspend or amend provisions of any South African law that related to the country (22) Cave Times report, 20 March.

8 ASURVEYOFRACE concerned. Copies of any such proclamations would have to be tabled in Parliament. South Africa will remain in the sterling area. REACTIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA Many members of the Nationalist Party did not disguise their pleasure that South Africa had left the Commonwealth. Dr. Verwoerd was addressing these people when he said, at the reception of welcome arranged on his return to Cape Town, "What happened is nothing less than a miracle. So many nations have had to get their complete freedom by armed struggle ... but here we have reached something which we never expected"("). Certain sections of the Non-White population were glad, too, for the reason that they felt they had the Commonwealth behind them in their opposition to discriminatory laws. If Dr. Verwoerd had been able to retain membership he would have received great acclaim and, possibly, increased support within South Africa. The cause of racial progress would thereby have been set back. Among the rest of the people there was initially anger over Dr. Verwoerd's handling of the situation-his decision to proclaim a republic, which precipitated the events at the conference. This feeling was coupled, so far as numerous Whites were concerned, with a certain resentment that these events had occurred largely because of Afro-Asian hostility and "interference". A period of bewilderment and confusion of thought followed. Many Whites realized that Commonwealth membership was tied to a partial shedding at least of the colour bar, and they wanted to cling to their privileges and position of dominance. By stressing the criticism of South Africa made by members of the Afro-Asian group, Dr. Verwoerd had succeeded in increasing fears amongst Whites of eventual Black domination. As will be described in the next chapter, during the months that followed, with a general election pending, Dr. Verwoerd tried to broaden his party's appeal as the spiritual home of all Whites who were dedicated to the defence of White interests as such. He represented South Africa's departure from the Commonwealth as a positive achievement. South Africa was better-off outside a body that was coming to be dominated by the Afro-Asian countries. It would be unrealistic and foolish to think of returning, especially if Britain were to join the Common Market, when Commonwealth preferences might disappear("'). During the same period the United Party moved discernibly to the right, and entered into an electioneering agreement with the (23) Cape Times, 21 March. (24) Speech as reported in the Rand Daily Mail. 24 August.

RELATIONS: 1961 9 (ex-Nationalist) National Union Party in the hope of capturing the votes of dissatisfied Nationalists. At its conference held in Bloemfontein during August 1961 the United Party passed a resolution to the effect that, if it regained power, it would apply for readmission to the Commonwealth only if this was "in South Africa's interests". Particularly noteworthy was the fact that the proviso was introduced by Mr. D. E. Mitchell of Natal, who only seven months previously had made the defiant speech, mentioned on page 3, rejecting the republic. In this same earlier speech Mr. Mitchell said("), "He (the Prime Minister) is placing us in jeopardy, where we could have remained completely secure in the Commonwealth". Many Non-White citizens of South Africa equated the change to republican status and the break from the Commonwealth with an assumption of power by the Afrikaner; but this in itself did not cause any particular disquietude, for they considered that there was unlikely to be any early radical change in White attitudes, in the absence of which they could be no worse off in a republic than under the monarchy. The view was widely expressed that Britain and the other Western Powers had been more concerned with preserving their trade with South Africa than with the rights of the Black men there. Many Africans feel that the English are wily and plausible: they would, on the whole, prefer to deal in political matters with the more blunt and downright Afrikaner, for then they know exactly where they stand. These attitudes may, of course, change if the Non- Whites are adversely affected by a deterioration in the economic situation as a result of the loss of Commonwealth membership. POLITICAL PARTY DEVELOPMENTS NATIONALIST PARTY Dissension within the Party ranks, and its temporary suppression During the past year there has been a ferment of agonized reappraisal of policies amongst Afrikaner intellectuals, especially in the Cape and particularly in regard to the Coloured people. It was mentioned in our last Survey(') that in July 1960 attention was drawn to this by "Dawie", the political commentator for Die Burger, who wrote, "The drive to a forward movement in Nationalist policy for the is becoming more and more strong. The most dramatic idea of course is . . . that the Coloured voters must be permitted to elect white or (25) Assembly Hansard 2 col. 452, 31 January 1961. (1) Page 133.

10 A SURVEY OF RACE brown members (of Parliament). This of course is only one part of the complex of plans which are being discussed by thinking people . . The "dramatic idea" was rejected by Dr. Verwoerd in a Press statement made on 24 November. He is reported to have said that this would be a springboard for the integration of the races, leading to biological assimilation. The policy should be one of parallel development. During the same month eleven leading professors and ministers of the three Dutch Reformed Churches published a book called Delayed Action, in which they called for a new outlook on South Africa's racial attitudes. This is described in more detail in a subsequent chapter, as are the repercussions within the Dutch Reformed Churches of the Cottesloe consultations, held in December, when delegates from the memberchurches in South Africa of the World Council of Churches met with representatives of the World Council itself. The consultation attacked certain major aspects of the Government's racial policies. Just before this gathering was held, Dr. Verwoerd told a Rand conference of the Nationalist Party that Nationalist leaders would have to stand "like walls of granite" on their colour policy because the existence of a nation was at stake. They could accept no policy of integration for the various groups: the "colour streams" were parallel and must remain so. But such a policy did not mean oppression-one group could not forever be the servant of another. Nationalists were prepared to ensure the growth and development of every group in its own sphere. It was the Government's duty to lead development into the different "streams"'). Dr. Verwoerd summoned the rarely-convened federal council of the Nationalist Party, which endorsed his interpretation of the party's policy towards the Coloured community. Meanwhile, the S.A. Bureau of Racial Affairs (Sabra) had been planning a congress on the "Position of the Coloured People", which was to have been held during April. On 6 February it was announced that this congress would be postponed indefinitely. As will be described later, there were very significant repercussions amongst the Coloured community. Groups and individuals who had not previously found it possible to take united action met and set up a planning committee to arrange a Coloured National Convention. Coloured leaders made statements associating their followers with plans being made by Africans to hold demonstrations at the time of the proclamation of a republic, at the end of May. In a statement made in the Assembly on 10 April(') Dr. (2) Star report, 1 December 1960. (3) Hansard 12 cols. 4191-3, 4314.

RELATIONS: 1961 11 Verwoerd further clarified his policy. His statement will be set out in greater detail later, but it is relevant to mention at this stage that he said the Bantu would eventually be able to develop into separate Bantu states, being granted full independence, "thereby buying for the White man his freedom and the right to retain domination in what is his country". Coloured people would be given opportunities of development in the "White state", firstly by means of local government, and secondly by way of managing affairs at present falling under the control of Provincial Councils. Thirdly, and in due course, methods should be evolved to give them further rights of selfgovernment so far as their national interests were concerned. The same applied to the Indians. But the political development of both groups would be limited to participation in a national council for Coloured (or Indian) affairs. Until the Coloured council performed its functions fully, Coloured representation in Parliament would remain as it was (i.e. four elected White representatives in the Assembly and one nominated White representative in the Senate). It appeared, by implication, that when the third stage mentioned by Dr. Verwoerd had been reached, Coloured representation in Parliament might cease. Indians would at no stage be granted this right. On 19 April Die Burger addressed an urgent appeal to moderate Coloured leaders not to join forces with African extremists or to participate in demonstrations, but to be patient while their friends in White circles, "including the governing group", exerted themselves more and more to get the necessary adaptations made. The leading article stated that many prominent Whites - "especially Afrikaners and Nationalists" - were going through a stage of hard thinking about the future of the Coloured people. Leaders of the Coloured National Convention movement replied to this article in an open letter to Die Burger, published on 25 April. They saw no reason to view the future with optimism, they said. They applauded and saluted those Afrikaners who were re-thinking the situation, but pointed out that this thinking had so far failed to remove a single hardship. They pleaded with Afrikaner intellectuals to convert their thinking into practical action. During April and May certain of these Afrikaner intellectuals held a series of talks with Coloured leaders, urging them to use their influence to cancel plans for combined Coloured and African demonstrations at the time of the establishment of the republic, and pointing out that there was much genuine goodwill towards the Coloured people in Afrikaner circles. It was reported that the Coloured men said they would be willing to consider this

12 ASURVEYOFRACE appeal only if the Whites present could arrange for the Government to hold top- level talks with Non-White leaders; but that two approaches made in consequence at a Cabinet level were unavailing( ). It was also reported(') that at a meeting of Afrikaner intellectuals held at Hermanus in the Cape an action committee was set up to try to establish a series of pressure groups with the aim of inducing the Government to modify its racial policies. Thereafter, discussion groups were formed in numerous centres. Towards the end of May the Moderature of the Nederduitse Gereformeerde Mission Church appealed to the Government to treat the Coloured people "in a just, reasonable and Christian manner". They said, "The Coloured people are just as much citizens of South Africa as the White people", and should be consulted in all matters affecting them. "We want to assure the people of our Church that we, as ministers of the Mission Church, are not unsympathetic as regards certain grievances which they have in connection with the treatment of their group. . . . The dignity of the human personality should always be remembered"('). On the same day, when talking in the Assembly about people who were "busy playing with fire" by suggesting the summoning of a National Convention, Dr. Verwoerd said('), "The state of the nation will remain healthy only so long as the policy of this government is supported in all respects". (These words were i talicised in Hansard). Early in June a regional conference of the Cape Nationalist Party was called to consider the party's policy in regard to Coloured affairs. Addresses were given by three Deputy Ministers. Any dissident elements present had apparently been induced to conform, for the conference "noted with pleasure -the manner in which the Government is applying the party's policy in respect of the Coloured population". Dr. Verwoerd again emphasized his attitude in a speech in the Assembly on 8 June, when he said('), "I do not, therefore, believe in this aim of one multi-racial nation. . . . It is an unrealistic policy to restore them (the Coloured) to the common voters' roll. . . . It would be impossible to entrench the White man's authority in the Cape Province .... Would Natal allow... that alongside a Coloured- controlled Cape Province there would also be an Indian-controlled Natal?" Asked directly whether he was in favour of Coloured voters having Coloured representatives in the House, he replied that he was not. "If a Government starts (4) Rand Daily Mal. 6 and 8 May 1961. (5) Sunday Times, 30 April. (6) Rand Daily Mail report. 23 May. (7) Hansard 18 co's. 6947-8. (8) Hansard 19 cols. 7572. 7577-9.

RELATIONS: 1961 13 following the road of political integration and it cannot go the whole way", the Prime Minister said, "it is playing with the most unrealistic policy possible". Dr. Verwoerd succeeded in reducing the amount of overt criticism within his party's ranks, particularly in Parliament, but the fire was not extinguished. That was, probably, one of the reasons why he decided upon a general election, to be held in October, eighteen months before it would normally have been due. This matter is discussed below. After the Hermanus meeting numbers of discussion groups sprang up in various parts of the country, composed of prominent Afrikaners and English-speaking business and professional men who were concerned about the future of South Africa and the impact of racial policies on the economic situation. Attempts were made to form a common platform on a non-party-political basis, and for this purpose the organizers drew up an eleven-point programme which, inter alia, accepted the republic, called for adequate Parliamentary representation of Coloured by Coloured if desired, and for the restoration of the representation of Africans by Whites(9). Nationalists' bid for the support of English-speaking South Africans Shortly after it had been decided that South Africa should become a republic -and leave the Commonwealth, two by-elections were held which involved straight fights between the Nationalists and the United Party. Both were in safe Nationalist constituencies. In the first, Bethal-Middelburg, the Nationalist majority was only very slightly smaller than it had been at the referendum; but in the second, Swellendam, the Nationalists gained a higher percentage of the votes cast than they had done the previous year. It was obvious that the party was certainly not losing ground. Appreciating that the main cultural objectives of Afrikaner Nationalism had been secured with the advent of the republic, Dr. Verwoerd decided to put less emphasis on the pursuit of purely Afrikaner interests and to concentrate on Black- White relations, thus promoting the conservative-liberal polarization which for a time had been obscured in the country's political life(1"). He determined to broaden his party's appeal as the spiritual home of White people who wished to defend White interests as such, thus converting Afrikaner nationalism into a much broader . This appeared to be an 'astute move, for the impact of events in Africa since the Congo upheaval was dominant in the thoughts (9) The Rand Daily Mail of 29 July gave full details of this programme. (00) Phrases used by Mr. Laurence Gandar in the Rand Daily Mail, 22 August 1961.

14 A SURVEY OF RACE of many English-speaking Whites, the suppression of Non-White unrest was at the time an apparent success, and the economic and diplomatic repercussions of Dr. Verwoerd's policies were not as yet widely evident. Addressing the Transvaal party congress on 16 August, the Prime Minister said(1, "I see the National Party to-day . . . as a party which stands for the preservation of the White man, of the White government in South Africa". Until recently it had contained mainly Afrikaans-speaking people, but he did not wish this to continue. When English-speaking people joined the Nationalists there was no justification for calling them traitors to their cause or group. "I say the same to my own people. When an Afrikaans-speaking person believes that the other direction is best, we should not look on him as being a traitor to the Afrikaners". Dr. Verwoerd, apparently, considered that the Nationalist Party would gain the allegiance of large numbers of people who had previously not voted for it in return for the possible loss of support by far fewer dissatisfied party members. Decision to hold a general election Although the five-year term of office of the existing Parliament did not expire until April 1963, Dr. Verwoerd decided to hold a general election during October 1961. It seemed that he had several motives-to gain the support of the many people who were concerned about developments in the North; to eliminate waverers in the Nationalists' Parliamentary ranks; to act before the economic repercussions of having left the Commonwealth became too marked and before subtle changes in long-established party political loyalties had developed too far; and to exclude the Progressives from Parliament. THE NATIONAL UNION The launching in February 1960 of the National Union by Mr. Japie D. du P. Basson, and its broad objectives, were described in the last issue of this Survey 1-. Very briefly, it aims at achieving a greater degree of co-operation between Afrikaans and English-speaking citizens, is opposed to measures that assail the dignity of the Non-White people, considers that the Coloured should have the right to elect their own Coloured representatives to legislative bodies, advocates the rapid development of Bantu areas on a basis of joint responsibility, favours the restoration of the African political rights which were removed in 1959, recognizes that many Africans have their permanent homes outside the (11) Rand Daily Mail report on the following morning. (12) Page 15.

RELATIONS: 1961 15 Reserves and feels that they should be given increased rights, and urges that diplomatic relations with other African states should be fostered. Generally speaking, the National Union's policy is a blend of traditional South African conservatism with an understanding of the need to make better provision for the Non-White peoples. Realizing that dissatisfied Nationalists were unlikely to join the United Party, which has always opposed the main goals of sectional Afrikanerdom, Mr. Basson has during 1961 developed his party as a political home for such people. The S.A. Bond, founded earlier, had a slightly more conservative policy than that of the National Union("). It was announced during April 1961 that these organizations had decided to join forces as a first step in the realignment of political parties in order to deal with the country's immediate problems and to unseat the Government. A full organizational merger never took place, however, and the Bond withdrew from the arrangement after the United Party and National Union entered into an election pact. It was reported("') that by June 1961 there were about 60 branches of the National Union. During the following month Mr. H. A. Fagan was :appointed leader of the Union-he is a former Chief Justice, a former Nationalist Minister of Native Affairs, and was a candidate for the State Presidency. Mr. Basson remained the National Chairman. CONSERVATIVE WORKERS' PARTY It was announced on 3 September 1961 that a group of White trade unionists from centre-of-the-road or right-wing unions had formed a Conservative Workers' Party and would put up candidates in certain Nationalist working-class constituencies. Spokesmen said they considered that the Government had "betrayed the interests of White workers". By concentrating on ideological aims it had allowed a recession to develop; and by paying attention to the development of industry in areas bordering on the African reserves rather than in the towns it was responsible for unemployment among Whites("). THE UNITED PARTY United Party Policy After South Africa left the Commonwealth, Sir de Villiers Graaff appealed "over the head of Dr. Verwoerd" to South Africans to unite in support of a policy different from that of the (13) Its policy was described in the Survey for 1955-56, page 3. (14) Rand Daily Mail, 10 June 1961. (15) Sunday Times report, 3 September.

16 A SURVEY OF RACE Africans to unite in support of a policy different from that of the Nationalists('". He pleaded for an ordered advance to a racial federation. Five steps should be taken, he said: (a) The Cape Coloured must be accepted as part of the Western group, returned to the common roll, and given the right to sit in Parliament. (b) It must be recognized that the Asian community is a permanent part of the population, and should be protected against inroads made by the Group Areas Act upon their traditional means of livelihood. Their future political status should be determined by immediate negotiation with them. (c) Urban Africans should be given parliamentary representation on a separate roll, and a stake in the maintenance of law and order by the reintroduction of a system of pass exemptions, the grant of freehold title, and the assurance of an undisturbed family life. (d) The African reserves should be developed with White capital, skill and initiative. Africans permanently resident there should be given a measure of self-government on an elected basis, and some form of parliamentary representation. (e) The policy of job reservation should be abandoned and replaced by the principle of the rate for the job. Later, at the United Party Congress held in Bloemfontein during August, Sir de Villiers elaborated on his race federation plan, which was endorsed by his party. The scheme must remain a flexible one, he emphasized, thus it was undesirable to formulate it in detail. The ultimate outcome would be the establishment of a central federal parliament, composed of representatives of races rather than territories. Each racial group would have a defined share in this government, Coloured people being grouped together with Whites. The basic rights of individuals, groups and areas would be entrenched constitutionally. All proposed parliamentary reforms would be laid before the electorate by way of a referendum or an election. The political units for administrative purposes might be large areas mainly inhabited by Whites or by Africans, such as the Transkei in the latter case. Alternatively, smaller areas that were predominantly White or predominantly Black might be grouped together, White with White and Black with Black. The first step would be to restore the Cape Coloured to the common roll and to grant them the right to sit in Parliament and provincial councils. Next, negotiations would be undertaken with Asians to determine their future political status. A distinction would be made between permanently urbanized Africans and those with their homes in the reserves. The former group would be represented in parliament by Whites, on the (16) Assemblv. 28 March 1961, Hansard 10 cols. 3860-1.

RELATIONS: 1961 17 basis of a separate voters' roll. In the reserves, the elective principle would gradually be introduced into local government institutions, and later a considerable measure of self-government would be granted there under the authority of the central parliament. Some form of parliamentary representation for rural Africans would eventually be accorded, not necessarily of the same nature as that provided for urbanized Africans('"). The United Party congress reiterated its policy of the maintenance of White leadership for the foreseeable future, but stated that the fruits of Western civilization should be shared with NonWhites capable of joint responsibility in administration, and that there ;should be respect for individual dignity, regardless of race. Inter-racial consultation at all levels was advocated. Election Pact with the National Union It was reported("8) that, during July, representatives of the United Party and the National Union met to discuss the possibility of forming a united front to fight the general election. Agreement was apparently not reached, but instead the two parties decided on an election pact with nine basic objectives, which, in summarized form, were:() 1. to pledge themselves to the fullest co-operation of Englishspeaking and Afrikaans-speaking citizens in the government; 2. to accept the republic, strive to protect it against attack, and secure its progress; 3. to uphold the White man's right of self-determination; 4. to eliminate from the legislation and administration, by way of continuous mutual consultation, those things that offend against the dignity of the Non-White groups; 5. in spite of differences between the two parties on the question of Non-White parliamentary representation, to co-operate in respect of the urgent matters on which there was full agreement; 6. to accept the plan for a race federation; 7. to develop the reserves with the aid of White capital, initiative and skill, while protecting the interests of Africans in these areas; to introduce controlled freehold title for responsible urbanized Africans; and to aim at a more rational and sympathetic application of such measures as the pass laws; 8. to establish effective machinery for consultation between the different race groups; and 9. to work for a rapid increase in the tempo of economic and industrial development, an improvement in the standards of (17) From reports in the Star, 2 June, Rand Daily Mail, 16 August and Sunday Times, 20 August 1961. (18) e.g. Sunday Times, 2 July. (IN) These ob.ectives were set out fully in the Star of 16 August.

18 A SURVEY OF RACE living of all sections of the population, and the fullest opportunities of employment for all. The Progressive Party offered to enter into an election pact with the United Party, but this proposal was rejected. In order to try to overthrow the Government the United Party was competing for votes in a conservative region of public opinion, thus it preferred to dissociate itself from groups to its left and to co-operate instead with the National Union, which party might succeed in gaining the votes of dissident Nationalists. THE PROGRESSIVE PARTY The policy of the Progressive Party was described in some detail in the previous issue of this Survey("0. During November 1960 a further point was decided upon: that party membership should be open only to those who qualified for the suggested common roll. Those admitted to the "B" or special roll would be organized into special branches, and would have no say in the formulation of party policy. Professor I. S. Fourie, previously an Independent M.P., joined the Progressives in June 1961. Between February and May this party participated in straight fights against the United Party in four by-elections - Hospital, Johannesburg (parliamentary), Green Point and Constantia (Cape provincial council) and a Johannesburg municipal ward. On an average it gained 30.2 per cent of the votes cast. Feeling confident that in the long run South Africa would accept its policies but aware that it had no hope of any pronounced success at the polls in 1961, the Progressive Party decided that at the general election it would concentrate on spreading its message as widely as possible. It resolved against entering into any threecornered contests where a split Opposition vote might result in a Nationalist victory. Instead, it would enter candidates in constituencies that were Nationalist strongholds or those in which Nationalists could not win. THE LIBERAL PARTY The policy of the Liberal Party, as described in previous issues of this Survey(1, remains unchanged. This party decided upon the innovation of using Non-White canvassers prior to the election. RESULTS OF THE GENERAL ELECTION At the general election in 1958 the Nationalists won 103 and the United Party 53 of the 156 seats in the House of Assembly. GO) Page 12. (") 1959-60 pagec 11. 1956-57 page 4, 1952-53 page 5. RELATIONS: 1961 19 But later, as was described in previous Surveys("), eleven Members of Parliament who had come to the conclusion that the United Party was showing an unwillingness to face up to the challenge of contemporary events broke away to found the Progressive Party. Mr. J. D. du P. Basson, M.P., who was expelled from the Nationalist Party after he had opposed the decision to abolish the parliamentary representation of Africans, founded the National Union Party. As those who had seceded from the original parties did not resign their seats, the support they would have obtained from the electorate was unknown. The new parties fought their first general election in 1961. As is mentioned earlier, the United Party entered into an election pact with the National Union. Mr. Basson, who was unlikely to succeed against the Nationalists in his original constituency, was given a safe United Party seat. Both the Nationalists and the United Party decided not to contest seats they had no hope of winning: as a result there were 50 Nationalist Party and 20 United Party members returned unopposed. The Progressives resolved on this occasion not to enter into any three-cornered contests where a Nationalist victory might result from a split Opposition vote. In the 86 constituencies that were contested there were 60 Nationalist candidates, 80 from the United Party/National Union pact, 23 Progressives, 4 from the Conservative Workers' Party, 2 Liberals and 9 Independents. The three last-mentioned groups did not achieve any success. The Nationalists gained three seats from the Pact, and the latter gained ten from the Progressives, the final state of the parties being: At dissolution New Parliament Nationalists ...... 102 105 United Party ...... 42 49 Progressive Party ... 11 1 National Union ...1 1 The total percentage poll was 77.75. Between 1958 and 1961 there had been a substantial swing of support to the Nationalists. It was clear that the uneasiness felt by numbers of Afrikaner intellectuals, described earlier, was not reflected in the election results. Some of them may have abstained from voting or have voted for other parties; but it appeared that, in general, although such people may have had doubts about the methods which the Government was adopting in pursuit of its policy of separate development, they nevertheless agreed that this policy was a desirable one. ('2) 1958-59 page 7, 1959-60 page 15.

20 A SURVEY OF RACE Other Afrikaners, even if more in sympathy with the aims of Mr. Basson's party than with those of the Nationalists, may have disapproved of his election agreement with their traditional opponents, the United Party. It may have been that if the election had been held at the normal time in April 1963 numbers of these people would have voted differently. Dr. Verwoerd's decision to hold it eighteen months earlier apparently paid dividends in this respect. He obviously gained substantially, too, from portraying his party as the one standing for the preservation of the White man in South Africa; in concentrating on White-Black relations. His main access of strength must have come from people who had previously supported centre groups but who had become convinced that the policy of separate development was the only one that would safeguard the future of the Whites. The United Party's strategy failed-its vaguely outlined plan for a race federation, that did not commit it to either separate development or integration, and its hope of using the National Union as a bridge by which dissatisfied Nationalists could cross to the Opposition. Although it was returned to Parliament with an increased number of seats, in fact it had shed support on both flanks. The National Union gained only the one safe seat that had been made available to Mr. Basson. Otherwise, the nearest it came to victory was in the Boksburg constituency, where its candidate lost by 1,507 votes to a Nationalist. The Conservative Workers' Party and the Liberals were defeated by large majorities, averaging 3,793 in the former case, against Nationalists, and 5,378 in the latter case, against United Party candidates. Progressive Party candidates made it entirely clear that they stood for a society based on merit, not race. They scored a much greater success than many people had thought was possible. They gained only one seat-that won by 564 votes by Mrs. Helen Suzman in Houghton, Johannesburg-but they came very close to victory, against United Party opponents, in , Johannesburg, where Mr. J. Cope lost by only 85 votes, and in District, where Mr. G. Forder lost by 175. There were four other constituencies in which the United Party majority over the Progressives was less than 900. It was evident that a more clear- cut polarity between liberal and conservative thinking was emerging in South Africa. According to the Star("), 800,590 votes were cast in the 86 constituencies that were contested, as follows: ('3) 21 October 1961.

RELATIONS: 1961 Percentage Number of votes of total Nationalist ...... 370,431 46.26 United Party ...... 302,875 37.54 National Union ...... 35,903 4.48 Progressive Party ...... 69,042 8.62 Conservative Workers' Party ... 6,229 1.07 Liberal Party ...... 2,461 0.31 Independents ...... 10,704 1.34 Spoiled papers ...... 2,945 0.37 800,590 99.99 It would appear that these figures are not correct, 11,317 votes cast for the National Union and 2,325 for the Conservative Workers' Party being in error credited to the United Party. Also, one of the Independents gained more votes than was stated in this Press report. Adjustments made to allow for these apparent mistakes would, however, make no substantial difference to the percentages given above. The results of the election of four representatives of the Coloured people of the Cape are described later. COLOURED POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS Disunity among Coloured people in the past The Coloured people have traditionally been very much divided amongst themselves. As Dr. 0. D. Wollheim pointed out in a paper given at a meeting of the Institute of Race Relations'), those in the subeconomic group have not been politically conscious, being more concerned with the struggle to obtain the essentials of life for their families than with politics. Dr. Wollheim estimated that about 30 per cent of those in Cape Town and 50 per cent of those in rural areas fall into this category. Many others, though better-off financially, have been apathetic: Coloured people, however well educated, have never had an effective voice in the formulation of Government policies. In the early 1940's a great cleavage took place in the ranks of the politically active minority over the question of the acceptance or otherwise of the Government- appointed Coloured Advisory Council. This breach has remained unhealed. As Dr. Wollheim pointed out, of the 10,000 to 15,000 Coloured people whom he estimated were actual paid-up members of any political organization early in 1961, support was divided between: (1) RR 141!61.

A SURVEY OF RACE (a) Conservatives-the Kleurlingbond, a rural group which supports the Government; and the Coloured People's National Union, led by Mr. George Golding, which gives qualified support to the Government-created Union Council for Coloured Affairs and Coloured Affairs Department. The latter group appears to be losing ground. (b) Moderates-the Coloured People's Congress (formerly known as the S.A. Coloured People's Organization), led by Messrs. George Peake, Reggie September and Barney Desai. This organization is part of the Congress movement and shares its views('). (c) Radical-the much smaller Non-European Unity Movement, led by Mr. Ben Kies, which developed from the Anti-C.A.D. movement of the 1940's, and stands for complete nonco-operation with Whites. During the year under review there have been various moves to create organizations that would foster greater unity and enlist the support of Coloured people who, although awake to their situation, did not belong to any of the bodies mentioned above. Transvaal People's Organization In last year's Survey(') an account was given of a conference of the local Coloured community that was convened by the Southern Transvaal Region of the S.A. Institute of Race Relations; of the decision to form an association; and of the six main objects proposed for this association. Thereafter, a draft constitution was drawn up. The name provisionally chosen was the Transvaal Association for the Advancement of Coloured People. Its suggested aims were to secure positive co-operation among all the Coloured people of the Transvaal in order to promote their economic, social and political advancement, and in particular, by all lawful means to strive for the six main objects mentioned above, which dealt with the removal of the colour-bar in political, industrial, educational, sporting and recreational fields and of restrictions in regard to land or premises. It was suggested that any person who supported these objects would be eligible to become a member. A public meeting, at which the Rev. J. Bergens was in the chair, was held on 18 March to bring the organization into existence. About 120 persons were present, including a few Africans, Indians and Whites. As a result of events mentioned earlier in this chapter, the feelings of Coloured people had hardened since the time when (G) Other menbers of the Congress movement are the Afr'ican National Congress (now banned), the S.A. Indian Congress. the Congress of Democrats and the S.A. Congress of rrade Unions. 0 Page 134.

RELATIONS: 1961 23 the original conference took place. They had become more politically aware. Moreover, they were increasingly resentful of being treated by the Whites as a separate, inferior group. The result was that there was a strong move at the meeting to create a non-racial rather than a Coloured body, and to bring political issues more to the fore-front than had originally been intended. After lengthy discussion the meeting decided to drop the term "Coloured" from the name, and to call the association the Transvaal People's Organization. About a third of those present disagreed and left the meeting. The chairman and the acting secretary resigned, and the whole matter has been left in abeyance. Establishment of the Coloured National Convention 1. Preliminary moves During February 1961, fifteen leaders of the Coloured community in the fields of religion, education, politics and cultural and trade union activities met in Cape Town. They were deeply perturbed over the Prime Minister's "granite wall" speech, and discussed the possible summoning of a national convention, and methods of bringing together organizations and individuals opposed to the system of apartheid and White domination. In a report entitled "The Malmesbury Convention", Mr. Dennis Brutus wrote, "It was not intended to supersede any of the existing organizations, or to form a new organization". A series of further meetings was held, other influential leaders being drawn in. Also there were consultations with African leaders. Mr. Brutus reports that it was agreed: "(a) The only policy that can succeed in South Africa is one of complete equality for all people. "(b) Having accepted that we stand for complete equality in a non-racial South Africa, we therefore reject all political and social agencies that have as their purpose the perpetuation of a system which implies the inferiority of, and imposes inequality upon, any South African of whatever race or colou;. "(c) Bearing in mind that the stated policy of the Government as enunciated by Dr. Verwoerd, and the political and social institutions which are being used to implement this policy, are entirely repugnant to, and inimical to, the true interest of the people, it was agreed that there could be no compromise or collaboration with the present Government. "(d) After consultation with, and the approval of, African opinion. it was decided to call an initial conference of 'Coloured people'. "(e) That the basis of discussion at the convention would be the

A SURVEY OF RACE clear and unmistakable demands of the people for: (i) the total abolition of the colour-bar in every sphere; (ii) full citizenship for all the peoples of South Africa". A planning committee was set up, with Mr. D. van der Ross as chairman and Mr. J. C. A. Daniels as secretary. Members toured the Union and set up further committees in Port Elizabeth, Kimberley, Durban, Johannesburg, East London, Pietermaritzburg, several Western Province towns, and in other centres. The conservative and radical groups mentioned earlier held aloof, but other organizations and many individuals previously non-political in their approach associated themselves with the movement. Among such organizations were the British Commonwealth Ex-Servicemen's Coloured League and Durban's Coloured Federal Council. The Cape Moslems (Indians and Cape Malays) also aligned themselves with the Convention group. A broader front emerged than had ever existed in the past. It was planned to hold a Coloured National Convention on 24 June. But, as will appear subsequently, in the meanwhile NonWhites had been planning demonstrations to take place at the end of May, when a republic was to be proclaimed. In order to forestall this plan, the Government banned all meetings, with limited exceptions, from 19 May to 26 June. Magistrates were empowered to grant exemptions. On 23 May the magistrate of Cape Town refused permission for the holding of the convention and for meetings of its organizing committees. The dates for the convention were then changed to a period from the evening of 7 July to 10 July inclusive. Some 800 invitations were sent out and a great deal of organizational work was carried out. 2. Meeting of the Convention By 6 July, about 150 delegates had already arrived in Cape Town or were on their way there. Late that evening the Minister of Justice, acting under the Suppression of Communism Act, banned the Coloured National Convention from meeting during the period 7 to 16 July at any place within the magisterial districts of the Cape, Bellville, Wynberg, Simon's Town, Paarl, Wellington, Somerset West, Stellenbosch or Worcester (an area about 110 by 60 miles in extent, stretching inland from the Cape Peninsula and including all the main urban centres there). Leading citizens of Cape Town held a protest meeting at which a former ex-Chief Justice, the Hon. A. van der Sandt Centlivres, was in the chair. Numerous organizations also protested, amongst them the Liberal Party and the Institute of Race Relations('). (4) RR 146/61.

RELATIONS: 1961 25 The district of Malmesbury, some 35 miles north of Cape Town, was not included in the banning order. The organizers made hurried plans to transfer the convention to a hall in Malmesbury town; but then heard that members of the Security Police were present there. At that stage a farmer in the district offered to allow the delegates to meet in the open on his property. Elaborate precautions to keep the matter secret were necessary and not all the delegates could be informed in time, but successful arrangements were made to transport to the farm more than 150 people, including representatives of all the main organizations that had been invited. 3. Findings of the Convention The convention adopted the formulation of policy as agreed upon earlier by the original leaders. The findings dealt with a variety of matters('). The convention declared that the "Coloured" people are a separate group only by discrimination, thus it rejected the principle of a separate racial status. It pledged itself to work for the creation of a nonracial democratic South Africa. For this a new constitution would be needed, which should be determined by a National Convention and should embody a Bill of Rights. A continuation committee was appointed to enter into negotiation with other bodies having similar aims with the object of holding non-racial conferences in the various areas preparatory to a National Convention. The convention called for the repeal of the Group Areas Act, condemned the industrial colour-bar and job reservation, and stated that education should be free, integrated, and compulsory and that all institutions of higher learning should be open to everybody. All laws which discriminate against people on a basis of race, colour or creed should be abolished. Active measures were suggested to raise the level of skill and the efficiency of the working population. It was considered that a re-division of the land should take place. Mr. D. van der Ross was elected chairman of the continuation committee of the convention, with Dr. R. E. van der Ross as deputy chairman and Mr. J. C. A. Daniels as secretary. Attitude of Coloured voters to the election As at 1 January 1961 there were 24,043 Coloured voters registered on a separate roll in the Cape, and 511 on the common roll in Natal") (no further Coloured voters have been registered in Natal since 1956, when the Separate Representation of Voters Act was re-validated). (5) Again, the xwriter is indebted to Mr. Brutus for sendimg a dctailed account of The findings. (6) The Minister of the Interior, Assembly 17 Februarv 1961, Hansard 4 col. 147.

26 A SURVEY OF RACE Very many more Coloured men in the Cape possess the necessary qualifications but have not registered because they are opposed to separate rolls and regard the present system of representation as ineffectual. The number of registered Coloured and Asian voters in that province reached a peak figure of 47,677 in 1953, which was during the height of the constitutional struggle over Coloured voting rights. By the following year it had decreased to 37,764, and by 1959 to 24,3060(. Having decided to reject all systems and agencies which seek to perpetuate the conception that the so-called Coloured people have a separate racial identity, the Coloured National Convention called on its members to boycott the election of four White persons to represent Cape Coloured voters in the Assembly. The Coloured People's Congress decided upon a similar attitude, and the Non- European Unity Movement has consistently refused to participate. However, the conciliatory Coloured People's National Union and Kleurlingbond announced that they would take part in the election. Results of the election In view of the attitude of most Coloured leaders to their system of parliamentary representation, the Progressive and Liberal Parties decided against putting forward candidates. The Nationalists did not do so, either. The Coloured people displayed very little interest. Mr. M. W. Holland (United Party) was returned unopposed in Outeniqua, as was Mr. A. Bloomberg (Independent) in the Peninsula. Of the five Independents who stood in the other two constituencies, Mr. C. Barnett was returned for Boland and Mr. G. S. C. le Roux for Karoo. The average percentage poll was only about 40 per cent: only 4,740 Coloured people voted. AFRICAN POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS Renewal of ban on the A.N.C. and P.A.C. It was mentioned in last year's Survey that on 8 April 1960 a proclamation was issued, to have effect for a year, declaring the African National Congress and the Pan-African Congress to be unlawful organizations. This ban has been renewed for a further period of twelve months, leaving Africans with no political organization through which they can express their views. Numbers of the political leaders have left the country: they have established a South African United Front with representatives in Dar-esSalaam, Cairo, London, Accra and New York. Other leaders have remained in South Africa, but it has been difficult for them () Otfiial )'ear Books of the Union. 1952-53 page 116, 1960 page 114. RELATIONS: 1961 27 to keep in touch with African opinion because some are prohibited from attending meetings or from leaving specified districts, numbers are serving prison sentences, and certain of the leaders, fearing imprisonment, have gone underground. Several further Africans have been prosecuted under the Unlawful Organizations Act of 1960 for allegedly having continued the activities of the A.N.C. or P.A.C. One of them was Canon J. A. Calata of the Anglican Church, whose offence was that he had two photographs, taken in 1939 and 1942, hanging on the walls of his home showing him as President of the A.N.C. in the Cape, and as a member of an A.N.C. deputation. He had resigned from this organization in 1956. Canon Calata received a sentence of 180 days suspended for three years(8); but others, accused of having actively promoted the objects of one or other organization, were more severely punished. Mr. A. B. Ngcobo, for example, was sentenced to two years' imprisonment'). "All-in" conference 1. Preliminary planning During December 1960 about forty prominent leaders in various fields of activity met in Johannesburg to discuss ways of uniting Africans in opposition to the proposed constitutional changes. Invitations had been sent out in the names of ex- Chief A. J. Luthuli, the Rev. N. B. Tantsi, Professor Z. K. Matthews, Mr. Duma Nokwe and Mr. W. B. Ngakane. The meeting was raided by Security Branch detectives, who seized a number of documents and temporarily detained twelve delegates for questioning in connection with their reference books. A continuation committee was appointed to plan an "all-in" conference with the object of unifying the African people. It was agreed that this conference would consider an action programme, including the possibility of calling on the Government to summon a national convention, representative of all the people of South Africa, to work out a new constitution. A cable was sent to the Secretary-General of the United Nations urging that a commission of observers be sent to Pondoland "to observe the alarming military operations against unarmed people by the South African Government". In January Mr. Jordan K. Ngubane, the chairman, said(") the continuation committee felt that a positive alternative to apartheid could not be produced by Africans alone. They should invite members of organizations representative of other racial groups to help formulate such an alternative, using methods that (s) Rand Daily Mail, 21 June 1961. (9) Star, 24 February. (10) Star, 25 January 1961.

28 A SURVEY OF RACE would eliminate racial friction. A united stand should be made on moral values which weighed on both sides of the colour line. For these reasons a multi-racial convention ought to be held after the "all-in" conference. Ex-members of the P.A.C. on the committee objected to the emphasis that was being placed on a multi-racial gathering. They were not prepared to participate in such a meeting. During March they resigned. Mr. Ngubane and others, including Mr. Paul Mosaka and Mr. J. C. M. Mbata, then suggested that preparations for the conference should be suspended while the differences were ironed out, for the principle of unity should be adhered to at all costs. They felt that the ex-members of the A.N.C. were using the continuation committee to further their own programme. It proved impossible to reach agreement, however, and these men also resigned. Thus, in the event, the conference was representative mainly of ex- members of the A.N.C. 2. Arrest of certain committee members and ex-members On 20 March, five days before the conference was due to start, ten of the original planners were arrested and were later charged with having contravened the Unlawful Organizations Act read with provisions of the Suppression of Communism Act. Three further arrests were made some days later. The men concerned were the Rev. N. B. Tantsi, the Rev. B. R. Rajuili, and Messrs. H. J. Benghu, J. Malie, J. C. M. Mbata, G. Mbeki, J. Molefi, P. Mosaka, W. B. Ngakane, J. Ngubane, A. Nzo, D. Nokwe and M. Shope. As has been mentioned, several of them had resigned from the committee before the arrests were made. They were granted bail but for some time were confined to the districts where they lived. Their trial is described on page 39. 3. Proceedings at the conference The conference was held in Pietermaritzburg on 25 and 26 March. More than a thousand delegates were present: as has been stated, they were mainly people who had supported the A.N.C. The venue was altered at the last moment because it was reported that the Special Branch had installed a microphone and tape recording equipment in the hall that had been booked. As it proved impossible to find accommodation for all the visiting delegates the meeting was continued through the night. The conference called for a national convention of elected representatives of all adult men and women, without regard to race, colour, creed or other limitations, to be held not later than 31 May. It was agreed that if the Government ignored this demand, the people would be called upon to organize mass demonstrations on the eve of the declaration of the republic, Africans would be urged not to co-operate with the republic or with any

RELATIONS: 1961 29 other form of government "which rests on force to perpetuate the tyranny of a minority", Africans would organize to carry out constant actions "to oppose oppression and win freedom", and the Indian and Coloured communities and "all democratic Whites" would be invited to join with them in opposition "to a regime which is bringing South Africa to disaster'1. A National Action Council was appointed which, during April, sent letters to several hundred political, church, industrial, commercial and other organizations urging that before 31 May they should voice strong public protests against the Government's apartheid policies, mobilize their members and supporters to demonstrate opposition to the Government and to reinforce the demand for a national convention, and break off all co-operation with the Government and any of its branches. The three-day "stay-at-home" demonstration planned by the council, and the action taken by the Government, are described in a subsequent chapter. Award of Nobel Peace Prize to ex-Chief A. J. Luthuli The Nobel Peace Prize for 1960 was awarded to ex-Chief A. J. Luthuli, who had been President-General of the banned A.N.C. The Nobel Committee said(") that "in spite of the unmerciful South African race laws, Luthuli has always urged that violence should not be used. To a high degree it is due to him that struggles in South Africa have not taken the form of bloody conflicts". Mr. Luthuli is the first South African to have received this honour. At the time of the award he was banned from attending gatherings and was confined to the rural Lower Tugela district of Natal. He was granted a ten-day passport to go to Oslo to receive the prize, but was refused the permission he had requested to visit Tanganyika en route. He was also unable to accept an invitation extended to him to visit the United States. In announcing that the temporary passport would be granted, the Minister of the Interior said(") that the Government could not understand or support the award, which was regretted in important circles in South Africa. Ex-Chief Luthuli's role in this country could not be deemed to have promoted peaceful community life. This award must necessarily rob the Nobel Peace Prize of all its high esteem in the judgment of objectively minded people. (11) New Age report, 30 March. (12) Rand Daily Mail, 24 October 1961. (13) Star, 3 November 1961.

30 ASURVEYOFRACE INDIAN POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS The larger of the two Indian political bodies, the S.A. Indian Congress, is now led by Dr. G. M. Naicker. With the other members of the Congress Group it has pledged itself to bring about a multi-racial state by non-violent means, exercised mainly in the economic field. The S.A. Indian Organization is both considerably smaller and more conciliatory than the Indian Congress. In giving evidence before the Group Areas Board, for example the Organization, accepting that the relevant Act is the law of the land, has sought to obtain the best deal possible for Indians in the circumstances. Congress, on the other hand, has consistently expressed its opposition to the removal of anyone. Like the members of other Non-White groups, Indians have become increasingly embittered during recent months. They have objected strongly to the creation of a Department of Indian Affairs and to the establishment of a separate university college for Indians. Events have caused the Indian Organization to become more anti-Government in its attitude than it was in the past and to move closer to the outlook of the Congress. Being a minority group in the country, Indians realize that some solution other than an exclusive White or Black nationalism is necessary for their survival. Thus the Indian Congress has aligned itself with the A.N.C. rather than the P.A.C. and supports multi-racialism. Members have a great respect for the older A.N.C. leaders, but are apprehensive about the spirit of nationalism evident in many of the younger ones. Congress has been fully behind the demands for a national convention. Indian leaders, very seriously concerned about the course of events in South Africa, have been gravely re-considering their policies("). The Southern Transvaal Region of the Institute of Race Relations convened a conference of the local Indian community, which was held during November 1960. Throughout the discussions the injustice of denying Indians any right to effective political participation in central, provincial and local governing bodies, and their consequent inability to have justifiable grievances redressed, was a constant theme(")5. THE FEDERATION OF S.A. WOMEN The Federation of S.A. Women, an inter-racial body whose President is Mrs. Lilian Ngoyi, held its first national conference for five years in Port Elizabeth during September 1961. It was (14) From a talk given by Miss Hansi Pollak at a meeting of the Institute of Race Relations. (15) The report of the conference was published as RR 227/60.

RELATIONS: 1961 31 preceded by a series of meetings in various centres of South Africa held to commemorate the march of women to the Union Buildings in Pretoria on 9 August 195606. About 186 delegates and hundreds of observers attended the conference. The main resolution passed was to the effect that apartheid, race discrimination and the lack of democratic rights constituted the greatest disabilities of all for the women of South Africa. To achieve equal rights and decent living conditions "we must end these political disabilities once and for all""'). Mrs. Ngoyi was subsequently banned from attending meetings for a period of five years. DEMONSTRATIONS PLANNED FOR THE END OF MAY PRELIMINARY PLANNING At the "All-In" African conference, described in the last chapter, a National Action Council was appointed to carry out the resolutions that had been passed. It was made known that Mr. was the honorary secretary; but otherwise the names of members were a close-guarded secret. The Coloured People's Congress decided to support the action resolved upon by the Africans. Towards the end of April it sent a letter to the Prime Minister, signed by Messrs. Barney Desai and Reg September, giving warning that if a national convention had not been called by 31 May the Coloured community would be asked to demonstrate its dissatisfaction with a republic based on a White minority. Two days later Mr. Mandela sent a similar letter from the African National Action Council1. Mr. Mandela announced in a statement to the Press(') that the demonstrations were not intended to be anti-White, and would be peaceful and disciplined. He called upon the Indian and Coloured people and "democratic" Whites to stage demonstrations too. A few days later the National Action Council distributed thousands of leaflets calling on "all freedom-loving South Africans of all races" to make the next six weeks "a time of active protest, demonstration and organization" against a Verwoerd republic('). Later, a call was made to all Non- Whites to remain at home on (16) See 1955/56 Survey, page 86. (17) New Age report, 7 September 1961. () Rand Daily Mail, 21 April and Sunday Times. 23 April. (2) Rand Daily Mail, 21 April. (3) lbild 1 May.

32 A SURVEY OF RACE Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, May 29, 30 and 31, the last day being a public holiday to celebrate the inauguration of a Republic. It was reported that Non-White people in the townships were stock-piling mealie- meal, sugar and tinned goods. ACTION TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT Statement by the Prime Minister Dr. Verwoerd stated in the Assembly on 14 April('), "I am prepared to say that we regard the present position as very serious and that we shall be equipped to meet it .... The Government... has instructed the organization at its disposal to prepare the most detailed plans". General Law Amendment Act, No. 39 of 1961 The General Law Amendment Bill was published on 5 May, and then rushed through Parliament. It amended three existing Acts. (a) Possible detention for twelve days without any charge having been proved The most important clause added a Section 108 bis to the Criminal Procedure Act of 1955. This provided that when anyone has been arrested, the Attorney-General, if he considers it necessary in the interests of public safety or the maintenance of public order, may direct that the person concerned shall not be released on bail or otherwise for twelve days after his arrest. Such an order may be rescinded before its expiration. These provisions will lapse on 1 June 1962 unless extended for periods not exceeding twelve months at a time by resolution of both Houses of Parliament. When introducing the measure at its second reading(') the Minister of Justice said that in times of great unrest it was unrealistic to expect the police and the Attorney-General to formulate and submit charges to the courts within forty-eight hours in respect of every person arrested in the interests of public safety. (This is the procedure which must normally be followed). (b) Possible trial without jury for murder or arson Another important amendment to the same Act added murder and arson (or attempted murder or arson) to the list of offences in respect of which the Minister may order a trial before a judge without a jury. He told Parliament") that some (4) Hansard 12 col. 4553. (5) Assembly, 8 May 1961. Hansard 16 col. 6061. (6) Col. 6062.

RELATIONS: 1961 33 such trials last a considerable time, and it is undesirable for private citizens to be taken away from their normal activities for long periods to serve on juries. (c) Prohibition of gatherings Other provisions of the new measure made amendments to the Riotous Assemblies Act of 1956. Section two of this Act empowers a magistrate to prohibit public gatherings in public places if he considers these may seriously endanger the public peace. It also empowers the Minister, if he considers that any such gathering may cause feelings of hostility between Whites and Non-Whites, to prohibit the gathering, or to prohibit any particular person from attending it. The principal Act rendered it an offence to convene, preside at or address a prohibited meeting. In terms of the amending measure it is now also an offence to encourage, promote, or by means of threats cause the assembly or attendance of a prohibited meeting. The maximum penalties on conviction for a contravention of this provision were previously three months' imprisonment for a first offence, and six months' for a second or subsequent offence. These periods have been increased to one year and two years, respectively. It was previously an offence to print, publish, distribute or in any way circulate notice of a prohibited gathering. Now it is also an offence to advertise it or in any other manner make it known. Maximum penalties for these offences remain R100(') or six months' imprisonment. Head constables of the police, as well as inspectors or captains or more senior officers, are now able to order a prohibited or a riotous gathering to disperse. Maximum penalties on conviction for failing to depart have been increased from or three months' imprisonment to R400 or one year's imprisonment. (d) Intimidation The provisions of the principal Act relating to intimidation have been slightly widened; and the onus of proving innocence has been placed on an accused person. (e) Calling-in of fire-arms The new measure also amended the Arms and Ammunition Act of 1937, stating that the Governor-General (now the State President) may by proclamation require any person who holds a valid licence to possess a fire-arm to surrender this licence to a magistrate. Magistrates may issue substitute licences. Persons holding arms for which they do not possess (7) R1 (one rand)= ten shillings.

34 ASURVEYOFRACE licences may be required to apply for these before a specified date. Defence Amendment Act, No. 12 of 1961 Another measure passed at this time was the Defence Amendment Act. Firstly, it conferred power on the Minister of Defence to order any person or persons or class of persons to evacuate or assemble in any particular building or premises or area in time of war or during operations for the prevention or suppression of internal disorder. The maximum period for which such an order can remain in force is four days. When introducing the Bill the Minister of Defence said' that this clause was necessary in the interests of the safety of the public. If street fighting ever broke out, the public might congregate in the area and expose themselves to serious danger if power to remove them did not exist. Also, people living in isolated areas could more easily be protected if they were assembled in one central spot. There was no intention of establishing concentration camps. Powers which the Governor-General had under the Defence Act of 1957 to authorize certain officials to commandeer vehicles, equipment, foodstuffs and other materials "in time of war or internal disorder" were extended by the amending Act to make it possible for this action to be taken "in time of war or during operations for the prevention or suppression of internal disorder". Another amendment to the Defence Act empowered the Governor-General to authorize any officer of the Defence Force to assume control of the railways or any air service in time of war or during operations for the prevention or suppression of internal disorder. Formerly this power could be exercised only in time of war. Other provisions of the amending measure made it possible for the armed services to be mobilized more rapidly than was formerly feasible. A Progressive Party member, the Hon. H. G. Lawrence, pointed out(') that the term "internal disorder" was not defined in the Bill. It was not disputed that there should be adequate powers to maintain law and order, he said, but if it was necessary to embark upon operations for the prevention or suppression of internal disorder, then the stage had been reached when the country was in a state of emergency and the Government should say so. Amendments which would have restricted the use of the powers envisaged in the Bill to a time of war or a state of (8) Assembly, 20 February 1961, Hansard 5 cols. 1564-5. (9) Cols. 1577-8. RELATIONS: 1961 35 emergency proclaimed under the Public Safety Act were moved by the Progressive Party, but were rejected. Defence Further Amendment Act, No. 42 of 1961 This measure, introduced during April 1961, made provision for longer periods of military training for White youths selected by ballot. During the debate in the Senate1"), the Minister of Defence said that the Government intended expanding the Permanent Force; bringing all units of the Citizen Force to combat instead of peace-time strength; increasing the number of rifle commando units and providing modern weapons for them; appointing an inter-departmental committee to co-ordinate internal security work between the Defence and Police Forces; and speeding up the local manufacture of arms and munitions. It was announced on 23 May(") that the was to be revived, but that members would not be armed. Police Amendment Act, No. 53 of 1961 The Police Amendment Act provided, inter alia, for the establishment of a reserve police force-a citizen unit to assist in performing ordinary police duties when regular members are required for more urgent tasks. The Minister of Justice said1" the Government envisaged that a reserve force of about 5,000 members would be recruited initially. Membership would for the time being be limited to White citizens who were prepared to undergo training at police stations without payment. Banning of meetings during May and early June On 19 May the Government published a notice(") stating that as it had reason to believe that the objects of communism would be furthered by the assembly of any gathering, except as specifically excluded, all gatherings were prohibited during the period 19 May to 26 June except: (a) those held for the purpose of divine worship in a place ordinarily used for worship; (b) those held for the purpose of instruction imparted under any law (e.g. school and university classes); (c) gatherings held exclusively in connection with a funeral; (10) On 26 April 1961. Senate Hansard 12 cols. 3679 et seq. (11) Rand Daily Mail of that date. (12) Assembly 9 June 1961, Hansard 19 col. 7692. (13) G.N. 762/1961.

36 ASURVEYOFRACE (d) statutory meetings held exclusively for the business of a statutory body, and meetings held in terms of the Industrial Conciliation Act and confined to lawful business; (e) gatherings exclusively for theatrical or cinema entertainment; (f) meetings for which a magistrate had given written permission "in the interests of the continuation of normal activities in his district". It was mentioned in the previous chapter that the Coloured National Convention was prevented from meeting during this period. Further meetings for which permission was refused included those planned by the Liberal Party, the Black Sash and certain other organizations. The circumstances that led to the lifting of this ban are described below. Raids and demonstrations by the Police and Defence Force On 28 April security detectives and uniformed police raided very many offices and private homes in a search for evidence in connection with the demonstrations. Numbers of the persons suspected of having such information were away in hiding. Then, between 3 May and the end of that month thousands of policemen conducted extremely large-scale raids, all over the country, to round up Africans suspected of vagrancy, contraventions of the pass laws, tax offences or more serious crimes-those who are loosely termed the "tsotsi element". According to an unofficial Press estimate'"), between 8,000 and 10,000 Africans were arrested during this period. During the last ten days of May all police leave was cancelled, and Citizen Force and Commando units were "brought to a state of preparedness for service''15. On 24 May a new wave of police raids was launched, designed to trap the leaders of the planned demonstrations. This met with but limited success as most of these leaders had gone underground. The army staged demonstrations of strength, particularly in the Non-White areas of the towns. THE DEMONSTRATIONS Further deterrents During May the State, the railways, several local authorities and various private employers warned their African employees that they would be penalized if they stayed away from work at the time of the demonstrations. Full police protection was (!-;) Rand Dai., Mail, 25 May. 1) Term used by the Prime Minister, Assembly 23 May, Hansard 18 col. 6945.

RELATIONS: 1961 37 promised for those who went to work: this was, in fact, provided, and the police are reported to have acted with restraint. Ex-P.A.C. members voiced their opposition to the demonstration by issuing leaflets and organizing a word of mouth campaign. Further leaflets advising Africans not to heed the stay-athome call were issued by mysterious bodies that called themselves the "Pathfinders", the "Sons of Zululand", etc. Events from 29 to 31 May The stay-at-home demonstration was planned to commence on 29 May and to last for three days. Early on the morning of the first day it was estimated that between 50 and 60 per cent of Johannesburg's African workers had stayed away; but as the day wore on it became apparent that large numbers had remained in the shelter of their homes until they were certain that police protection would be available. According to a Press report(6), the city's Manager of Non-European Affairs judged that later in the day about 20 per cent of those employed in commerce and between 20' and 40 per cent of the industrial workers were absent. It was stated17) that some clothing factories in Germiston were affected. Indian traders closed their shops. There were only small isolated incidents, such as at Phomolong railway station on the Reef when two young Africans tried to escape after they and several companions had been arrested. The African response in Cape Town was extremely small, for these workers were afraid of losing their jobs and being sent back to the reserves. It was estimated1)> that some 25 per cent of the Coloured and Malay factory employees stayed away. The Moslem community held a fast. In Port Elizabeth about ten per cent of the Africans and between 30 and 50 per cent of the Coloured absented themselves from work. A few incidents of violence did occur here, when clashes took place between Africans who had supported the stayat-home and those who had not. It was reported that three people were killed and others assaulted and admitted to hospital. A mob attacked the driver and conductor of a bus, who were rescued by the police19). The response in Durban followed a similar pattern. It was estimated2") that between ten and fifteen per cent of the Africans, and between 50 and 60 per cent of the Indians and Coloured, (16) Rand Daily Mail, 30 May. (17) Star, 29 May. (18) Sunday Times, 4 June. (19) Rand Daily Ma!l, 30 May and 1 June. (20) Figures given by Miss Hansi Pollak in an address to the Institute of Race Relations.

SURVEY OF RACE stayed at home. Indian stores were closed for the full three-day period, in spite of the fact that police protection had been offered. According to a Press report(1 six Africans at Cato Manor attacked African passengers in an Indian-owned bus, but were repelled after a brief fight. There was a certain bitterness among Indian workers who had responded to the call against Africans, who had not, particularly in view of the fact that Indians have a very real fear of losing their jobs to Africans. In many of the towns Indian and Coloured traders closed their premises for the full three-day period; but, except in cases where active trade unions were working in support of the demonstrations, industrial and commercial employees who had initially responded began returning to work on 30 May. By the third day the country returned to near-normal conditions. Demonstrations were staged by some university students. As will be mentioned in a subsequent chapter, African students at Fort Hare boycotted their classes, as did the pupils at certain schools for Africans. About 300 White students of the branch of the University of Natal in Pietermaritzburg attempted to hold a placard demonstration but were dispersed after the police had arrived("). The police arrested about seven White students of Rhodes University who are reported to have set a bonfire alight and erected a street barricade, but later released them without laying a charge(2"). Small numbers of White and Non-White students at the Universities of Cape Town and the Witwatersrand, and the Non-White medical students at the Natal Medical School, stayed away from their classes. By 2 June the authorities began granting extended leave to Citizen Force and Commando troops who had been called up some ten days earlier. Probable reasons for the comparative failure of the demonstrations Various reasons were advanced for the comparative failure of the demonstrations. It would appear, firstly, that the appeal had been too abstract. People had been asked to show their opposition to a "Verwoerd republic"; but this call did not grip the imagination of Non-Whites, who felt that their lot would be no different whether South Africa was a republic or not. In view of the absence of positive gains as a result of past demonstrations, many Africans were probably experiencing a sense of disillusionment, which could only have been dispelled by active, imaginative leadership. But the leaders were of necessity shadowy figures. The membership of the "All-In" African National Action Council had been kept secret: only the name (21) Rand Dai'y Mail, 1 June. (2') Star. 29 May. (23) Rand Daiy Mail, 1 June.

RELATIONS: 1961 39 of Mr. Nelson Mandela was revealed, and, leading an underground existence and continually evading the police, he was never seen. Furthermore, African leadership had been divided and the P.A.C. had strenuously opposed the demonstrations. Then again, no public meetings could be held from 19 May onward. A further cogent reason was probably the unwillingness of many Africans to risk losing their pay, and possibly their jobs, for a cause that was somewhat remote from their daily lives. Numbers of those who stayed away from work were in fact dismissed. One of the most important deterrents had been the Government's strong show of force. In the face of this the Africans felt helpless. Finally, it is undoubted that the "tsotsi-types"-who play a self chosen intimidatory roll-contributed to the success of previous demonstrations by threatening reprisals on those who failed to respond. In this case the police had rounded up unemployed Africans in the towns who might have acted in this way. The campaign failed in its aim of forcing the Government to convene a multi- racial convention; but it certainly did have the effects of detracting from the success of the republican celebrations and of awakening the Government and public opinion to the potential power of the Non-Whites. AFTERMATHS Lifting of the ban on public meetings Dr. Z. J. de Beer of the Progressive Party challenged the validity of the ban on public meetings and maintained that it was unnecessary for him to obtain a magistrate's permission for a party meeting in his constituency planned for 15 June. He asked the Supreme Court to declare the ban invalid on the ground that the Minister of Justice could not have brought his mind to bear on every conceivable kind of gathering likely to be held throughout the country, and could not have decided that each and every one of them would further the aims of communism. According to reports(2"), the Minister at first intended to contest the action, which was set down for hearing on 6 June; but later decided, instead, to lift the ban as from that day instead of 26 June, the date originally determined. Its validity could not, thus, be tested. The Department of Justice agreed to pay the legal costs. Fate of leaders of the demonstrations It was mentioned in the previous chapter that on 20 March and subsequent days thirteen of those who had originally planned (24) Rand Daily Mail, 27 and 31 May. 6 June

40 A SURVEY OF RACE the "All-In" conference were arrested, although several of them had resigned from the organizing committee("). They were charged with contraventions of provisions of the Unlawful Organizations and Suppression of Communism Acts. The case opened in the Johannesburg Regional Court on 15 June. Counsel for the defence argued that the indictment revealed no offence and was vague and embarrassing. "The State has presented a charge", he said(")6, "which if adjudged valid will have the effect of snuffing out every principle of free political thinking and discussion". He applied for the indictment to be quashed. After an adjournment the magistrate refused this application, but in doing so is alleged to have referred to documents which had not been before the court. The defence gave notice of application to the Supreme Court for an exception to this ruling, submitting that the magistrate had "committed a gross illegality and an irregularity" in his judgment(7). This application was refused. The trial in the Regional Court began on 25 September. The thirteen men were accused of publishing documents calling for the "All-In" African conference, which act was calculated to further the following objects of the unlawful African National Congress: 1. "to unite the African people in a powerful and effective instrument to secure their own complete liberation from all forms of discrimination and national oppression; 2. "to strive for the attainment of universal adult suffrage and the creation of a united democratic South Africa on the principles outlined in the Freedom Charter; 3. "to support the cause of national liberation and the right to independence of nations in Africa and the rest of the world'28). While the trial was in progress one of the accused, Mr. Joe Molefi, fled the country. He was also a treason trial accused, was detained during the 1960 state of emergency and the antiRepublican "stay-at-home" in May 1961, and was due to appear in court on a charge under the Unlawful Organizations Act of furthering the objects of the banned P.A.C.011). On 18 October the other twelve men were sentenced to twelve months' imprisonment each, but were allowed out on bail pending appeal. A warrant for Mr. Molefi's arrest was issued. Mr. Nelson Mandela, for whose arrest a warrant had been issued, decided to remain in hiding and to continue the anti-Gov(25) See page 28. (26) Star report, 15 June. (27) Ibid, 20 June. (28) Sunday Times. 1 October. (20) Rand Da'lv Mail. 12 October.

RELATIONS: 1961 41 ernment campaign from underground. This meant that he was no longer able to practise his profession as an attorney. Messrs. Barney Desai, Reg September and Alex la Guma, who had led the campaign from the Coloured side, were in hiding for some weeks but eventually decided to risk returning to their normal activities. On doing so they were arrested on charges under the Suppression of Communism Act. The charges against Messrs. September and la Guma were later withdrawn, no reason being given. Meanwhile they had been held for twelve days without bail. Mr. Desai and also Mr. George Peake, who, too, were originally held for twelve days without bail, appeared in court during September on charges of having incited Non-White people to stay away from work. Counsel for -the defence applied for the charges to be quashed on the ground that they disclosed no offence and were "vague, embarrassing and prejudicial" to the accused. This application succeeded in Mr. Desai's case, and the charges against Mr. Peake were then withdrawn(3"). Others who were detained Large numbers of people were detained for twelve days without charges having been preferred against them. Four Liberal Party members, for example, were arrested in Pretoria on 20 May, and spent twelve days in the cells. On 2 June they were released on payment of R100 bail each. Then, on 15 June, the case was withdrawn. There were numerous other instances in which charges were withdrawn without explanation. This happened to Mr. Zoot Mohammed of Cape Town, who was arrested on 28 May on a charge of furthering the aims of communism. After twelve days in gaol he was released on R200 bail. He appeared in court on 22 June; but on 3 July the charge was withdrawn. Mr. Timothy Holmes, employed on the staff of a liberal fortnightly, and a Coloured co-worker, had a somewhat similar experience. They were arrested when re-entering South Africa after a visit to Swaziland. In their case detention for twelve days was not ordered, thus they were released at the end of 48 hours because no charge had by then been laid. Just as they were about to drive off, however, they were re-arrested as the result of an urgent telephone call and charged with incitement. Next day they were released on their own recognizances, and later they were told that the charge had been withdrawn. No explanation was given("). (30) Star report, 21 September. (31) Cases reported in the Sunday Times, 23 July 1961.

A SURVEY OF RACE UNREST AND DISTURBANCES THE TRANSKEI VIOLENCE THAT OCCURRED BETWEEN MARCH AND NOVEMBER 1960 Since the end of 1959 there has been unrest in the five eastern districts of the Transkei, bordering on Natal, viz Bizana, Flagstaff, Lusikisiki and Tabankulu (Pondoland), and Mount Ayliff (East Griqualand). Reasons for the disturbances, and the events that occurred up to October 1960 were described in detail in last year's Survey('): briefly, they arose out of opposition to the Bantu Authorities and land rehabilitation systems. One of the most serious of the happenings that took place during this period was a clash between tribesmen and the police in a valley adjoining Ngqusa Hill on 6 June, when eleven Africans were killed and thirteen wounded. The findings of a Departmental Committee of Enquiry were also described in the 1959-60 Survey('): these were rejected by a meeting of some 6,000 Pondo at Imzizi Hill near Bizana, those present deciding to refuse to pay their taxes as a sign of their opposition to the Bantu Authorities system. A boycott of stores run by Whites in Bizana was also decided upon. It was reported') that a movement known as the "Congo" (Ikongo), the hierarchy of which was called "the Hill", was behind the disturbances. This organization, run on a cell system, was said to be a second and violent stage of what had started as a peaceful pressure group. Government spokesmen and magistrates04) maintained that it was led by "irresponsible agitators" from outside the Transkei. People were reputedly terrorized into joining and required to pay subscriptions towards the defence of those involved in court actions. Further outbreaks of violence occurred, particularly in the Flagstaff district. According to Press reports, on 20 November a police party was ambushed, stoned and fired upon, the tribesmen dispersing only after the police had fired back over their heads. Five more kraals were burned down('). On the previous day some hundreds of tribesmen gathered illegally at Ngqindilili Hill in the same area to discuss their (1) Pages 39 et seq. (2) Page 45. (3) Sunday Times, 27 November 1960, Star, 2 December, Contact, 28 January. (4) e.g. Rand Daily Mail, 25 March 1961, Star, 25 August. (5) Rand Daily Mail, 21 November.

RELATIONS: 1961 43 urievances. Vukayibambe Sigcau, the half-brother of the Parahmount Chief, is said to have informed the police of the whereabouts of the meeting, and to have accompanied them when they w ent to disperse it. According to reports('), tear- gas bombs were thrown, followed by shots. Vukayibambe reputedly fired two shots oxer the heads of the crowd. One African is said to have been killed during this affray, and four were admitted to hospital with gunshot wounds. That evening a crowd intent on revenge ad vanced on Vukayibambe's kraal but was repulsed. Next night a stronger party came, killed Vukayibambe and two of his headmen, seriously injured two of his cousins, and razed his kraal of ten huts. It was reported that, in retaliation, his supporters burned five kraals belonging to the assailants. A few days later there was another flare-up in the Flagstaff district, sixty huts being set on fire('). ACTION TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT Chiefs empowered to arrest White "agitators" The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development announced on 22 November 1960(') that African chiefs in the Franskei would immediately be granted powers to apprehend and hand over to the police "White Communist agitators" who were operating there. Regulations for the Transkei Special regulations for the administration of the Transkeian Territories were gazetted on 30 November (R 400) and amended on 14 December (R 413). A. Regulations that applied throughout the Transkei Certain of them applied immediately throughout the Transkei: 1. Entry and departure The Minister was empowered to prohibit any person from entering or being in the Transkei, or from leaving it. 2. Meetings It was laid down that, with certain exceptions, no meeting or gathering of more than ten Africans might be held unless with the permission of the Native Commissioner, who might stipulate conditions, and might prohibit any person from holding or addressing or being present at any assembly. 0) Rand Daily Mail, 22 November and 11 May. Siar, 23 and 27 November. (7) Star, 25 November. (0) Rand Daily Mail, 23 November.

A SURVEY OF RACE Meetings of Bantu Authorities, and those convened for official or judicial purposes, could be held without permission. Unless specially prohibited, so could sporting events, bona fide church services, funerals, entertainments, meetings held in connection with the domestic affairs of a kraal, business meetings of statutory bodies, and gatherings held for the purpose of instruction under any law. A Native Commissioner, member of the police, officer or N.C.O. of the Defence Force, chief or headman might order persons present at an unlawful meeting to disperse. If such an order was not obeyed forthwith, force might be used to exact compliance. It was rendered an offence to be present at an unlawful meeting or to disobey an order in connection therewith. 3. Actions deemed subversive It was also rendered an offence: (a) to make any verbal or written statement or to do any act which was intended or was likely to have the effect of interfering with the authority of the State, one of its officials, or a chief or headman, or which contained any threat that any person would suffer loss, violence or inconvenience; (b) to organize or take part in a boycott of a meeting convened by a State official or a chief or headman, or a boycott against any person with the object of causing him loss or inconvenience; (c) for an African to refuse to obey a lawful order issued by his chief or headman, or to treat a chief or headman with disrespect. 4. Removal of subjects by a chief Any chief so authorized by the Minister might order any African to move, with his household and property, from one place to another within the chief's area of jurisdiction. It would be an offence to disobey such an order. Appeals might be lodged within thirty days to the Native Commissioner, whose decision would be final. If an African on whom such an order was served did not appeal, or if his appeal failed, the chief might use force to compel him to obey, and might demolish his huts without incurring any liability for compensation. 5. Assistance available to officials and chiefs It was provided that any member of the police or the Defence Force might render assistance, including the use of force, to a Native Commissioner, chief or headman who was acting in terms of the regulations.

RELATIONS: 1961 45 6. Trials and penalties If specially authorized by the Minister, a chief who had been granted powers of criminal jurisdiction might try and punish any African in his area who was accused of an offence under the regulations. Such chiefs could impose maximum penalties of a fine of £50, or four head of large stock, or twenty head of small stock, or, in default of payment, three months' imprisonment. Should a fine not be paid the offender must be arrested and brought to the Native Commissioner within 48 hours. Written records of the trial and sentence must be kept. Appeal lay to the Native Commissioner. If he confirmed the conviction, he might increase the sentence to maxima of £300, or three years, or both, or imprisonment without the option of a fine. Similar sentences might be imposed for other convictions under the regulations, for example of non-Africans, or of Africans who did not fall under the jurisdiction of a chief who had been granted the powers mentioned above. 7. Arrests without warrant The amendment to the regulations stated that whenever a Native Commissioner or police officer or N.C.O. was satisfied that anyone had committed an offence under the regulations or any law,' or intended to do so, he might without warrant cause him to be arrested. He might likewise arrest persons whom he considered to be in possession of information relating to an offence. Such persons would be held in custody until the Native Commissioner or policeman was satisfied that they had fully and truthfully answered all relevant questions put to them, or until the Minister ordered their release. No persons arrested in terms of this regulation would be allowed to consult with a legal adviser unless with the Minister's consent. 8. Saving clauses No interdict might be issued for the stay of any order given under the regulations. No civil action arising out of the operation of the regulations might be issued against the State, a Cabinet Minister or State employee, a member of the Defence Force, a chief or headman, or any person acting under their direction. B. Regulations governing entry into specific districts and possession of firearms There were other regulations that might be applied in specified areas. In terms of R 1979 of 30 November they were

46 A SURVEY OF RACE brought into force in the districts of Bizana, Flagstaff, Mount Ayliff, Lusikisiki and Tabankulu. With certain exceptions, it was rendered an offence for anyone not resident therein to enter any of the districts mentioned without a permit from the Native Commissioner on which conditions might be stipulated. The onus of proof of residence rested on the person concerned. Appeal against the refusal of a permit lay to the Chief Native Commissioner, whose decision was final. Those exempted were persons travelling through the area by public transport on unbroken journeys, bona fide travellers with permits issued by a N-:tive Commissioner or police station commander, and certain otdzrs. Among those not exempted were Africans who had been away from the district for the purposes of employment or who habitually resided elsewhere, even if they were occupiers of dwellings within the district, or were registered taxpayers there, or owed allegiance to chiefs there. Non-Africans who did not live in the district permanently or habitually were also not exempt. On the expiry of their periods of validity, permits had to be surrendered. Africans issued with them had to report their arrival and departure to a specified chief. Every adult, of the apparent age of eighteen years and over, was obliged to report the presence of any person who was unlawfully in one of the specified districts, and was guilty of an offence if he failed to do so. A chief could without warrant arrest anyone who failed to satisfy him that his presence in the district was lawful. Arrested persons had to be taken to the Native Commissioner or to the nearest police station without undue delay. If anyone was convicted of entering a prohibited area unlawfully, a magistrate's court or the Supreme Court might order that any motor vehicle that was used to convey him there was forfeited to the State. All persons in the specified districts were required to surrender any arms or ammunition in their possession to the Native Commissioner. In his discretion the latter might grant a permit authorizing an applicant to retain his firearms. Appeal against the refusal of such a permit lay to the Chief Native Commissioner, whose decision was final. C. Regulations governing departure from prohibited areas There were further regulations which might be applied in specified areas but which, in the event, were not brought into force. They stipulated that it would be an offence for any resident of a prohibited area to absent himself without a permit. This

RELATIONS: 1961 47 would not apply to chiefs, headmen, or members or employees of Bantu Authorities who were travelling in the course of their official duties, nor to persons who were required to appear in a court of law outside the area. Certain action taken under these regulations On 27 January 1961(') the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said in the Assembly that Paramount Chiefs Botha Sigcau, Victor Poto and Sabata Dalinyebo and Chief Kaiser Matanzima had been granted the extended powers of criminal jurisdiction described above, and had been authorized to order the removal of Africans from one place to another. (New Age reported later(1") that Chief Kaiser Matanzima had given Mr. and Mrs. Abel Ntwana thirty days within which to move to the location where he had established his headquarters). The Minister said, too, that 361 Africans had been arrested for questioning and detained for periods ranging from two to 43 days. None of them had asked permission to consult with their legal advisers. The Deputy Minister reported on 21 February(" ) that up to 30 January five motor vehicles belonging to Africans had been declared forfeited to the State. In three instances appeals had been noted. News to be reported through official channels only It was announced early in December(2 that all newspapermen had been ordered to leave the five districts to which entry had been controlled. Journalists would be allowed into these areas to report court cases only. Arrival of troops, and provision of body-guards for chiefs During December several heavily armed Permanent Defence Force units moved into Pondoland to operate with the police. The Chief Information Officer of the Bantu Administration Department is reported1") to have said that a nucleus of sixty African police N.C.O.'s was to be sent to the Transkei for a special training course, after which they would instruct some 300 tribesmen in the duties of home guards for chiefs who had incurred hostility among certain sections because of their support for the Government's Bantu Authorities and land rehabilitation schemes. (9) Hansard 1 cols. 224-5. (10) 2 February. (11) Assembly, Hansard 5 col. 1648. (12) Star, 2 December, Rand Daily Mail, 28 January. (13) Star, 13 December.

A SURVEY OF RACE According to the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development1"', at the end of January police protection had been granted to Paramount Chief Botha Sigcau, and home guards provided for six chiefs and three headmen in Eastern Pondoland. Places of safety were arranged for two chiefs and several headmen at the height of the disturbances. Threatened dismissals and banishments A report in Contact(1") stated that teachers in the Engcobo district, where two headmen had been murdered, were threatened with dismissal if they co-operated with those working against the Bantu Authorities system. At least one, Lewis Majija, was served with a notice of dismissal; this occurred before the assassinations had taken place. Numbers of Africans were banished from the Transkei: a New Age report1') quotes the names of Councillors William Tyabashe and Vumisa Mbabama, Headman Mmagade Velile, and Douglas Mfikili and a Mr. Nompula. So far as the Institute of Race Relations can ascertain, others who were banished are Chiefs Edward Tyalite and Hlamendane Mhlabuvelile, and Joseph Saliwa, A. K. Ganyile, Alex Tikaha and Mngqingo Pikani. They are all reported to be men who had opposed Bantu Authorities. Five of these men were later allowed to return home. At the time of writing it was believed that the rest were still exiles. The case of Mr. Ganyile is dealt with below. They were widely scattered, being banished, for example, to the Driefontein or Frenchdale camps in the north-western Cape, or to Tabaans Location in the Sibasa district of the Northern Transvaal, or to the Nebo area of Groblersdal, or to reserves in the Pietersburg area. FURTHER DISTURBANCES For some time disturbances continued in spite of all the action the Government had taken. The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development reported on the casualties that had occurred up to 31 January in a speech made in the Assembly on that day('). Before the promulgation of the emergency regulations for Pondoland, he said, one chief and nine commoners were murdered, while fourteen other Africans lost their lives as a result of self-defence action by the police. (These include the eleven killed at Ngqusa Hill: an account of the inquest is given below). Since the publication of the regulations, the police had killed one more African in self-defence. One chief, two sub-head(14) Assembly, 31 January, Hansard 2 col. 439. (15) 11 February. (16) 29 January. (17) Hansard 2 cols. 438-9.

RELATIONS: 1961 49 men, four councillors and eight commoners had been murdered, and 26 others injured, by their fellow-Africans, and one African had been wounded as a result of police action. Four policemen had been injured during the disturbances. The second chief to be murdered, on 2 December, was Stanford Nomaqwetekana, head of the Mzizi tribe in the Bizana area, and a cousin of Paramount Chief Botha Sigcau. Four of his followers were killed at the same time(18. During October a mob burned down the hut of Spalding Matyile, chairman of the Engcobo District Authority and of the local school board. He escaped and hid for a time, but returned during January and was sheltered by William Matambeka. Both of these men were murdered on 30 January(19). Besides the murders, large numbers of huts were burned down, and fencing was destroyed in certain areas where betterment schemes were in progress. Various clashes took place between home guards and tribesmen("). Until the home guard system was arranged numbers of chiefs and their leading supporters hid away, and many people took to the veld at night to escape possible violence. THE NGQUSA HILL INQUEST It was mentioned in last year's Survey(") that an order was issued for the exhumation of the eleven Africans who died at Ngqusa Hill on 6 June 1960. According to the Press(2") the Government pathologist testified subsequently that although examination was difficult, he found that six of the men had been killed by bullets and that three of them had been shot in the back of their heads. At the inquest, held during February, the magistrate is reported(8 to have said that three of the policemen involved did not fire to an excessive extent and their action would appear to have been justified as it was in self-defence. The firing of sten gun bullets by two other policemen, however, was "unjustified and excessive, even reckless", in spite of alleged provocation. There was insufficient evidence to establish that the shots fired by one of these men had killed anyone; but in the case of the other, deaths had resulted, this killing being unlawful and prima facie amounting to culpable homicide. The matter was in the hands of the Attorney- General. (18) Star report, 5 December. (19) Rand Daily Mail, 31 January. (20) New Age reports, 26 and 29 January. (21) Page 42. (22) Star, 14 February. (23) Rand Daily Mail, 14 February.

50 A SURVEY OF RACE The Minister of Justice said later(24) that the AttorneyGeneral had decided not to prosecute. Some of the men who had been wounded and the dependants of those who had been killed issued summonses calling upon the Minister to pay damages to a total of R69,496"5). As will be mentioned later, the Indemnity Act, No. 61 of 1961, made it impossible to proceed with this action; but the Minister appointed a departmental committee to investigate the claims and to recommend the payment of ex gratia payments in cases considered to be deserving. TRIALS RESULTING FROM THE DISTURBANCES The police apparently conducted very large-scale raids throughout the affected areas, making many hundreds of arrests. People who had refused or neglected to pay their taxes were rounded up and taken to court: to avoid this very large numbers paid their taxes voluntarily. According to Press reports(' those who were prosecuted and found guilty received sentences ranging from R1 to R2, with alternative sentences of imprisonment, for each year that they had defaulted, and were required to serve the prison sentences unless they paid the fines and tax arrears promptly. It was stated(27) that by these means the officials collected R36,000 in the Bizana, Flagstaff and Lusikisiki districts during December and January, as compared with only R7,200 during the corresponding period in 1959- 60. The reports quoted above stated that during the two months mentioned, in the districts of Bizana and Lusikisiki, 1,680 Africans were prosecuted for tax offences, 161 for reference book offences, and 38 for being in possession of dangerous weapons. In the Kentani district about 650 people were charged with these offences. Sentences in the more serious cases ranged from fines of R20 to imprisonment for six months without the option. There were numbers of prosecutions for entering the prohibited areas without permits. According to the Star (8 by 10 February 120 Africans and one White man had been arrested on this charge in the Mount Ayliff district and about twenty Africans in Bizana and Lusikisiki. Those who had good excuses were cautioned and discharged. Fines for those found guilty at first averaged RIO, but were gradually stepped up to increase the deterrent effect. One man is said to have been sentenced to R200 or one year. Seven motor vehicles had been confiscated in Mount (24) Assembly. 3 March, Hansard 6 col. 2331. (2') Figure given by the Minister in the Assembly, 2 May, Hansard 15 col. 5695 R1 (one Rand) =ten shillings. (26) Argus, 10 February. Star, 24 February. (27) Star, 10 February. (2S) Ibid.

RELATIONS: 1961 51 Ayliff. The Minister of Justice reported(9) that two White men had been taken into custody for illegal entry: one was cautioned and discharged and the other fined R4. (The Star stated that the first man was apparently a tramp). Special courts were set up in Kokstad to try people accused of more serious offences. Numbers were prosecuted for holding, presiding at or addressing meetings of more than ten Africans that were held in support of a campaign against the Bantu Authorities and Native Taxation and Development Acts. In some cases there was a further charge of having solicited or received money to be used in this campaign. Average sentences for those found guilty ranged from twelve to eighteen months, half suspended, on each count("°). The Minister of Justice said on 20 April(1) that 524 persons were then still in detention as a result of the disturbances. Of these, 114 were to be charged with murder, 121 with arson and 289 with other breaches of the law. He added on 23 May(") that 218 persons had been detained without trial under the emergency regulations for periods longer than three months. Early in September nine men were found guilty of arson. All received partially or wholly suspended sentences of terms of imprisonment ranging from four to ten years, and in addition, four were sentenced to strokes. The Judge President is reported(") to have said that he felt justified in giving lenient sentences because "unscrupulous persons" had been behind the unrest and the Pondo were a primitive people, receptive to lying advice and incitement. On 25 August"') six men were sentenced to death for the murder of a lay preacher Gideon Mqu in the Flagstaff district, a seventh accused being gaoled for ten years. The judge said he would report his views that pressure had been brought to bear on the tribesmen by outside agitators, and that there had been general dissatisfaction with the land rehabilitation scheme. He hoped that, as a result, the death sentences would be commuted. Six more were found guilty on 14 October of murdering an agricultural demonstrator in the Bizana district. They were sentenced to seven years' imprisonment with two years suspended("). GRADUAL RELAXATION OF RESTRICTIONS By means of the stringent emergency regulations and action (29) Assembly, 28 February, Hansard 6 col. 2093. (30) Star, 13 March, 13 and 20 April; Rand Daily Mail, 14, 25 and 31 March. (31) Assembly, Hansard 13 col. 4999. (32) Assembly, Hansard 18 cols. 6939-40. (33) Sunday Times, 17 September. (34) Star report of that date. (35) Sar, 14 October.

52 A SURVEY OF RACE taken by the police and troops the Government apparently reestablished law and order. It was reported(6) that tribesmen in some areas apologised for their conduct and agreed upon levies in order to pay compensation to those who had suffered damages. By 11 May most of the troops had been withdrawn(7). In terms of Government Notice 77 of 16 June 1961 the regulations governing entry into the five eastern districts of the Transkei were withdrawn; but at the time of writing the rest of the emergency regulations remained in force. INVESTIGATIONS BY THE GOVERNMENT The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development announced(")8 that he had appointed an officer with wide experience of the language and customs of the Pondo to make a thorough investigation of their troubles and grievances. The result of his work, as well as that of the Chief Magistrate and his officials, had been most encouraging. The Minister had also appointed a departmental committee consisting of experienced officials, African chiefs and councillors, to go into the question of how certain changes in the working of the Bantu Authorities could best be effected for the whole of the Transkei. 4FTERMATH OF THE 1960 DISTURBANCES PERSONS DETAINED UNDER THE EMERGENCY REGULATIONS Following the disturbances which occurred at Sharpeville and Langa on 21 March 1960, and in other parts of South Africa during the days that followed, a state of emergency was proclaimed throughout the country, which lasted from 29 March to 31 August('). In terms of the emergency regulations, the Minister of Justice or a magistrate or commissioned police officer might order the arrest without warrant and detention of any person if this was considered to be desirable in the interest of the public order or of the person concerned. It was only during the 1961 Session of Parliament that full information was given about the number of persons who had been detained. On 3 February the Minister of Justice said in the Assembly"5) that 98 Whites (including 35 women), 36 Coloured persons, 90 Asians and 11,279 Africans had been detained under the emergency regulations. (36) Star, 26 January, Minister of Bantu Administration and Development, Senate, 27 February, Hansard 6 col. 1477. (37) Cape Times report of that date. (38) Senate, 27 February, Hansard 6 cols. 1475-9; Assembly, 21 April. Hansard 13 col. 5042. (t) These events were described in detail in last year's Survey, page 55 et seq. (2) Hansard 2 cols. 698-9.

RELATIONS: 1961 53 Of these, the numbers who were charged with specific offences before the established courts, and the numbers convicted as at 3 February 1961, were: Whites Non-Whites Men Women Men Women Numbers charged ... 3 1 301 19 Numbers convicted ... Nil Nil 136 16 (Further persons were convicted later) Conflicting statements were made in regard to the numbers of Africans involved. On 6 May 1960 the Minister said(') that by then 18,011 Africans had been arrested. He explained later(4) that this figure referred to the total number arrested and gaoled during the period of the emergency: the number actually arrested under the emergency regulations was 11,503. (But this does still not agree with the total of 11,279 quoted above). Of the persons who were detained and subsequently released without any charges having been laid against them, 105 subsequently instituted actions against the Government for unlawful detention, the total amount of the claims being R1,144,000. As will be described below, the Indemnity Act was introduced during 1961, with retrospective effect to 21 March 1960, which had the effect of nullifying these actions. A committee was appointed to examine claims for compensation on account of death or personal injury as a result of police action, and to recommend the payment of ex gratia grants in deserving cases. The Minister said, however, that claims for alleged unlawful detention would not be considered('). ANNIVERSARY OF SHARPEVILLE AND LANGA Various organizations, mainly those belonging to the Congress Group, planned meetings in the main urban areas to commemorate the victims of Sharpeville and Langa on 21 March 1961, the first anniversary of the tragedies. At the last moment, on the evening of 20 March, the Minister of Justice banned all such meetings, under the Suppression of Communism Act. The announcement of this did not reach the morning newspapers in time for publication. The police posted notices in the streets, and visited the offices of Congress organizations to warn them of the ban. A meeting planned in Johannesburg was called off, but demonstrators did assemble in Cape Town and Durban. In the former case they were dispersed by the police. (3) Assembly, Hansard 16 of 1960. col. 6818. (4) Assembly, 15 February 1961, Hansard 4 col. 1346. (5) Assembly, 25 May 1961, Hansard 18 col. 7188.

54 ASURVEYOFRACE COMMISSIONS OF ENQUIRY INTO EVENTS AT SHARPEVILLE AND LANGA The reports of the one-man judicial commissions into the events that occurred at Sharpeville and Langa were published on 23 January 1961('). In his report on Langa, Mr. Justice Diemont said that, according to evidence led, the Pan-African Congress had launched a campaign which was planned to reach a climax in 1963, when it would take over control of the country. A policy of non- violence was advocated for the initial phase of the campaign; but this did not mean that the P.A.C. necessarily expected to achieve its ultimate goal by peaceful means. The leaders at Langa, although urging the people to avoid violence, had taken no effective steps to prevent it. Some of the speeches made were inflammatory. It appeared from the evidence that the majority of the people at Langa were anxious and frustrated because they felt there were no constitutional channels through which they could make their grievances known to the State. Their main grievances were low wages and the operation of the reference book system. Whether their complaints were well-founded was not relevant to the enquiry; but what was relevant was that they formed a fertile soil for the sowing of P.A.C. doctrines. Wide credence was given to a rumour that a senior official was to visit Langa to answer their demands for the abolition of the reference book system, the judge considered; hence they attended the meeting in spite of a ban. This rumour, it was found, was spread deliberately by Mr. Philip Kgosana. The police did not know of it: had they done so, their actions might have been different. Some of the decisions made by the officer in charge of the police contingent were strongly criticised, particularly the decision to use force before an effective warning to disperse had been given; but the judge found that this officer was acting lawfully when he ordered the use of firearms. Some of the shooting that occurred later was unjustified and unlawful, however, and a number of policemen, particularly Africans, had acted in an undisciplined manner, using their batons indiscriminately. Mr. Justice P. J. Wessels made a purely factual report on Sharpeville, stating that in his opinion it was not his task to deal with the liability or responsibility of individuals. Later, at the trial of certain Africans accused of public violence and incitement at Sharpeville, the Regional Magistrate is reported(') to have said in his judgment that while the use of fire(6) The Institute of Race Relations published a fact-paper (No. 10) entitled A Pricis of the Reports of the Commissions appointed to enquire into the events occurring on 21 March 1960 at Sharpeville and Langa. (7) Rand Daily Mail, 23 June 1961.

RELATIONS: 1961 55 arms by the police had been justified, there was undoubtedly not sufficient justification for the very extensive firing which had taken place. CLAIMS FOR COMPENSATION It was reported by the Minister of Justice during May 1961(') that, arising out of the disturbance at Sharpeville, 244 claims had been instituted against members of the Government, for a total sum of R895,955.77 . This amount was made up of R493,215 for compensation on account of the death of breadwinners, ,740.77- for personal injury, and R96,000 for alleged unlawful arrest. Six claims, to a value of R52,000 had been made by people at Langa or Nyanga, and, as was mentioned in the previous chapter, Africans in Pondoland had claimed R69,496. INDEMNITY ACT, No. 61 OF 1961 When introducing the Indemnity Bill, the Minister of Justice said(9 it was essential that it be passed in order to prevent the waste of time and money which would inevitably be coupled with defending actions for compensation. The Act provides that no proceedings, whether civil or criminal, shall be brought in any court of law against the Government its officers or persons acting under its or their authority, in respect of any acts or statements committed, ordered or issued in good faith on or after 21 March 1960 (the date of the Sharpeville and Langa disturbances) with intent: (a) to prevent or suppress internal disorder, or to maintain or restore good order or public safety or essential services, or (b) to preserve life or property, or (c) to terminate a state of emergency in any area, whether or not such a state of emergency was actually declared in terms of Section two of the Public Safety Act. Any such legal proceeding which was commenced prior to the coming into operation of the Indemnity Act will be deemed void. It will be presumed, until the contrary is proved, that any actions or statements referred to above were in fact done or made in good faith. The provisions of the Act will apply also in respect of any default by an officer or person acting under Government orders in complying with any provision of a law or regulation in connection with actions taken or statements issued. (8) Assembly, 2 May 1961, Hansard 15 col. 5695, and 25 May, Hansard 18 col. 7187. (9) Assembly, 25 May 1961, Hansard 18 col. 7188.

56 A SURVEY OF RACE COMMITTEE ESTABLISHED TO CONSIDER EX GRATIA PAYMENTS The Minister of Justice announced during February("°) that a committee had been set up to examine the claims for compensation and to recommend the payment of ex gratia grants in deserving cases. The State Attorney would be chairman, and the members would be the Chief Magistrate of Pretoria, the Under Secretary for Justice, two Police Brigadiers and the Principal Bantu Affairs Commissioner. It has not been announced whether any grants have been made. TRIALS ARISING FROM THE DECLARATION OF A STATE OF EMERGENCY Africans accused of incitement or public violence Trials which took place up to November 1960 were described in last year's Survey(1"). During December three Africans were convicted of incitement: it was found that they had gathered at the police station at Evaton, near Sharpeville, to encourage the crowd to break the law. One was sentenced to a fine of R120 or five months' imprisonment, and the other two to or three months'. Notice of appeal was lodged. The Minister of Justice said in April') that 190 persons were still serving sentences of imprisonment as a result of charges arising from the declaration of a state of emergency. They were detained in 17 institutions. Remission of sentence for good behaviour was not automatic: each case was considered on its merits. Thirty-two Africans were originally charged with incitement committed at Langa, the principal accused being Philip Kgosana. Eight of them were discharged at various times. After an initial period when they were held in custody, lasting four months in some cases, the rest were allowed out on bail. Philip Kgosana and seven others then fled the country. The remaining sixteen faced trial, but at the conclusion of the Crown case the magistrate acquitted them, stating that he was satisfied that there was no charge for them to meet(13). Thirteen men were charged with public violence and incitement in (near Sharpeville) on 21 March 1960. The case began on 26 September, but was held up several times because of the illness of one of the accused, and, on another (10) Assembly. 21 February 1961, Hansard 5 col. 1660. (11) Page 85. (12) Assembly, 7 April 1961, Hansard 11 col. 4050. (13) Reports in Rand Daily Mail, 24 January, and Star, 14 June 1961.

RELATIONS: 1961 57 occasion, when four of them were unavoidably away. Then, on 4 April 1961, the magistrate who had been hearing the case died. The Attorney-General decided against commencing the proceedings de novo before another magistrate: accordingly the accused were discharged and their bail refunded('"). Nineteen persons were charged with public violence and incitement alleged to have been committed at Sharpeville. During June 1961 fourteen of them were acquitted. Four were found guilty on both counts, one being sentenced to three years' imprisonment and the rest to two years. A fifth, found guilty of public violence, received a sentence of one year's imprisonment. Bail was allowed pending an appeal(1". Prosecution of the editors of certain journals The emergency regulations were withdrawn on 31 August 1960. A few days later summonses were served on Mr. J. G. Sutherland, editor of the Port Elizabeth Evening Post, and on the publishers, the charges being that by publishing an article on 7 May setting out the impressions of two young Canadian tourists they had contravened the emergency regulations, the article being a subversive one in terms of these regulations. The chief magistrate in Port Elizabeth quashed the charges during November 1960, ruling that the accused could not be prosecuted under the emergency regulations because these regulations had lapsed before the summonses were issued. A similar ruling was given a few days later by a regional magistrate in Cape Town, when Mr. Fred Carneson, a director of New Age, and the publishers of this newspaper, were prosecuted for having published subversive statements(") . But another Cape Town magistrate did not accept the argument that prosecutions could not be legally instituted after the withdrawal of the regulations. He sentenced Mr. Patrick Duncan, the editor of Contact, to R900 or 350 days on finding him guilty of having published two statements that were subversive within the meaning of the regulations. Mr. J. A. Daniels, the secretary of this journal, was sentenced to R100 or 50 days, and the publishers were fined R200'). The Attorney-General of the Eastern Cape took Mr. Sutherland's case to appeal. By a majority decision of two to one, a full bench of the Eastern Cape Division of the Supreme Court confirmed the magistrate's decision. Further appeal was made to the Appellate Division, and the Crown then succeeded. It was stated that, according to the Interpretation Act of 1957, unless a contrary intention appears in a repealing law, legal proceedings may be (14) Rand Daily Mail, 5 April, and Star, 11 April. (15) Rand Daly Mail, 23 June. (16) Rand Daily Mail, 1 December 1960. (17) lbid, 30 November 1960, and Minister of the Interior. Assembly. 7 March 1961, Hansard 7 cols. 2511-2. 58 A SURVEY OF RACE instituted or continued under the law concerned as if it had not been repealed("). The case was remitted to the chief magistrate in Port Elizabeth for further hearing. On 23 June 1961 this magistrate found Mr. Sutherland and the Eastern Province Newspapers guilty of publishing a statement that was likely to stir up feelings of hostility between certain sections of the South African people, but acquitted them on charges of subverting the Government, inciting the people to resist authority, and spreading panic and alarm. Their transgression had been of a highly technical nature, the magistrate said, and the punishment would be more technical than otherwise. Each of the accused was fined R10(19). AFTERMATH OF THE CATO MANOR MURDERS An account was given in last year's Survey(")0 of the murder of four White and five African policemen while they were conducting a liquor raid in Cato Manor on 24 January 1960. Other policemen were seriously injured. A committee consisting of senior members of the Departments of Justice, Police and Bantu Administration was appointed to enquire into the events, to recommend what steps should be taken to prevent their repetition, and in general to try to ensure greater safety for the police. This committee's report was presented to Parliament during February 1961. It dealt largely with proposals to prevent a recurrence of the events, but also described the filth and squalor at Cato Manor and criticised the Durban City Council for suspending sewerage, water and other services to the area after the rioting that took place in June 1959(1). Of the Africans who were arrested in January 1960, 26 finally faced charges of murder. Eight were acquitted, eight were sentenced to terms of imprisonment ranging from five to fifteen years, and ten were sentenced to death. One of these ten appealed successfully to the Appellate Division: appeals by the others were dismissed. Two who had been sentenced to imprisonment for periods of twelve years also made successful appeals(2". A further 26 people faced charges of public violence. Some of them were acquitted and the charges against others were withdrawn; but thirteen were found guilty. A woman was sentenced to five years' imprisonment, and a youth to eight cuts with a light cane. The others received varying terms of imprisonment. (Is) Ibid, 31 March 1961. (19) Star, 23 June. (20) Page 50. (21) See 1958-59 Survey, page 132. (2_) Star repor:s, 15 December 1960 and 15 March 1961.

RELATIONS: 1961 FURTHER UNREST AND DISTURBANCES ZULULAND There have been sporadic disturbances in Zululand during the year under review. It was reported(') that although the people of the Tokazi location, near the seat of the Zulu Paramount Chief, rejected the betterment scheme in 1958, it was nevertheless imposed on them. Some of the men were fined for refusing to move their huts to new sites, as required, or were punished by being refused permission to cultivate their fields. Resentment mounted among the opponents of the scheme until eventually, in November, 1960, they cut certain fences and burned the huts of some men who supported the programme. During this affray an African dipping tank inspector and another man were killed. Fourteen Africans were later found guilty, with extenuating circumstances, of their murder, and were sentenced to terms of imprisonment ranging from eight to fourteen years(2). On several occasions dipping tanks have been destroyed. During July 1961 women stoned dipping and stock inspectors in the Melmoth district: more than 40 arrests were made('). It was announced during March 0) that a home-guard had been provided for the Paramount Chief, Cyprian Bhekezulu. WARMBATHS Early in 1961 the Manager of Non-European Affairs at Warmbaths was sentenced to six months' imprisonment on a charge under the . He lodged a successful appeal, and thereafter was re-instated in his work. Many of the Africans of the town objected. On 28 April they held a protest demonstration, and early next morning picketed the gates of their to prevent people from going to work. On the following evening some men who tried to leave to go on night-shift duty were attacked, one being killed and another injured. Then the crowd marched on the municipal offices, apparently intending to burn them down. The police made an unsuccessful attempt to disperse the mob by using tear-gas, and finally, on being stoned, they opened fire. One man was shot dead and two seriously injured, one of them later dying in hospital. A one-man commission of enquiry was appointed and the manager was meanwhile suspended. MABIESKRAAL There has been continued dissatisfaction among a large section of the Ba-Thlako tribe of Mabieskraal, about fifty miles (1) New Age, 2 February 1961. (2) Star, 30 November 1960 and 26 May 1961. (3) ibid, 25 July. (4) Ibid, 15 March.

60 A SURVEY OF RACE north of Rustenburg in the Western Transvaal. These people state that they rejected Bantu Authorities "because it is a Government attempt to impose on us an undemocratic system contrary to our tribal traditions. Our experience teaches us that acceptance of Bantu Authorities would mean rule by Government officials and not our legitimate leaders". As a result of this opposition to the system the regent, Jeremiah Mabie, was deported to the Vryburg area of the Northern Cape in 1956, being replaced by Mogatle Mabie. The tribesmen who support Jeremiah are said to allege that Mogatle has applied tribal laws harshly and often without justice, and has victimized his opponents. During April 1961 they petitioned the Speaker of the House of Assembly and the Secretary-General of the United Nations for Jeremiah's return. It was reported that some 5,000 tribesmen signed these appeals('). PORT ELIZABETH The Police District Commandant of Port Elizabeth, Major 0. Kjelvei, was stabbed to death on 25 June 1961 when he tried to stop a group of about fifty Africans on the march. It was stated that the authorities thought that they were on their way to intimidate residents of the African township into supporting a transport boycott that they had planned. Fifty-seven men later appeared at a preparatory examination. Three of them were later discharged, one was charged with murder, and the rest were committed for trial on public violence and other charges"6). SEKHIUKHUNELAND The disturbances that took place in Sekhukhuneland in 1958 as a result of differences of opinion over the Bantu Authorities system were described in earlier issues of this Survey('. There has, ever since, been much unrest in this area. It was reported") that at a meeting convened by the Native Commissioner during August 1961 a large majority of those present once again refused to accept the system, even though this decision meant that the threat of deportation hanging over the chief's head would remain, and that the five senior tribesmen who have been banished would still not be able to return. UNESSA Just before the republican celebrations five White members of the United English- Speaking South Africans' group were (5) Sunday Times, 18 December 1960, Rand Daily Wtlail, 6 April 1961. (6) Rand Daily Mail, 26 June, 11 August and 7 November, New Age, 10 August. (7) 1957-58 page 72, 1958-59 page 126, 1959-60 page 49. (8) New Age, 7 September 1961.

RELATIONS: 1961 arrested on being found in possession of explosives. It was reported") that in the home of the leader, Mr. M. H. Mallinick, the police found a memorandum outlining plans for resistance and sabotage in Natal. It was decided that one man would be tried separately. The other four accused, one of whom was a woman, appeared in court on 13 September. Although they were later acquitted on the main count of conspiring to aid the commission of, or to commit, public violence, three of them were found guilty on lesser charges, the fourth being discharged. Severe sentences were imposed. THE KU KLUX KLAN It was reported in June 19610) that Mr. R. K. Rudman, leader of the Ku Klux Klan in Natal, had accused "certain people" of taking unauthorized action in its name, thus besmirching the reputation of an organization which did not stoop to criminal means, although it did issue warnings and threats to communist leaders. These anonymous persons, who acted sometimes in the name of the K.K.K. and at other times signed letters with titles like "Order of the Green (or Red) Dragon", stepped up their activities in 1961. A petrol bomb was thrown through the window of the home of an Indian family in Cape Town: the son had been detained by the police the previous week for distributing antirepublican leaflets. Bricks were thrown through the windows of homes of three leaders of the Coloured People's Congress Messrs. George Peake, Alex la Guma and Barney Desai. During May five hooded gunmen knocked on the door of the home of Mr. Rowley Arenstein, a Durban lawyer who had frequently defended Non-Whites accused of various offences. As he had been previously warned in a letter allegedly from the K.K.K., fifteen of his friends were acting as his bodyguard. A clash took place, and the hooded men fled, firing at their pursuers, one of whom was slightly injured. Mr. Ben Turok, who represented Africans in the Cape Provincial Council and is national secretary of the Congress of Democrats, was warned in an anonymous telephone call that he would be the next to suffer. He was refused police protection. Various other people have been threatened. Those responsible are said to possess wide knowledge of their victims, knowing their movements and telephone numbers that are not listed in the directories(11). (9) Ibid, 14 September. (10) Sunday Times, 14 June. (i) From reports in the Sunday Times, 4 June, Star, 29 May and Rand Daily Mail, 30 May.

A SURVEY OF RACE THE TREASON TRIAL THE BACKGROUND Accounts have been given in previous issues of this Survey(') of the arrests of 156 persons during December 1956 on charges of high treason and of the year-long preparatory examination, at the end of which 91 were committed for trial. Their trial opened in August 1958, but after lengthy legal argument the Crown withdrew the indictment. A new indictment was framed against thirty of the accused, its essence being an allegation of conspiracy to overthrow the State by violence and to substitute for it a communist state or some other form of state. The trial(') of the first thirty people began during January 1959 and lasted, with occasional adjournments, until the end of March 1961. During this time one of the accused died and another absconded. THE END OF THE TRIAL After a great volume of evidence had been led, counsel for the Crown began their argument during November 1960. On two occasions the judges rejected the submissions in the form in which they were presented, ordering the Crown to recast its arguments. The Defence argument began on 7 March 1961. On 24 March, before this had been concluded, the Presiding Judge adjourned the hearing, stating that he and his two fellow-judges required a few days to consider the argument so far advanced. Then, on 29 March, the Presiding Judge announced that the 28 accused were acquitted and discharged, this verdict being unanimous. The alleged policy of violence attributed to the African National Congress, he said, was the cornerstone of the case for the prosecution: if this case failed, it must fail against the other organizations of the Congress Alliance. The evidence showed that all these organizations had been working together to replace the existing form of state with a radically different one, based on the demands set out in the Freedom Charter('). It had, however, not been proved that such a form of state would be a communist one: the prosecution had failed to show that the accused had personal knowledge of the communist doctrine of violent revolution or that they propagated this doctrine. It was impossible for the Court to come to the conclusion that the A.N.C.'s policy was to overthrow the State by violence. Reasons for the judgment were handed in later, on 30 June. (1) 1956-7 page 41, 1957-8 page 34, 1958-9 page 44, 1959-60 page 37. (2) The official name of this trial is Regina vs Farid Adams and Others. (3) See 1954-5 Survey, page 5.

RELATIONS: 1961 As this verdict was given on a question of facts, and not points of law, there could be no appeal by the Crown. It was announced later4) that no further action would be taken against the remaining 61 accused. COSTS INCURRED The Minister of Justice said on 11 April 196P) that during the 2 years 8 months of the trial the direct costs to the State had been R297,169 and the indirect costs Ri16,909. Nine counsel had been engaged to prosecute on behalf of the Crown, the fees for those who were not members of the public service being R174,614 already paid and R5,733 still due. The Government had not considered making any form of compensation to any of the accused, the Minister added. The costs of the preparatory examination were not included in his figures, nor the salaries of the many State officials who were employed full-time or part-time on the investigations or Court proceedings (unless the Minister allowed for these salaries in his figure indicating indirect costs). The expenditure incurred by the Treason Trial Defence Fund (a voluntary organization) over the whole period of the trial, from the beginning of the preparatory examination, was some R400,000. This figure includes expenditure on the welfare of the accused and their dependants. All the defence counsel charged reduced fees. ATTITUDES OF THE CHURCHES TO RACE RELATIONS THE 'COFESLOE CONSULTATIONS THE BACKGROUND A description was given in last year's Survey(') of the background to the Cottesloe Consultations. Briefly, during April 1960 the Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town stated that the events at Sharpeville had confronted the Church in South Africa with the gravest crisis in its history. Unless it openly and publicly repudiated the doctrine and practice of compulsory segregation it was condemning itself to extermination. He called upon the Dutch Reformed Churches to identify themselves with this attitude, and appealed to the World Council of Churches to send out a factfinding team to investigate the racial situation in South Africa. (4) Star, 26 July 1961. (5) Assembly, Hansard 12 col. 4246. (1) Pages 95 et seq.

64 A SURVEY OF RACE The Dutch Reformed Churches strongly resented this criticism. The Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk of the Transvaal wrote to the World Council denying "a few bishops the right to demand for themselves a monopoly over South Africa's Christian conscience". Both this Church and its sister-Church in the Cape said that they would welcome a visit by a commission of the World Council to investigate the situation. Dr. Robert Bilheimer, the World Council's Director of the Division of Studies and an Associate General Secretary, then came to South Africa to consult personally with the leaders of the eight member churches in South Africa. It was agreed that the World Council would take the initiative in convening consultations of these leaders to seek measures towards reconciliation. The consultations would be inter- racial in character, and would include people of widely differing convictions. The purpose would be, not to convert one another, but as Christians to seek together the guidance of God in achieving a better understanding of His Purpose in South Africa. An inter-church committee was set up to plan the consultations, the honorary secretary being Mr. F. J. van Wyk, Assistant Director of the Institute of Race Relations, in his capacity as honorary secretary of the Continuation Committee of the South African Churches' Conferences. ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE CONSULTATIONS The consultations were held at the Cottesloe residence of the University of the Witwatersrand from 7 to 14 December 1960. The World Council sent a six-man delegation headed by Dr. Franklin Clark Fry, chairman of its central committee, who was chairman of the consultations. Each of the eight member-churches in South Africa sent ten delegates: these churches were the Church of the Province of S.A. (Anglican), the Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk (N.G. Kerk) of the Transvaal, the Methodist, Presbyterian, Congregational Union, Bantu Presbyterian, N.G. Kerk of the Cape, and Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk of S.A. (N.H. Kerk). Each of the first five churches mentioned sent interracial delegations. Arrangements for the meetings were made by the Institute of Race Relations. During the consultations a deep sense of spiritual community was manifest. STATEMENT ISSUED A statement reflecting the consensus of opinion was drawn up, each paragraph of which was voted on separately. At least an 80 per cent vote in favour was required before a paragraph was accepted, which meant that the votes of some of each language and racial group represented would be needed.

RELATIONS: 1961 65 A full report on the discussions was published subsequently('). The statement as finally issued said that while being united in rejecting all unjust discrimination, delegates had expressed widely divergent views on the basic issues of apartheid. Although proceeding from divergent views, the delegates had nevertheless found it possible to make certain affirmations concerning human needs and justice as they affected relations among the races of South Africa. In the nature of the case these affirmations did not represent in full the convictions of member-churches. It was maintained that no-one who believes in Jesus Christ should be excluded from any church on the grounds of his colour or race. The State should allow the provision of adequate and convenient facilities for Non-White people to worship in urban areas (i.e. not only in their segregated townships). Delegates believed that the revival in many areas of African society of heathen tribal customs was partly the result of a loss of faith in Western civilization. There was special need for more effective consultation between the Government and the leaders accepted by the NonWhite people. No Scriptural grounds existed for the prohibition of mixed marriages, although certain legal, social and cultural factors might make such marriages inadvisable. Attention was drawn to the disintegrating effects of migrant labour on African family life. This system was condemned. It was pointed out that the wages received by the vast majority of the Non-White people obliged them to exist well below the generally accepted minimum standard for healthy living. Delegates considered that the job reservation scheme must give way to a more equitable system. The right to own land wherever he is domiciled and to participate in the government of the country is part of the dignity of all adult men, it was stated. There could be no objection in principle to the direct representation of Coloured people in Parliament. In normal circumstances no-one should be punished except after fair trial before open courts for previously defined offences. It was agreed to recommend to member-churches that they should create a South African Conference of World Council members to deal with local matters and to function as an organ of study, consultation and co-operation. (2) The Cottesloe Consultations: Report of Consultations among South African MemberChurches of the World Council of Churches, 7-14 December 1960. (Copies available from the Institute of Race Relations.)

A SURVEY OF RACE REACTIONS OF THE DUTCH REFORMED CHURCHES Statements issued after the consultations Simultaneously with the statement described above, the delegations from the N.G. Kerke of the Transvaal and Cape issued another statement in which they said that a policy of differentiation could be defended from the Christian point of view (as other delegates had agreed), and that, in their opinion, it provided the only realistic solution to the problems of race relations. They did not consider that the resolutions adopted by the Consultation were in principle incompatible with this attitude. They had voted in favour of the resolution dealing with the right to own land and to participate in government on the understanding that, so far as the White areas were concerned, these rights would be extended only to Africans who were domiciled there and had no other home land. Next day, in a Press statement('), the N.H. Kerk representatives dissociated themselves from the resolutions passed, stating that they had been unable to muster sufficient support to defeat any of them. They attacked each of the main resolutions in turn, and reaffirmed their unshaken faith in racial separation in the belief that the ideals of Christianity would best be served in that way. A few days later the delegates from the two N.G. Kerke issued another statement(-) in which they said that the findings of the Consultation flowed in the main from memoranda prepared beforehand by about fifty professors, ministers and missionaries of their churches. They added that if complete territorial separation was impossible then full rights, including political rights, could not be withheld indefinitely from Coloured people or Africans who were permanent residents of the White areas. Those who disagreed with this view were challenged to give definite moral grounds for their attitude. Opposition to the Cottesloe resolutions Opposition to the actions of these men began to emerge, and mounted rapidly. In his New Year message(') the Prime Minister said that any form of political multi- racialism or so-called partnership would ultimately deprive the White man of his rightful heritage. He, in turn, challenged the N.G. Kerk delegates to formulate a moral basis for such policies. He pointed out that these delegates were expressing their own views: the churches had not yet spoken through their synods. The Nationalist Press supported the Prime Minister's line. (3) e.g. Star, 15 December 1960, Rand Daily Mail, 16 December. (4) e.g. Rand Daily Mail, 28 December. (5) Star, 1 January 1961.

RELATIONS: 1961 67 During March the N.H. Kerk synod met, and decided by about 487 to 13 votes to withdraw from membership of the World Council of Churches, which, it considered, was hampering its work among Non-Whites by interference('). The synods of the N.G. Kerke in the Orange Free State and Natal, and the Federal Council of Executives of the five(') provincial N.G. Kerke, all passed resolutions urging the N.G. Kerke of the Cape and Transvaal also to withdraw from the World Council. By so doing, it was stated, they would foster unity. Leading members were working to achieve a complete merger of the five N.G. Kerke, and these plans would be impeded if some were members of the World Council while others disagreed with this organization's policies. The Federal Council reaffirmed its intention to devote itself to the fair and just treatment of all people, but was of the opinion that integration in the church would harm rather than promote the unity of the faithful('). Decisions of the Transvaal N.G. Kerk Synod Meanwhile, in the Transvaal, an N.G. Kerk Commission had been studying the merits of the Cottesloe resolutions and of membership of the World Council. It recommended withdrawal from this body. The Transvaal Synod met during April. The Moderator, the Rev. A. M. Meiring, who had been a Cottesloe delegate, was in the chair and, therefore, did not participate in discussions, but other delegates, notably the Rev. C. B. Brink, Dr. A. J. van Wyk, the Rev. C. F. Beyers Naude and Dr. F. E. O'Brien Geldenhuys, defended the Cottesloe resolutions. After very lengthy discussion the Synod, by a majority decision, stated that the delegates had made errors in procedure, having voted on these resolutions before the Church's attitude had been decided by a competent meeting. The resolutions were at variance with the policy of the church, and were embarrassing to the Government. Dr. Geldenhuys and Mr. Beyers Naude were not re-elected to the Moderature, although Mr. Meiring was again appointed Moderator. It was decided by an overwhelming majority to resign from membership of the World Council. The Synod resolved that it was part of the Church's calling to further the highest interests of Non-Whites and to exhibit to them a Christian approach in both the temporal and spiritual fields; but considered that this could best be done through the application of the policy of differentiation. Support was pledged for total territorial segregation, the Government was urged to accelerate plans for this, and Church members were called upon to prepare for sacrifices to make it work. (6) Cape Times, 22 March 1961. (7) Including South-West Africa. (8) Star reports, 25 February and 24 March.

68 A SURVEY OF RACE Decisions of the Cape N.G. Kerk Synod Prior to the meeting of the Cape N.G. Kerk Synod, a group of Dutch Reformed Church ministers and laymen published a symposium entitled Grense, in which they strongly criticised the Cottesloe resolutions. When the President of the World Presbyterian Alliance, Dr. Ralph Lloyd, visited Cape Town in mid-October, Coloured as well as White congregation members were invited to hear him speak in the Groote Kerk"9). At the Synod meeting held at the end of October, Dr. A. J. van der Merwe and the Rev. W. A. Landman, who had led the Cape delegation to the Cottesloe consultations, were re-elected Moderator and Scriba respectively. It was, however, decided by a large majority to reject the Cottesloe findings as "undermining the policy of separate development" and as being in conflict with the Church's traditional policy1"). A further resolution was adopted by an overwhelming majority which stated, "Though the Synod does not believe that the Church's welfare lies in complete isolation, but that it must continue to seek ecumenical bonds and, therefore, breaks an ecumenical bond with reluctance, it decides, under present circumstances, to leave the World Council of Churches". By 269 votes to 256 it was resolved to continue to correspond with the World Council("l). The Synod passed a motion urging the Government to rescind the new Liquor Act. OTHER DEVELOPMENTS WITHIN THE DUTCH REFORMED CHURCHES "DELAYED ACTION" During November 1960 eleven leading theologians of the three Dutch Reformed Churches (N.G. Kerk, N.H. Kerk and Gereformeerde Kerk) published a book denouncing race discrimination and calling for a new outlook on South African racial attitudes. They stressed that they were not concerned with politics as such, but were discussing Christian principles in relation to race problems. The book, written in Afrikaans, was entitled Vertraagde Aksie (Delayed Action). An English version was published shortly afterwards. The authors explained that it had taken them time to formulate answers based on the Bible to the accepted patterns of life (9) Rand Daily Mail report, 14 October. (10) Ibid, 27 October. (t1) Sunday Times, 5 November.

RELATIONS: 1961 69 in South Africa. But although their action in writing the book had appeared late in the day, it was action at last. The eleven authors were Dr. B. B. Keet, Dr. Ben Marais, Dr. G. C. Oosthuizen, Dr. J. A. van Wyk and Dr. G. J. Swart of the N.G. Kerk, Professor A. S. Geyser, Professor A. van Selms, the Rev. M. J. Redelinghuys and Dr. J. F. Stutterheim of the Hervormde Kerk, and Professor H. du Plessis and the Rev. C. Hattingh of the Gereformeerde Kerk. During March 1961 the Synod of the N.H. (Hervormde) Kerk had a very lengthy debate on Church policy and the action taken by its four members who contributed articles to Delayed Action. One of the articles of the Church's principles states that membership shall be confined to Whites. Professor Geyser, backed by Professor van Selms, moved that this article should be tested according to the Scriptures, but his motion was defeated by a very large majority, the Synod reaffirming its stand on apartheid. Several delegates demanded that Professors Geyser and van Selms should resign their posts at Pretoria University or be dismissed. A motion was passed calling upon church members to abide by the church law as it stood, and to refrain from criticising this law outside church meetings. Professor Geyser was asked to give an undertaking to comply with the terms of this resolution, but refused to do so. Stalemate was reached. Later, during July, another of the eleven authors, the Rev. M. J. Redelinghuys, resigned from his post as minister of the Hervormde Kerk in Melville, Johannesburg. In a farewell sermon he said it had become impossible for him to preach the Gospel in his Church in all its logical consequences. The Afrikaner people and their survival had "become the absolute for us", whereas the Kingdom of God demanded self-denial rather than self-preservation"'2). The N.G. Kerk took a less extreme line. The Transvaal Synod stated that it did not want to hamper scientific exchanges of thought on an academic level. Church members would, however, have to consider the possibility of repercussions, particularly in times of crisis, when dealing with matters on which the church had laid down its policy. The Synod resolved to reject the views expressed in Delayed Action("). Professor Geyser was summoned before the Synodal Commission of the Hervormde Kerk during September, and was asked to resign from the chair of New Testament Theology at the Pretoria University. He was given one week in which to decide whether he would do so. The church was in a position to force (12) Daily News report, 7 August. (13) Star report, 17 April.

70 A SURVEY OF RACE him to resign by withdrawing the contribution it made towards his salary("'. Before the week had elapsed two charges were laid by three senior theological students who were studying under him. They accused him of heresy against the Hervormde Kerk's doctrine, and of failing to observe the order prohibiting criticism of its laws on decisions outside synodal meetings. At the time of writing his trial by a Synodal Commission was in progress. He had been suspended as a minister of his Church. In the meanwhile Professor van Selms contributed an article to Kerk en Theologie, a Netherlands theological magazine, in which he mentioned the decision that forbade criticism, but maintained "the constitutional right to make my thoughts known where and when I think they should be heard". He condemned the article of church law that confined membership to Whites as being unchristian. Professor van Selms held the chair of Semitic Languages in the Pretoria University's Faculty of Arts. The Hervormde Kerk could not cause his dismissal from that post, but could unfrock him as a minister of the church and object to his lecturing to its theological students. DISCUSSION GROUPS During 1960 individual members of all three Dutch Reformed Churches set up discussion groups to consider the responsibilities of Christians in connection with race relations. White members of English-speaking churches and Non-White churchmen were invited to join the groups. This movement has grown, combined discussions having been held with the groups of Afrikaners and Englishmen mentioned in an earlier chapter("). ATTITUDES AND ACTIONS OF CERTAIN "6ENGLISH-SPEAKING" CHURCHES THE METHODIST CHURCH In 1959 the Methodist Church decided to conduct a vigorous programme of education in race relations. After much thought and planning, this project was put into operation during 1961. It was decided that a series of pamphlets would be sent to every Church member. The first of these established certain Biblical principles that affect racial attitudes. It was stated, for example, that all men are members of one human family, and (14) Rand Daily Mail report, 26 September. (15) See page 13.

RELATIONS: 1961 71 that God shows no partiality towards any particular nation or race. Subsequent pamphlets dealt with the Church's attitude to race. Every district and region was asked to organize at least one conference on race relations during the forthcoming year, preferably an inter-racial one. Inter-racial study groups on local levels were suggested. Churches were encouraged to increase the exchange of pulpits by ministers of different races; and ministers were asked to preach sermons expressing the Christian attitude to the moral and spiritual aspects of race problems. It was suggested that White and Non-White organizations should invite members of other groups to their meetings from time to time. Both the Transkei and the Northern Transvaal Districts held multi-racial synods for the first time in 1961. The latter gladly welcomed the programme described above. It reiterated its wholehearted opposition to the apartheid policy, and declared itself to be in complete disagreement with any suggestion that this policy met with Divine approval. It was decided that any church regulations that were of a racially discriminatory nature would be abolished. The possible introduction of Afrikaans into church services would be investigated. The Synod repeated its 1960 resolution calling upon the Prime Minister to convene a national multi-racial convention("). For the first time an African, the Rev. J. M. Letladika, was nominated as Deputy Chairman of the Northern Transvaal District. CHURCH OF THE PROVINCE OF SOUTH AFRICA Leaders of the Church of the Province (Anglican) have on very frequent occasions in past years expressed their opposition to apartheid, and have encouraged members to translate into action their belief that they are brothers in Christ('"). In a pastoral letter issued at the beginning of January, the Bishop of Bloemfontein, the Rt. Rev. B. B. Burnett, said that the greatest problem confronting the church was the fact that its understanding of the gospel of Christ required it to follow a course in conflict with the declared policy and intention of those into whose hands the Government of the country was committed. The avowed purpose of this policy was to keep people of different racial groups as separate from one another as possible in every sphere of life. The church, on the other hand, believed that all who accepted Christ as Saviour and Lord were one in Him, irrespective of physical or cultural differences, and that unity in Christ must find proper expression in common membership in the one Church which is His body(18). (16) See page 75. (17) See 1958-9 Survey, page 17; 1959-60, page 95, etc. (1s) Rand Daily Mail, 3 January 1961.

72 A SURVEY OF RACE Canon J. B. K. Tsebe, an African, has been appointed Archdeacon of Pretoria. THE CATHOLIC CHURCH Catholic Church leaders, too, have for long been working for racial integration in parochial activities, and have urged the removal of restrictions placed on Non- Whites by South African governments(9 . In April 1961 the Archbishop of Durban, the Most Rev. Denis Hurley, announced that he would seek the co-operation of all religious leaders of all faiths (not only Christian) for an intensive campaign against apartheid and racialism(") . During September the Southern African Catholic Bishops' conference organized a Transvaal Regional Conference on African family life. Consideration was given to African family life in the tribe and in transition, its problems, the family as a work unit, the family and Christianity, and possible remedies for difficulties and problems. This conference condemned the systems of migratory labour and job reservation, and considered it deplorable that in spite of their inadequate wages Africans were held to be criminally responsible for non-payment of rents. It considered that Africans should have political representation and the right of freehold tenure in the townships. Families should be allowed to live together. The principle of equal pay for equal work should apply. Africans should be encouraged to take part in trade unions and political movements. There should be compulsory free education up to Standard six, and the use of a more universal language than the vernacular in schools. More multi-racial contacts were needed, and the "recognition of Africans as people and friends'"'). OTHER CHURCHES The Church of England in South Africa appointed its first African bishop during October 1961. He is the Rt. Rev. Peter Chamane, and was consecrated at a service in Pietermaritzburg(". During the same month the Congregational Union held a multi-racial assembly in Johannesburg. Professor Geyser was invited to preach a sermon during the proceedings. FURTHER ACTION BY THE WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES The World Council convened an international conference in Geneva early in April to consider the responsibility of the Church in areas of rapid social change, which was attended by the (19) See 1959-60 Survey, page 100, etc. (20) Sunday Times, 23 April. (21) Rand Daily Mail report, 3 October. (22) 9tar, 11 October.

RELATIONS: 1961 73 Assistant Director of the Institute of Race Relations, Mr. F. J. van Wyk. On his return Mr. van Wyk reported that the conference had considered it to be the task of the Church to ensure that all people were able to participate in government, that they had a fair standard of living, and that there was respect for their dignity as men. The concept of race should be of no significance to a Christian. Delegates from other countries that were experiencing inter-group difficulties did not minimise these, but stressed that whereas they were trying to move forward towards harmony, South Africa was apparently moving backwards. In spite of their sympathetic understanding of the complexities of South Africa's problems, delegates had considered that this country's racial policies were not in conformity with Christian principle. Deep anxiety was expressed about the whole situation. Dr. Bilheimer of the World Council revisited South Africa during August for informal and unofficial talks with those who had attended the Cottesloe consultations. He also met leaders of the Interdenominational African Ministers' Federation and of the Federation of Bantu Churches, which represents the separatist churches. The (African) Moravian Church and the Bantu Congregational Church decided to seek admission to the World Council. At the time of writing, plans were in hand for setting up a South African Conference of the World Council of Churches' member-churches. Meanwhile, the Continuation Committee of the S.A. Churches Conferences has continued in being. There is also the Christian Council, and a S.A. Church Council of Reformed Faiths which at present is representative of the five N.G. Kerke and their Non-White mission churches, and has NonWhites serving on its executive. It hopes to draw in other churches that agree in the main with its teachings. WORK BY LAY ORGANIZATIONS FOR BETTER RACE RELATIONS INTER-RACIAL CONVENTIONS THE NATAL CONVENTION The idea of holding a Natal Convention was conceived by Prof. the Hon. E. H. Brookes, who called together a committee to make arrangements. It was held during April 1961. There were 210 delegates of all racial groups present, together with large numbers of observers. They included representatives of 67 organizations of a very wide variety-the university, professional

74 A SURVEY OF RACE groups, teachers' societies, student bodies, churches, local authorities, welfare organizations, certain political parties, the Institute of Race Relations, Joint Councils, ratepayers' associations, and organizations of women, workers, ex- servicemen and sporting interests. The proceedings have been made available in printed form('). In opening the convention, Dr. Brookes asked the people of Natal to decide to share the future as friends and fellow-citizens, and to cast away fear of one another. He said, "We need one another, and can at last give up, not without a great feeling of relief, the attempt to impose 'solutions' on one another without consultation or consent". Papers were given on the political aspects of the South African situation (Mr. K. A. Heard), the social aspects (Professor Leo Kuper), and the economic aspects (Mr. I. K. Allan). These were then discussed in study groups. Those who were willing to do so were asked to fill in questionnaires dealing with many aspects of the situation: various alternative solutions were posed on each point, and the delegates indicated their preferences, leaving questions unanswered if they so wished. The percentages of people who preferred each alternative were then analysed. These questionnaires were answered by 144 delegates. The replies were by no means unanimous, but in most cases very large majorities were obtained. The completed questionnaires were of assistance in preparing the report of the convention, which set out the general mass of opinion of the large section of Natal life that was represented. Political aspects The feeling of the convention was in favour of a non-racial franchise on the common roll, although there was a division of opinion as to whether a universal adult suffrage should be introduced immediately or, as an interim measure, a qualified franchise. It was considered that a Bill of Human Rights should be entrenched in the constitution. Social aspects The convention stood for compulsory, equal and free education for all. It supported integration in education as the ideal, to be introduced at once at the university level. There was a division of opinion as to whether this should be brought about gradually or immediately at the school level. The system of "Bantu education" and "tribal colleges" was rejected. It was considered that school feeding should be reintroduced in all primary schools. (1) Proceedings of the Natal Convention, available from the Convention Committee, P.O. Box 375, Pietermaritzburg.

RELATIONS: 1961 75 The Group Areas Act should be repealed immediately, it was stated, together with laws that limit freedom of movement. Every effort should be made to build bridges across the colour line, in particular by abolishing segregation in entertainments, sport, public transport and some places of worship. Economic aspects The effects of the industrial colour bar and job reservation were regarded as wholly bad. The convention considered that workers of all races should be brought into the scope of industrial conciliation, unemployment insurance and the apprenticeship system. There should be no discrimination on grounds of race in the trade unions, or in the wage structure. All wages should as a matter of urgency be raised above the poverty datum line. Technical educational facilities should be expanded. The location of industry should in general be determined by geographical and economic factors, and not by political ideology. People of all races should be entitled to the freehold ownership of land. There should be no racial discrimination in the provision of public amenities, and stability in the labour force and in family life should be fostered. General Delegates pledged themselves to work for the introduction of inter-racial consultation and action in those circles in which they had influence. They considered that the time was ripe for an all-South African Convention on the broadest possible basis. The committee that had organized the Natal Convention was asked to continue in office to work towards this end. Subsequently, during June, the committee sent to delegates copies of a 27-point plan suggesting positive steps by which friendship and co-operation might be achieved across the colour line. Inter alia, inter-racial school debates were proposed. Sporting bodies were asked to open their membership to people of all races. Churches were urged to welcome worshippers of all groups, and to pay the same stipends to White and Non-White clergy. Ratepayers were requested to work for the representation of all races on local authorities. FURTHER CALLS FOR A NATIONAL CONVENTION At its national conference in October 1960 the Methodist Church resolved to make an urgent request to the Government to consider the calling of a national convention representative of the leadership of all major racial groups. The Prime Minister's office replied that no multi-racial convention "urged by those who

A SURVEY OF RACE seek to undermine the Government's policy and justice for the White man" would be held('). Also during October 1960 the Liberal Party made a similar request to the Government. The "All-in" African Conference did so in March 1961, the Progressive Party in April, and the Coloured National Convention, the National Union of S.A. Students and the Civil Rights League in July('). During May, 247 members of staff of the University of Cape Town signed a declaration calling for a multi-racial meeting of leading South Africans to work out agreed principles as a preliminary to a national convention. In a covering letter sent to the Government with this declaration the Principal and Deputy Principal said, "We also are convinced that our country is heading for disaster unless we radically revise our race and colour policies"('). Support for this action was declared by very large numbers of the members of staff of the Universities of Natal, Rhodes and the Witwatersrand. The Prime Minister gave his reply to all these pleas in the Assembly on 8 June 1961('). "If Whites in the Opposition", he said, "could not even stay together in connection with the question of colour policy, how on earth is one going to achieve anything with a convention in which all these conflicting groups and attitudes of all the races are gathered together in one hall? No, I am deeply and firmly convinced that such a convention would be so wrong that everything should be done to prevent such a thing from taking place. It would be nothing but a breeding ground for communistic conditioning ... be used by communistic conditioned persons in an attempt to steer the Republic in the direction . . . where the policy is 'one-man-one-vote', with the object of introducing Black domination in South Africa, so that Communism can then take over and make that vote worthless". Groups of prominent South Africans subsequently met in Johannesburg, Cape Town and Port Elizabeth to try to arrange for national inter-racial consultations. At the time of writing their plans had borne no fruit. THE S.A. INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS MEETING OF THE INSTITUTE'S COUNCIL The annual meeting of the Institute's Council was held in Cape Town during January 1961. In the opening speech, Professor J. P. Duminy said that (2) Rand Daily Mail report, 16 May 1961. (3) Contact report, 27 July 1961. (4) Rand Dafly Mail, 13 May 1961. (5) Hansard 19 col. 7575.

RELATIONS: 1961 77 South Africans faced the challenge of applying their Christian principles in their community living, their business and their politics. If they rose to this challenge, South Africa could still be an example to the rest of the world in showing how a country of many races, colours and creeds could compose its differences and provide happiness, security and a feeling of worthiness for all its peoples. The Presidential Address by Prof. the Hon. E. H. Brookes was entitled "Things New and Old"(). The following papers were presented: Mr. Quintin Whyte - Recent and Proposed Legislation (RR 13/61) Dr. A. B. Xuma-Bantu Schools under Bantu Education (RR 11/61) Mr. A. Leftwich-Higher Education for Non-Whites in South Africa (RR 215/60) Mr. F. J. de Villiers-The Financing of Bantu Education (RR 64/61) Dr. Ellen Hellmann-Some Comments on Bantu Education (RR 206/60) Mr. G. M. Pitje-The Effect of Pass Laws on African Life (RR 4/61) Mr. W. J. P. Carr-Influx Control (RR 7/61) Mr. E. R. Silberbauer-Personnel Methods in Industry and Commerce (RR 14/61) The Rev. E. E. Mahabane - African Local Government (RR 213/60) Dr. R. E. van der Ross-The Possibility of Local Government for the Coloured People (RR 5/61) Dr. A. D. Lazarus - Indians and Local Government (RR 16/61) The findings of Council on education, the pass laws and local government are given in appropriate chapters of this Survey, as are findings on legislation dealing with specific matters. Its more general findings on legislation were: 1. "The Institute has noted with regret that despite the events of 1960, the legislation of that year and that foreshadowed for 1961 continued to extend and intensify the application of the policy of apartheid, resulting in an increase of division between Government and the majority of the people and growing resentment, developing often into feelings of militancy or despair on the part of large sections of the population, particularly among the youth of all races. 2. "While much in the enactments of the 1960 session of Parliament dealt with administrative refinements of that policy, the (1) This has been published by the Institute.

78 A SURVEY OF RACE Institute particularly deplores the action of the Government under the Unlawful Organizations Act (No. 34 of 1960) in banning the African National Congress, the Pan-African Congress, and assuming powers to ban any other organization that may in future be regarded as pursuing similar objectives. The Institute considers: (a) that this constitutes unnecessary, unwarranted and serious suppression of free political life in South Africa; and (b) that a solution to our country's racial difficulties cannot be found in such totalitarian methods but must be sought, rather, in effective consultation. The Institute therefore calls on the Government to repeal this legislation and to restore to the people of the country the right to free association and free expression of thought, and to initiate effective consultation with freely chosen representatives of NonWhite groups. 3. "The Institute, while approving of the action of the Government in appointing two separate judicial commissions to enquire into and report on the events which took place on March 21, 1960 in Sharpeville and Langa respectively, is of the opinion that the Government should have appointed a judicial commission to enquire into and report on the causes of the unrest among Africans generally, the Commission to make recommendations on the action to be taken to remove those causes. 4. "Believing as it does in the values, rights and responsibilities inherent in a democratic way of life and believing that basic to this is the freedom and dignity of the individual, the Institute calls on all its members and on all those who share its belief, to maintain and assert throughout this year and in coming years those freedoms of expression and association which the Institute considers are the proper basis for seeking lasting solutions to the problems of the country. 5. "In sum, the Institute urges that the 'rule of law', the guardian of democratic and individual rights, be in all cases re-established and maintained in our country." MID-YEAR EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING During its meeting in July the Institute's Executive Committee considered South Africa's external relations, and internal events and attitudes. Papers were given by Mr. R. B. Ballinger, Dr. B. Friedman, Mr. J. G. Sutherland, Mr. Leo Marquard, Dr. 0. D. Wollheim and Miss Hansi Pollak('). (2) The first three of these papers were published by the Institute under the title Looking Outwards: Three South African View'po'nts.

RELATIONS: 1961 79 No findings were issued, but Mr. 0. I. Frankel, Q.C., summed up the discussion. Much of what he said has been incorporated in other sections of this Survey. 1961 HOERNLE MEMORIAL LECTURE Professor D. V. Cowen delivered the 1961 Hoernl6 Memorial Lecture in Cape Town during April, his title being Liberty Equality, Fraternity-To-day(). INSTITUTE'S ACTIVITIES The activities of the Institute during the year under review are described in appropriate chapters. S.A. BUREAU OF RACIAL AFFAIRS As was mentioned earlier, Sabra planned a congress, to be held during April, on "The Future of the Coloured People", but it was announced in February that this had been postponed indefinitely. According to Press reports('), at the Executive Committee meeting held during June 1961, a considerable division of opinion was evident as to whether Sabra should align itself with the Government's race policies or should continue as an independent study group. The theme of the annual meeting, held in Bloemfontein in September, was "Relations between English and Afrikaans-speaking South Africans"'). Frank discussions were held, but no resolutions were taken. When the Executive Committee elections were conducted it became clear that Sabra was in future to be a conformist body that would not make pronouncements likely to conflict with Government policy. Dr. A. L. Geyer was re-elected chairman. The leader of the "non-conformists" was Professor N. J. J. Olivier, who for twelve years had been Sabra's vice-chairman. He was heavily defeated by Professor P. F. D. Weiss, one of the authors of Grense, mentioned on page 68, which was published to refute the Cottesloe resolutions. Thereafter the rest of the "non-conformists" withdrew after their nomination as committee members. The congress decided against considering reports by Sabra commissions which had been sounding African and Coloured opinion, According to a Press report('), the former report stated (3) This has been published by the Institute. (4) e.g. Sunday Times, 4 June. (5) A comprehensive account and interpretation of the meeting is contained in Sabra 1961: The Great Purge, by Dr. J. F. Holleman, Institute for Social Research, University of Natal. (6) Star, 11 October 1961.

80 ASURVEYOFRACE members had gained the impression that Africans in towns, and many in rural areas, were not satisfied with the compensatory measures for the abolition of their representation in Parliament. In general, urban Africans were not in favour of a system of chiefs' representatives in the towns. The commission had been struck by the general poverty among Africans and their bitter opposition to the pass laws. Members found that Africans took strong exception to ethnic grouping in urban locations, were opposed to mother-tongue education, and objected to university apartheid. The report stated that without gradual consolidation of the fragmented Reserves, their political development appeared to be impossible. In view of the Government's policy of re-settling as many Africans as possible away from the cities, determined steps were necessary to provide alternative livelihoods for them. Agricultural development had made no contribution to increasing the carrying capacity of the Reserves. White farmers in the northern areas were unwilling to face up to the competitive marketing of agricultural products by African farmers as one of the implications of separate development. It was stated(') that Sabra's chairman described this report as "politically explosive" and that an organized majority quashed its discussion. OTHER WORK FOR BETTER RACE RELATIONS Throughout this Survey mention will be made of work in particular fields, such as employment, education, welfare, etc., to bring about greater harmony between the racial groups of the population. There are a few more general matters, however, that can conveniently be described at this stage. CHAIR OF INTER-RACIAL STUDIES AT CAPE TOWN The Abe Bailey Trust has announced that it will make funds available for the founding of a department and chair of inter-racial studies at the University of Cape Town, to come into existence in 1962. The principal purpose is to bring about better understanding, greater tolerance and 'happier relationships between the different groups comprising the multi-racial South African state. BORDER REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT FOUNDATION The Mayor of East London, Mr. W. P. Osmond, conceived the idea of forming an inter-racial Border Regional Development Foundation, with the aim of enlisting the co-operation of all sections of the community for the social and economic develop- (7) Sunday Times, 1 October 1961.

RELATIONS: 1961 81 ment of the area. At an initial meeting, held in May 1961, the municipalities of East London and Queenstown and the Buffalo Catchment Association agreed to participate('). CHRISTOPHER GELL MEMORIAL AWARD A committee has been set up in Port Elizabeth to arrange for an annual award to be made to perpetuate the memory of Mr. Christopher Gell's "service to the cause of freedom and justice in South Africa". The award will be given for "an outstanding contribution to social justice in South Africa'"). It was decided that the person selected would be invited to give an address at a memorial meeting held in Port Elizabeth on 31 May, the anniversary of the first memorial service for Mr. Gell. The first award was made to ex-Chief A. J. Luthuli, who has been confined by the Government to the Lower Tugela district of Natal. His application to visit Port Elizabeth was refused. Plans for a gathering on 31 May 1961 were abandoned because of the ban on meetings during this period. The ceremony was postponed until 21 October. As Mr. Luthuli felt that no purpose would be served by his making a fresh application to attend, his address had to be presented in his absence(1"). ACTS OF GOODWILL IN RUSTENBURG During May, White members of the Red Cross in Rustenburg arranged for an aeroplane to go on a mercy flight to bring to hospital an Indian from their town who had been seriously injured in an accident in the rural part of Natal. In gratitude, the Rustenburg Indian community raised funds to buy the local White citizens their first ambulance(1"). THE POPULATION OF SOUTH AFRICA, AND MEASURES FOR ITS REGISTRATION AND CONTROL 1960 CENSUS FIGURES ARE PRELIMINARY ONES Preliminary figures for the population census taken on 6 September 1960 were published in Special Report No. 234. It was made clear that they were subject to revision, particularly the figures relating to some African areas where the enumeration had not been completed and partial estimates had to be made from such data as were available. (8) Star report, 10 May 1961. (9) Passages in inverted commas are quoted from the proceedings of the committee. (10) Information kindly furnished by Mr. Dennis Brutus. (11) Sunday Times, 23 July 1961.

82 A SURVEY OF RACE TOTAL POPULATION The total population in 1960, as compared with 1951, was: Percentage 1960 1951 increase Whites ...... 3,067,638 2,641,689 16 Coloured ... 1,488,267 1,103,016 35 Asians ... 477,414 366,664 30 Africans ... 10,807,809 8,560,083 26 Total ... 15,841,128 12,671,452 25 In regard to the figure for Africans, the Bureau of Census and Statistics comments, "The rate of increase is considerably higher than that recorded between the 1946 and 1951 censuses. Some possible reasons for this high rate of increase are (a) an underenumeration at the 1951 census and (b), influx of foreign Bantu from adjoining territories". PROVINCIAL DISTRIBUTION The report quoted gives a break-down of the figures between the provinces. Between 1951 and 1960 by far the largest increase in the population took place in the Transvaal. The provincial distribution of the various groups in 1960 was('): Cape Natal Transvaal O.F.S. Total Whites ... 32.5 11.2 47.4 8.9 100.0 Coloured ... 88.3 2.9 7.1 1.7 100.0 Asians ... 4.2 82.6 13.2 - 100.0 Africans ... 27.5 20.0 42.6 9.9 100.0 Total ... 33.5 18.5 39.3 8.7 100.0 URBAN POPULATION The percentages of the people in urban areas in 1960 and 1951 were: 1960 1951 Whites ...... 80 76 Coloured ...... 63 62 Asians ...... 80 77 Africans ...... 30 27 Total ... 44 42 The population of the main metropolitan areas in 1960 is given below. These areas include the towns together with the (1) Percentages calculated by the writer.

RELATIONS: 1961 83 surrounding built-up areas, which may extend over more than one magisterial district (e.g. Cape Town). Whites Coloured Asians Africans Total Entire Witwatersrand 734,505 75,315 37,772 1,240,807 2,088,399 Johannesburg ...... 389,690 56,951 27,069 622,831 1,096,541 Cape Town ...... 278,555 365,475 9,134 65,025 718,189 Durban ...... 194,276 25,638 231,385 204,071 655,370 Pretoria ...... 202,664 7,225 7,805 202,359 420,053 Port Elizabeth ...... 94,085 60,914 4,165 111,651 270,815 Germiston ...... 84,419 4,256 2,310 113,620 204,605 O.F.S. Goldfields ... 46,082 506 - 117,017 163,605 Bloemfontein ...... 61,213 6,242 3 73,466 140,924 Benoni ...... 41,305 5,399 2,989 85,774 135,467 East London ...... 48,725 8,050 1,753 56,056 114,584 Pietermaritzburg ... 39,472 4,606 21,741 29,305 95,124 Kimberley ...... 23,987 16,321 1,076 35,796 77,180 FURTHER DETAILS IN RESPECT OF AFRICANS The African population of the main metropolitan areas in 1960 and 1951 was: 1960 1951 Entire Witwatersrand ... 1,240,807 965,800 Johannesburg ...... 622,831 465,266 Durban ...... 204,071 157,440 Pretoria ...... 202,359 122,407 O.F.S. Goldfields ...... 117,017 34,071 Germiston...... 113,620 82,904 Port Elizabeth ..... 111,651 65,110 Benoni ...... 85,774 67,147 Bloemfontein ...... 73,466 56,574 Cape Town ...... 65,025 49,793 East London ...... 56,056 39,850 Kimberley ...... 35,796 26,704 Pietermaritzburg ...... 29,305 23,514 As is evident, the African population of each of the main metropolitan areas increased considerably during the nine-year period. Later in the official report figures are given for each town with a population of 20,000 or more (there were 39 such towns). In every case except Brakpan and Stellenbosch the African population increased in size between 1951 and 1960. The natural growth of the population would, in part, account for this. Also, numerous squatters who, in 1951, were living on the outskirts of the towns were thereafter gradually housed in municipal townships. But these factors do not provide the whole explanation: it seems to be evident that economic laws proved more powerful than influx control regulations. The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development gave

84 A SURVEY OF RACE approximate figures indicating the tribal origins of Africans according to the 1960 census(2): Xhosa ...... 3,423,000 Zulu ...... 2,959,000 Northern Sotho ...... 1,122,000 Southern Sotho ...... 1,089,000 Tswana ...... 863,000 Tsonga ...... 366,000 Swazi ...... 301,000 Venda ...... 195,000 Southern Ndebele ...... 162,000 Northern Ndebele ...... 47,000 Other ...... 280,000 10,807,000 POPULATION REGISTRATION IDENTITY CARDS In the Assembly on 7 March 1961 the Minister of the Interior said(3 that 2,689,505 identity cards had so far been issued to Whites, Coloured and Asians (those for Africans are incorporated with their reference books: this whole matter is dealt with later). Cards still had to be issued to about 144,560 Whites, 177,828 Coloured and 139,259 Asians. According to a Rand Daily Mail report4), by September there were only some 100,000 Whites and Coloured not yet in possession of cards (the figure for Asians was not given). The reporter forecast that before the end of 1961 the Government would give the statutory three months' notice of its intention to make the possession of these cards compulsory. As from the date decided upon, it will also be compulsory for African women to carry reference books5. TEST APPLIED IN RACE CLASSIFICATION Tht Minister announced during April(6) that the decisive test in race classification was now acceptance by the community. When doubt arose, the person concerned was asked to submit declarations from local persons of standing. According to a Press statementO7 he said later that the small group of Japanese had been accepted by the White group as Whites. (2) Assembly, 5 May 1961, Hansard 15 cols. 5958-9. (3) Hansard 7 col. 2511. (4) 27 September 1961. (5) See 1959-60 Survey, page 106. (6) Senate, 14 April 1961, Hansard 10 col. 3092. (7) Star, 17 May 1961.

RELATIONS: 1961 85 The same could be said about some Chinese as individuals, but not about the Chinese as a group. They had not been accepted by the Whites, and their classification needed special attention. (In terms of a proclamation issued during 1959, Chinese reople may be classified as belonging to a group of the Coloured population0 ). The Minister added that sometimes a person was classified as White, but later went to live among Coloured folk. After some time he might become accepted as Coloured. In such a case, the classification was altered. The Government has been in considerable doubt about how to classify some groups of people. Mr. H. Lewis, M.P., raised the case of Arabs from Zanzibar who had settled on the Bluff, Durban, about 70 years previously('). They were initially classed as Africans, but after he had made representations to the Miniser and to population registration officials he understood that they were to be reclassified as Coloured. Then the difficulty arose that they were living in an area allocated to Indians. Were they to ask to be allowed to remain there under permit as Coloured persons, or should they apply for re-classification as Indians? The Arabs chose the former alternative; but thei the local Coloured community objected. Finally, the Government decided to class them as "other Asiatics". INVESTIGATION OF BORDERLINE CASES It was announced by the Minister of the Interiof in April 19610) that by then the race of 57,981 persons on the White/ Coloured borderline had been determined, and of 70,605 on the Coloured/African borderline. Up to the end of 19619 3,269 of these persons had lodged objections, 511 of them clainiing to be White. The objections were dealt with as follows: 1,907 were reviewed by officials in the light of decisiols by Race Appeal Boards("); 211 were decided by Appeal Boards; 7 were decided by the Supreme Court; 43 objections were withdrawn; 1,108 objections were still receiving attention. (The totals do not tally.) On this occasion the Minister did not state what the results had been. It would appear, however, from information ie gave in the Assembly on 20 May 1960)12), that of 179 appeals heard by that date, 150 had been upheld. (8) See 1958-59 Survey, page 38. (9) Star report, 17 May 1961. (10) Senate, 14 April, Hansard 10 cols. 3092-3. (11) See 1958-9 Survey, page 40. (12) Hansard 18 of 1960, col. 8254. See 1959-60 Survey, page 29.

86 ASURVEYOFRACE In the course of another speech(3) the Minister said that shortly before the republican referendum queries regarding their race were sent to 1,302 voters whose names appeared on the voters' rolls. The names of 79 of them were removed because they did not qualify for registration. CASES OF DELAY AND HARDSHIP During 1961, eleven years after the Population Registration Act was passed, cases of hardship were still being reported. The Star(4) told of a widow in Cape Town with six children whose family had always been considered to be White. Her husband had held a railway post which was not open to NonWhites. One day she received a letter from the Population Registrar's office stating that there was some doubt about her racial classification, and that if no objection and supporting affidavits were received within 21 days she would be reclassified as Coloured. This woman was plunged into the depths of despair. She hid the letter under a mattress and contemplated suicide. A city councillor who heard of her plight enlisted the assistance of a Member of Parliament. He approached the Population Registrar, who eventually agreed to classify the family as White. The city councillor commented, "This is a case which has had a happy ending. But the appalling humiliation and misery the woman suffered could so easily have been avoided. One wonders whether any query about her race was necessary in the first place". A similar case was described in the Sunday Times5'. The mother, step-father and two sisters of Mr. D. D. Schutzler of Lichtenburg all received identity cards classifying them as White, but his card was not sent with the rest. He wrote to the Population Registrar's office in September 1960 enquiring why this was, and on 2 November was ordered to appear before the magistrate, who asked him numerous questions. Then, in January 1961, he received a letter from the Population Registrar asking him to show cause why he should not be classified as Coloured. He was given three weeks within which to send proof of White ancestry and associations, including affidavits from the police, the local M.P. or M.P.C., two ministers of religion, a school principal and two friends of the family. Mr. Schutzler could not obtain all these documents within three weeks, so asked for an extension of time. He finally submitted twelve affidavits and, as a result, was during February issued with an identity card which indicated that his race was White. But meanwhile he had been most apprehensive about possibly having to leave his home and family to live in a Coloured area. (13) Assembly, 24 March 1961, Hansard 9 cols. 3585-6. (14) 20 January 1961. (15) 15 January and 5 February 1961.

RELATIONS: 1961 87 In a third case, a judge of the Natal Supreme Court intervened to put an end to a woman's anxiety. She had been classified as Coloured, and had lodged an appeal. This had not been heard. Considerable delay was likely, and meanwhile she wished to marry the White man to whom she was engaged. As the magistrate refused to conduct the ceremony until her race had been decided, she applied to the Supreme Court for writ of mandamus on the magistrate to marry her. The judge ordered that she be declared to be a European within the contemplation of the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act of 1949. He added, "I consider that the applicant's journey through life should not be brought almost to a standstill awaiting the operation of the Population Registration Act, and that she is entitled to know quickly whether or not she may marry the man she wishes to"0'9. CONTROL OF PUBLICATIONS DEEMED UNDESIRABLE PUBLICATIONS AND ENTERTAINMENTS BILL The terms of the Publications and Entertainments Bill of 1960 were described in last year's Survey7). Among very many other organizations and individuals, the Institute of Race Relations expressed its opposition to the measure. A memorandum (18) was sent to the Select Committee to which the Bill had been referred. At its meeting in January 1961 the Institute's Council resolved: "that the proposed Publications and Entertainments Bill, besides being administratively difficult and burdensome. constitutes a violation of the right to free expression and publication. The Bill provides for pre-publication censorship which would institute a system of publication under official licence and would totally destroy the basis of the free expression of thought. . . . The proper guardians of public morality are the courts of law ..." It was announced during February that the Government had decided to drop this Bill. UNDESIRABLE PUBLICATIONS BILL The Undesirable Publications Bill was presented to Parliament instead. It provided that no-one may print, publish, distribute, display or sell any publication that is undesirable. The word "publication" is widely defined to include newspapers, periodicals, books, writings, illustrations, photographs, sound recordings. etc. (16) Rand Daily Mail, 4 February and Star, 22 February 1961. (17) Page 32. (18) RR 218/60.

88 A SURVEY OF RACE A publication will be deemed undesirable if, inter alia, it: (1) is indecent, offensive or harmful to the public morals; (2) is blasphemous or offensive to the religious convictions or feelings of any section of the people; (3) brings any section of the people into ridicule or contempt; (4) is harmful to the relations between any sections of the people; (5) is prejudicial to the safety of the State, the general welfare or the peace and good order of the country. These provisions will not apply to any matter in a publication of a technical, scientific or professional nature, bona fide intended for the advancement of or use in any particular profession or branch of science. The courts of law will be the arbiters (this is one of the main differences between this measure and its predecessor). No prosecutions will be instituted except upon the recommendation of the (existing) Board of Censors("), and on the authority of the AttorneyGeneral. The Board may on its own initiative examine any publication produced in South Africa in order to form an opinion as to whether or not it is undesirable, and may do so also at the request of any person who has paid a fee prescribed by the Minister of the Interior. The Board may also examine any imported publication and, if it so decides, may rule that it is indecent, obscene or objectionable. Such a decision will be subject to appeal to the Supreme Court. (In terms of existing law, the Minister makes such decisions, and there is no appeal.) The Bill provides that maximum penalties on being found guilty of publishing, displaying or selling an undesirable publication will be a fine of R400 or twelve months' imprisonment or both. In addition, the court may declare that the publication concerned is forfeited to the State. This measure was sent to a Select Committee before its Second Reading. ATTITUDE OF PRIME MINISTER The Prime Minister said on 14 April 1961(2"), "The Press is going far beyond what 'Freedom of the Press' means and is approaching very closely to what 'licence of the Press' is . . . I have always hoped and still hope that it will not be necessary to call the Press to order . . . The judge may be the courts. There may, however, be circumstances in which the judge has to be found elsewhere so that quicker action can be taken in the interest of the country. But I am still laying the burden only upon the Press itself". (19) Set up under the Entertainments (Censorship) Act, No. 28 of 1931. (20) Assembly, Hansard 12 cols. 4555-6.

RELATIONS: 1961 PASSPORTS AND VISAS CONFISCATION OF PASSPORTS When Mr. Alan Paton, president of the Liberal Party, returned by air from London in December 1960 an official at the airport served on him a notice from the Minister of the Interior withdrawing his passport. A similar order was served next month on Mr. Hugh Lewin, a vice-president of the National Union of S.A. Students. REFUSAL OF PASSPORTS The Minister of the Interior said on 9 May 1961(21) that 75 passports had been refused in 1960 and 31 so far in 1961. In some cases they had subsequently been issued to the applicants concerned when initial disqualifications had been overcome, for example, refusal by parents of minors, failure to meet income tax obligations, etc. Prominent among the Non-White people who were refused passports was Dr. A. C. Jordan, a lecturer in African studies at the University of Cape Town, who had been awarded a Carnegie travel grant to study the latest methods in linguistic research at universities in Britain and the United States. His university made unsuccessful representations for the reversal of this decision. Dr. Jordan, together with his ten-year-old son, subsequently arrived in England by a secret escape route without a passport. The Rev. B. S. Rajuili, former secretary of the Interdenominational African Ministers' Federation, who was one of the twelve African leaders convicted of furthering the aims of the A.N.C.2, was refused a passport to go to India to attend a conference of the World Council of Churches. Other Non-White persons who were refused passports were one of the members of the cast of King Kong(23), a Coloured teacher in Port Elizabeth who intended to take up a teaching post in the Federation(24), members of a Non-White table tennis team who wished to compete in championships in Peking(2), and Mr. I. Mgemani who had received a scholarship to study medicine in Norway. Mr. Mgemani subsequently escaped from South Africa without the necessary travel documents(2). PASSPORTS GRANTED TO NON-WHITE PEOPLE The Rev. Seth Mokitimi was selected to visit America under the United States- South Africa leadership exchange programme. (21) Assembly, Hansard 16 cols. 6153-4. (22) See page 40. (23) Rand Daily Mail, 9 February 1961. (24) Minister of the Interior, Assembly, 24 February, Hansard 5 col. 1919. (25) Rand Daily Mail, 30 March 1961. (26) Ibid, 12 February.

90 ASURVEYOFRACE He was initially refused a passport but, after a year's delay, this decision was reversed. Others who were permitted to visit the United States in terms of this programme included Mr. G. J. Golding, the principal of a school in Cape Town, and Mr. P. J. Philander, a prize-winning poet and also a school principal. Three leading Indian citizens were permitted to go overseas: Dr. A. D. Lazarus to study university and college systems in the United States, Dr. S. Cooppan to assist with the co-ordination of educational and economic programmes in Brazil, and Mr. Jack Naidoo to study the development of technical and higher education in India. Mr. Johannes Nthaba was allowed to attend the Cleveland (U.S.) International Programme for Youth and Social Workers; and Bishop J. L. Nku and the Rev. A. M. Masekoameng of the Apostolic Faith Mission participated in a Pentecostal conference in Jerusalem27). Mrs. Ellen Kuzwayo, a social worker, went to England to attend the Jubilee celebrations of the National Association of Youth Clubs. Five clergymen were granted passports to enable them to attend a conference in India held by the World Council of Churches: they were the Rt. Rev. A. H. Zulu, Bishop Walter Dimba, the Rev. E. E. Mahabane, the Rev. D. V. Sikutshwa and the Rev. D. J. Smith. REFUSAL OF VISAS The members of the American Committee of the United StatesSouth Africa leadership exchange programme, who applied as a group for visas when they wished to visit South Africa during August, were refused these. Some of them subsequently made successful individual applications. An announcement that caused considerable concern was that the South African Government could not arrange for a visit by Mr. G. Mennen Williams, the United States Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, at a time that would have been convenient for him28). The Government refused to allow the United Nations Committee on South-West Africa to visit that territory or South Africa itself("). Mr. Walter Lutz, a lecturer in statistics at the University of the Witwatersrand, was refused a permit to re-enter South Africa after he had taken a year's study leave at the London School of Economics. (27) Star, 19 April and Rand Daily Mail, 24 April. (28) Star, 15 July 1961. (29) Rand Daily Mail, 27 June 1961.

RELATIONS: 1961 BANNING ORDERS Many banning orders under the Suppression of Communism Act have been issued during the year under review. Numbers of people have been forbidden to attend meetings for periods of five years: they include Mr. Patrick Duncan, the editor of Contact and a prominent member of the Liberal Party (in spite of the fact that Contact had been under heavy fire from left-wing extremists for its anti-communist approach), Mr. Joseph Nkatlo, Cape Vice-Chairman of the Liberal Party, Mr. Billy Nair of the S.A. Congress of Trade Unions and Natal Indian Congress, Mrs. Lilian Ngoyi, President of the S.A. Federation of Women, Dr. Graham Meidlinger, Durban Chairman of the Congress of Democrats, Mr. Reg September, Mr. Alex la Guma and Mr. T. Bardien of the Coloured People's Congress, Mr. Christopher Mlokothi, a former executive member of the P.A.C., Mr. Thomas Nkobi, a former organizer of the A.N.C., Mr. A. J. Storm of the Congress of Democrats, Mrs. M. Hollow, Cape Town Secretary of the African Food and Canning Workers' Union, Mr. A. Sibeko, another trade union leader, Mrs. Joyce Meissenheimer, editor of Torch and a member of the Anti-Coloured Affairs Department Organization, seven members of the Teachers' League of S.A.Messrs. Victor Wessels, Cosmo Pieterse, F. A. Landman, E. Maurice, R. 0. Dudley, G. L. Abrahams and A. Fataar-Mr. Z. Malindi of the Garage Workers' Union, who had been attending multi-racial meetings in Cape Town to discuss a national convention, and Mr. Dennis Brutus of the S.A. Sports Association and Coloured National Convention, who had been attending similar discussions in Port Elizabeth. Mr. George Peake, a Cape Town City Councillor, was served with a renewal of an order banning him from attending all meetings except those of the Council. Others have been ordered to remain for five years in the magisterial districts where they live: some of them had previously been banned from attending gatherings. Among these were Mr. Melville Fletcher of Sactu and the Congress of Democrats, Mr. W. Kodesh, a director of New Age, and Mr. Alfred Nzo, a former executive member of the A.N.C. Mr. Nzo, of Johannesburg, was prohibited from visiting any African township other than his home area of Moroka. Further people were banned from attending gatherings and also prohibited from leaving stated districts for five years. Some of these were Mr. Ben Turok, national secretary of the Congress of Democrats and a representative of Africans in the Cape Provincial Council (his banning order allowed him to attend Provincial Council meetings), Mrs. Mary Turok, also of the Congress of Democrats, Mr. Vincent Sevart, the founder of a "Movement for the Reconquest of Africa", Mr. Peter Magano, former chairman

92 ASURVEYOFRACE of the A.N.C. in Pretoria, and Mr. S. Segale, a former president of the A.N.C. Youth League. Mr. Barney Desai of the Coloured People's Congress was ordered to resign from six different organizations. On the same day that the Coloured National Convention was banned from meeting in the Western Province during the period 7 to 16 July(3"), similar orders were served on the S.A. Indian Congress, the S.A. Coloured People's Congress, the S.A. Congress of Democrats and the S.A. Congress of Trade Unions. During September, when three teachers in Cape Town were served with banning orders, more than fifty of their pupils themselves organized a placard demonstration in the main street. They were ordered into police vans and taken to the charge office, but no charge was laid, the children being released after some hours1). BANISHMENT OF AFRICANS AFRICANS WHO HAVE BEEN EXILED With the assistance of certain Members of Parliament, the Institute of Race Relations and the Human Rights Welfare Committees which have been set up in Johannesburg, Cape Town, Durban and Kimberley have during the year under review investigated the banishment of Africans under Section five (1)(b) of the Native Administration Act of 1927. This provision enables the Governor-General, whenever he deems it expedient in the general public interest, without prior notice to order any tribe, portion of a tribe or African to move to any stated place. It would appear that, in effect, banishment orders are served mainly on people who have actively opposed Government policies or have agitated against measures introduced through Bantu Authorities. Had they actually committed crimes they would, no doubt, have been prosecuted in a court of law. According to an article published by the Institute2) as amended in the light of a statement by the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development3") and further investigations, it would appear that at least ten Africans were banished during 1960, one of whom was a Zulu Chief and the rest being mainly people from the Transkei, including a chief and his mother and a number of headmen. Since January 1948 at least 116 Africans have been banished. Of these eleven have died, in three cases the removal orders have been withdrawn, 45 orders have been suspended (in some cases (30) See page 24. (31) Rand Daily Mail report, 23 September 1959. (32) "Banishment Without Trial" by Lawrence Reyburn, Race Relations News, April 1961. (33) Assembly, 31 January 1961, Hansard 2 cols. 426-9.

RELATIONS: 1961 for stated periods and for the rest indefinitely), twelve people have escaped (one was recaptured: his case is dealt with below), and six are apparently missing. That leaves at least 39 Africans still in banishment.34 Permits issued to Africans whose banishment orders are suspended are subject to withdrawal without prior notice. No reason need be given. If the suspension is for a stated period, during this time the holder may not interfere in tribal matters or take part in such activities as may be stipulated. Certain cases of banishment have been described earlier in this Survey, for example those of ten people from the Transkei35), Chief Jeremiah Mabie(3", and five senior tribesmen from Sekhukhuneland(7). A list of all the exiles whose names were known by the Institute was published in the article mentioned above (a few more have been banished since this was written). In replying to criticism of the system in the Assembly on 14 June 1961, the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development denied3" that certain men whose cases were mentioned had been banished merely because they were opposed to Government policies. Two of the men who had been exiled from the Transkei, he said, had rounded up some tsotsis and threatened to kill the chief and burn down the huts of his people if they established a Bantu Authority. Ninety- eight per cent of the people of the area were in favour of the setting up of such a body. One of the men who had been sent away from Zululand had tried to destroy contour walls and other reclamation work done by the chief and his council, and these people had threatened to kill him if he was not removed. CONDITIONS IN AREAS TO WHICH EXILES ARE SENT The banished persons are sent to isolated farms on Native Trust land, where they are usually offered work as labourers. Some men are alone, while others have been sent to camps built for groups of six or more. At the time of the Institute's investigation, four were at the Frenchdale camp, about 100 miles from Mafeking, six were at Driefontein camp, some 110 miles from Vryburg, four were at Tabaans Location in the Sibasa district, six at Mandini in Zululand, and others at Wesselsvlei, about 70 miles from Vryburg, Glen Road (Kuruman area), or at farms in the King William's Town, Pietersburg, Groblersdal, Eshowe or Gollel districts. The exiles and those who have visited them speak of extreme poverty and near- starvation. When employed their wages range from R8 to R13 a month, from which they have to pay for bedding (34) Since this report was compiled the Minister has nersonally reviewed all these cases and it is understood that further exiles have been allowed to return home. (35) Page 48. (36) Page 60. (37) Page 60. (38) Hansard 20 col. 8063.

94 A SURVEY OF RACE and furniture for the bare huts, food and clothing, and the support of their families. Some of these men were previously chiefs or teachers, earning comparatively good salaries. Those who are not given work are entitled to an allowance of about R4 per month, but it appears that not all of them receive it. Those who have visited the camps speak of the extreme boredom, frustration and loneliness of the exiles, their need in many cases of the most elementary necessities of life, and their concern over the hardship being experienced by their families. The wives and families of banished persons are entitled to join them at State expense; but in many cases they find it impossible to go to the isolated camps: the wife may have to earn money or the children to attend school. Although visits are permitted, in practice this provision is of little value because of the long distances to be travelled. It sometimes happens that a man is arrested and sent away before he has a chance to inform his family, who remain unaware of what has happened to him. The Government considers that it is unnecessary to notify the family because the men concerned are free to write to them. Their mail is not censored. Human Rights Welfare Committees have been assisting the exiles and their families by sending small grants of money, food, clothing and newspapers. REASONS FOR BANISHMENT Some of the exiles say that they were never told why they were banished. Early in 1961 the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development was asked in the Assembly what the reasons were in certain cases, but refused to give this information because the men concerned had not authorized the request. The Human Rights Welfare Committee then circularized the deportees, sixteen of whom sent written authority for Mr. J. P. Cope, M.P., to inquire into the reasons for their banishment. REVIEW OF BANISHMENT ORDERS The Deputy Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said on 14 March39) that reports on the exiles are sent annually by Native Commissioners to the Secretary of the Department, who then reviews each case in consultation with the Deputy Minister. In terms of the Native Administration Act, banishment orders that are still in force after each period of twelve months must be tabled in Parliament, and cease to have effect if both Houses pass resolutions disapproving of them. (39) Assembly, Hansard 8 cols. 2932-4.

RELATIONS: 1961 95 PLEAS FOR AN AMNESTY In the Assembly on 14 June4"), Mr. J. P. Cope, M.P., addressed a very strong appeal to the Minister to start his era of administration in the Republic "by making a gesture which is long overdue and one which would do an enormous amount of good". He urged that the system of banishment, "one of the most cruel instruments of administration that can be found anywhere", should be abolished. The Institute of Race Relations had urged that with the coming of the Republic an amnesty should be declared for banished people. The Minister replied41), "I want to give honourable members the assurance that with few exceptions I shall not send a Bantu from his own area in future if I do not receive an almost unanimous request from the council of the area concerned and from the Bantu of such areas. In addition, I instruct my officials to establish whether this is really a case where a person should be removed". Subsequently, during October, the Minister personally reviewed the cases of Africans who were still in exile, and it is understood that more of them have been allowed to return home. RE-ARREST OF AN EXILE WHO ESCAPED Mr. A. K. Ganyile was one of the Africans who were banished from Pondoland. He was ordered to Frenchdale, but escaped and sought refuge at Qachasnek in Basutoland, about 100 yards across the South African border. According to Press reports42) a group of policemen are alleged to have crossed the border to arrest him. CONTROL OF ENTRY INTO RURAL AFRICAN AREAS As has been described in earlier issues of this Survey03P, Proclamation No. 52 of 1958, as amended by Proclamations 138 of 1959 and 109 of 1960, enables the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development to impose control by permit over the entry of persons to or their departure from African areas where there has been unrest. In areas to which Parts I and III of the original proclamation have been applied, it is an offence to fail to report the unlawful presence of any African, or to make a verbal or written statement likely to interfere with the authority of the State or a chief, or to threaten anyone on account of his loyalty to the State or any of its officials or any chief or headman. If Part II of the proclamation is applied to any area, it becomes an offence to leave without a permit. (40) Hansard 20 col. S021. (41) Col. 8062. (42) New Age, 21 September, Rand Daily Mall, 23 September 1961. (43) 1957-58 page 69, 1958-59 page 128, 1959-60 page 34.

96 A SURVEY OF RACE On 23 December 1960, in terms of Government Notices No. 2114 and 2115, Parts I and III were re-applied for a further six months to African areas in the Marico (Zeerust) and Peddie districts, to Sekhukhuneland, to Matlala's and Moletzie's locations near Pietersburg, and to 72 Trust, tribal or African-owned farms in the Pietersburg and Potgietersrus districts. The Metz area, to which the Mamathola tribe was moved, was not included on this occasion. Government Notice No. 95 of 23 June 1961 extended this control for yet another six months to all the areas mentioned in the December notice with the exception of Peddie. TAPPING OF TELEPHONE LINES It was alleged during February44) that during the state of emergency in 1960 the Deputy Mayor of Durban had given permission to Special Branch detectives to tap the telephone lines of certain Non-White organizations and of White people who had been connected with them. (The telephone service in Durban is controlled by the municipality). The Telephone Communications Interception Bill was prepared by Mr. J. P. Cope as a Private Member's measure, but was not proceeded with during 1961. It provided that the Minister of Justice could issue a warrant authorizing the police to tap telephone conversations only if he was satisfied that the telephone service was being used or was likely to be used for purposes prejudicial to the security of the State. Such a warrant would be valid for a maximum period of six months. Where it was not possible to obtain the Minister's personal authority, the Commissioner of Police might issue a warrant for a maximum period of 48 hours, but in each case would then have to report his action to the Minister. Persons convicted of unlawfully listening to or recording telephone conversations or divulging information obtained by intercepting telephone communications would be liable to a fine of up to R1,000 or imprisonment for up to three years. Exceptions were provided for in the cases of officials repairing technical faults and policemen carrying out their duties. (44) e.g. Star, 13 February.

RELATIONS: 1961 THE AFRICAN RESERVES FUTURE POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT STATEMENT BY THE PRIME MINISTER An important announcement was made by the Prime Minister on 10 April 19610. The Bantu, he said, would be able to develop into separate Bantu states, possibly even being granted full independence. As a preliminary step, the elective system would gradually be introduced into the Bantu Authorities system as the people became ready for it and asked for it. "That is not what we would have liked to see", the Prime Minister continued. "In the light of the pressure being exerted on South Africa there is, however, no doubt that eventually this will have to be done, thereby buying for the White man his freedom and the right to retain domination in what is his country". REACTIONS BY MEMBERS OF THE TRANSKEIAN TERRITORIAL AUTHORITY On 21 April, during the annual session of the Transkeian Territorial Authority, Councillor L. Maninjwa moved: "that in order to ease the present situation of uneasiness in the , and in view of the Government's policy of separate development and the fact that the Bantu people in the Union have no representation in the Union legislature: (a) this Territorial Authority in session respectfully requests the Government to declare the Transkeian Territories as a whole a self-governing state under the control of the Bantu people; (b) that arrangements for the drawing up of the relative constitution be made by the authorities in consultation with the leaders of the Bantu people in the Transkeian Territories2)". Lengthy discussions followed, inside tfe council chambers and in private. Supporters of the motion pointed out that territories elsewhere in Africa which could boast of fewer graduates and a lower level of enlightenment than the Transkei had been granted independence. The Chief Magistrate said that many preliminary steps would be necessary before the people would be ready for this, and advised them to move slowly and surely along the present lines. Councillors countered this by saying that there was no intention to dispense immediately with White officials. Africans would have to be trained to take over their duties. But the White (1) Assembly, Hansard 12 cols. 4191, 4314-5. (2) From official record of proceedings.

A SURVEY OF RACE officials would have to accept the authority of an independent Transkeian government. For a time deadlock was reached in the discussions. Those in favour of independence visualized a representative form of government with a universal franchise. Some chiefs feared that this would bring to an end the institution of chieftainship. Other Africans felt that there was no guarantee that the money would be available to run an independent state. Eventually, after several amendments to the motion had been debated, Councillor Chief D. D. P. Ndamase moved one that was carried. It stated: "that whereas it is the stated policy of the Government that the Bantu territories shall be developed to the status of selfgovernment, and whereas this Authority has now been in existence for about five years, and whereas this Authority, considering the supreme importance of the Government's policy, does not doubt the sincerity of the Government in this respect ... this Authority ... resolves to appoint a recess committee of 27 members, with powers to co-opt such persons as it may deem fit, to go into the implications of the granting or otherwise of self- government to this Authority . . and that the following be the terms of reference: (a) to consider the financial implications of the granting of self-government, bearing in mind, inter alia, all taxes, direct or indirect, payable by Bantu in these Territories. (b) to consider, in the event of such self-government being granted and established, it shall not in any way tamper with the present set-up of chieftainship in these Territories; (c) to consider the relations between the Government and the proposed Bantu state; (d) to consider the possible date of granting the self-government; (e) to consider the manner of approaching the Government in order to effect self-government". STATEMENTS BY THE MINISTER The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said at this time 3) that once the administrative machinery was established, the Bantu must eventually get self-government. As long as there were Whites in the towns of the Transkei, "which of course will be for many generations", their affairs would be controlled by the White Government. The Bantu would rule their own people only. A committee had already reported on how Bantu education could be transferred to the Territorial Authority, he added. (3) Digest of South African Affairs, 28 April 196.

RELATIONS: 1961 99 Later, in the Assembly, he stated('), "It is our policy to train these people as rapidly as possible to manage their own affairs in these areas". He regarded it as his task to guide the Transkeian Territories in this direction, and would like to see the people building up their own public service as fast as possible so that they could take over control of the various aspects of their national life. The Minister drew a distinction between self-government and full independence. The masses did not want complete separation from the rest of South Africa, he said. But eventually, if they reached the stage where they did want full independence, that would have to be considered. On another occasion(') he said that he was determined eventually to hand over the courts of law in the Transkei to the Bantu themselves. Previously6), the Chief Magistrate for the Transkei had announced that the Department was enquiring into the possibility of increasing the powers of chiefs' courts. Provision would have to be made for the appointment of qualified Bantu judicial officers. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BANTU AUTHORITIES SYSTEM TERRITORIAL AUTHORITIES The second and third of the proposed eight territorial authorities were established during the year under review. The Ciskeian Territorial Authority came into being in terms of Government Notice R 496 of 24 March. It has 22 members drawn from the seven constituent regional authorities, and its first chairman is Archibald V. Sandile, the Paramount Chief of the Rarabe section of the Xhosa tribal complex. In terms of Government Notice 585 of 21 April, the Tswana Territorial Authority was established, representative of eight regional authorities. In both cases, regulations for the authority were gazetted. The Department has not yet decided what the political future of the Ndebele people is to be. The Minister said on 5 May(7), "It is anticipated that, following the language spoken by them, some will elect to join the proposed Northern Sotho Territorial Authority, while others might link up with the Tswana Territorial Authority or a Territorial Authority of the Nguni group of their choice". REGIONAL AND TRIBAL AUTHORITIES As at the end of September 19.61 there were 44 regional authorities. Eight new ones had been established during the preceding year: (4) 14 June 1961, Hansard 20 cols. 7995-7. (5) Assembly, 8 June, Hansard 19 col. 7643 (6) Rand Daily Mail report, 25 April. (7) Assembly, Hansra- 15 col. 59qO

A SURVEY OF RACE Vulindlele Regional Authority-Pietermaritzburg and Camperdown Districts Ndlovu Regional Authority-Mapumulo District Vulamehlo Regional Authority-Umzinto District Lindindlela Regional Authority- Ubombo District Mehlwesiziwe Regional Authority-Mtunzini District Baralong Regional Authority-Mafeking District Huhudi Regional Authority-Vryburg District Hewu Regional Authority-Whittlesea area of Queenstown District As at 20 December 1960 there were 373 tribal authorities. (There is a small overlap with the figure given for regional authorities as a few of these bodies act in both capacities). Since then four more have been established among the Zulu people, one amongst the Northern Sotho and three for the Tswana, giving a total at the end of September 1961 of 381. Except in the Transkei and Ciskei, the system is by no means complete. Even in the Western Areas, where the Tswana Territorial Authority has been set up, there are some tribal authorities that are not yet linked with senior bodies in the hierarchy. The system is fairly well developed in the Northern Areas, but no authorities have as yet been established in the Bushbuckridge area and the tribal authorities in the Lydenburg, Groblersdal and Bronkhorstspruit districts have still to combine in regional authorities. So far as the Free State is concerned, the organization is well advanced in the Thaba 'Nchu area, but only partly developed at Witzieshoek. Least progress has been made in Natal and Zululand. As will be seen above, several new regional authorities were set up there during the year under review. However, no authorities yet exist in the Mahlabatini, Mtonjaneni, Ndwedwe, Paulpietersburg, Estcourt, Newcastle or Kranskop districts, and little development has taken place in Nqutu, Nkandla, Bergville, Msinga and other areas. In some of these places resistance is still being encountered. FINANCING OF COMMUNITY SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE BANTU AUTHORITIES In an article published in Bantu in May 1961, Mr. K. A. E. Heinze of the Bantu Authorities Division of the Department explained the terms of an official circular that was issued in July 1959. In this, the Minister made it clear that where the Native Trust and a Bantu Authority provide similar services in the same area, the latter should gradually take over. The revenue, or part of the revenue, which the Trust would normally have devoted to these services will be made available to the Bantu Authority concerned, to be used for community services only, not salaries or administration.

RELATIONS: 1961 101 The Department considers that the principle of self-help should continually be propagated, to encourage responsibility and initiative. Thus Government help, by way of funds or technical advice and assistance, is given mainly to Bantu Authorities which are prepared to contribute funds raised by means of tribal levies, or to make voluntary labour available. These authorities are encouraged to make their own decisions about which services they would like to undertake. Large projects such as the building of major roads, dams and bridges and the development and maintenance of agricultural schemes will not be entrusted to them immediately, although it is the ultimate aim to do so. The Department requires the Bantu Authority and the local White officials to submit very detailed budgets and reports before a financial grant is made. The services must be executed under the supervision of the Bantu Affairs Commissioner and to his satisfaction. Mr. Heinze reported that during 1960 there were 54 grants made to Bantu Authorities to enable them to undertake services that would normally have been executed by the Trust. The Transkei is omitted as works carried out there are separately financed. Seven regional authorities received amounts totalling R38,486, while 44 tribal authorities received R49,242. In addition, the Minister presented road and other machinery worth R14,600 to three regional authorities on the occasions of their official inauguration. A far greater rate of progress was necessary, Mr. Heinze continued. Only 54 tribal and regional authorities had participated in this scheme out of the 261 that existed at the beginning of 1960. Besides these grants, he said, 139 tribal and community authorities received ,730 as contributions towards the costs of suitable court and office buildings. During the session of the Transkeian Territorial Authority held in April 1961, the Secretary for Bantu Administration and Development said(8) the Chief Magistrate had reported that the finances of this body were inadequate to allow it to undertake the necessary services. The Government had agreed to make a grant of R343,000 for the repair of roads, the construction of new roads and bridges and the purchase of machinery. The Authority could itself decide whether money it normally spent on these services should be diverted to others. SCHOOL FOR THE SONS OF CHIEFS The Jongilizwe College for the sons of chiefs and headmen in the Transkei and Ciskei was opened at Tsolo on 19 October 1960. It can accommodate 79 students, who must have passed Standard VI and be at least fifteen years of age. A Junior Certificate course (8) Bantu, July 1961.

102 A SURVEY OF RACE in Bantu administration is offered, which besides general educational subjects includes agriculture, administration, law, book-keeping, commerce and typing. In the course of tuition in these subjects, students are given practical instruction in actual matters with which they will have to deal as chiefs. Considerable attention is given to personality development and character formation. Those who pass may enrol for a diploma course in Bantu administration and law"'). THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESERVES THE EXTENT OF THE RESERVES The Reserves consist, firstly, of the scheduled areas which are, in the main, the areas occupied by Africans at the time when the Natives Land Act of 1913 was passed (there have been certain changes). The exact extent of these areas is not accurately known because much of the land has never been properly surveyed, but they measure approximately 10,729,433 morgen('0. Secondly, between 1913 and 1936 Africans acquired about 1,440,137 morgen in areas recommended by various commissions for "release" to them. The Native Trust and Land Act of 1936 provided that 7, million morgen of land (the released areas) should gradually be added to the Reserves, 526,000 morgen of this in Natal, 5,028,000 morgen in the Transvaal, 1,616,000 morgen in the Cape and 80,000 morgen in the Free State. According to an article published in the official periodical Bantu in July 1961(11), by then 4,825,456 of the 7- million morgen had been added, as follows: Morgen Land owned by the Crown and since vested in the Native Trust ...... 1,784,721 Land purchased by the Trust ...... 2,655,933 Land purchased by Africans ...... 384,802 4,825,456 There were, thus, 2,424,544 morgen still to be acquired, 307,753 morgen in Natal, 1,169,137 morgen in the Transvaal, 946,696 morgen in the Cape and 958 morgen in the Free State. According to a statement by the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development(2), the Trust purchased 40,790 morgen during 1960 at acost of R984,031. (9) Bantu Education Journal, September 1961. (10) 302+ morgen = 1 square mile. (11) "Acquisition of Land by the S.A. Native Trust and the Consolidation of the Bantu Homelands". (12) Assembly, 24 March 1961, Hansard 9 col. 3585.

RELATIONS: 1961 103 Because of its policy of removing "Black spots" (farms owned by African in predominantly White rural areas), the Government will, in fact, have to acquire more than the balance of the 71 million morgen, in order that the Africans who will be required to move may be offered alternative land. The Tomlinson Commission estimated(13) that an additional 188,660 morgen should be purchased for this purpose. According to the article in Bantu quoted above, the areas of the "Black spots" before the removal scheme began were: Natal ... 210 farms or portions thereof measuring about 48,390 morgen Transvaal 55 ...... ,, .... 55,000 Cape ... 63 9, . ,..... 62,022 Free State 4 ...... , 7,787 ,, 173,199 The article stated that 16 of the "Black spots" in the Transvaal measuring 15,252 morgen had already been "cleared", also another 16, which were 4,398 morgen in extent, in the Cape. The present and ultimate future area of the Reserves, unless they are extended by new legislation, will thus be: Future area Present area Morgen Morgen Scheduled areas ...... 10,729,433 10,729,433 Land acquired by Africans, 1913 to 1936 ...... 1,440,137 1,440,137 Released areas ...... 7,250,000 Land to be offered in exchange 4,825,456 for "Black Spots" ...... 173,199 19,592,769 16,995,026 Percentage of total area of South Africa ...... 13.7 11.9 There is, however, a further complication. Besides removing the "Black spots", the Government intends to move the inhabitants of the smaller, isolated Reserves to land adjoining the bigger ones. This will have little effect on the figures quoted above as it will merely represent a consolidation of the scheduled areas; but it naturally adds to the physical and human problems. The article in Bantu, quoted above, stated that four small Reserves in the Cape, 25,052 morgen in extent, have already been moved. (13) U.G. 6111955, pages 45-46.

104 A SURVEY OF RACE REMOVAL OF SQUATTERS AND PEOPLE LIVING IN "BLACK SPOTS" Boomplaats One of the "Black spots" that was cleared during the year under review was the farm Boomplaats, about seven miles northwest of Lydenburg in the Transvaal. The hereditary chief, Dinkwanyane of the Pedi group, and his followers bought it from Whites in 1907, and eventually about 400 families settled there. In 1955 representatives of the tribe were driven to see the farm Sterkspruit No. 2, about 40 miles to the north, adjoining Sekhukhuneland, which was offered in exchange, and was of approximately equal value. The Regent Victoria Dinkwanyane and about 50 families agreed to move there. and did so in 1957. But the remainder of the tribe, led by Petrus Mugabe, refused to go. Their main objection was that the new area was too far from a town to enable them to live at home while working for Whites to supplement their livelihood from agriculture, as numbers had done previously. Eventually the Department prosecuted about 250 heads of the families who had remained, these cases being heard in the magistrate's court in Lydenburg during November 1960. Sentences of £10 or 5 weeks were imposed, suspended on condition that the people left Boomplaats before the end of the year. The court ruled that if they contravened the order, an ejection warrant should be issued to remove them to a farm Rietfontein, pending their re-establishment at Sterkspruit, and that their homes at Boomplaats should be demolished. Officials arrived at Boomplaats on 24 January 1961 to serve the ejectment order. They found that all except 71 families had disappeared. These remaining people were moved in Government lorries to Rietfontein, where tents were available for temporary shelter and food was provided for the first days. Bulldozers were sent to demolish the buildings at Boomplaats(t"). S quatters on farms, mission stations, etc. Besides moving Africans from "Black spots" and isolated Reserves, the Department has been concerned with the future of African squatters. Firstly, there are large numbers of squatters on farms, mission stations and "diggers' locations". The then Minister of Native Affairs said in 1958(") that the men were, when feasible, being assisted by labour bureaux to find work as full- time farm labourers. If, however, the bread-winner was away working in a town or on the mines, residence for the family would be provided in a rural (14) Information from an article in Bantu, March 1961, and from knowledge gained by the writer during a visit to Lydenburg in 1956. (15) Assembly, Hansard 1 of 1958, cols. 185-6.

RELATIONS:1961 105 village. There were cases in which the families of squatters had been living as part of a tribal entity under tribal conditions. Should the farm where they lived be in or adjacent to a scheduled or released area, the Trust endeavoured to purchase this farm for their continued residence. If this was not possible, the families were re- settled in a suitable tribal area or on a Trust farm. According to the Report of the Department of Bantu Administration and Development for 1958 and 19596), so far as the Department was then aware it was responsible for finding alternative accommodation for: 6,252 families of farm squatters in the Transvaal 4,746 families of farm squatters in Natal 20 families of farm squatters in the Cape 4,935 families in diggers' locations in the Western Transvaal, Kimberley and Barkly West about 4,000 families living on mission stations 19,953 families When this report was written, the Department had re-settled about 1,000 families from squatter camps along the Orange River in rural villages or on agricultural land. Squatters on Crown land There are also tens of thousands of Africans living as squatters on Crown land. As was mentioned in last year's Surve '7, there may be about 24,000 in the magisterial districts of Ingwavuma and Ubombo alone. Many of the Africans living on Crown land have been there for generations. When they are evicted, as the land is required for State or other purposes, they are not provided with alternative places where they can live on a family basis. The men may seek work through labour bureaux, but employment is not always available. Should they find work in a town they are unable to take their wives and children with them. In consequence, South Africa has a floating population of large numbers of African families who have nowhere where they can legally live. It was recently reported(8) that hundreds of displaced persons were living in shacks on the outskirts of Durban. Some of them, in the Umlazi area, were deserting their homes at night and taking to the bush in order to escape police raids. During July 1961 numbers of squatters moved into Crown lands around the Umfolosi and Hluhluwe game reserves of Natal, (16) U.G. 51/60, page 26-8. (17) Page 112. (18) Race Relations News, September 1961. where they were considered to be a threat to the game and also incurred the hostility of Africans in the neighbourhood who claimed that they had been promised that land. A large party of policemen arrived on 21 July, to find that most of the people had disappeared. They arrested 71 young men who remained, charging them with various offences, and destroyed many huts'9). FUNDS VOTED FOR DEVELOPMENT SCHEMES The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development stated in December 19601-0) that the huge project of housing three-quarters of a million Africans in urban areas would be completed within the following two years, at a total cost of nearly £100-million. The next step would be to develop the Bantu homelands at an accelerated pace. He added that since the completion of the Tomlinson Commission Report in 1955 fully £19-million had been spent on the development of the Reserves. Africans themselves had contributed about £1,000,000 in cash. As compared with the preceding years the progress had been more than doubled between 1955 and 1959 because of the greater participation and co-operation of the Africans. In his Budget Speech, the Minister of Finance said(2") that during the year 1961- 62 the State's normal contribution to the S.A. Native Trust would be increased by R 1,180,000. Besides this, an amount larger by RIO-million than that voted in 1960-61 would be made available to the Trust for development work, the total sum being R17,500,000 (this includes the figure mentioned in the previous paragraph). The money would be allocated as follows: R2-million for the purchase of land; R8.3-million for general development-forestry, the production of fibre and sugar, water supply and irrigation, soil reclamation, agricultural schools, youth camps, etc.; R4.8-million for the development of rural villages; R 1-million for machinery and equipment; RO.4-million for electricity supply; R 1-million made available to the Bantu Investment Corporation. In his annual report to members of the Anglo-American Corporation of S.A., Limited, the chairman, Mr. H. F. Oppenheimer, said, "The development of the Bantu areas as autonomous provinces or states will require investment on a massive scale which obviously cannot show immediate returns, and which, indeed, from a strict economic point of view, may never show adequate returns at all. The '' policy therefore implies that scarce capital (19) Rand Daily Mail, 10 and 21 July, Star, 21 July 1961. (20) Star, 13 December 1960. (21) Assembly, 15 March 1961, Hansard 8 col. 3006. A SURVEY OF RACE 106

RELATIONS: 1961 resources must be diverted for social reasons from more economically productive to less economically productive uses. This does not, of course, in itself prove that the policy is wrong; but it does strongly suggest that, in the absence of support by overseas capital, it will not be possible to invest in the Bantu areas on a large scale without reducing the rate of growth of the economy and the standards of living of the people as a whole; and it may well prove that, without a substantial capital inflow from abroad, large-scale development of these areas is entirely impracticable". FIVE-YEAR PLAN The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said in the Senate on 27 February 1961(22) that a five-year development programme had been formulated. Every attempt would be made to enable Africans to gain a full understanding of the implications and intentions of this plan, and to ensure that through the Bantu Authorities they played a major r6le in putting it into practice. Earlier, in a Press statement(23), the Minister said that the current annual programme was 2,000 miles of fencing, 30,000 miles of grass strips, at least 1,000 morgen under irrigation, 400 large dams and 150 smaller ones, 350 boreholes, 10,000 morgen planted with trees, a fibre programme of 15,000 morgen and 300 miles of roads. He announced on 20 March(24) that Mr. L. A. Pepler, formerly Director of Bantu Agriculture, had been appointed to the new post of Director of Bantu Development. It would be his task to co-ordinate the work of the different divisions of the Department, to plan works programmes, and to accept responsibility for the furtherance of the five-year plan. An example of development work undertaken by Africans themselves was described in the Digest of South African Affairs for 21 August 1961. From its own funds the Barolong Regional Authority of the Thaba 'Nchu area built a R4,000 bridge that had been designed by a local road-maker, Mr. Bhekiso. AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT, AFFORESTATION, ETC. The Deputy Minister of Bantu Administration and Development has stated that the average annual production of foodstuffs in the Reserves from 1956 to 1960 inclusive was: Maize ...... 3,029,717 bags Winter cereals ...... 72,661 bags Kaffircorn ...... 621,808 bags Legumes ...... 161,923 bags Vegetables ...... 4,585,847 lbs. (22) Hansard 6 cois. 1481-2. (23) e.g. Star, 13 December 1960. (24) e.g. Cape Argus of that date.

A SURVEY OF RACE The Minister announced in April 1961(2") that, on behalf of his department, the Department of Forestry had since 1957 been planting timber in the Reserves. So far, 11,747 acres had been planted162). A further 6,000 acres had been reserved for immediate afforestation. Besides this work, the S.A. Native Trust had established a total of 3,540 acres of minor plantations and wood lots. It was expected that by 1972 the revenue would exceed expenditure. The Bantu Authorities would then benefit from the profits. According to a Natal Mercury report on 6 July 1961, the Minister of Forestry said that the afforestation programme had been curtailed because of opposition from the Bantu people, which was particularly evident in areas where it involved their removal and resettlement. The proposed Pongola Poort irrigation scheme has been described in previous issues of this SurveyS27. Briefly, it is proposed to build a dam which will make it possible to irrigate large areas of land in Northern Zululand. Africans living in scattered Reserves there will benefit, but about five-sixths of the area, which at present is Crown land inhabited by African "squatters", is to be divided into farms and sold to Whites. The original intention was to put the land under sugar. Later, when it became evident that difficulties might be experienced in marketing this crop, the production of fibre was considered. The latest development has been the appointment of a committee of experts to investigate the potential for small farms with various types of crops, including coffee, rice, cotton, tropical wheat and vegetables(2"). The Department has developed fish farms in the Sibasa area of the Northern Transvaal and at Tsolo in the Transkei. Kurpers, black bass and other types of fish are introduced into dams, and when eventually harvested are sold to Africans as food(29). The development of home industries and co-operative societies is being encouraged. According to the Registrar of Co-operative Societies, sixteen African societies, with 6,345 members, were registered at the end of 1960(0). Because there are too many people trying to make a living off the land in the Reserves and each land-holder wants to possess cattle, much of the land is overstocked. Development schemes in such areas usually involve the culling of cattle, which is often greatly resented. Great opposition has been encountered at Moletzie's location in the Pietersburg area. It is reported(31) that the people were ordered to bring their cattle to certain posts where (25) Assembly, 11 April 1961, Hansard 12 cols. 4254-5. (26) One morgen=2 1/9 acres. (27) e.g. 1959-60 page 111. (28) Rand Daily Mail report, 5 August 1961. (29) Landbouweekblad, 25 July 1961. (30) Race Relations News, January 1961. (31) Contact, 24 August 1961. officials would direct which beasts were to be culled. Meetings were held at which the Africans decided to disregard these orders. Finally Chief Moloto was prosecuted, found guilty of incitement, and given a sentence of R100 or 100 days. His people collected money to pay his fine and the legal costs. Unrest continues- as was mentioned earlier, this is one of the areas to which Proclamation No. 52 of 1958 has been applied(32). INDUSTRIES ON THE BORDERS OF THE RESERVES Developments in 1961 The Government's plan to develop industries on the borders of the Reserves was described in some detail in last year's Survey33). According to the Prime Minister, a "border area" is a region which will be developed through White initiative and control, but is situated near a Bantu area so that the Bantu workers can maintain their homes and families there, travelling backwards and forwards daily, or if this is impossible, going home at weekends. It has been stated(34) that the Eastern Cape, the Natal Midlands and the area to the north of Pretoria will be the first border areas to be developed. The Peri-Urban Areas Health Board is reported to have asked the Pretoria City Council to supply water and electricity to an industrial township being planned at Rosslyn5). In his Budget Speech3" the Minister of Finance said that certain provision for the development of the border areas had been included in the Votes of the Departments of Lands and Water Affairs; but that a further R2-million would be included in the Supplementary Estimates as additional capital for the Industrial Development Corporation to enable it to assist with the financing of industries in these areas. The Income Tax Act, No. 80 of 1961, provided that larger building investment allowances than those permitted elsewhere might be approved for industrialists in Bantu and border areas, also allowances for used (as well as new) plant or machinery brought into use there. Such tax concessions would have to be recommended by the Departments of Bantu Administration and Commerce and Industries. A Government-appointed committee is reported(") to have recommended that suitable industries for the border areas would be wool scouring, blanket manufacturing, and cotton and wool textiles. On 24 March 1961 the Minister of Economic Affairs stated38) (32) See page 96. (33) 1959-60, page 117. (34) e.g. Star, 18 November 1960. (35) Star, 28 August 1961. (36) Assembly, 15 March 1961, Hansard 8 cols. 3006, 3015. (37) Cape Times, 8 March 1961. (38) Assembly, Hansard 9 col. 3577. RELATIONS: 1961 109

110 A SURVEY OF RACE that no new industries had by then been established in border industries in terms of the new policy. The Permanent Committee for the Location of Industry and the Development of Border Industries, which had been functioning for seven months only, had thus far received 89 inquiries and 47 applications for various forms of assistance. The majority of the applicants wished to establish enterprises in Natal, and many of them wanted to set up textile factories. All applications in which only capital assistance at economic tariffs was sought were being referred direct to the Industrial Development Corporation. Of the 47 applications, 23 could not be supported, two were withdrawn, four had been referred to the Corporation, eleven were pending, and five were supported in principle and were receiving attention. The remaining two applicants would be granted financial assistance on the Corporation's usual conditions. According to a subsequent statement by the Prime Minister(39), by mid- September a further seven applications had been received, and the Corporation had agreed to give financial help in one more case. Sixteen applications were being investigated. There are a number of industries in border areas that were established by private enterprise before the announcement of the Government's policy and of the forms of assistance that might be made available. The largest of these is the Good Hope Textile Corporation's enterprise near King William's Town in the Ciskei, which started production in 1949. According to a Press report(4' it was employing 2,250 Africans at the end of 1960 and turning out 25-million yards of cloth a year. It recently announced41) plans for expansion that will involve the employment of a further 1,000 Africans together with an increased number of White technicians and supervisors. Difficulties being experienced A series of articles on the border areas by Mr. Eldred Green was published in the Star during December 1960. Mr. Green found, during visits to these areas, that the industrialists were experiencing several difficulties that did not apply in large industrial centres. Because of the poverty of the local Africans the main markets were in the cities, which meant that the finished products had to be despatched to these centres at high railway tariffs. In Ladysmith, Natal, an industrialist complained that many labourers drawn from tribal areas wanted to go home to plough after the first spring rains. It was difficult to find White supervisors, accountants or technicians who were willing to live in the small towns of the border areas. (39) Rand Daily Mai! report. 23 September 1961. (40) Star, 7 December. 1950. (41) Rand Daily Mail, 5 August 1961.

RELATIONS:1961 111 The manager of an engineering concern said that when a fault developed in one of his machines, either he had to send it away for repair, or else pay for a specialized engineer to come from a larger centre. The question of wage regulation is likely to present many difficulties. In a statement issued on 2 June 1960 the Prime Minister said that the principle of wage differentiation in border areas would be maintained in so far as this was justified by the lower productivity of labour and the lower cost of living in these areas. The productivity of labour will vary greatly, of course, as it depends on so many factors, for example the efficiency and attitudes of management, the standard of health of the workers, and, in fact, the very wages they receive. There are, however, many other factors besides differences in the cost of living that have to be taken into account in determining rural vis-a-vis urban wage rates. Some of these have been indicated above. And in South Africa a further problem arises-the attitudes of White workers towards any policy of developing rural industries utilizing Black labour which may threaten to undercut the older-established concerns. As was mentioned in last year's Survey, during 1959 an acute slackness developed in the clothing industry, especially on the Reef and in the Cape, areas where wages were controlled in terms of industrial council agreements. The workers expressed the view that competition from factories in the uncontrolled areas of northern Natal and elsewhere, where lower wages were paid, was largely to blame. Some of these factories employed Africans from nearby Reserves. Eventually the Minister of Labour decided, as an interim measure, to extend the Transvaal industrial agreement to northern Natal for a period of one year. Wage scales paid on the Witwatersrand would not apply: lower scales had been agreed upon by the Transvaal industrial council. The Garment Workers' Union considered that this arrangement did not go far enough: it stated that there were still several factories in uncontrolled areas such as Parys, George, Villiers, Umtata and Port Shepstone in which wages were very low, thus these concerns competed unfairly with establishments on the Rand. Resentment was expressed particularly by the White garment workers in Germiston, amongst whom there was unemployment. The Wage Board conducted an investigation, and as a result on 14 July 1961 a wage determination was gazetted(42) for the clothing industry throughout all those parts of South Africa where industrial council agreements were not in force. The Garment Workers' Union considered that this determination would not prevent unfair com- (42) G.N. 229 of 1961.

112 A SURVEY OF RACE petition. It sent a memorandum to the Secretary for Labour comparing conditions of employment in urban and rural areas. Working hours were longer in the rural areas, it stated, and holidays were shorter. A wage bill was calculated for a factory with a balanced labour force of 63 workers in Germiston and for a similar concern in a country area. It amounted to R638 a week in the former and .50 in the latter case (assuming that the same hours were worked)(43). INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT WITHIN THE RESERVES In terms of Proclamation 74 of 17 March 1961 the powers of the Bantu Investment Corporation were extended. Besides lending money to Africans for the establishment or development of businesses or industries, it can now also establish such ventures itself or purchase them from non-Bantu persons with a view to selling them in due course to Africans. The general manager of the Corporation, Dr. J. Adendorff, said in August 1961(4) that since the establishment of this organization in July 1959 it had invested about R600,000 in loans to Africans and in buying businesses in African areas. It had purchased a large business combine in Sekhukhuneland consisting of a mill, a bakery, a mineral water factory, a wholesale concern and twelve retail shops. These were being run by a staff of two White men and about 140 Africans. Individual loans had been made to 104 Africans. According to other statements("), these loans had been made for the purposes of starting or expanding a cane furniture factory, a bus service, a boarding house, a curio dealer's business, a wholesale concern, a building contractor's business, and various butcheries, caf6s, and general dealers' shops. One man received a loan to develop land with a view to selling erven. A diesel electric power station, opened at Tsolo in the Transkei in September 1960, is supplying current to the agricultural school there and the school for the sons of chiefs. The plant is simple to service, and African attendants are employed. RURAL VILLAGES In a statement made in December 1960(46) the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said a distinction should be drawn between African border towns such as Umlazi and Zwelitsha, regional townships such as Turfloop and Temba, and rural villages. He said later(" that it was planned to develop (43) Star report, 19 July 1961. (44) Rand Daily Mail, 12 August. (45) Minister of Bantu Administration and Development, Assembly, 23 May 1961, Hansard 18 col. 6937, and Rand Daily Mail, 14 July. (46) Quoted in Bantu, February 1961. (47) Assembly, 27 January 1961, Hansard 1 col. 239.

RELATIONS: 1961 further regional townships, ultimately to cater for between 1,500 and 6,000 families, at Molitsi's Location near Pietersburg, Mayeakgoro location near the Vaal-Hartz irrigation schemes, Selosesha near Thaba 'Nchu, Duck Ponds near Newcastle, and at a place in the Ciskei still to be selected. The purpose of these townships and villages is to cater for families who are displaced under the programme of land reform. According to a Press report(48), 23 rural villages have been proclaimed. A new one called Nkowakowa is being built near Tzaneen by seven African contractors. It is to have 250 houses of different types, erected on erven averaging 5,000 square feet in area(49). One of the first of these villages was Temba, about 25 miles north of Pretoria. A Star report('°0 stated that there are 265 houses there of varying size. Rents of two- roomed cottages vary from a nominal sum-mainly for pensioners-to R1.30 a month, according to the breadwinner's income, and rates range from 75c to 90c a month. Africans may buy the houses, the price being R420 for a two-roomed house and R596 for one with three rooms, these sums being repayable over 20 years. There are three shops in the village-a grocer, a butcher and a shoe maker. The cane furniture factory mentioned earlier has been established at Temba. Its proprietor, Mr. H. Shikoane, imports the cane from Hong Kong, is constructing a sports field for his workers, and has organized a factory canteen which serves two meals a day. Professor D. Hobart Houghton studied conditions at Kayaletu and other villages in the Ciskei towards the end of 1960. He has said(5") that there are to be 186 residential sites at Kayaletu, each of half an acre, together with sites for businesses, schools, churches and administrative offices. At the time of his investigation 124 sites had been allocated, three-fourths of them having been purchased and the rest leased. Some 60 dwellings had been completed, having been built mainly by the villagers themselves. Although the erection of shacks is prohibited, the traditional tribal type of housing is permitted. The purchase price of residential sites is R73.33 if paid within a year, otherwise payable over a period of ten years. A registration fee of R2 is charged. If plots are leased the rent is at least R1.67- a year. In either case a further R2.28 a year must be paid for administrative charges and maintenance. The inhabitants may keep no livestock other than poultry. So (48) Rand Daily Mail, 17 August 1961. (49) Digest of South African Affairs, 4 September. (50) 9 August 1961. (51) "Land Reform in the Bantu Areas and its Effects upon the Urban Labour Market", S.A. Journal of Econom'cs, September 1961.

A SURVEY OF RACE far there are very few local employment opportunities. The families continually regroup as migrant workers come and go, thus the true family income and expenditure could not be calculated. Figures were, however, worked out for an average domestic family or household of six persons, with 1.5 migrant workers away and sending remittances. The average monthly expenditure was R15.45, and the average income R11.95, of which R8.52- was contributed by each worker away from home. Some of the people had been selling cattle that they could not bring to the village in order to meet the deficit between expenditure and income. Only three families had incomes of more than R4 per person per month: 17 had less than R1.50. Minimum nutritional requirements alone were R5 per person per month. At a guess, the minimum income necessary for a family with no income in kind from farming lay between R20 and R30 a month. In order to keep his family above the starvation level each emigrant worker should send them R16 a month regularly: almost double the amount remitted at present. The wages of migrant workers, who are usually employed in the least skilled and lowest paid urban jobs, will have to be rethought, Professor Hobart Houghton said. In numerous cases these workers are no longer merely augmenting family income in kind from subsistence farming, but are supporting landless families who are wholly dependent upon the remittances they send. It would be unreal for employers to distinguish in their wage policy between married and unmarried men, because from the family's point of view the earnings of unmarried sons and daughters are as important as those of the husbands in warding off starvation from the home. If the new villages are not to become rural slums the rapid establishment of industries near or in the border areas is essential, Professor Hobart Houghton concluded. Failing this there will inevitably be a mass movement of people towards the established industrial centres, with all the social and political problems which this implies.

RELATIONS: 1961 THE ADMINISTRATION OF AFRICANS IN URBAN AREAS BANTU IN EUROPEAN AREAS DRAFT BILL PROPOSED CURTAILMENT OF RIGHTS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES A Bantu in European Areas Bill, which sought to consolidate legislation and to make certain amendments, was circulated to local authorities and others for comment towards the end of 1960. It was proposed, firstly, that the powers of local authorities should be drastically curtailed in various ways. A few of the more important examples are given here. "Church clause" The controversy which took place in 1957 over the "Church clause" which the Government intended including in the Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act has been described in an earlier volume of this Survey1'. This clause was redrafted several times after wide-spread opposition to its provisions had been expressed. The position after it had been enacted was as follows 2): (a) Any church, school, place of entertainment, hospital or club established after the beginning of 1938 which is situated in the so-called White part of a town (i.e. outside a Bantu residential area), and which caters mainly for Africans, requires the approval of the Minister given with the concurrence of the local authority concerned. (This provision was inserted in 1937.) (b) Additional restrictions were included in 1957. Firstly, the Minister was empowered to direct that the attendance by any Africans at any church or religious service or church function outside a Bantu residential area must cease as from a date specified if in his opinion the Africans are causing a nuisance, or are attending in too large numbers. Before taking such action the Minister is required to obtain the concurrence of the local authority, to allow the church concerned a stated, reasonable time to make representations, and to consider the availability or otherwise of alternative facilities. (c) Schools, hospitals, clubs and similar institutions which operate in the 'White' part of a town and which admit any Africans (other than employees) also require the approval of the Minister, given with the concurrence of the local authority, (1) 1956-57, page 17. (2) Section nine (7) of Act 25/1945 as amended.

A SURVEY OF RACE unless they were established in their existing premises before 1938 and the numbers of Africans admitted have not increased since then. An African can, however, be admitted to a hospital in such an area in an emergency. (d) Subject to the concurrence of the local authority, the Minister may direct that no African (other than an employee) may be admitted to such institutions or to places of entertainment in 'White' areas, irrespective of the date of their establishment, if he considers that the Africans are causing a nuisance or are attending in too large numbers. The 1960 draft Bill sought to make it unnecessary for the Minister to obtain the concurrence of the local authority in all these matters. It also proposed removing the exemptions in the cases of churches and other institutions that were established earlier than 1938. These suggestions were widely opposed. As a result, the Minister said during December 19600) that he had decided not to alter the provisions of existing legislation affecting the attendance by Africans of church services. Urban Areas Commissioners The Native (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act provides(') that the Minister may appoint officers who will have the power to inspect places where Africans are accommodated, and in consultation with the urban local authority to enquire into any matter affecting the welfare of Africans. All Native Commissioners are deemed to have been appointed as such officers. They must be given access to the books and accounts of the local authority, and be afforded all reasonable facilities. When they consider it necessary they send written reports to the Minister, who must transmit a copy to the local authority concerned. As was mentioned in last year's Survey('), the Prime Minister announced during May 1960 that the Department of Bantu Administration was to be equipped to enable it to "exercise proper supervision over the administration of the Bantu through the local authority concerned", and to make it possible for it to ensure that the Bantu were properly informed on the aims of Government policy, and to expand opportunities for direct contact between the Bantu and representatives of the Government. Towards the end of 1960 special urban areas commissioners were appointed in the larger towns. The Chief Urban Areas Commissioner for the Witwatersrand is reported 6 to have said that he (3) Rand Daily Mail report, 6 December. (4) Section twenty-two (3) to (5). (5) Page 122. (6) Sunday Times, 13 Novembcr 1960. 1,16

RELATIONS: 1961 117 would make use of the agencies of municipalities "and modify, by advice, their administration in accordance with Government policy where necessary". He had asked all local authorities on the Reef to send him copies of the agendas of their meetings. The Chairman of Johannesburg's Non-European Affairs Committee stated(7) that his council had agreed to send agendas, but that if the commissioner wanted to attend a meeting he would have to approach the Town Clerk or the chairman of the committee, who would consider this request. The 1960 Draft Bill sought to widen the powers of urban areas commissioners very considerably. It provided that local authorities must inform them of all meetings at which matters affecting Africans are to be discussed, and must allow them to attend and to take part in the discussions. Should a commissioner so request, the local authority must convene a special meeting to consider matters he wishes to raise. All officers of the municipality must be available at all reasonable times for discussions with a commissioner and must render him all assistance. This provision, too, was strongly opposed. The Department announced during December that it would be recast on the basis of co-operation between the Government and local authorities. Powers to make regulations In terms of Section thirty-eight of Act 25 of 1945 as amended, the Governor- General, the Minister and a local authority may all make regulations under the Act, the various fields in which each may operate being defined. A local authority, for example, may make regulations dealing, inter alia, with the terms and conditions of residence in Bantu townships and with the management and control of these areas. It was proposed in the draft Bill that the Minister only should have power to make regulations, such power being very extensive. PROPOSED STRICTER CONTROL OF THE MOVEMENT OF LABOUR The draft Bill repeated the provisions that a local labour bureau must be set up in respect of every prescribed (urban or periurban) area; a district labour bureau in the area of each Bantu Affairs Commissioner; a regional labour bureau in the area of each Chief Bantu Affairs Commissioner, and a central labour bureau in the office of the Secretary for Bantu Administration and Development. It again stated that each local authority, unless exempted, will exercise the powers and functions of a local labour bureau in its area, but added that, at the request of a local authority or on his (7) Ibid, 20 November. 118 A SURVEY OF RACE own initiative, the Minister may exempt or relieve a local authority from exercising all or such of the powers of a local labour bureau as he may specify. In the Section dealing with the regulations which the Minister may make, an entirely new power was proposed: that he should have the right to fix labour quotas or labour pools in respect of certain areas, or categories of employment, or in respect of individual employers; to control the movement of labour in accordance with such quotas or from such pools; and to prohibit employment otherwise than he determines in accordance with such quotas or from any source other than from such pools. Consequent innovations were suggested in the Section dealing with the powers and functions of district and local labour bureaux. It was proposed that they may refuse to sanction the employment of an African if, inter alia, they are satisfied: (a) that the employment is of a class prescribed in respect of which no further Africans may be employed; (b) that the work is to be performed in an area prescribed in which no further Africans may be employed; (c) that such employment is or will be in excess of a maximum number, determined by the bureau or Bantu Affairs Commissioner, who may be employed in that area or in any particular class of employment there. PROPOSED FURTHER CURTAILMENT OF THE RIGHTS OF AFRICANS Thirdly, it was proposed in the draft Bill that the rights of Africans should be further curtailed in a number of ways. Three examples are given. Residence in a Bantu residential area Act 25 of 1945 as amended empowers the Governor-General, when he deems it expedient, to declare that all Africans in an urban area, other than those who are exempted, shall reside in a location, native village or hostelP8). The draft Bill sought to remove these discretionary powers and to render it mandatory for all Africans in all urban areas, unless exempted, to live in a Bantu residential area. Acquisition of land by Africans Section six of Act 25 of 1945 provides that, with very limited exceptions, no African or association in which an African has any interest may acquire land in an urban area, or any interest in such land, from any non-African unless with the approval of the (8) Section nine.

RELATIONS: 1961 119 Governor-General, given after consultation with the local authority concerned. The draft Bill sought to make it necessary for such approval to be obtained even if an African wishes to acquire land from another African. Right of return to an urban area Section ten (1) (bis) of Act 25 of 1945 as amended in 1955 provides that permission to enter an urban area shall not be refused to an African whose home is in South Africa who wishes to return to his previous employer, after an absence of less than a year, to engage in the same class of work that he carried out just prior to leaving. In terms of a 1957 amendment, Africans who were originally admitted for specified periods were excluded from this concession. It was proposed in the draft Bill that the concession should be withdrawn entirely. THE GOVERNMENT'S DECISION IN REGARD TO THE BILL After local authorities and others had commented on the draft Bill, and discussions had been held with municipal representatives, the Minister announcedO9) that the measure would be temporarily shelved, and that the fullest consultations would be held with local authorities before it was re-introduced. It was not proceeded with in 1961. As is described below, an Urban Bantu Councils Act was passed which covered some of the ground included in the scope of the draft Bill, but contained very different provisions. URBAN BANTU COUNCILS ACT No. 79 OF 1961 PROVISIONS OF THE ACT Establishment of urban Bantu councils Act 79 of 1961 provides that an urban local authority may establish an urban Bantu council for a Bantu residential area under its jurisdiction, or part of such an area, or two or more such areas, or for the Bantu in such areas who belong to any national unit (Zulu, Sotho, etc.). Before doing so, it must consult the advisory board if one exists for the area concerned, otherwise the Bantu community there. An urban Bantu council must be established if the advisory board for the area so requests. or if the Minister, after consultation (9) e.g. Herald, 18 February 1961. with the Bantu community of the area, is satisfied that they want a council and directs that it be set up. Constitution of urban Bantu councils The local authority will determine the number of members of a council, but these must be not less than six. There may be elected and selected members, the number of selected members not to exceed the number elected. Only Africans resident in the urban area in question will qualify for election to a council. If this body is to be established for a particular national unit, only members of the national unit concerned will vote for the elected members. Otherwise, all qualified Africans who live in the area for which the council is to be established may vote. (The Act did not state what the qualifications for voters would be, leaving this to be laid down in regulations.) The candidature of selected members must be approved by the Minister and the local authority. They will be selected by and from the recognized representatives of chiefs in the area concerned. If the council is to be established for a particular national unit, the selected members must belong to that unit. Otherwise, the local authority will decide which national units should be directly represented in view of their large membership in the urban area concerned. Powers, functions and duties of urban Bantu councils Urban Bantu councils will be vested with all the powers, functions and duties of advisory boards("°). Additional powers may be granted to them by the local authority after consultation with the Administrator and with the Minister's concurrence in regard to: (1) the lay-out of the area; (2) the accommodation of Africans who are not living under conditions of family life; (3) the removal of persons unlawfully resident in the area; (4) the unlawful occupation of land and buildings; (5) the management and control of the area (including the determination of the order of priority to be observed in the allocation of residential facilities) and the maintenance of good order therein; (6) the erection and use of dwellings, buildings and other structures. and the removal or destruction of unauthorized or abandoned buildings or structures; (1)) See Sections twentv-one and thirty-eight (3) (d) of Act 25 of 1945 as amended, also T he Urban African in Local Government: a Study of the Advisory' Board S'vtenm, by Lawrence Reyburn, pubished by the S.A. Institute of Race Relations, Sact P1pcr 9 of 1960. 120 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1961 121 (7) the allocation of sites for church or school purposes; (8) the prohibition, regulation or restriction of the keeping of animals, and the grazing on any commonage of stock belonging to persons living in the area; (9) the prohibition or the regulation of entry into or sojourn in the area; (10) the provision of sanitary, health and medical services; (11) the moral and social welfare of persons living in the area. A council will also: (a) have power to control and manage a community guard for the area; (b) report to the Chief Native Commissioner or Native Commissioner on matters referred to it by these officials; (c) if it has been established for a particular national unit, assist the members of that unit; (d) exercise such other powers as the Minister, after consultation with the Administrator and with the local authority's concurrence, may assign to it. Should the Minister, after a report by the Native Affairs Commission, be satisfied that a local authority's concurrence is being withheld unreasonably in regard to any matter, he may act without such concurrence. Conferring of civil and criminal jurisdiction The Minister may confer on any African designated by a council, and who is a member of it (including the representative of a chief), the same powers of civil and criminal jurisdiction as may be conferred on a chief or headman (i.e. power to hear and determine civil claims arising out of Native law and custom brought to him by Africans against Africans, except for cases of divorce or separation, and power to try and punish Africans who have committed certain offences). An African vested with such powers may consult with the council in the exercise of them. Community guards After consultation with the Minister of Justice and the urban Bantu council concerned, the Minister may establish a community guard and prescribe for its constitution, control, membership. duties and discipline. Such a guard will help in preserving the safety of persons in the area, in maintaining law and order and preventing crime; but its establishment will not derogate from the functions of the police. Finances of urban Bantu councils Councils will pay to the local authority, for crediting to the Native Revenue Account, moneys received by virtue of the exercise of their powers and amounts collected in respect of fines imposed by persons on whom criminal jurisdiction has been conferred. The Native Revenue Account will be chargeable with expenditure incurred by a local authority in connection with the council

122 A SURVEY OF RACE or. with the local authority's approval, by the council in the exercise of its functions. Estimates of expenditure from the Native Revenue Account will be prepared by the local authority after consultation with the urban Bantu council. Should the Minister be satisfied that the manner of consultation determined by a local authority does not afford an opportunity for proper consultation, he will determine the manner. Abolition of Native advisory boards Advisory boards will cease to exercise powers in respect of any areas for which councils have been established. No further advisory boards will be established, and existing boards will be dissolved if they so request. Regulations Subject to the approval of the Administrator and of the Minister (who may amend them), a local authority may make regulations as to the mode of election and selection of members of urban Bantu councils, the number of members and their conditions of service and functions, the qualifications of voters, and procedure at meetings. Use of kaffir beer profits In addition to the purposes for which kaffir beer profits may already be used'), they may be utilized for any service, expenditure or grant which may be certified by the Minister as being in the interests of Africans, irrespective of whether or not it relates to a matter in the area of the urban local authority. The Minister said('2) that this clause was being inserted to make it possible for contributions to be made to institutions such as homes for the blind. REMARKS BY GOVERNMENT REPRESENTATIVES The Minister stated(3) also that he would like to see urban Bantu councils playing an active part in drawing up their own budgets. Details in regard to community guards were being worked out in consultation with the Minister of Justice. The necessary liaison with the police would exist, in order to ensure proper control. The Deputy Minister added(") that the councils would have elected African chairmen. (The chairmen of advisory boards are often White councillors or officials.) He pointed out that there would be a link with the Africans' home-lands that was absent in the old system. (1) See Section 'neleen (3) (c) of Act 25 of 1945 as amended. (12) Assembly. 15 June 1961, Hansard 20 col. 8269. (13) Cols. 8150-1. (14) Co',s. 8178-9.

RELATIONS: 1961 123 PLANS FOR A COUNCIL IN DAVEYTON, BENONI Draft regulations Soon after the Act became law the Benoni Town Council consulted the Daveyton Advisory Board, which decided to accept the new system. Regulations were drafted and submitted for approval by the Administrator and Minister. They provided that the township (in which the housing is arranged on an ethnic group basis) will be divided into wards. each of which will, so far as possible, contain members of a particular national unit. Each ward will return one elected councillor. Besides these there will be selected councillors, not exceeding the former in number. The procedure for the calling of nominations is detailed. To be eligible for election an African: (a) must be a registered voter in the ward concerned, and of the ethnic group for which the ward is designed; (b) on the day nominations close, must not owe more than R6 to the council in respect of rent and other charges; (c) must not during the previous two years have been convicted of an offence in respect of which he was sentenced to more than one month's imprisonment without the option of a fine, or, with the option, to more than six months; (d) must not suffer from a physical or mental disability that would render him unfit to hold office; (e) must not be an employee of the Town Council. Voters' lists, including each person's national identity number, will be prepared. A resident will not qualify as a voter if he: (a) is unable to complete personally an application for registration and sign it in the presence of the Township Manager or his authorized representative (this involves filling in name, identity number, ethnic group, age, marital status, occupation, site permit number and date, number of site, date and signature); (b) is unable to produce his national identity document; (c) does not hold a current residential, site or lodger's permit; (d) is not of the age of eighteen or over. Selected councillors must be representatives of chiefs, recognized in a manner prescribed by the Minister. Their candidature must be approved by the local authority and the Minister. The number of national units to be represented will be decided by the Benoni Town Management Committee. The Township Manager will then summon a meeting of the recognized representatives of chiefs belonging to each of these national units in turn, and will call upon the meeting to propose which of its members should be selected to serve on the council. Should more than one name be proposed, a secret ballot will be held.

124 A SURVEY OF RACE Selected councillors will hold office at the pleasure of the local authority and for so long as they are recognized representatives of chiefs. Elected councillors will hold office for five years. The council will elect its own chairman, deputy chairman and standing committees. Certain Town Councillors, Government and police officials will be entitled to attend meetings. The chairman will decide whether or not members of the public should be admitted. Subsequent developments in Benoni It was planned that elections for the first urban Bantu council would be held in Daveyton during September 1961. Initially White officials would be heads of departments in the township-town clerk, town treasurer, engineer, electrical engineer, welfare officer and officer in charge of liquor facilities-but they would work with Africans who had been selected to take over eventually. An African engineering graduate of the University of the Witwatersrand would be schooled for the post of town engineer. Two men were appointed to senior administrative posts on the Town Council's staff with a view to their being trained ultimately to take over as Daveyton's town clerk and town treasurer respectively. It was contemplated that Mr. S. Sinaba, who was nominated by the Advisory Board with the Town Council's concurrence, would become Daveyton's first mayor5). During August the Advisory Board decided that women should not be eligible for election to the first council16). Differences of opinion in regard to the new system began to manifest themselves. One of the Advisory Board members at Daveyton, although accepting the idea, said, somewhat hesitantly. "We were at the receiving end. Now we will be at the unhappy giving end"("7). Open opposition was expressed at a joint meeting of the Daveyton Advisory Board and the Boards for Benoni's two other African townships. Some of those present criticised the ethnic group basis of the new councils, considering that it would sow division, disapproved of the inclusion of representatives of chiefs and of the implied tribalism, and pressed for the direct representation of Africans on Benoni's Town Council(8). A Daveyton Protection Committee was formed to resist the introduction of an urban Bantu council("). As a result, the launching of the Daveyton council was postponed and the whole matter was referred back to the Benoni Town Council. (15) Star, 3 August and Sunday Times, 24 August. (16) Rand Daily Mail report, 24 August. (17) Star, 3 August. (18) Rand Daily Mail, 30 August. (19) New Age, 21 September.

RELATIONS: 1961 THE MUNICIPAL FRANCHISE THE EXISTING POSITION THE CAPE In theory, members of all racial groups in the Cape have the municipal franchise on equal terms, vote on a common roll, and are entitled to stand for election. The franchise is based, inter alia, on the ownership of ratable property worth at least R400, or occupation of ratable property worth R800. In practice this places NonWhite citizens at a disadvantage. In terms of a court decision in 1945('), as only monthly tenants of municipal housing schemes are liable to pay rates, weekly tenants do not qualify for the municipal franchise. Thus Coloured residents of housing schemes where the rent is payable weekly cannot be enfranchised. Nor can the majority of Africans, because those living in municipal locations do not qualify as they do not own the dwellings and pay no rates, and increasing restrictions have been placed on their ownership of property elsewhere in urban areas. In spite of the difficulties, Coloured people have served as city or town councillors in various urban areas of the Cape-Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, Goodwood and others. In 1961 there were six in Cape Town serving together with 39 Whites. As was mentioned in an earlier volume of this Survey2), in December 1958 the Cape Provincial Council passed a resolution asking for the removal of Non-White voters from the municipal roll. This caused very strong protest, especially in Cape Town. Early in January 1959, after the Administrator had held discussions with Cabinet Ministers, he set up a three-man committee headed by Mr. J. D. Roussouw, M.P.C., to investigate, inter alia, the desirability or otherwise of establishing separate municipal rolls for Coloured voters for the election of local boards to administer the Coloured group areas. The Roussouw Committee stated(3): "After careful consideration of the information available to it and the evidence placed before it, the Committee is convinced that there is as yet no (Coloured) area in the Cape Province which can immediately be proclaimed as an independent local authority in terms of existing Provincial legislation". It considered that "in and around the Cape Peninsula there (1) Kramer v. Port Elizabe:h Revision Court. (2) 1958-59, page 149. (3) Paras 40 and 41 of its Report, as quoted by Dr R. E. van der Ross in RR 5 61. A SURVEY OF RACE are Coloured communities which can be trained up to the necessary standard within a comparatively short period of time", but added, "Even here, however, .. . there are tremendous problems, especially in connection with the financing and co-ordination of the essential major services which will have to be solved". So far, no change has been made in the municipal franchise system in the Cape. NATAL In terms of a Natal Provincial Ordinance which had been twice vetoed by the Smuts Government but was finally approved by the Nationalist-Labour Government in 1924, the Indians of that province ceased to qualify for the municipal franchise. Those whose names were on the voters' roll at the time could, however, continue to have the right to vote or to stand for election. One of them, Mr. E. M. Moolla, was elected to the Stanger Town Council in 1959 by a predominantly White electorate. Coloured men in Natal retained the municipal franchise until 1956, in which year the Separate Representation of Voters Act was revalidated. It provided that Coloured parliamentary voters in the Cape would be placed on a separate roll, but that no further Coloured people would be registered as parliamentary voters in Natal. Those whose names were already on the common roll in the latter province could continue to vote. As an applicant for the municipal franchise in Natal must, as one of his qualifications, be a registered parliamentary voter, no further Coloured men can be granted this franchise. Africans have never been entitled to vote in municipal elections in Natal. TRANSVAAL AND FREE STATE Non-White people have never possessed the municipal franchise in the two northern provinces. STATEMENT BY THE INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS The Council of the Institute of Race Relations, at its meeting in Cape Town in January 1961, resolved: "1. The Institute reaffirms its conviction that local government can only work satisfactorily if all races participate in a local government franchise extended to all citizens on the same qualifications. 2. The Institute reaffirms that Africans are an integral part of the permanent urban population. 3. The Institute is of the opinion that it is not desirable that separate local authorities should be established on a racial

RELATIONS: 1961 127 basis. The Institute is further of the opinion that the present system operating in the Cape Province has proved the practicability of different racial groups working together in local government. 4. The Institute finds that the present advisory board system has not functioned satisfactorily in the past largely because of the limitation of their powers and the impossibility of extending their powers under the present legislation. The Institute considers that the introduction of the Bantu Authorities system in the urban areas would not meet the aspirations nor secure the co-operation of the urban African who wishes to be represented by persons democratically elected and not by persons nominated by the Government". ACTION BY CERTAIN LOCAL AUTHORITIES ESTCOURT, NATAL About two years ago a shadow town council of Estcourt Indians, elected by the Indian ratepayers, was established to assist the White councillors in the control of civic affairs. There are parallel White and Indian committees of the council, the Indians being issued with all municipal papers and notices. The Indian "shadow mayor", Mr. C. D. Koovanjee, has the right to attend meetings of any of the White committees, while the chairmen of the various Indian committees are present when the parallel White bodies meet. The two councils meet jointly. The Indians are prohibited by law from voting, but indicate their attitude to a subject under discussion by a show of hands. The White council has never ignored their opinion on any matter of major importance('). EAST LONDON During April 1961 the East London City Council debated a motion calling for steps to be taken to give the African community direct representation. The councillors were equally divided on the matter, and the resolution was finally defeated by the casting vote of the deputy mayor, who presided. The motion was debated again at the Council's meeting in May. On this occasion it was lost by one vote('). DURBAN The Durban City Council has created an Indian Advisory Committee. It invited representatives of the Natal Indian Congress (4) Rand Daily Mail, 25 April 1961. (5) Ibid, 28 April and Star, 31 May.

A SURVEY OF RACE and the Natal Indian Organization to serve on it together with White councillors. Only the Organization accepted this invitation. During April 1961 the City Council adopted a resolution calling for the appointment of a sub-committee to examine and report on some system of direct representation on the council for members of all racial groups. GENERAL MATTERS AFFECTING AFRICANS THE "PASS LAWS" TIGHTENING OF INFLUX CONTROL IN 1961 During February 1961 the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said in the Assembly(') that no additional African women were being permitted to enter the Western Cape, whether to obtain employment or to join their husbands permanently. The rights of families already in the area who qualified to remain under Section ten of the Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act as amended would not be affected. During the past twelve months, he added, 3,976 African men and 991 women had been endorsed out of the municipal areas of Cape Town, Goodwood, Parow and Bellville. Ninety per cent of them were recent illegal entrants who returned to their homes. The rest had originally entered the Western Cape legally. Statistics for prosecutions in Johannesburg were given by the Minister of Justice on 21 March(2). He said that during the last year for which figures were available (the actual year was not stated) a daily average of 162 persons had been charged in Johannesburg for offences against laws and regulations dealing with the curfew, the presence of "foreign" Africans in urban areas, reception depots, the return to urban areas of Africans who had been expelled, the production of documents, rules for locations, illegal squatting, and other measures generally referred to as the pass laws. The Minister of Justice stated later3 that all Native Commissioners' courts had on occasion imposed corporal punishment on juveniles for infringements of the pass laws. During March 1961 the Johannesburg court had sentenced 89 juveniles each to five strokes with a light cane. During August 1961 it was announced4 that because there was (1) 14 February, Hansard 4 col. 1258, and 24 February, Hansard 5 col. 1913. (2) Assembly, Hansard 9 col. 3327. (3) Assembly, 11 April, Hansard 12 cols. 4253-4. (4) Rand Daily Mail, 14 August. a surplus of African labour in Johannesburg, no further entry permits would for the time being be granted to applicants from other parts of the country who wished to obtain employment there. The resident population would thus be protected. NEW LEGISLATION FORESHADOWED At Nationalist Party meetings held in April and September the Deputy Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said(') that if existing measures to control and decrease the number of urban Africans failed, a quota system for African labour in urban areas might have to be introduced. The Government was contemplating legislation in terms of which no African would have the automatic right to remain in a "White" area. Machinery for the return of unemployed Africans to the Reserves might be provided. Increased penalties for Africans whose presence in a town was unauthorized, and for their employers, were being considered. FINDINGS BY THE COUNCIL OF THE INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS At its meeting in January 1961 the Council of the Institute of Race Relations resolved: "1. In most societies the worker is free to seek work anywhere in his own country and to reside with his dependants at or near his place of work when he succeeds in finding it. 2. Similarly, in most societies, the individual is free to carry on an independent trade, business or profession anywhere in his native land where opportunity offers. 3. In the opinion of the Institute, these rights and freedoms cannot be denied to the individual by the State without violation of accepted canons of justice and without the gravest social consequences, including destruction of the integrity of the family and impairment of economic incentives vital to national prosperity. 4. The Pass Laws, operating in conjunction with other legislation such as the Urban Areas Act and the Land Act, do deny these rights and freedoms to the individual African and do have the consequences to him and to society just alluded to. Thus: (a) The inhabitants of the congested African Reserves, whether landless or otherwise, are prevented from settling with their dependants in the industrial areas and thus relieving such congestion. In general, only the individual worker, without his family, is admitted to the industrial areas, and then only on a temporary basis on condition that he shall accept such work as is assigned to him and shall remain bound to a particular employer. (5) Ibid. 29 April and Star, 14 September. RELATIONS: 1961 129

130 A SURVEY OF RACE (b) The landless African inhabitants of White-owned farms are precluded from settling either in the industrial areas or in the Reserves, and have thus been assigned by law the status of rural serfs, bound to the land of their White masters and thereby forced to accept such conditions of work, remuneration and amenities of life as the latter choose to provide. (c) African inhabitants of the urban areas, whether great cities or remote villages, are anchored by law to the local areas wherein they reside, are prevented from seeking their livelihoods elsewhere, and are insecure, even in their existing homes, since they are liable to be expelled therefrom in various contingencies. 5. The overall result of this system is that the vast majority of Union Africans have no right to be anywhere where they can earn a living. The Reserve Africans are nearly all dependent on outside employment. Yet they have no right to seek it. The farm Africans have no right to remain where they are nor to go elsewhere. They can be expelled by the White landowner, yet prevented from settling in an urban area or a Reserve. The urban Africans are likewise liable to be expelled from their homes by the local authority, yet prevented from settling in another town or in a Reserve. 6. The Institute can conceive of no justification for the continuance of the Pass Laws. Due note has been taken of the points that have been made in their defence during our discussions. namely, that they serve as a protection of the African urban residents against overcrowding, unemployment and low wages. These are economic problems which, we are convinced, can only effectively be dealt with by economic measures, as opposed to police molestation and bureaucratic control. Such measures are suggested later in these findings. Here it is sufficient to indicate that they must be national in their application. An attempt to deal with the problems involved on a purely local basis can obscure but cannot solve them. Thus a problem of housing cannot be dealt with by artificially limiting the local population requiring accommodation, since the need will still have to be met elsewhere. Unemployment cannot be dealt with by chasing away the unemployed. They will remain unemployed. Low wages cannot be raised by harrying the workseekers. Work will still have to be provided for them somewhere. 7. On the other hand, we are persuaded that the Pass Laws have, and must necessarily have, the following disastrous effects: (a) They depress wage rates by artificially stimulating the supply of labour to the most inefficient sectors of the national economy, and to low wage industries, and they

RELATIONS: 1961 131 put the African worker at the mercy of the individual employer, both in town and country. (b) They can only be administered in an arbitrary fashion, involving countless cases of individual injustice, frustration and hardship. (c) They tend to perpetuate the migratory labour system, with all its evil effects upon family life and productive efficiency. (d) Their effective enforcement involves a degree of bureaucratic inspection and police molestation to which no people on earth can be expected willingly to submit. They are thereby subversive alike of civil liberty and government by consent, and must, in the nature of things, result in resistance by those subjected to them and bloody suppression by those charged with their enforcement. The tragic occurrences at Sharpeville and Langa on 21/3/1960 are, in our opinion, sombre presages of worse things to come if the system is indefinitely continued. 8. In the opinion of the Institute, therefore, the only remedy for these evils is "ie complete abolition of the pass system and the extension Lo the African people of the fundamental human rights of free movement, residence and employment. The system should be replaced by a constructive national policy along the following lines: (a) the establishment of a network of labour exchanges, with the functions of registering workseekers and work-providers on a voluntary basis, imparting information as to the availability of employment and of labour, and seeking to place workseekers where they are required; (b) a system of wage regulation designed to eliminate wage disparities as between one sector of the national economy and another, combined with appropriate measures for increasing the productivity of labour generally; (c) development of depressed rural areas, such as the existing Reserves, both agriculturally and industrially, with the object of making it possible for the local population of these areas to earn a living; (d) measures designed to deal effectively with unemployment, including planned programmes of public works, especially urban housing, and a comprehensive system of unemployment insurance for the relief of those temporarily unemployed". "FOREIGN" AFRICANS The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development has said on various occasions in the Assembly0) that during the three years 1958 to 1960 inclusive, an average of 233,653 foreign (6) 28 April 1961, Hansard 14 cols. 5520-1; 14 June, Hansard 20 col. 8004.

A SURVEY OF RACE Africans was allowed to enter South Africa to work on the mines. All were returned to their home countries at the conclusion of their contracts. No statistics were available regarding those who entered clandestinely or were stopped at the border, or relating to those, other than mine workers, who were repatriated. The Minister estimated in June 1961 that there were at least one million foreign Africans in the country. He had appointed an inter-departmental committee, he said, to investigate the question of sending them away in large numbers. They were keeping South Africans out of work. Difficult problems were involved and there were cases of individual hardship. Foreign Africans found illegally in South Africa are warned to return. If they are found in urban areas they are first prosecuted and if found guilty are given very severe sentences. Should they have no money for the fare home they may be given temporary permits to remain, placed in employment in a rural area, and be required to deposit a proportion of their earnings each month with the Immigration authorities. When the necessary sum has been accumulated these authorities procure the passage and send the African to his home territory. In a deserving case the British High Commissioner may write to the government of the country from which the African originally came. If the officials there can trace him from their own records and consider him to be a reliable person, they may then advance the money for his return provided that he guarantees to repay it later7. If a man does not return after having been warned to do so, a warrant for his removal is issued in terms of Section fourteen of Act 25 of 1945. The cost of removal is met so far as possible from any money in his possession. In certain circumstances if an employer is convicted of employing a foreign African in an urban area the former may be ordered to pay for the cost of the African's removal. If necessary a rail warrant is issued by the Government(l. LEGAL RIGHTS OF AFRICAN WOMEN Dr. H. J. Simons of the University of Cape Town is preparing a book on the legal status of African women which will be published by the Institute of Race Relations. It was mentioned in last year's Survey(') that Mr. J. P. Cope, M.P., had drawn up a Bill to make it clear that an African woman married by customary law was entitled to sue for damages in the event of her husband's death through negligence on the part of a third person. This measure has so far not been proceeded with, the (7) Information in these two paragraphs from a letter from the High Commissioner for th'e United Kingdom, SAR DG/9 of 2 December 1960. (s) Minister of Bantu Administration and Development, Assembly, 14 February 1961, Hansard 4 cols. 1257-8, and provisions of the Act. (9) Page 130.

RELATIONS: 1961 133 matter having been referred to a commission which is investigating motor car insurance. The Institute of Race Relations gave evidence before this commission, urging that Mr. Cope's Bill be introduced. TAXATION OF AFRICANS The Deputy Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said in the Assembly on 14 April 1961(0) that the amounts paid by Africans in general and local taxes in recent years were: 1956-57 ...... R5,688,162 1957-58 ...... R5,503,938 1958-59 ...... R5,963,378 1959-60 ...... R7,451,982 1960-61 ...... R6,973,956 (unaudited figure) It was estimated that an amount of R800,000 was outstanding. These figures do not include amounts paid by Africans in normal and provincial income taxes, rates imposed by Bantu authorities, tribal levies, education levies, hospital levies, etc., or by way of indirect taxation. URBAN SITES FOR AFRICAN SEPARATIST CHURCHES In previous issues of this Survey"') it was stated that during February 1959 the Secretary for Bantu Administration and Development sent a circular letter to local authorities in which he stated that the Government's general policy was that church sites in urban African townships must be allocated only to church bodies which were recognized by the Government. Appended to the circular was a list of 81 churches and missions, including about 28 African separatist churches, to which such recognition had been accorded. The circular letter stated that if non-recognized churches had been granted such sites without Ministerial approval, their occupation must be terminated before the end of 1960. If approval had been given, it would, in general, not be renewed after the end of that year. Conditions for the recognition of separatist churches, which number more than 2,200, were published in Bantu in September 1959(12). A deputation from the Interdenominational African Ministers' Federation pleaded with the Department for an indefinite extension of the period within which unrecognized churches were required to relinquish urban sites. On 30 December 1960 the Government granted a last-minute reprieve. It was stated that all churches then occupying sites would (10) Hansard 12 col. 4531. (11) 1959-60, page 128; 1958-59, page 33. (12) See 1958-59 Survey, page 34.

A SURVEY OF RACE be allowed to continue to do so. But where areas were replanned or evacuated, fresh application would have to be made. New applications would have to be referred to the Minister, who would refuse permission unless the candidates could comply with the conditions for recognition. GENERAL MATTERS AFFECTING COLOURED PEOPLE POLICY STATEMENTS STATEMENT BY THE PRIME MINISTER, 7 DECEMBER 1960 In a statement issued on 7 December 1960 the Prime Minister made the following points: 1. The representation of Coloureds in Parliament by Whites would remain as it was. 2. A Minister of Coloured Affairs would be appointed. 3. An effective development programme would be undertaken in Coloured rural settlements, which were about 2-million morgen in extent, and a system of local government would be evolved. 4. Housing schemes would be undertaken in Coloured urban residential areas, which would become separate entities with their own elected local authorities. Coloured professional men, traders, etc. would be protected against inter-racial competition in these areas, and educational, hospital, sporting, entertainment and public facilities would be established there. 5. A development and investment corporation would be created to encourage and assist private Coloured enterprise. 6. A Coloured technical high school, trades school and one or more agricultural gymnasia would be established. 7. An investigation would be made of the desirability of placing all Coloured education, including the Coloured university college, under the Department of Coloured Affairs. If this were done Coloured school committees and boards could be formed, and more senior educational posts could be opened to Coloured people. 8. The Department of Coloured Affairs would take over all welfare services and institutions, developing them by using Coloured personnel and working with Coloured organizations. 9. The Union Coloured Affairs Council would be developed to become a self-governing body and given gradually increasing status and authority, for instance administrative authority over Coloured villages and towns, education and welfare services. It would be reconstituted to include more elected members. It was intended that the Prime Minister and the Minister of Coloured Affairs should have annual discussions with council members.

RELATIONS: 1961 135 10. White and Coloured labour would have preference over that of Africans in the Western Cape. Through job reservation protection would be given to Coloured workers in fields of employment which were traditionally theirs. The Government's aim, the Prime Minister concluded, was to ensure that the White and Coloured groups should develop side by side, each retaining its own identity. Mr. P. W. Botha, M.P., formerly Deputy Minister of the Interior, was during August appointed Minister of Coloured Affairs. FURTHER STATEMENT MADE ON 10 APRIL 1961 In a subsequent statement, made in the Assembly on 10 April 19611, the Prime Minister elaborated on his "four parallel streams" policy. His statement that the African Reserves would be able to develop into separate Bantu states has been dealt with earlier2. He continued, "The problem of giving political rights to the Coloureds and the Indians will then still exist. In this case I accept the rejection of the old proposition that one cannot have a state within a state. I accept firstly that in our State we will have to give the Coloureds opportunities for development, firstly by means of their own local governments, secondly by way of managing the sort of thing now falling under the control of the Provincial Councils-viz their own municipal affairs, the education of their own children and similar matters. Thirdly, I accept that within the White state ... an institution should be established or a method should be evolved to give the Coloureds further rights of self- government over their national interests. The time to decide precisely how and in regard to what this must be done can wait until the development has progressed to that second stage... "We (shall) limit their development to that of a council which will exercise authority over their own affairs". There will be political separation but mutual economic dependence, the Prime Minister said. He concluded, "Until we have reached the stage of development to which I referred, where the Coloured Council fully performs its functions ... the Coloured representation in this Parliament ... will remain as it is now". Later, the Prime Minister added('), "If the separate development of the Coloureds should advance beyond the stage of the Coloured Council and should take place in the form of a state within a state, in the direction of a parliament of their own, it might be that they will not be represented here . . . If this development (1) Hansard 12 cols. 4191-3. (2) See page 97. (3) Assembly, 11 April, Hansard 12 col. 4314. A SURVEY OF RACE should move along different lines, a different answer might have to be given". UNION COUNCIL FOR COLOURED AFFAIRS The present constitution of the Union Council for Coloured Affairs, which has twelve elected and fifteen nominated members, was described in the 1958-59 issue of this Survey 4). At its meeting during March 1961 the Council is reported(') to have adopted a unanimous resolution stating that it was the opinion of its members that "the Coloured people have legitimate grievances, aggravated by discriminatory legislation like the Group Areas Act". The Council had noted the activities of certain Coloured leaders in linking the Coloured people's fortunes and fate with those of the other Non-White groups. The resolution said, "We make an earnest and urgent appeal to the Government to expedite the positive aspects of its policy in a bold, courageous and statesmanlike manner, and so win and maintain the goodwill, understanding and co-operation of the majority of law-abiding Coloured people as an effective answer to this political gamble which will doom them to be an unimportant and weak group with no say in the new political set-up that the movement envisages". All the major Coloured organizations opposed the creation of this Council, and boycotted the elections(6). The views of these bodies are described earlier, on page 22 et seq. COLOURED MISSION STATIONS AND RESERVES MISSION STATIONS AND COMMUNAL RESERVES ACT OF 1909 AS AMENDED In terms of the Mission Stations and Communal Reserves Act, No. 29 of 1909 (Cape), as amended by Act 32 of 1959, certain mission stations where land was held in trust for the Coloured occupants were brought under a system in which a definite grant of land was made to the missionary body, the remainder of the station being reserved for the registered occupiers. Boards of management may be created in the latter areas, to consist of six members elected by the registered occupiers and three appointed by the Governor-General. Such a board is presided over by the magistrate of the district, who has a casting as well as a deliberative vote. The board is responsible for the control of roads, fences, sanitation, water supply and the use of the commonage, and. (4) Page 153. (5) Rand Daily Mail, 31 March. (6) See 1959-60 Survey, page 132.

RELATIONS: 1961 137 -subject to the approval of the Minister of the Interior, has power to make regulations in regard to these matters. Rates of R4 a year are levied on registered occupiers, from which the aged and chronic sick may be exempted. After consultation with the board, the Minister may declare an area which falls under the Act, or part of it, to be a betterment area. Then, out of moneys appropriated by Parliament, he may carry out and maintain any works required for its development, and decide upon the proportion of the cost which must be repaid by the board out of rates levied. This proportion will not exceed ten per cent unless the board agrees, nor may more than ten per cent of the rates be used for the purpose. PRESERVATION OF COLOURED AREAS ACT, No. 31 OF 1961 1. Further areas may be bought under the provisions of the 1909 Act The Preservation of Coloured Areas Act of 1961 provides that any area which has been granted to or set aside for Coloured people, or which is a traditionally or locally acknowledged Coloured area mainly occupied or owned by them, may be brought by the Governor-General under the provisions of the 1909 Act as amended, by means of a proclamation in the Gazette. The Governor-General may do this if he deems it advisable in the public interest or if he is requested to do so by the majority of the lawful inhabitants and owners of the area concerned, but in any case must consult the inhabitants and owners. He may make such reservations and conditions as he deems fit. The Governor-General may also combine one or more incorporated Coloured areas or portions thereof; and, after consultation with the board of management, or in the absence of such a board, the lawful inhabitants and owners, may release any previously incorporated area from the provisions of the Act. During the Parliamentary debate an Opposition speaker suggested that the Minister might try to create separate homelands for the Coloured people by proclaiming new Coloured rural areas under the Group Areas Act, and then applying the provisions of the Preservation of Coloured Areas Act. The Deputy Minister of the Interior denied that this was the Government's intention, and, to make this clear, moved an amendment, which was adopted, specifying that only areas that, at the time when the new Act came into operation, had been granted to or set aside for Coloured, or were regarded as being traditionally Coloured areas, could be incorporated in terms of the Act. He said&7) that the areas that might be involved were, in all, about 200,000 morgen in extent. The inhabitants of four such areas -Saron, Dyselsdorp, Slangrivier and Kruisfontein-had already (7) Assembly, Hansard 6 col. 2259; Hansard 5 cols. 1613, 1750.

A SURVEY OF RACE asked for incorporation. He did not wish to make mention of areas with whose residents the Department had not yet discussed the matter. During discussion it transpired, however(), that these might include Opperman, Suurbraak, and possibly, after the removal of the African residents, the Dunn Reserve. 2. Ownership of land in Coloured areas As from the date of a proclamation bringing a Coloured area within the scope of the Act, it will become free of any previous restrictions or encumbrances affecting the ownership or occupation of land (except in regard to rights of way), and will be vested in the Minister of the Interior in trust for the Coloured occupiers. But as soon as a board of management has been appointed the land will vest in the board. Coloured registered owners of surveyed lots will be deemed registered owners for the purposes of the Act. An Opposition speaker pointed out that the title to land afforded under the 1909 Act was not unrestricted freehold, thus the rights of Coloured owners who might possess such title would be diminished. The Deputy Minister said(9) that, according to the 1909 Act, if a board of management adopts a resolution in favour of a survey for the purposes of introducing individual tenure of land, the Minister will arrange for a public meeting of registered occupiers to be held to consider the matter. If property rights are granted, this must be subject to the Minister's approval, and no land may be alienated, ceded, sub-divided, leased, mortgaged or rendered liable to execution for debt without his consent. He added, however, that these limitations will not militate against existing rights, because as far as he could ascertain all areas in the Cape that might be affected were originally granted under quitrent title (but free of quitrent payments). In the other provinces no individual title existed. There had, so far, been no requests for property rights in farming areas. What was becoming a practical problem, he said, was the question of the townships. The plots were being surveyed, and steps were being taken to transfer the trust vested in the Minister to the management boards in order that they might grant property rights to individuals, subject to the conditions laid down in the Act. This would enable land-holders to apply for National Housing loans. 3. Disqualified persons When a Coloured area is brought under the provisions of the Act, the ownership of land in the area by Whites or Asians will lapse after the expiry of a period fixed by the Governor-General by proclamation, which will be not less than twelve months. (8) Hansard 7 col 2746: Hansard 5 cols. 1750. 1751. (9) Hansard 5 cols. 1755-6, 1909; Hansard 6 col. 2255.

RELATIONS:1961 139 The Act lays down detailed provisions relating to compensation"'). COLOURED PERSONS COMMUNAL RESERVES ACT, No. 3 OF 1961 The Coloured Persons Communal Reserves Act provided that the Mission Stations and Communal Reserves Act of 1909 (Cape) as amended, shall apply to every area which has been declared to be a Coloured persons' settlement area in terms of Section one of the Coloured Persons' Settlement Areas Act of 1930. This 1930 Act is repealed. Anyone who has been granted a right of occupation of land within such an area shall for the purposes of the 1909 Act be deemed to be a registered occupier. When introducing the Bill(1), the Deputy Minister of the Interior said that only one area had been established under the 1930 Act-the Mier settlement, about 200 miles north-east of Upington, 430,000 morgen in extent. About 90 Coloured families lived there, mainly engaged in stock-farming. The object of the new measure was to enable it to be administered in the same way as were the Coloured mission stations and reserves, and to make it possible for much-needed betterment works to be undertaken, for example the provision of water supplies. REGULATIONS FOR COLOURED MISSION STATIONS AND RESERVES Revised regulations for Coloured mission stations and reserves were published in R 1866 of 18 November 1960. They deal with the constitutions of boards of management, voting rights of residents, residential rights, rates, trading in these areas, etc. They again provided, as the previous regulations had done, that with certain exceptions, it is an offence for anyone, unless with the permission of the Coloured Affairs Department or the magistrate, to hold or address a gathering of more than five persons(2). DEVELOPMENT AND INVESTMENT CORPORATION FOR COLOURED AREAS In his Budget Speech on 15 March 1961(3) the Minister of Finance said that an initial R500,000 was to be provided for the establishment of a Development and Investment Corporation which would stimulate the development of Coloured enterprises and provide expert advice and financial assistance. (10) See RR 84/61 for a summary of these. (11) Assembly, 9 February 1961, Hansard 3 col. 1085. (12) See 1957-58 Survey, page 40, for details. (13) Assembly, Hansard 8 cols. 3006-7.

A SURVEY OF RACE EXISTING COLOURED MISSION STATIONS AND RESERVES Of the fifteen existing Coloured mission stations and reserves, nine are in the arid region of the north-western Cape. The most northerly of these is Mier, which is mentioned above. About 250 miles south of this is the irrigation settlement of Eksteenskuil, on the Orange River near Upington. According to the Star 14), which ran a series of articles on these areas, Eksteenskuil is the most flourishing of them. The people have three-morgen allotments and grow cotton. Richtersveld, the largest of the Coloured settlements, is in Namaqualand near the mouth of the Orange River. The Star reports(1") that two groups of people, who have little communication with one another, live in this area. There is a very poor group whose home language is the old Nama tongue, although they can speak Afrikaans. Most of them live in reed huts. The majority of the heads of families earn a living by going away to work for White farmers. Then there is a more progressive community of Coloured people who are small stock farmers, keeping sheep and goats, and live in stone dwellings. The Deputy Minister of the Interior said on 20 February(6) that development work was in progress in the Richtersveld, which had previously been badly neglected. Forty miles of boundary fences had already been erected and ten boreholes sunk. South and inland from the Richersveld, also in Namaqualand, is a group of settlements: Steinkopf, Concordia, Komaggas, Leliefontein and Rietpoort. The Star stated(7) that some of the people of Steinkopf are small stock farmers, owning karakul sheep and goats, but as not all can make a living in this way the incomes of the majority of the 782 families are derived from wages earned in employment outside the settlement. The farmers spend months away from home travelling with their flocks in search of grazing. More boreholes are badly needed. In the speech referred to above the Deputy Minister said that a concrete dam fed by a windmill had recently been provided at Steinkopf, and another at Concordia. The Star stated that four-fifths of the heads of families at Concordia have to earn a living outside, in many cases by working at the near-by O'okiep copper mine. Of roughly 450 families, only 260 live in dwellings that can be classed as permanent. Conditions at Leliefontein are even less prosperous. The majority of the people there are semi-nomadic, moving with their stock and living in reed huts. Many work as casual farm labourers for White farmers to supplement their very meagre living. Of a total of some 600 families only 87 live in "permanent dwellings". (14) 22 February 1961. (15) 21 and 23 February. 06) Assenbly. Ha-sard 5 of ]961. col. 1745. (17) 22. 23 and 24 February 1961. 140

RELATIONS: 1961 141 To the south of these settlements, in the Van Rhynsdorp district, is the Ebenezer reserve. There are three more in the Western Cape-Mamre near Malmesbury, Pniel near Paarl, and Genadendal near Caledon. Development work is in progress in some of these areas: the Deputy Minister said that thirty miles of inner camp fencing had recently been erected at Mamre and the water supply improved. Lastly, there is a Coloured settlement at Zoar near Ladismith in the Cape, one at Enon near Uitenhage, and a small reserve called Thaba Patchoa in the Free State, near the Basutoland border, which was created as a home for wandering cattle farmers. The total area of all these reserves is just under two million morgen. According to the Star, they have a population of about 31,000: just over two per cent of the Coloured people in South Africa. GENERAL MATTERS AFFECTING ASIANS POLICY STATEMENTS BY THE PRIME MINISTER After outlining the programme for Coloured people that is described on page 134, the Prime Minister said('), "It can be mentioned that for another Non-European community, the Indian community, development plans on the same lines can be considered should this community show signs of co-operation on this basisalso as a separate community". Later, when developing his "four parallel streams" policy, after stating that Coloured people would gradually be given increasing control of their own affairs until the stage was reached at which the Union Council for Coloured Affairs handled certain national Coloured interests, the Prime Minister added2), "And precisely the same applies to the Indians ... A start will be made by developing a division which will in time grow into a Department of Indian Affairs. We shall be prepared to establish a council representing the Indian population to deal with the interests of the Indians, as we did in regard to the Coloureds ... As the result of the establishment of group areas we want to give the Indians also full control over their residential areas so that they can have their own local governments on parallel lines". The Prime Minister made it clear that Indians would not be granted representation in Parliament. (1) Rand Daily Mail report. 8 December 1960. (2) Assembly. 10 April 1961, Hansard 12 col. 4192.

A SURVEY OF RACE DEPARTMENT OF INDIAN AFFAIRS On 1 September 1961, in terms of Proclamation No. 74, a Department of Indian Affairs was created, and provision was made for the appointment of a Secretary for Indian Affairs. During August Mr. W. A. Maree was appointed Minister of Indian Affairs. The Institute of Race Relations wrote to the Prime Minister giving reasons why it opposed the establishment of such a Department and asking him to reconsider this plan('), but he replied that he was not prepared to do so. DIFFICULTIES OF TRAVEL Dr. A. D. Lazarus wrote an article on the difficulties of travelling in South Africa experienced by Indians, which was published in the April 1961 issue of Race Relations News. Indians cannot move from province to province, Dr. Lazarus said, except under permit from a magistrate or a passport control office. They cannot visit the Free State at all except to make journeys of 24 hours' duration through this province. Whenever an Indian from Natal wishes to travel to the Transvaal or the Cape he has to apply for a permit, which costs 25c, and he is put to considerable trouble and inconvenience to obtain it since he has to appear in person and fill in a long questionnaire on which he has, inter alia, to state his parents' names and those of all his children, their ages and sex. Each time this document is placed in his personal dossier. The permit allows for a visit of six weeks' duration, at the end of which period or sooner he has to appear in person to surrender it. If in any one calendar year an Indian has had permits to visit, say, the Transvaal and in the aggregate has been three months in that province no further permit will be issued during that year. In the past, Natal Indians experienced great difficulty when wishing to travel to the Cape by road, since they were not allowed to go via the Transkei. If they went through the Free State this added 367 miles to the journey; but because this province is most inhospitable territory many Indians preferred to drive an additional 110 miles to Kimberley, where the long journey could be broken. This meant that to do a trip from Durban to East London, which would be 435 miles through the Transkei, an Indian would have to travel 1,022 miles. In recent months, since the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development made it clear that the national road through the Transkei is itself not African territory, Indians have been allowed to travel that way; but they then require an additional permit from the Commissioner for Bantu Affairs, which records (3) RR 185/61.

RELATIONS: 1961 143 the registration number of the car, the names of all passengers travelling in it, and prescribes the route to be followed and the exact date. On entry into the Transkei the permit has to be produced at the police station where the police record the time and date of entry. A similar procedure has to be followed on leaving the Transkei. In the event of his car breaking down in the territory, necessitating a delay, a permit holder would be likely to experience much inconvenience. The Southern Transvaal Region of the Institute of Race Relations wrote to the Secretary for Indian Affairs asking what action an Indian should take in an emergency, when he had to leave hurriedly for another province on a day or at a time when the offices where permits are issued are closed. In his reply(4) the Secretary suggested that in such a case the Indian should, before departure, inform the police authorities of his difficulties, and then, as soon as practicable after arrival at his destination, should report to the police or to the passport control office. The Department of Indian Affairs was asked to make it clear to the relevant authorities that such procedure is acceptable, since at least one case was known of an Indian who acted in this way but, on arrival, was ordered by the police to return home immediately. INDIAN IMMIGRATION Although no further Indians from overseas are permitted to settle in South Africa, it is reported(') that the Minister of Indian Affairs has said his department accepts in principle that teachers and religious instructors from India should be allowed to come under contract for specified periods. REGULATIONS FOR THE WITBANK "ASIATIC BAZAAR" Witbank, in the Transvaal, is the only town in South Africa where Indians are subject to much the same type of restrictions as apply to urban Africans: in some respects, in fact, they are even more onerous. Regulations for the "Asiatic Bazaar" there were published in Government Notice No. 244 of 17 February 1961. They provide that Indians and Chinese may occupy residential or trading lots in the Bazaar, but that the period of lease is not to exceed twelve months. No lot may be sold by the Town Council without the Minister's permission. No building may be erected except in accordance with plans approved by the Council, and there must be at least 300 cubic feet of free airspace for each person who will live (4) 13/3/3 of 26 August 1961. (5) Star, 25 September 1961.

A SURVEY OF RACE there. Exery building permit will be endorsed with the maximum number of persons who may inhabit the building. An inspector will keep a register of the lawful residents of the Bazaar. Lessees must produce their Transvaal Asiatic Registration Certificates when called upon to do so. No persons over the age of sixteen other than lessees and their wives may live in the Bazaar unless they have a six-monthly permit issued by the inspector. Anyone found in the Bazaar may be required to satisfy the inspector that his presence is lawful. It is an offence not to leave if ordered to do so. No business may be carried on except on demarcated trading sites and with the Council's approval. Two shop assistants without their families may sleep on trading premises, but otherwise the sites may not be used for residential purposes. The inspector may prohibit any game or entertainment which is likely to cause nuisance or annoyance to others in the Bazaar. No liquor may be brought in unless the person doing so has an exemption certificate. The Indians of Witbank made an unsuccessful protest against these regulations to the Town Council. They resented, particularly, the necessity for children over the age of sixteen to obtain sixmonthly permits to live with their parents, and the insecurity of one-year leases, which would be felt particularly by traders. They pointed out that the inspector would have the power to remove a trader's source of livelihood by preventing his White and African customers from visiting his shop6). LIQUOR THE PREVIOUS POSITION Prior to the passing of the Liquor Amendment Act of 1961, the position was that Coloured people in Natal, and Coloured and Asians in the Cape (excluding the Transkei) were able to buy liquor of any type, subject to any conditions imposed by licensing boards. A wide variety of conditions had, in fact, been imposed, relating to sales on Saturdays, quantities to be purchased at any one time, hours during which hotels might serve Coloured visitors, etc. Asians in Natal could obtain liquor for on-consumption only, and the same applied to Coloured persons other than Griquas in the Transkei who were the owners or sole lessees of immovable property worth at least R150. Subject to certain exceptions, Coloured people and Asians in the Transvaal and Free State, and Africans throughout South (6) Sunday Times report, 18 June 1961. 144

RELATIONS: 1961 145 Africa, were precluded from obtaining liquor (other than kaffir beer in the case of Africans). Those exempted from these provisions were holders of letters of exemption, ministers of religion permitted to buy wine for sacramental use, and holders of medical certificates that recommended the use of liquor. The tot system allowed certain employers in the Cape and Free State to give specified amounts of liquor to their Non-White employees (see page 148). A fuller description of the liquor laws, an account of their inefficacy, and a summary of the recommendations made by the Malan Commission, were given in last year's Survey 'P. RECOMMENDATIONS BY THE INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS At its meeting in January 1961 the Institute's Executive Committee considered the liquor laws. It prefaced its findings(-) by a plea for improved social conditions, the provision of healthy recreation, and state assistance for those investigating the causes of alcoholism, spreading knowledge of the evils of excessive drinking, or trying to bring about a greater sense of family responsibility. The committee went on to recommend: 1. All Non-White citizens of South Africa should be able to obtain liquor on the same basis and subject to the same conditions as apply in the case of Whites. 2. Consideration might be given to the revision of the rates of excise duty with the object of encouraging the consumption of unfortified wines and malt liquors rather than that of fortified wines and spirits. 3. Whether or not municipal beerhalls have been established in African townships, individual Africans and other Non-Whites should be able to obtain licences to sell any type of liquor in hotels, restaurants and bottle stores in Non- White urban residential areas, subject to the same controls that apply in White areas. 4. The system of local option should, however, operate where feasible; but in no case should there be prohibition throughout all the Non-White townships in any local authority area. 5. Subject, where feasible, to the system of local option operated through tribal or community authorities, local councils, etc., individual Africans should be able to obtain licences to sell all types of liquor, including kaffir beer, in rural areas and the Reserves. 6. The tot system should be abolished. There should be more distribution points for liquor in the country districts of the Cape to cater for Coloured farm workers. 7 Restrictions on the purchase and possession by Non-Whites of methylated spirits and yeast should be abolished. (I) Page 138. (2) RR 127/61.

146 A SURVEY OF RACE 8. Those local authorities which did not already do so were urged to allow off-sales of kaffir beer to all adult members of their African communities, and to permit the purchasers to offer it free of charge to guests in their homes. 9. Home brewing of beer, which is an anachronism in modern industrial societies, should be prohibited in urban areas. 10. Local authorities were asked to consider leasing existing beerhalls and beer gardens to private African enterprise, supplying beer to the lessees at wholesale prices from municipal breweries. In towns where such breweries have not been established, private White or Non-White enterprise should be permitted to brew beer under suitable conditions and control for wholesale supply to retailers. 11. Consideration might also be given to the sale or lease of municipal beerhalls to private enterprise. 12. The Government was urged to encourage local authorities to establish recreation grounds, incorporating better-class tearooms, licensed restaurants and other amenities, for Africans living in the cities and towns as well as for those in the African townships. 13. Traditional home brewing should not be prohibited in rural areas even if individual Africans are licensed to sell liquor there. 14. African farm workers should not require special permits to enable them to offer liquor to their guests. Africans in the Reserves wishing to do this should not be required to give notice of their intention to the headman. CHINESE AND EGYPTIAN PEOPLE Government Notice R 11 of 6 January 1961 provided that Chinese people and Egyptians would be treated on the same basis as were Whites in regard to the supply of liquor for on-consumption on licensed premises. It is, thus, now legal for people belonging to these groups to be served with drinks in bars and hotel lounges. THE LIQUOR AMENDMENT ACT, No. 72 OF 1961 THE TERMS OF THE ACT (a) All restrictions on the purchase of alcohol by Coloured people and Asians for off-consumption, throughout South Africa, are to be removed. These people will be able to buy liquor for on-consumption in any licensed premises catering for them. (b) All powers of licensing boards to impose conditions on sales are to be repealed, and restrictions or conditions already imposed by them will lapse. (c) Holders of off-consumption licences, for example bottle-store keepers, are to be permitted to sell liquor to any African of the age of eighteen or over.

RELATIONS: 1961 147 (d) The State President may, however, declare that holders of offconsumption licences within any specified area may not supply liquor to any particular class of persons. (e) The State President will establish a National Liquor Board to advise him or the Minister on any matter arising out of the application of the provisions of the Act or the general distribution of liquor. (f) On the recommendation of this Board the Minister of Justice, in consultation with the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development, may, subject to stated conditions, grant authority to any person, or to the nominee of an urban local authority, an association of persons (White or Non-White), a divisional council, a Bantu Authority, or an employer regularly employing and housing African labourers, to sell liquor to any African of the age of eighteen or over for on- or off-consumption. If the premises where it is proposed that the liquor should be sold are situated within the area of an urban local authority, this authority will first be consulted. (g) In consultation with the Minister of Finance, the Minister of Justice will determine the licence fee payable, which will not exceed R400, such payments to be credited to the Consolidated Revenue Fund. Licences will remain in force for twelve months, and may on application be renewed for further periods of twelve months. They can be revoked by the Minister at any time. After consultation with the Treasury, the Minister will stipulate the manner in which profits shall be dealt with. (h) Within two weeks after the commencement of a Parliamentary session the Minister must table a report on all authorities given to sell liquor in African townships, stating the manner in which it was directed that profits should be used. (i) Non-Whites will commit an offence if they consume or are in possession of liquor on private premises without first obtaining the consent of the owner or lawful occupier. (j) In terms of the principal Act, no licence for the sale of alcohol shall be granted, except as otherwise provided, within half a mile of the boundary of an African location or village. The Amendment Act also prohibits this within half a mile of the boundary of any area set apart for occupation by Coloured or Asian persons. (k) All penalties for contraventions of provisions of the Liquor Act were increased. Those for offences such as purchase of liquor at an unauthorized time or place, altering or making unauthorized use of a letter of exemption, supplying employees except as is permitted, etc. are to be increased from a maximum of R50 to R100 or three months. Those for supplying liquor in contravention of the provisions of the Act, the sale to Africans or purchase by them of methylated

A SURVEY OF RACE spirits, malt or liquid yeast, etc. are to be increased from a maximum of R200 to R400 or twelve months. Those for being drunk, violent or disorderly in a public place, or consuming liquor in a public part of an urban area-a street, for example-are to be increased from a maximum of R50 to R400 or twelve months. The heaviest increase is for those found guilty of making or possessing concoctions. The maximum penalty was R400 or twelve months. It is now to be R1,000 or five years or both for a first conviction, and, for a second or subsequent conviction, imprisonment without the option for a period not less than six months or more than five years, with the possible addition of a fine of up to R 1,000. These are the same penalties as apply for dagga offences. THE TOT SYSTEM In terms of the principal Act, farmers in the Cape have been permitted to supply adult male Non-White farm workers with one free pint of unfortified wine daily, or one-and-a-half pints of kaffir beer. Any employer in the Free State might give his male adult Non-White employees a quarter of a pint of spirits or one pint of other liquor per day. The amending Bill, as originally presented, would have empowered any employer to supply light wine or malt liquor to any Non-White employee of the age of eighteen or over, provided that this was given free and not as part of the worker's pay. During the Parliamentary debate speakers protested that in effect this clause extended the tot system to the whole of South Africa, and did away with the limitation on the amount of liquor that could be supplied. The Minister of Justice agreed to debate the clause. He said0) that for the time being the existing provisions of the law relating to the tot system would not be altered, but consideration would be given to this matter when a consolidating measure was drafted. KAFFIR BEER The Minister said, too(4), that the whole question of kaffir beer would be dealt with in the consolidating measure. DEVELOPMENTS SINCE THE AMENDMENT ACT WAS PASSED In terms of R 376 of 11 August 1961 the National Liquor Board was established. It is reported5) that Mr. F. J. le Roux of the Department of Justice has been appointed chairman of the board. R 753 of 22 September set out the procedure for applying for (3) Senate. 24 June 1961, Hansard 19 col. 5661. (4) Col. 5735. (5) Rand Daily Mail, 9 August.

RELATIONS: 1961 149 authority to sell liquor to Africans. Seven days before the application is submitted the applicant must give notice of his intention in an Afrikaans and an English newspaper circulating in the district concerned. He must fill in a prescribed form, stating, inter alia, the names and addresses of those who will have any financial interest in the business, and must submit plans of the premises in which he proposes to sell the liquor. These particulars must be sent to the magistrate's office, where, for a fortnight, they can be inspected by members of the public, who are entitled to lodge objections. Should an objection be lodged the applicant must be informed and given the opportunity of replying. A police report will be obtained on the character of the applicant. Finally, the applications will be considered by the National Liquor Board, which will meet in January 1962 and thereafter each June. It is reported(6) that the National Bureau of Educational and Social Research is to investigate various aspects of the use and misuse of alcohol. According to another report( 7, bottlestore-keepers will decide for themselves whether or not to provide separate entrances and counters for Non-White customers. At the time of writing the provisions of the Amendment Act which will abolish restrictions on sales to Non-Whites had not come into effect. The board had not yet indicated whether licences for selling liquor to Africans in the townships will be granted mainly to local authorities, or whether Africans will be able to obtain these, and whether hotels in Non-White townships will be licensed. The Chairman of Johannesburg's Non-European Affairs Committee is reported(8) to have said that his committee is in favour of licences being granted to the municipality only, except, possibly, for hotels, in order that profits may be used for housing and welfare projects. The municipality has submitted plans for bottle- stores and bar-lounges in the African townships, including four better-type lounges where strict rules of dress and behaviour would apply, and women with men escorts would be admitted9). Numerous other towns have also submitted plans for buildings for the sale of liquor. (6) Ibid, 20 June. (7) Ibid, 4 July. (8) Ibid, 26 September. (9) Star. 17 October.

A SURVEY OF RACE GROUP AREAS AND HOUSING GROUP AREAS AMENDMENT ACT, No. 23 OF 1961 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS The Group Areas Amendment Act of 1961, like the principal Act and the numerous previous amending measures, is an extremely complicated one. Some of its clauses deal with administrative matters, others correct errors made when the legislation was consolidated in 1957, while a few introduce new principles. The more important of these new features are dealt with below0). THE USE OF PREMISES FOR PARTICULAR PURPOSES One clause of the Amendment Act applies only to portions of a controlled area that have been "defined" in terms of the principal Act: that is, in effect, in which development has been frozen. In such areas, any building which is erected, extended or completed after the date of the proclamation which "defined" the area is deemed to have been unoccupied at that date, unless the Minister makes a determination in favour of a particular racial group, or unless a permit was obtained for the constructional work. Many hundreds of Indian properties have been so "defined." The amending measure provided that the Governor-General, after consultation with the Administrator, may by proclamation declare that as from a specified date, which must be at least a year later than the date of the proclamation, any "defined" land or building may be occupied or used only for a particular purpose, except under the authority of a permit. Such a proclamation will not render it lawful for anyone to occupy the land or building, even for the particular purpose, unless he occupied it at the date when the property was "defined". When introducing the Bill at its Second Reading, the Deputy Minister of the Interior said2) that the particular purpose for which the use of "defined" properties might be authorized might be business purposes. A trader, for example. might be allowed to continue trading from the premises. Although he would have to move his home and family to a group area set aside for his racial group, he would not be deprived of his means of earning a livelihood. The amendment would make it possible for trading areas to be proclaimed. The Deputy Minister emphasized that before a proclamation of this nature was issued, there would be a public enquiry, and (1) See RR 80/61 for a more detailed analysis. (2) Senate, 8 February 1961, Hansard 3 cols. 591-2.

RELATIONS: 1961 151 on the basis of this the Group Areas Board would submit a report to the Minister. He added03) later that the general principle would hold good that trading activities should take place in the group areas of the traders concerned. It was only in certain exceptional cases, particularly in the metropolitan areas such as Johannesburg, that specified areas for business without residential rights might be necessary. Various important criticisms were made by the Opposition during the course of the debate04). It was pointed out that the new provisions could not be applied in group areas that had already been proclaimed. These provisions dealt only with occupation: even if premises of Indian traders had been proclaimed as trading areas they could, in terms of the law, subsequently be proclaimed as areas for White ownership; thus the Indians would have no security. Indians would not know whether it would be safe for them to extend their businesses, or whether these could be inherited by their sons. Many Indian traders lived above or next to their shops. If they were forced to move their homes to their group areas, which were usually considerable distances from the centre of the towns, they would be involved in the additional costs of daily transport. Transport facilities were often inadequate, which would cause difficulties for caf6 proprietors, fresh produce dealers and others who could not keep to normal working hours. It was introducing a completely new principle to empower the Government to control the use of land in a local authority area: the Government, the Provincial Administration and the local authority would all now be involved in town planning, and their plans might conflict. Speakers pointed out that there were many Indian shops with blocks of flats above them that were occupied by Indians. Either these flats would have to remain empty, or the owners would be involved in substantial expense in converting them for business use, for in terms of the law it would be impossible for persons other than Indians to occupy them, and if the premises were proclaimed for business use Indians would not be able to live there either. The Deputy Minister said('), "I admit that that is a difficult matter . . . All I am prepared to tell the honourable member to-night . . . is that this Bill ... states that these special areas will only be established after investigation and after a report by the Board to the Minister ... The provisions of the Development Act can be applied to these special areas." Asked whether the Government would compensate the Indians for loss of residential accommodation or for the cost of converting (3) Col. 735. (4) See RR 80/61 for detailed Hansard references. (5) Assembly, Hansard 5 col. 1883. A SURVEY OF RACE it into offices, the Deputy Minister repeated(') that the provisions of the Development Act would be applied, but said he would investigate during the recess whether these would afford adequate compensation. If necessary, early in the next Session he would introduce further amendments to the Group Areas Development Act. THE DATE ON WHICH GROUP AREAS PROCLAMATIONS WILL COME INTO EFFECT In terms of the principal Act, the date by which disqualified persons must move out of group areas had to be stated in the proclamation establishing the group area concerned (except in the case of "future" areas). If such persons wished to remain after this date they had to apply for permits. The new measure provided that the date would no longer be stated in the proclamation. Instead, the date in respect of any new group area, or portion thereof, would be determined subsequently by the Minister, and published by means of a Government Notice and in one or more newspapers circulating in the area. It would be not less than one year after the date of the proclamation, and at least three months' prior notice must be given. This arrangement would apply if numbers of persons were affected. But the Minister would also have power to give notice to individual disqualified occupants without publishing this. Again, the date must be not less than one year after the date of the proclamation, and at least three months' warning must be given. As a result of representations made by the Opposition, the Deputy Minister moved an amendment, which was adopted, to the effect that, after the initial year, at least twelve months' further notice must be given in the case of business premises. The Amendment Act also provided that in areas where the date by which disqualified persons must move had passed before the new measure became law, the date would not be altered. But if it had not yet arrived, it would be cancelled, and would, instead, be determined in the new manner. In his Second Reading speeches, the Deputy Minister said7 that in practice, it had proved difficult to determine evacuation dates in advance. Alternative accommodation must first be available, which involved planning, not only by the Development Board, but also by the National Housing Commission and the local authority. In terms of the proposed new arrangement, evacuation dates could be synchronized with the availability of alternative accommodation. Furthermore, group areas could be cleared of disqualified persons by degrees. The Deputy Minister added later(8) that affected persons who (6) Assembly. Hansard 7 col. 2463. (7) Assembly, Hansard 5 col. 1763. () Assembly. Hansard 5 cols. 1879-80, and Hansard 7 col. 2723. 152

RELATIONS: 1961 153 were in a financial position to provide their own alternative accommodation would not be assisted, except through the machinery of the Development Act. If notice was served on them as provided for in the amended Act, they would be required to leave within fifteen months of the date of the group areas proclamation. There was a second group of persons who would be expected to provide alternative accommodation for themselves with the assistance of National Housing loans. Thirdly, there were sections of the population who would not be able to meet their own needs. Economic and sub-economic housing schemes were being provided for them with the assistance of local authorities, and the people would be moved in batches as the houses were ready, subject to the period of notice stated in the amended Act. Opposition speakers dwelt on the increased feeling of uncertainty that would result from the fact that the evacuation dates would not be known at the time when group areas were proclaimed. RESTRICTIONS ON ACQUISITIONOF PROPERTY IN CONTROLLED AREAS The principal Act prohibited (with certain exceptions) agreements in terms of which property might be acquired by a disqualified person or company in a controlled area. The Deputy Minister explained that the wording of this Section had caused difficulties, and it was now proposed to prohibit, not agreements, but the actual acquisition of property by disqualified persons. In the past, innocent persons might find that agreements they had entered into in ignorance of the racial group of the other party were null and void. Frauds had occurred. Opposition speakers pointed out that the amendment would impose new restrictions. Previously, disqualified people who had entered into agreements before 1951 could still acquire property in terms of those agreements, and disqualified persons could inherit property, because that was not an agreement to acquire. Now both those things would be rendered illegal. The Deputy Minister conceded(') that this was so, and promised to investigate the matter. It was pointed out, too("°), that the amendment might affect large numbers of people who had entered into agreements to buy property on a hire purchase system and were still paying off the purchase price. The Deputy Minister replied (") that people in such a position could apply for permits: each case would be dealt with on its merits. (9) Assembly, Hansard 7 col. 2460. (10) Assembly, Hansard 11 col. 3921. (1) Col. 3948.

A SURVEY OF RACE DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT In terms of Proclamation No. 34 of 28 July and Government Notice 386 of 11 August 1961, a Department of Community Development was set up: 1. to furnish the machinery, undertake the planning and execute the administrative work necessary for thci functioning of the Group Areas Board; 2. to handle applications for permits to the extent that the Minister may by delegation approve; 3. to carry out the administrative and financial activities necessary for the discharge of the functions entrusted to the Group Areas Development Board; 4. to develop local government by Coloured and Asian people in their respective group areas; 5. to develop group areas as socio-economic units; 6. to encourage the responsible local authorities to provide public amenities; 7. to undertake such other functions as may be assigned to it from time to time. The administration of the new department was assigned to the Minister of Coloured Affairs, Community Development and Housing. REGULATIONS UNDER THE GROUP AREAS DEVELOPMENT ACT Revised regulations under the Group Areas Development Act were published as R 286 of 17 February 1961. These dealt in detail with all aspects of the administration of the Act. LETTER SENT TO LOCAL AUTHORITIES BY THE GROUP AREAS BOARD IN NATAL During April 1961 the Secretary of the Group Areas Board in Natal sent letters to the Town Clerks of Durban and Pietermaritzburg which indicated a softening of policy. He stated that the Indians would not be able to make a reasonable living and exist as a separate and self-supporting group if the shop-keepers were to be confined to their own racial groups for trading purposes. The Indian traders, some of whom were elderly people, could not be expected to change their vocation suddenly. "In order to obviate a large percentage of the Indian shopkeepers becoming a burden upon the State after resettlement in their own group areas", these areas should be so planned "that a

RELATIONS: 1961 155 reasonable measure of trading with members of the other racial Lroups" would be possible. While the proclamation of group areas would remain the function of the Group Areas Board, local authorities would do the internal planning of these areas. They were asked to provide a larger proportion of trading lots for Indians than were usual, and to site these on or near the edge of the group area, as near as possible to an access road. This change in policy will be of little benefit to Indians in the many cases where their group areas are considerable distances out of town. PROVISION OF CHURCHES AND SOCIAL AMENITIES The large movements of population that have been enforced by group areas proclamations and decisions to re-site African townships have made it necessary for churches and voluntary organizations to spend large sums of money they can ill afford in providing new buildings and other amenities in the areas to which their members are removed. DEVELOPMENTS IN REGARD TO GROUP AREAS AND HOUSING JOHANNESBURG Coloured people Very slow progress is being made in developing the new areas of Langlaagte and Bosmot set aside for the Coloured people of Johannesburg, consequently there is still desperate overcrowding in the older areas, particularly Newclare, where there is much misery and squalor. Most of the families there live on properties owned by private landlords, and rent racketeering is frequent. Of the estimated 41,600 Coloured people in the municipal area, only 11,900 are housed by the Council. The municipality estimates that at least a further 10,000 dwellings are required for those who are now inadequately housed and for the families at , which is to become an African township. The Council is hoping to buy part of the farm, and is negotiating with the Group Areas Board to have this declared a Coloured area. It would then use the buildings that once were an African reformatory as emergency housing for Coloured families. As will be described below, the Africans are being moved from Western Native Township, adjoining Newclare. Vacated dwellings will initially be used to shelter Coloured families from the worst

A SURVEY OF RACE slums; but eventually the area will be replanned as a Coloured housing scheme, some of the houses being demolished and the rest enlarged. Langlaagte was proclaimed a Coloured group area on 25 November 1960. About a hundred White people were displaced2). A township to be called Riverlea, initially to have about 700 stands, is being planned by the municipality, and it is anticipated that building will commence early in 1962. Water has already been taken to the area. The council also plans to build 800 flats on stands it is expropriating at Newclare. By arrangement with the Group Areas Development Board it has provided the Bosmot area with a water supply and has almost completed a sewerage scheme. The Board is engaged in building about 140 houses there. The City Council hopes eventually to purchase Bosmot from the Board and to extend the housing scheme. During the year under review a sports stadium was completed near the main Coloured residential areas and was handed over by the Council to the Johannesburg Coloured Sports Board of Control. It has a grandstand, cycling and athletic tracks, and a grassed multipurpose central field. Four tennis courts have been constructed nearby, and a swimming pool is being built at Newclare. Indians There is no Indian group area within the Johannesburg municipal boundary, thus the City Council is unable to provide housing schemes for the estimated 23,650 members of this group who live in its area. The Group Areas Development Board is developing , the area set aside for Indians, which is between 19 and 22 miles from the centre of the city. It has completed 100 of a 140 house scheme, these dwellings being for sale at prices ranging from R3,380 to R4,210. About 70 have been bought by Indians. It is also engaged in building 300 of a total of 500 houses to be let at economic rentals. An area has been provided where people who wish to do so may build for themselves. About 150 families are still accommodated in the two transit camps at Lenasia described in last year's Survey3). Except for the small minority now resident in this area the Indian people of Johannesburg, like so many of the Coloured, are living in very seriously overcrowded conditions. The third class rail fare from Lenz station (which is about a mile from Lenasia village) to the city is R4.17 a month. The residents are, thus, involved in heavy travelling expenses. They (12) Sunday Times, 5 February 1961. (13) Page 149.

RELATIONS: 1961 157 still lack most of the necessary amenities. Water has been laid on, but electricity will not be available until some time in 1962. A sewerage scheme will not be provided until the township has grown considerably. The Postal Department hopes to build a post office shortly, but states that a house-to-house delivery will not be possible until the area is further developed. It cannot indicate when a telephone service will be available. There is no emergency clinic at Lenasia. Residents can go to Baragwanath hospital, about nine miles away, for emergency treatment, but after this are generally referred to Coronationville hospital, which is in the Coloured group area, some seventeen miles by road from Lenasia. It was announced in September 1961(14) that the 200 Indian families living amongst Coloured people at Newclare must move to Lenasia within a month. Shop-keepers would have to leave the Coloured area by March 1962. According to a statement by the Minister of the Interior(', parts of Burghersdorp and Fordsburg (predominantly Indianoccupied areas to the west of the centre of the city) are to be open to members of all racial groups for trading purposes. Indian and Chinese traders there may be allowed to retain their businesses, but will have to move their homes. Africans (a) The municipal South-Western townships It is estimated that there are 614,600 Africans in the area controlled by the Johannesburg City Council, 440,970 of them being housed by the Council under family conditions and 38,105 living in hostels and compounds. By the beginning of 1961 there were 45,968 dwellings in the South-Western townships (excluding Meadowlands)"). During the year ended 30 September 1961 the Council built 4,700 houses in its remaining site-and-service schemes. But as between two and three thousand new houses are needed annually to allow for the natural increase of the population, the backlog was little reduced and remains in the vicinity of 16,000 to 18,000. A new hostel to accommodate 3,000 men was built near Eastern Native Township. Three more sportsfields and an additional basket-ball court, clinic, hall and beergarden were provided during the year. The old squatter area of Moroka, which was cleared during 1960 except for its community centre, churches, shops and schools, has been replanned to accommodate the Africans who are to be removed from Western Native Township. Electricity, water, and water-borne sewerage have been provided, and by the end of (14) Star, 28 September. (15) Ibid. 20 January 1961. (16) Bantu, February 1961.

158 A SURVEY OF RACE September the first 160 four-roomed houses, with asbestos roofs, had been completed. People who want better houses can erect them privately, or can have them built for them by the Council. Loans repayable over twenty years are available. Before the move started letters were sent to the employers of the bread-winners, pointing out that the cost of living would be higher at Moroka, and suggesting that wages be increased. Rents, which vary from R1.72 to R6.25 at Western Native Township in accordance with the type of house and the family income, will be R5.50 at Moroka, plus charges for water and electricity. Transport costs will increase from about R1.20 to R2.20 for a season ticket on the train plus bus-fare of 5c daily in some cases. The Council has built a dam at Moroka to provide boating facilities, and plans to have a small zoo there, children's playgrounds, bandstands and an open-air cinema. Larger building sites than the rest, overlooking the dam, are available where the wealthier people can build more luxurious homes. Plans are also being made for a 250-acre civic and shopping centre for the South- Western townships. It will contain a library, municipal offices, a post office, a very well-equipped social centre, gardens and fountains. The shops will be erected by African traders, but will have to conform to high standards. At one time the Group Areas Board planned to make Pimville a White area: it is near the other townships but on the "White" side of the main road and railway line. However, the Council has now received authority to retain it for Africans. It is the last of the Council's African slum areas, and is to be rebuilt, extended and improved. Many of the Africans in the South-Western areas are in arrears with their rent: it was reported in August 1961(7) that some 15,000 people owed R448,000. Officials state that the backlog arose during a two-year period when rent increases were being challenged in a series of court actions. The people claim that, although the Council subsidizes the rentals of those in the lower income groups, they still cannot afford to pay the amounts charged. Notices have been sent to those who are in arrears. If after seven days there is no response, the persons concerned are brought to the Township Superintendant's office where, if necessary, arrangements are made for them to pay by instalments. In cases of real hardship arrears may be written off, or back-payments suspended: the Council is said to have been writing off about R1,000 a month. But if people who are considered to be able to pay still fail to do so after this procedure, summonses are issued. According to Press reports, a man who admits guilt is usually required to pay R1. If, after a magistrate has ordered him to pay his arrears, he fails to do (17) Rand Daily Mail, 24 August.

RELATIONS: 1961 159 so, he may be sentenced to 30 days' imprisonment. In extreme cases the Council can apply for his ejectment and the seizing and public auction of his furniture: this was done in thirteen cases in the financial year 1960-61("). During May a group of African women sent a memorandum to the Council protesting against the prosecutions. The S.A. Congress of Trade Unions and other bodies have also protested. At the time of writing the Liberal Party was investigating the ability of Africans to afford the rents charged*. The scales of these rents were described in the 1957-58 volume of this Survey1P). The Liberal Party investigated 1,000 cases in which difficulties had been experienced in regard to the payment of rents. It reports that more than a third of the heads of families were sent to gaol, 23 had their possessions sold in execution of court orders, and 82 were evicted from their homes. In one case in three unemployment was the basic reason for the non-payment of rent. (b) Meadowlands and Diepkloof The townships of Meadowlands and Diepkloof, which also are situated to the south-west of Johannesburg, are controlled by the Natives Resettlement Board. According to the annual report of this Board for 1959-60("), 2,642 dwelling had been completed during the year and 427 were under construction. All the legal residents of , Martindale and Newclare, together with 4,067 families from Alexandra Township, had been resettled. As at 30 March 1960 there were 11,922 families and 1,521 men living under single conditions and 59 single women accommodated at Meadowlands. There were 159 families in the home ownership scheme at Diepkloof, and 2,028 families in rented dwellings there. (c) Transport facilities from the South-Western townships The Southern Transvaal Region of the Institute of Race Relations reports(21) that the maximum railway fare payable by workers travelling to the city from the South-Western townships is R2.20 a month: these fares are subsidized by the Government. New internal railway lines have been constructed recently, and Putco operates feeder buses which are subsidized from the Native Transport Services Levy("), the standard fare being 21c per single journey. Some parts of the townships are still not adequately served, however: many workers live more than a mile from a railway station or bus route. Although additional rolling stock is periodically acquired the trains are still grossly overcrowded at peak hours. (18) Ibid, 8 June and 5 August. (19) Page 123. (20) U.G. 77/1960. (21) RR 96/61. (22) See 1956-57 Survey, page 137.

160 A SURVEY OF RACE A Press report states(2") that the Railways transport 200,000 passengers daily between townships stations and the three depots in the city. On weekdays 67 trains run between 4 a.m. and 8 a.m. alone. The Johannesburg City Council has been concerned about the fact that travellers by road are forced to make use of either the Main Reef road or the road, both of which are extremely busy. On two occasions it has requested the Government to build a direct highway linking the townships with the city, which would reduce the distance by more than three miles. It is understood that the Railways have opposed the suggestion, fearing competition 24). The Helpmekaar direct-access road from Meadowlands to the Western Main Reef Road was closed on 31 May 1961, after notice of this intention had been advertised in the Government Gazette of 5 August 1959. Protests against this step were unavailing, as the -Maraisburg municipality regarded the maintenance of the Helpmekaar road as being too costly, and was concerned at the burden of maintaining the Main Reef Road due to extra traffic from Meadowlands. (d) Alexandra Township Another report by the Institute's Southern Transvaal Region(") states that the population of Alexandra Township, which was 96,000 when a census was taken on 3 February 1958, is to be reduced to about 45,000. Only people employed in the peri-urban areas to the north of Johannesburg or in the new municipality of , and stand-holders who do not wish to sell, will be allowed to live there. Tenants who were resident in the township at the time that the census was taken, but are employed in Johannesburg itself, are gradually being moved to Meadowlands or Diepkloof. Pending their removal they are granted residential permits entitling them to remain at Alexandra. Those who have entered the township since February 1958 are being expelled. If they are employed in Johannesburg they are sent to the municipality with a letter requesting the provision of accommodation; but they may not take their families with them. The Deputy Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said in the Assembly(6) that breadwinners would have to make their own arrangements as to where their wives and children were to go, but could enlist the Department's assistance. Stand-holders may remain in Alexandra, but their adult sons may not live with them unless they are employed in the peri-urban (23) Rand Daily Mail, 9 September 1961. (24) Ibid. (25) RR 224/60. (26) 10 February 1961. Hansard 3 cols. 1093-5.

RELATIONS:1961 161 areas. Numbers of stand-holders are finding that they are unable to continue paying off bonds because of the loss of income from adult sons or tenants who have been removed. They are then forced to sell, and, as there is generally no other outlet, have to dispose of their properties to the Peri-Urban Areas Health Board, which controls the township, at a price determined by the Board's valuators. According to the statement by the Deputy Minister, quoted above, the Board had acquired 111 stands by February 1961. It demolishes wood and iron or rawbrick structures, retaining the better-built dwellings for lease to people who qualify to remain. When enough people have been moved to make spare accommodation available, Africans who have been employed in the periurban areas since November 1956, when influx control was introduced there, will be allowed to move in. Their families will be able to come with them only if the wife has been residing with her husband since November 1956. It is reported(27) that the police raided Alexandra Township on 20 October 1961 and arrested about fifty women who could not produce residential permits. REEF TOWNS Group areas According to Press reports(2") a proposal has been made that about 10,000 Indians from the nine East Rand towns should all be re-settled in one centralized place, possibly on land in Benoni including the Asian Bazaar, the Benoni Bantu Township, the Coloured Section and Actonville. Similarly, the homes of about 12,000 Coloured people should be centralized at Stirtonville, Boksburg, after African residents have been removed. This proposal was mentioned at a sitting of the Group Areas Board in Germiston during February. Counsel for the Indians said that there were 61 Indian traders in Germiston with properties worth R500,000 and an annual turnover of Ri-million. Besides these there were 1,310 Coloured workers, many of them engaged in skilled occupations, and numbers of Indian factory workers, teachers and others. In terms of Proclamation 117 of 27 October 1961, group areas for Whites and Coloured persons were gazetted for Boksburg. The Coloured are to have Stirtonville and Galeview Townships. A deputation of Benoni town councillors and businessmen met various Cabinet Ministers in an attempt to persuade the Government not to move all the Coloured residents out of their town. Earlier proposals for group areas in some East Rand towns, (27) Sunday Times, 22 October 1961. (28) Sunday Times, 5 February, Evening Post, 16 February 1961, and New Age, 23 February.

162 A SURVEY OF RACE and the implications of these, were described in the 1957-58 volume of this Survey(29). The area of Ennerdale, in the Roodepoort district, was during February proclaimed a Coloured group area. Housing Germiston municipality is continuing to develop Katlehong African township at Natalspruit and the Tembisa Regional African township at Kaalfontein. According to the February issue of Bantu, at the end of 1960 there were 10,352 dwellings in the former and 1,500 in the latter township. During the year ended 30 September 1961 the Council built 695 houses at Katlehong and 1,072 at Tembisa. In the two townships four churches, four shops, a clinic, an administrative block, four schools and a beer hall were provided, also two tennis courts, four additional football grounds and additions to the sports stadium in the older township. Railway facilities are being extended in both areas. In Benoni there are now 51,533 Africans housed under family conditions at Daveyton and 88 in hostels. At Benoni Bantu Township 7,249 live in family dwellings and 2,275 in hostels; and another 18,457 live under family conditions at Wattville. There is no housing shortage for Africans; but further dwellings will have to be built at Daveyton if it is decided to move the Africans from the older townships. During the past year a social centre, a clinic, two further shops, three schools and ten bus shelters were provided at Daveyton. It is planned shortly to build ten more shops, two dairies, another secondary school, a sports pavilion and premises for the sale of liquor, and to extend existing schools and the library. There are 5,500 Coloured people living in Actonville and in the Cape Section: 118 new dwellings were built in the former township recently. Some 2,700 Asians live in the Asiatic Section. Boksburg is developing a new African township called Vosloorus. Street lighting is shortly to be installed. The Johannesburg City Council has decided to assist financially in the establishment of a pleasure resort for Coloured people at the Cinderella Dam in the Boksburg area. In Brakpan there are 170 Africans in the Apex hostel, and 10,945 living in 1,643 municipal houses at the older Bantu Township, 2,009 of them as lodgers. Four schools exist here, and a swimming bath, two recreation halls, a communal hall, two clubrooms, a library, three soccer or cricket fields and four tennis courts. A new township is being developed called Tsakane, to the south of the Springs township of Kwa Thema. Already there are (29) Page 115.

RELATIONS: 1961 163 8,122 Africans living in 1,175 municipal houses there. A further 1,000 dwellings are to be provided to replace temporary rooms to which people from small- holdings or backyards in White suburbs were moved; the housing position will then largely have been resolved. A hostel is to be built to replace the temporary one at Apex, and serviced sites will be provided where Africans can build their own better-type homes. The municipality is building three schools at Tsakane and intends providing street and home electric lighting, improved water and sanitation systems, creches, bus shelters, a clinic, liquor depots, parklands, a swimming bath and a well equipped and comprehensive sports stadium. There are now 48,160 Africans housed in the townships of Springs, while another 9,697 live on their employers' premises. There is no real shortage of housing for Africans or for the 1,350 Coloured people; but the position is unsatisfactory so far as the 1,196 Asians are concerned. During the year under review several Africans built their own homes. The municipality provided a communal hall at Kwa Thema with seating for 1,030 people, and an additional beerhall on modern lines. About 1,500 African families are now housed in the old township of Nigel. As this area is very overcrowded and there is an estimated shortage of between 1,000 and 1,500 dwellings, the Town Council is planning a new township which will form part of the Springs-Brakpan-Nigel complex. The Alberton municipality built 606 houses for Africans during the past year and is shortly to provide 80 more, when the shortage will have been overcome. It erected a fourth school, a fourth beerhall, and is extending the electricity network. It is planning a sports stadium, intends tarring the main roads, and is providing a golf course. The Africans already have facilities for soccer, rugby, tennis, soft ball, tenniquoits, boxing and weight-lifting. The African population of Krugersdorp numbers 18,748. At present there is a shortage of about 1,000 dwellings. During the past twelve months the municipality erected 418 at Kagiso Township as part of a 1,000-house scheme to be built over two years. It provided a beergarden. A clinic and two sports grounds are under construction, and street lighting is being installed. There is a library in the township. Pending a decision in regard to group areas the Coloured and Indian people are living in very overcrowded conditions. According to an article in the February issue of Bantu, there are now 1,334 houses for Africans in Randfontein, 888 in Westonaria, and 1,000 in Caritonville. PRETORIA A township called Laudium is being developed in the Indian group area of Pretoria, which is some eight miles south-west of

A SURVEY OF RACE the city, beyond the Atteridgeville/Saulsville African townships. The City Council has completed 156 of a 200-house scheme, and considers that after this about 150 more will be required. Some 166 sites will be serviced for people who wish to build for themselves. Approximately 900 Indians are already living in the area. As was mentioned in an earlier volume of this SurveyP3°, some of the Indians of Pretoria will be able to retain trading premises, but not homes, in the Asiatic Bazaar, which is not far from the centre of the city. Large numbers who have shops elsewhere, however, for example in the central Prinsloo St. area, will have to dispose of their businesses, and their future gives cause for great concern. In terms of Proclamation 44 of 10 February 1961 a Chinese group area was demarcated, on vacant land to the north of the Indian area. A township is being developed for the Coloured people in their group area at Derdepoort, about nine miles to the east of the city centre, adjoining the African township of Vlakfontein. Eighty-eight dwellings, forming part of a scheme of 200, have been completed, and 840 Coloured people are living in them. A further 200 houses will be erected later, and sites will be sold to those who prefer to build for themselves. During April 1961 about 5,000 African residents of Lady Selborne signed a petition to the United Nations urging that this should not become a White area. In 1958 Lady Selborne, Eastwood and Highlands, where Africans have freehold rights, were proclaimed future White areas; and on 20 October 1961, in terms of Proclamation 104, they were declared areas for White occupation and ownership, in spite of protests by the residents, the Institute of Race Relations and others. According to a Press report(31) Africans who own property in Lady Selborne, Eastwood, Highlands, Riverside or Eersterus are to be offered freehold stands in a new township called Gahankuwa which is being developed about twenty miles to the north of Pretoria. If they move there their transport costs will be considerably increased, since their present homes are only six to eight miles from the centre of the city. It is understood that the rail fare will be R2.20 a month. Loans will be available for purchasing sites and erecting houses, repayable over 40 years at a rate of R3 a month. The estimated monthly charge for services and administration is R2. During the year under review the municipality built 1,642 dwellings for Africans. There are now 112,315 Africans housed at Vlakfontein and Atteridgeville/Saulsville, the estimated shortage of houses being 6,000. An eating house and beergarden have recently been provided in the former area, and a creche, old age home, fire station and administrative offices in the latter. (30) 1957-58, page 107. (31) Star, 22 June 1961.

RELATIONS: 1961 165 OTHER TRANSVAAL TOWNS In his most recent annual report, the Medical Officer of Health of said(32) that because the position had been frozen for so long, the Indian and Coloured people were in desperate need of adequate housing. The Group Areas Board sat in Vereeniging during May 1961, when the Town Council suggested that group areas for these population groups should be created on an undeveloped stretch of land at Mafube, to the north of the town. It is reported, however(33). that the Council urged that the Indians, who have property worth more than R2- million, should be allowed to continue to trade from their existing premises. The Medical Officer of Health said that the African site-andservice area of Sharpeville leaves much to be desired: housing should have been provided before the people were moved there. It was stated in an article in the February issue of Bantu that as a long-term project the residents of Sharpeville, where there are 3,345 dwellings, and also of the Meyerton location, would be moved to a new township adjoining one that may be developed for the Africans of Vanderbijlpark. The Vanderbijlpark municipality reports that there are now 24,000 Africans in its area, living in 1,319 houses at Bophelong, to the south-west of the town, in 1,110 dwellings at Boipatong, east of the town, in compounds, or on their employers' premises. A hostel for about 2,000 men is under construction, and when it is ready the present cottage hostels will be converted for use by families. Tenders have been invited for the construction of 680 dwellings at Boipatong, which will meet the African housing needs for at least three years. A clinic is being built at Bophelong. The municipality has provided no houses for Coloured people or Asians. It is possible that 2,200 Whites may be moved from part of Residensia, Evaton, where about 500 Indians and 300 Coloured people also live. At a sitting of the Group Areas Board the question of whether the area to the west of the railway line should remain White or not was considered(3"). The 437 Indians and 181 Coloured people of Ermelo will eventually have to move into group areas that have been demarcated for them. Certain alterations to the boundaries of these areas were made by Proclamation 46 of 10 February 1961. In terms of the earlier proclamation of 1959 Africans who live in New Ermelo, where they have freehold rights, will have to give up this area to Whites and move to Wesselton location on the other side of the town. The municipality is embarking on an additional scheme of 606 four-roomed dwellings at Wesselton. There are now 12,500 Africans in its area. (32) bid, 21 February 1961. (33) Rand Daily Mail, 17 April and 4 May. (34) Rand Daily Mail, 13 April and Star, 8 May 1961.

A SURVEY OF RACE The group areas proclamation for Rustenburg was described in last year's Survey(35 . On 30 May 1961 a border strip was pro. claimed. The Minister of the Interior said in the Senate(3") that a number of people who are affected had lodged objections, some of which had been upheld, against the basic values fixed for their properties. Sixty-seven White, 40 Coloured and 160 Indian families would have to move, he added. There are now about 24,300 Africans in Potchefstroom. During the past year the municipality completed 397 four-roomed dwellings at Ikageng Township. In terms of its existing plans the housing shortage will have been overcome in twelve to eighteen months' time, when there will be 2,500 dwellings and 50 hostel units. A higher primary school for Africans has recently been completed, and another, and also a second lower primary school, are to be built. The Africans have a community centre that can seat about a thousand and in which there is a library. A new clinic has recently been built, and two more soccer fields provided. The municipality is planning to extend the electricity system to the houses (there is already street lighting) and to provide an athletic track and pavilion, another soccer field that can be used also for cricket, a fourth basketball field and four tennis courts. Proclamation 6 of 6 January 1961 set aside a White group area and a defined area in Bronkhorstspruit. No areas were set aside for Indians and Coloured people. It is reported(37) that the Indians will be granted permits to live and trade in a portion of the town. At a sitting of the Group Areas Board in Potgietersrus during May a suggestion was made that the 40 Indian families, with 275 members, should be moved to a new area north-west of the town. They are reported(38) to have stock worth R486,000, an annual turnover of R731,000 and book debts to the value of R178,000. The goodwill value of their shops is R96,000. Seventy-five White citizens of both language groups signed a petition to the board urging that the Indians should not be moved. The relationship between the Whites and Indians had always been one of complete harmony, it was stated. CAPE TOWN AND ADJOINING MUNICIPALITIES Group areas proclaimed in 1957 and 1958 The group areas proclaimed for Cape Town in 1957 and 1958 were described in the volume of this Survey for 1957-58(' ). Very briefly, the entire Table Mountain area, including Sea (35) Page 155. (36) 17 February 1961, Hansard 4 col. 1031. (37) Cape Times, 7 January. (38) Rand Daily Mail, 17 May. (39) Page 102.

RELATIONS:1961 167 Point and the other Atlantic coast suburbs, was reserved for Whites, as were also the partly industrialized and mixed residential areas to the east of the city centre, various mainly White suburbs in this region such as Pinelands, Brooklyn, etc., and the entire area to the north and east of the main railway line to the interior and the branch line to Somerset West, from where thousands of Coloured people will be forced to move. Malays were allowed to retain the Malay Quarter on the slope of Signal Hill, and Coloured people their housing schemes at Athlone and other places on the (inland from the suburban railway line to Muizenburg) and also at Kensington, inland from Brooklyn. Further stretches of undeveloped land on the Cape Flats, and the suburb of Bellville South, where about 300 White families lived, were allocated to Coloured people (including Malays). Two undeveloped areas in the Flats were set aside for Indians. Group areas proclaimed on 10 February 1961 The proclamation of 10 February 1961 dealt with the large area stretching from Salt River in the north down to Retreat, and from Hout Bay in the west across to Zeekoe Vlei(4°). With the exception only of the Battswood area, which the Coloured people will retain, and a small stretch of land adjoining Athlone township, the entire region west of the Cape Flats railway line was allocated to Whites. The White group will also retain Ottery, and land around Zeekoe and Ronde Vleis was assigned to them. The new areas allotted to the Coloured people were Battswood, land to the south of Athlone, and the Retreat/Lotus River Estate area, including Princess Vlei and Little Princess Vlei. Varying dates were set within which disqualified persons would have to move, but these fell away when the Group Areas Amendment Act of 1961 became law. In a few parts where there were especially large numbers of disqualified persons no date was fixed, the areas being demarcated for future White or future Coloured ownership. Numbers affected by the proclamations According to information furnished to the Institute by the Group Areas Development Board in 1958 and given in the Assembly by the Deputy Minister of the Interior on 7 March 1961("), it is estimated that the following numbers of persons were affected by the proclamations of 1957, 1958 and 1961 (which do not yet cover the whole of Cape Town): (40) For a detailed description of the implications see RR 79/61. (41) Hansard 7 col. 2518.

A SURVEY OF RACE 1957 1958 1961 Total Whites ... 100 1,829 5,442 7,371 Coloured ... 14,900 34,604 44,644 94,148 Asians ... 1,000 1,511 2,147 4,658 16,000 37,944 52,233 106,177 The Deputy Minister said that his figures were based on the 1951 census. Since 1951, he added, many people had moved in consequence of permit control and the eradication of slum conditions. But, as against this, the population has grown in the past ten years. Assuming, however, that the figures given above are approximately correct, this would mean that 2.6 per cent of the White population of the metropolitan area of Cape Town is affected, as against 25.7 per cent of the Coloured people and a very high proportion indeed of the Asians. With a few exceptions, such as Battswood, Bellville South and most of the existing Coloured housing schemes, the built-up, developed areas are to be retained by the Whites. Many of the Coloured people who will have to move from these areas now live in slum conditions, but some of them are cultured people who have for several generations owned pleasant homes scattered amongst those of the Whites. Open area for trade It was announced during August 1961(42) that Whites, Coloured and Asians could all qualify for permits to carry on businesses in an area to the west of the Castle, along the railway line south of Woodstock station. This area is a little over three-quarters of a mile long and about one-eighth of a mile wide. Very large numbers of Indian traders are already established there. People of all three race groups will be able to continue to patronise an attractive Non-White-owned restaurant in this zone which specializes in Oriental dishes. Areas not yet zoned Some parts of the Cape Town metropolitan area have not yet been zoned. These are the highly complex central city area, including and part of , the partly industrialized Paarden Eiland/Observatory area where numbers of slum dwellers live between the factories and shops, Epping Garden Village which caters for Whites but, in terms of the apparent overall plan, should logically become a Coloured area, and the Black River area of where, in one section, there are at least (42) Star, 29 August. and Rand Daily Mail, 30 August. RELATIONS: 1961 169 40 Coloured families living in attractive homes valued at about R400,000(43). Housing schemes for Coloured people There are now 10,551 houses and flats for Coloured people on the City's Council's estates, also 136 dwellings being sold under a home ownership scheme. The Divisional Council of the Cape has built some 4,000 dwellings, the Cape Flats Distress Association has provided 336 at Retreat, and very large numbers of Coloured families, perhaps as many as 38,000, have built their own homes. But thousands more dwellings are needed for people living in pondokkies in the bush or in slum areas of the city, let alone for those who will be displaced under the Group Areas Act. The Group Areas Development Board, in co-operation with the National Housing Commission, is providing a "token" scheme of 150 good detached houses in the Coloured group area of Duinefontein, but apart from this is leaving the provision of housing to the local authorities and utility companies. The City Council is engaged in a large scheme for 5,200 houses at Bonteheuvel, in the vicinity of Athlone. It has completed 740 dwellings, and plans to have about 3,000 ready by the end of 1962. This area is served by the railway line to the Nyanga African townships: two stations have been opened at Bonteheuvel. One primary school has been completed and two more are under construction: eventually there will be twelve primary and four secondary schools. Plans are in hand for a clinic, three community centres, a town centre and various shopping centres. Small trading stores which can also be used as doctors' consulting rooms or hairdressers' or tailors' establishments are already being built. During the year under review the municipality built 714 dwelling units, grouped in fours as row houses, at Retreat. They are intended for Coloured people of the lower income groups. It has a home ownership scheme of 130 dwellings under construction at Factreton, in the Kensington area, and next year will start on a scheme of 100 such houses at Belthorn. It has recently built two new schools, at Retreat and Silvertown. Further schemes are planned in the Retreat area. The Cape Flats Distress Association is to build another 370 dwellings: its scheme was undertaken with the object of rehabilitating distressed families, and it is proving very successful. The Garden Cities Utility Company is planning two projects, of 300 and 400 houses respectively, which are designed for the better-off Coloured people, the dwellings costing about R3,600 each and being designed individually. They will be sold to applicants who are able to deposit at least ten per cent of the purchase price, the remainder being repayable over a period of thirty years. (43) Cape Times, 8 March 1961.

170 A SURVEY OF RACE The Divisional Council of the Cape is considering providing a small housing scheme for Coloured fishermen at Hout Bay. Various extensive schemes are being planned in the areas of the northern municipalities. The Garden Cities Utility Company will erect a home ownership scheme to cater for between 12,000 and 15,000 Coloured people in Bellville South. Extensions to the Bishop Lavis Township (an economic letting scheme) are being planned by the Citizens Housing League. Parow municipality hopes to provide a scheme for people who will be displaced under the Group Areas Act. Goodwood municipality plans within three years to have built 12,000 dwellings in the Elsies River area. Housing schemes for Africans There are now 19,399 African men, 2,164 women and 4,299 children at Langa. The Cape Town municipality is providing further shops and sporting amenities. It administers Nyanga West, where 642 more permanent dwellings will shortly be erected. Tenders have been invited for the construction of a further 2,040. There are now 2,734 men, 2,952 women and 8,561 children in the township. A higher primary and a lower primary school are being built, and work has commenced on a creche, a nursery school, four shops, ten handicraft stalls, a park and administrative offices. It is estimated that between 5,000 and 6,000 houses will be needed for Africans who are still living in shacks at Windermere or in the bush. The African township at Nyanga East is administered by the Divisional Council of the Cape. As at 30 September 1961 the population of this township was 20,166. No new dwellings had been built during the previous year. Negotiations are in progress for the provision of a welfare centre, clinic and other social and recreational facilities. PORT ELIZABETH Group areas proclamation Group areas were proclaimed in Port Elizabeth on 30 May 1961. In accordance with the new Group Areas Amendment Act no evacuation dates were stated: disqualified persons will in due course receive notice to move. (a) Areas allocated to Whites With the exception of the African housing schemes, the larger Coloured housing schemes and a few areas that have not yet been zoned, nearly all the built-up residential area of Port Elizabeth, together with land for expansion, has been allocated to Whites. It is estimated by the Institute's Port Elizabeth office that at least 1,400 Coloured, Malay. Chinese and Indian families will as a

RELATIONS:1961 171 result eventually have to move. No Whites are affected. About 132 Indian businesses are situated in areas allocated to Whites-general stores, cafrs, laundries, hairdressing saloons, cobblers and others. Numbers of Chinese run small groceries in these areas. The Coloured people affected are mainly those of the upper and middle classes of their people. Many of the Coloured and Indians who will have to move own good homes in parts of the city such as the Hill (near the central business area), Sidwell to the north, or along the national road to Cape Town. Sidwell was originally a Coloured area, into which Whites have gradually penetrated. Very large numbers of Non-Whites will have to move from North End (north of the harbour area): it was estimated in 1956 that they constituted about half the occupants and 35 per cent of the owners of property there. The western portion only of the other very mixed area, South End, has so far been zoned; but it would appear that the eastern section may eventually be allocated to Whites too, since NonWhites are being refused permits to build or to buy properties there. In 1956 about 59 per cent of the owners and the occupants of South End were Coloured or Indian, and they have numbers of schools, churches, temples, mosques, halls and sportsgrounds in this locality. Three small municipal Coloured housing schemes fall in the White area: Dowerville, catering for 667, Stuart Township, housing 1,126, and Lea Place, where 552 live. (b) Areas allocated to Coloured, Indians and Chinese Coloured people will retain the large housing schemes at Schauder Township and Gelvandale, near the industrial area in the north of the city, and have been allocated adjoining land in Korsten, to the east, and a hinterland for expansion in part of Bethelsdorp, to the west. They will also retain a small housing scheme at Despatch, some distance north. Many Indian and Chinese families will have to move out of Korsten, and Africans who have freehold rights in the Bethelsdorp area will be displaced. The Indian group area is an undeveloped stretch of land to the west of Schauder Township. Further west, again, are future Indian and Chinese areas, the latter adjoining the present Chinese group area which is about 7 miles out of town, along the road to Cape Town. A Chinese school and a few dwellings have already been established there. There has been speculation as to why so large a future Chinese group area has been demarcated. It is unlikely all to be needed by the present residents. The fear has been expressed that Chinese people from other towns and villages near Port Elizabeth may be required to move there.

A SURVEY OF RACE (c) Possible mixed trading area A comparatively small zone in the Perl Road area, near the industrialized part of the city, has not been allocated to any particular group. It is understood that some Indian and Chinese traders who are displaced from other areas may be granted permits to run businesses here. (d) Areas not yet zoned As is mentioned above, the eastern portion of South End has not yet been zoned. Nor have Algoa Park, part of the Perl Road area, part of Bethelsdorp, Veeplaats or Fairview. Fairview, to the west of Walmer, at present has 4,681 Coloured, 1,369 African and only 871 White residents. The Africans are mostly shack dwellers, but many of the Coloured people have saved to build good homes. They have for the past sixty years been allowed to buy property in this area. It seems that Fairview, like South End, will eventually be allocated to Whites, however, since Coloured people are being denied permits to acquire further properties. The whole area was "defined" in 1960, the effect being to prevent development pending a decision as to its future("4). Housing schemes During the year under review the Port Elizabeth municipality built the last 84 of a scheme of 1,071 dwellings for rental to Coloured people on an economic basis. It also erected 660 tworoomed dwellings from sub-economic funds, a further 628 being near completion. Unlike the economic houses, the latter do not have electricity laid on. Two primary schools and a temporary clinic were provided, and a secondary school is under construction. It is planned in the next twelve months to build 1,650 more dwellings for Coloured people from sub-economic, and 788 from economic funds. In the same period 657 houses were built for Africans. The 3,000 homes that already have electric light are being provided with meters so that electric appliances can be used. Two schools that were burned down in the 1960 disturbances were re-built, and the new Kwaford Technical Secondary School, which can accommodate 150 students, was completed and is in use. The development of a new African housing area is under consideration. EAST LONDON In the past twelve months 500 dwellings have been erected for Africans in East London, as part of a contract for 3,500 due to be handed over at the end of 1961. Two lower primary schools were built. Group areas have not as yet been proclaimed in this city. (44) Th's description of group areas iH Port Eliabeth :s biscd on a detailed memorandum prepared by Miss Shei!a Robertson.

RELATIONS:1961 173 KIMBERLEY An amended group areas proclamation for Kimberley, No. 75 of 8 September 1961, altered the previous boundaries(45) and provided for border strips. It is understood(46) that in one of these border strips, along the west side of Transvaal Road, there are White, Indian and Chinese businesses and a Coloured hotel, as well as a number of homes. Presumably the residents will have to move out. The businessmen are very worried about their future, which is uncertain. The Indians have lodged an appeal. In other parts of the city further Coloured families and businesses will be affected. QUEENSTOWN No houses were built during the year under review, but plans are well in hand for the provision of 80 new residential sites in the Coloured area and 300 in the African township. A children's playground and a clubhouse were completed with the assistance of the Bantu Sports Trust. New clinics are to be built for both population groups. While there is no immediate shortage of housing for Africans, this is not the case so far as the Coloured people are concerned: an additional township for them is in the planning stage. Because the Queenstown Town Council does not operate a beerhall, the provision of amenities in the African township presents more of a problem than it does in other areas. The Rotary Club, the Round Table and Toc H are raising money for a sports stadium, to which fund the Council will donate R for R. It is planned to have an enclosed ground containing two rugby fields, a cricket pitch, an athletic track, six all-weather tennis courts, change-rooms, water-borne sewerage and showers. The school levy will not be introduced until 1962, and the erection of new schools for Africans has been postponed pending the accumulation of funds from this source. PAARL Group areas Group areas proposals for Paarl were first advertised in 1955, and then, for nearly six years, the people were left in a state of uncertainty. Proclamation No. 36 of 10 February 1961 set out the Government's decisions in regard to most of the town, but a small controversial area in Noorder Paarl, between the main road to Cape Town and the Burg River, has still not been zoned. With the exception of this area, the whole of the built-up part of the town to the west of the river has been allocated to Whites, (45) See 1958-59 Survey, page 174. (46) Information kindly supplied by the Venerable Archdeacon S. V. Wade. and also some farmlands across the river in the south. One small very mixed strip was proclaimed as "future White", but it was stated that Coloured people would have to leave the rest of the area within periods of either five or seven years. When the Group Areas Development Act became law these dates fell away, however. Stretches of land to the east of the river, including a Coloured housing scheme and the White suburb of Charleston Hill, were allocated to Coloured people. The total White population of Paarl is about 14,051. Of these, only some 150 families, who live at Charleston Hill, will have to move. The value of their properties was estimated at R526,350 in 1956. The total Coloured population is 21,676. Of these, 10,100 already live east of the river, 1,081 live in the unzoned area of Noorder Paarl, and the remaining 10,495, who will all have to move, have homes interspersed among those of the Whites in the area west of the river(47). According to a survey made in 1956 these people have six churches, two mosques, six primary schools and three halls. In the disputed area there are 400 White residents as well as the 1,081 Coloured. The value of White-owned property is R248,000, and that of the Coloured property R184,000(48). In this part of the town is the (Coloured) Athlone Teacher Training College and a Coloured high school. OTHER TOWNS IN THE CAPE Group areas Group areas have been proclaimed in large numbers of the smaller towns in the Cape Province during the year under review. In cases where the proclamation was published subsequent to the enactment of the Group Areas Amendment Act of 1961, no dates were fixed by which time disqualified persons will have to move: this applies in Riebeek West, Alicedale, Vredenburg, Ladismith and Lady Grey. Some of the earlier proclamations set aside areas for Coloured occupation within one year, and for White occupation within periods ranging from two to five years. The indication is that few, if any, White people will have to move, but numbers of Coloured will have to do so. Such proclamations were made in Oudtshoorn, Wellington, Piketberg, Beaufort West, Victoria West, Elliot and Fraserburg. The Cape Times9) ran a series of articles on the implications (47) Figures giiven at a sitting of the Group Areas Board in January 1961. Argu'. 17 and 18 January, and Cape Times, 19 January. (48) Ibid. (49) 7 January. 2 and 18 February. 3 March 1961. A SURVEY OF RACE 174

RELATIONS: 1961 in some of these towns. The general pattern appears to be that the whole, or most, of the town proper is to be a White area, while the Coloured area will include any small sections where Coloured people predominate, together with Coloured housing schemes outside. Any Coloured people, usually of the better classes, who have homes interspersed between those of the Whites will have to move. This is the case, for example, in Oudtshoorn. The Minister of the Interior said(5") that 220 Coloured people, but no Whites, will be affected here. The 21 Indians will be allowed to remain where they are under permit. The situation in Beaufort West, Wellington and Piketberg is somewhat similar. The Cape Times stated that a few hundred Coloured in Beaufort West will have to move. In this town a small area has been left "defined" and it is understood that it will be used as an Indian residential area. A number of Indians may have to move from the Coloured area in Wellington. Here and in Piketberg small sections have been left as controlled areas, their future apparently not having been decided. According to another Press report(") the Town Council of Saldanha successfully resisted suggestions from the Group Areas Board that its Non-White area should be moved. There is a further group of towns-Aberdeen, Uniondale and Cradock-in which it would appear that White people as well as Coloured will be affected, since in both cases periods of three to five years were allowed for the sorting-out process. These dates have now fallen away, but they provide some indication of whether or not large-scale upheavals will take place. Great , near , has been proclaimed an area for Whites only. During July 1961 the Town Council of Uitenhage decided by a majority of one vote to inform the Group Areas Board that it did not want group areas to be proclaimed in its town. It had previously submitted a suggested arrangement that was rejected by the Board5"). DURBAN Group areas (a) 1958 Proclamation The first group areas proclamation for Durban was described in an earlier volume of this Survey53). Very briefly, the Whites are to have the entire central region stretching inland from the beach residential area across the Berea and including Cato Manor and the "Old Main Line" suburbs of Hillary and Bellair, south of this. (50) Assembly, 14 March 1961, Hansard 8 cols. 2934-5. (51) Rand Daily Mail, 6 December 1960. (52) Sunday Times. 23 July 1961. (53) 1957-58, page 110.

A SURVEY OF RACE They are also to have the ground on the seaward side of the Bluff, Durban North, and adjoining suburbs such as Riverside. Certain portions of this region were, however, not zoned in the 1958 Proclamation. Some low-lying land at Wentworth, on the inland side of the Bluff. was allocated to Coloured people. Three large areas were set aside for Indians, in the extreme north and extreme south of Durban. These were the Merebank area, south of the Coloured section, and two mainly undeveloped stretches inland, one along the southern bank of the Umgeni River, including Reservoir Hills, and the other between the Umhlatuzana and Umlaas Rivers, in the south. The future of the central city area, the Coloured housing scheme at Sparks Estate, the adjoining, densely-Indian-settled area of Sydenham, and certain other parts was not decided. (b) New proclamations in 1961 Proclamations published in 1961 filled in some of the lastmentioned gaps. In terms of one of theseM) the whole of Sea View, adjoining Bellair, was set aside for Whites. Large numbers of Indians will be displaced. Two further proclamations(") dealt with the large region inland from Cato Manor, between the Indian areas of Reservoir Hills in the north and Umhlatuzana in the south. One of these set aside for Whites the whole of Queensburgh, in the south of this region, which includes the suburbs of Malvern, Escombe and Northdene on the old main road to Durban. Possibly up to 8,000 Non-Whites, chiefly Indians, will ultimately have to move (as in earlier proclamations, part of this district was made a "future" White area). Many of them are members of families that settled there more than seventy years ago. According to the Queensburgh Indian Ratepayers' Association there are three Indian schools, two temples and a graveyard there. The other proclamation covered the large area to the north of this, in Westville. All the lower portion, inland from Cato Manor, was zoned for Whites: again, very large numbers of Indians will be displaced. Further land adjoining Reservoir Hills, in the north, was added to the Indian group areas. A fourth proclamationd56) dealt with the Duikerfontein area, inland from Durban North. The Coloured people benefitted from this: it is stated(-7) that about 1,200 Whites, some living in very good homes. and at least 1,300 Indians will have to move. A small area between the North Coast road and railway line was allocated (54) Proclamation 283 of 25 November 1960. (55) No. 40 of 10 February 1961 and No. 411 of 9 December 1960. (56) No. 385 of 25 November 1960. (57) Natal Mercur', 28 November. RELATIONS: 1961 177 to Whites. Indians are to have a strip that includes the Kenville Township/Park Station Road area and Avoca. The new Coloured area is that around Effingham and Mimosa Roads: there is already a settled Coloured community here with two schools and other amenities. Wealthier Coloured people have commenced to buy up White properties in this area. Yet another proclamation, No. 114 of 27 October 1961, divided the Umhlatuzana and Stainbank Estate areas, to the east of the existing Indian group area in this region, between Indians and Whites. It would appear that Sparks Estate is to continue to be a Coloured area, since their housing scheme there is being extended. The centre of the city has still not been zoned, but it seems that Indian businessmen will not be entirely ejected. They are being granted business but not residential permits in the Warwick Avenue/Centenary Road area, in the extreme west of the main commercial region; and the indications are that their main educational institutions will not be disturbed. Hardships caused by the Group Areas Act Some of the hardships caused by the Durban group areas proclamations, particularly so far as the Indians are concerned, and the extremely large-scale uprooting of settled families that is involved, have been described in previous volumes of this Survey58). During the year under review Mr. P. R. Pather wrote an article in which he pointed out that many Indians would suffer considerable financial loss because when basic values were fixed(9), no account was taken of the inflated prices Indians had originally paid owing to the restrictions on their acquisition of property. He gave numbers of examples. Figures for eight of the sales he quoted that took place between 1956 and 1959, if averaged, show that Indians paid R2,332 each for properties which had ratable values of R486. At present, he said, disqualified Indian owners could not dispose of their properties at anything approaching a fair price because Whites were unwilling to buy them and the Group Areas Development Board was not purchasing unless at forced sales, at low prices, for non-payment of rates. Several Indians who built blocks of flats at about the time when the Group Areas Act was passed have been unable to let them, but meanwhile have had to pay rates, insurance, caretakers' wages, interest on bonds, etc. In some cases the properties were "defined" and a decision as to who could occupy them was deferred. One man was informed that his flats could be occupied (58) 1957-58, page 112: 1958-59, page 172; 1959-60. page 153. (59) See 1958-59 Survey, page 158, for a description of basic values and how these affect selling prices.

178 A SURVEY OF RACE by Whites only; but because they were situated in an area at present predominantly Non-White, no White tenants were forthcoming( 06. Housing schemes for Coloured and Indian people Of the 25,750 Coloured citizens of Durban, 5,030 are now housed in municipal schemes. The Council has provided 548 dwellings and 64 fiats in the Sparks Estate and Merebank/Wentworth areas. Seventy-two houses were built during the year ended 30 September 1961, 180 more were then under construction, and schemes were in preparation for the provision of a further 632. Accommodation for 1,700 persons is progressively becoming available in Government schemes in the Wentworth area from which White families are being removed. Numbers of the better-off Coloured families are buying properties from members of other racial groups in areas now zoned for them. The total Indian population is 216,400. Of the,--, 7,900 are living in married quarters for municipal employees, and 20,500 are housed in municipal schemes. The Council has provided 3,760 dwellings in the Springfield and Merebank/Wentworth areas, 1,385 of which were built during the year under review. A further 933 are under construction. The Merebank/Wentworth housing scheme is nearing completion; but considerable progress is still necessary with the provision of the necessary amenities. It is estimated by the Town Clerk that 52,000 Indians, now living in shacks, require housing, besides those to be moved under the Group Areas Act. The Council is engaged in planning 14,400 dwellings at Chatsworth Township, in the Umhlatuzana area, and has set a target of 3,500 a year. Development work has started and tenders for the construction of the first 740 houses have been received. To cater for further Indian housing requirements, it will be necessary to develop a further major scheme, which will probably be sited to the north of the city. Housing schemes for Africans The African population of Durban was in October 1961 accommodated as follows (figures for the previous year being given in brackets): 22,900 in municipal single accommodation (17,500); 73,000 in municipal family accommodation (56,500); 40,000 in the Cato Manor emergency camp (55,000); 1,800 in shacks or illegal housing (8,500); 41,000 in compounds and licensed premises (40,000); 31,500 domestic servants housed by employers (31,500); 4,800 on African-owned property (1,000). (60) Star report, 1 September 1961.

RELATIONS: 1961 At the time of writing 5,116 four-roomed, 1,428 two-roomed and 2,586 one- roomed dwellings had been built at Kwa Mashu, to which people from the slums of Cato Manor or from shack settlements had been moved. To be eligible to accompany her husband there, a woman must have lived continuously in Durban since 1 January 1956. The township is being laid out in eight neighbourhood units. During the year under review, 2,667 permanent houses, 543 temporary dwellings and 3,632 beds in hostels had been completed, and two schools, twelve shops, two creches, a clinic, a swimming bath, three football fields and three all- weather tennis courts provided. The access road was improved, and work had been done on the extension of railway facilities. By October 1961 there were seven lower primary, four higher primary and one postprimary schools, twelve churches, a temporary beerhall and 22 traders at Kwa MashuO't. In two articles published in the Natal Mercury during August 1961, Miss Hansi Pollak urged that adequate community facilities should be provided simultaneously with the housing in new townships. She pointed out that, as yet, the nearest hospital to Kwa Mashu was 14 miles away, and there were no ambulances in the township. Only one private medical practitioner practised there: another had consulting rooms just outside but, because of his racial group, could not enter Kwa Mashu. There were no bus shelters and an extremely limited telephone service. Attention was drawn to other deficiencies. The municipality has begun servicing a new African housing area on land to the south of Durban which forms part of the Umlazi Mission Reserve. Although the scheme will be administered by the State Department of Bantu Administration and Development, the municipality is developing the area as the agent for the S.A. Native Trust. Land will be made available to Africans on a freehold basis. The Minister said during February(2) that residential sites about 5,000 square feet in extent will cost R20, and houses will be sold over 40-year periods at the cost of erection plus interest at between 31 and 41 per cent, depending on the distance from Durban. A small monthly charge will be made for services. Commercial sites will be sold at about R5 per 500 square feet. The houses will be grouped in neighbourhood units, one of which will be used temporarily for men living under single conditions pending the erection of a hostel in the area. Besides carrying out the work described above, during the past year the Durban municipality has built 44 better-type houses for Africans in various townships and has provided a child welfare home at Lamont, a creche at Umlazi Glebe, and shops at Chesterville. (6t) Information from the Director of Bantu Administration and from the Natal Region of the Institute of Race Relations, NR 111/61. (62) Assembly, 3 February 1961, Hansard 2 cols. 690-1.

In order to make it possible for African builders to compete with established firms the Council buys building materials in bulk and issues these to approved African contractors, who enter into labour-only contracts. If they so wish they can obtain advances of money as the work proceeds so that they can pay their labourers. The Council will also lend them trestles, scaffolding, concrete mixers and other essential equipment. The result has been a substantial reduction in the cost of houses. Rentals The Durban municipality does not subsidize rentals, as is done in Johannesburg. Those at Kwa Mashu are, by Government decision, all determined on an economic basis. They vary from R2.95 per month for a temporary one-roomed wooden shelter to R6.28 for a four-roomed house. The rent of a two-roomed house is R5.30. Transport costs for only one wage-earner are from R3.05 upward per month. Consequently, in view of the experience in Johannesburg, it is not surprising that tenants have fallen into arrears. According to a Press statement by the municipal Director of Bantu Administration made in August 1961(3) Africans at Kwa Mashu then owed R73,322 in back rentals, while those in other townships owed R19,016. The employers of about 853 breadwinners had been asked to recover amounts due by way of stoporders; but this method was not effective as in a high proportion of cases either the employer then discharged the man concerned. or the latter left his job and sought work elsewhere. Legal proceedings were in continuous operation, but involved long delays. Further reference to this question is made in the next chapter, in the section dealing with the cost of living for urban Africans. PIETERMARITZBURG Group Areas The Pietermaritzburg group areas proclamation was described briefly in the Survey of Race Relations for 1959-60(64). At that time the full implications had not been worked out. Since then, Dr. M. M. Motala has done so65). A summary of his conclusions is as follows: Indian African Coloured White Number of people affected 7,000 1,175 1,000 negligible Number of properties affected 671 107 95 9 Their acreage ...... 379 91 27 under 5 Their municipal valuation ... R2,260,000 R87,400 R213,000 ,000 Number of business houses affected ...... 81 negligible negligible 1 (63) Daily News, 10 August. (64) Page 155. (65) In a paper presented at a group areas conference in that city. January 1961 ISO A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1961 The municipal valuations quoted were well below the market values, Dr. Motala said. Figures for three recent sales he men. tioned, if averaged, showed that Indians paid R7,100 each for properties valued at R2,146. The real market value of the Indian properties affected was estimated to be R4,386,000. About thirty per cent of the Indians resident in the proclaimed areas would have to move, he said, many of them from localities where they established themselves half a century ago. Thirty-seven out of every hundred acres of Indian-owned land, worth 40 per cent of the total value of their properties in these areas, were affected. Some of the oldest and best established Indian businesses were situated in areas allocated to Whites. Some areas mainly in the south-east of the city, such as Cleland, Ockerts Kraal and Hollingwood, have not yet been zoned. The Non-White residents continue to live in a state of fear and insecurity. Housing The Natal Local Health Commission reports that in September 1961 there were 29.248 Africans in the townships at Edendale and Ashdown. Elsewhere in the public health area there were 879 Whites, 24,019 Indians, 1,637 Coloured and 44,580 Africans. Although in the past the Commission has erected relatively small housing schemes, most of these people build their own homes. subject to the Commission's approval, and in some cases with the assistance of National Housing loans: 30 such loans had been granted to Indians during the previous year. The Commission built a high-level bridge to improve the transport facilities to the Cavendish and Mhlatuzana areas, installed water reticulation schemes at Glen Anil and Duffs Road, and provided an all-weather tennis court to complete the sports stadium at Clermont. The Cripple Care Association has erected a hospital in the Edenvale area, and a government-aided Indian school has been built at Lidgetton West. DUNDEE White and Indian group areas were gazetted for Dundee in terms of Proclamation 100 of 13 October 1961. The position is not as controversial as it is in many other towns, since the boundaries between the White and Non-White sections were already fairly clear-cut, and the Indian trading area was well-defined. A few Indians may have to move from the White group area, and possibly some Coloured from the Indian area. No group area was set aside for the Coloured; but they have a housing scheme in the south of the Indian quarter of the town. THE ORANGE FREE STATE In Bloemfontein, during the year under review, under the assisted housing scheme Africans built 31 more permanent dwell-

A SURVEY OF RACE ings in the site-and-service township, 23 of these being one-roomed units. The municipality erected eight further cottages at the Bantu hostel and added four classrooms to a primary school. Railway siding facilities were provided for African vendors of coal and wood. The lay-out of the existing African township at Kroonstad was completed during 1960-61 by the erection of 500 new fourroomed dwellings. Negotiations are in progress to buy additional land for 3,500 more stands. A modern clinic is under construction: adequate provision has now been made for all types of clinics. Seventy dwellings for Coloured people were completed and a further 120 planned, which will be sufficient to meet the needs. In Welkom there were by September 1961 some 21.000 Africans living in Thabong Bantu Township, with a further estimated 7,000 in White areas (these figures exclude mine employees). During the previous year 350 four-roomed houses had been completed in the site-and-service area, and the construction of a further 350 had been commenced. A police station and post office are to be provided shortly, and tenders have been invited for the erection of a creche and administrative offices. A Coloured township is to be established near Welkom to serve the goldfields area. In Virginia's African township there are 335 economic dwellings, 465 owner-built houses and two hostels each catering for 960 men. As these meet the present demand no new housing schemes were undertaken during the year under review. A subway and fly-over were built to shorten access to places of employment; the first portion of a large shopping centre was completed and handed over to African businessmen; two tennis courts were provided; a rudimentary street-lighting plan is in hand; premises for the sale of liquor are planned; and a community centre is under construction which will have a hall with seating accommodation for 600. a smaller side hall, a library, creche and projector room. PROTESTS AGAINST RESTRICTIONS ON PRESENCE IN RESTAURANTS As was described in the 1957-58 Survey("), Proclamation No. 164 of 1958 provided, inter alia, that, except under permit no racially disqualified person may be present as a customer in a licensed restaurant, refreshment or tea room for the purpose of partaking of refreshments ordinarily involving the use of seating accommodation, save as a representative or guest of the state, a provincial administration, a local authority or a statutory body. This proclamation was issued under the Group Areas Act. 06) Page 91

RELATIONS: 1961 183 Towards the end of 1960 and early in 1961 various groups of White, Coloured and African people in Cape Town and Johannesburg decided to test the legality of this proclamation by sitting down in tea rooms or restaurants and asking to be served. In general, they advised the police in advance of their intention. They were usually refused service. In some cases they were arrested, while in other instances they chatted quietly for a time and then left. A noteworthy feature was that there was no unpleasantness, or protests by White customers. The Sunday Times commented(7), "The 'sit-in' demonstrations by Non-Whites in Cape Town restaurants have been successful in an unexpected way. They have shown that the average White citizen does not object strenuously to sharing a restaurant with Non-Whites". In a court case that followed a Johannesburg incident the judge said it was clear that it had occasioned no alarm or unpleasantness in the restaurant(8). In a test case in the Cape Town Regional Court, a Coloured woman was found guilty of contravening provisions of the Group Areas Act and was sentenced to a fine of R30 or 30 days. An African who was one of a party who ordered lunch in a White restaurant was sentenced to a fine of R60 in the Johannesburg Magistrate's Court. On appeal, a judge of the Supreme Court reduced the sentence to RIO or seven days. The magistrate, he said, had misdirected himself on what he considered to be a wilful defiance of the law. The intention of the accused had been to ascertain what the law was, and not to defy it. Referring to a cited case which dealt with the difficulty the African group had in finding places in the towns where they could purchase a served meal, the judge said, "I have no doubt that this kind of discrimination is envisaged in the (Group Areas) Act"69). (67) 15 January 1961. (68) Rand Daily Mail, 1 Sepweniber 1961. (69) Ibid.

A SURVEY OF RACE EMPLOYMENT THE ECONOMIC SITUATION OUTFLOW OF PRIVATE CAPITAL In his Budget Speech, the Minister of Finance said(') that during 1960 South Africa's gold and foreign exchange reserves dropped by R132-million, as against a rise of R80-million in 1959. This decline was caused mainly by an increase in imports of roughly R133-million over the 1959 level, and a net capital outflow of R162-million compared with an outflow of £78-million in 1959. The fears of private investors that occurrences in South Africa, as well as in other African territories, would jeopardise their investments were mainly responsible for the outflow of private capital. The Governor of the S.A. Reserve Bank, Dr. M. H. de Koch, said at an annual general meeting of stock-holders on 9 September2) that while during the year ended 30 June 1961 there had been a sustained expansion of general economic activity, this had been at a slower pace than in the previous year, and in certain branches of activity such as the motor assembly and building industries and certain sections of the engineering industry there had been a decline. The Reserve Bank's holdings of gold and foreign exchange declined from - million at the end of January 1960 to R220million on 30 June 1960, and again to R153-million on 30 June 1961, Dr. de Koch said. The outflow of private capital had continued. In a review of the affairs of the Anglo-American Corporation of S.A., Ltd., its Chairman, Mr. H. F. Oppenheimer, said(') that during 1960 the market value of the quoted holdings of this group fell by 23 per cent. This severe fall in share prices was caused in the main by the heavy selling of South African shares by investors outside the country. These shares had, to an important extent, been brought back to South Africa through the medium of the large financial institutions. Speaking at the annual general meeting of the General Mining and Finance Corporation, Ltd, in June 1961, Mr. C. S. McLean said(4), "My colleagues and I have seen the market value of the investments for which we are responsible decline in about eighteen months by some 40 per cent, or £12-million, due to events entirely beyond our control". (1) Assembly, 15 March 1961, Hansard 8 cols. 2999-5000. (2) Rand Da.'Iv Mail, 10 September 1961. (3) Ibid. 9 Ju-C 1961. (4) Ihid. 14 June 1961.

RELATIONS: 1961 185 Mr. Oppenheimer pointed out that a capital inflow on a fairly large scale was essential if the country's full economic potential was to be realized. Less than almost any other country was South Africa, with her grave racial problems, able to afford a slowingdown in the rate of economic growth. Such racial problems could only be successfully dealt with against a background of rising standards of living. This consideration probably applied with even greater force if race relations were to be approached along the lines of racial separation or apartheid than if the aim were to build up a multi-racial community. As has been mentioned earlier('), Mr. Oppenheimer went on to suggest that in the absence of support by overseas capital it might not be possible to invest in the Bantu areas on a large scale without reducing the rate of growth of the economy and the standards of living of the people as a whole. In fact, without a substantial capital inflow from abroad, largescale development of these areas might be entirely impracticable. CONTROLS IMPOSED BY THE GOVERNMENT During May the Government was forced to tighten import and currency controls and to take steps to restrict the supply of credit. The value of the initial allocation of import permits had previously been reduced. Now, inter alia, textile piece goods were made subject to import control, and a reduction was made in the issue of import permits for motor cars. The bank rate was raised from 4- to 5 per cent and the rates on government stock were increased. This was followed by an increase in the commercial banks' minimum overdraft and fixeddeposit rates. The building societies followed suit by raising their rates on fixed deposits and mortgage bonds. The commercial banks' minimum statutory reserves against their demand liabilities to the public were increased. The foreign exchange allowances for tourists and emigrants were reduced. Residents were required to declare their holdings of foreign assets06). A few weeks later the Minister of Finance prohibited South African residents from buying securities on the London and Bulawayo stock exchanges. He also forbade the repatriation of funds obtained from realizing foreign-owned shares through the Johannesburg stock exchange. Such funds would have to be paid into a blocked Rand account and could be used to pay for other South African-quoted securities(7D. In the speech quoted above, Mr. Oppenheimer said that in the circumstances these steps were unavoidable; but they would not () See page 106. (6) Information from "Economic Review" by Mr. T. W. de Jongh in the Rescrve Bank's Quarterly Bulletin of Statistics, June 1961. (7) Sunday Tines, 18 June 1961.

186 A SURVEY OF RACE provide a long-term solution. Confidence was not restored by strict controls: the reverse applied, in fact. Social, human and political problems were the real causes of the difficulties. The fundamental principle upon which South African policy was at present based was morally unacceptable to practically all the nations of the world. If the country did not face up to these basic matters, it would only be able to protect its external balance of payments at the cost of stagnation in the economic life of the country. Mr. McLean expressed similar views on the reasons for the outflow of capital. The growing loss of confidence, he maintained, had arisen "because of the manner in which the relationships between the White and the Non-White sections of our population are controlled . . . We should work without delay towards the establishment in due course of conditions in which the potential of each individual, whatever his race, can be realized to the full for the benefit of all". It was announced during July(') that the International Monetary Fund had agreed to a standby arrangement in terms of which South Africa would be able to borrow up to R53-million over the following twelve months. Mr. L. H. Samuels pointed outC"), however, that such sources of aid could provide only temporary relief and would increase future claims against the country's slender gold and foreign exchange reserves. COMMONWEALTH PREFERENTIAL ARRANGEMENTS In the same article, Mr. Samuels described the Commonwealth preferential arrangements, which were of two kinds: (a) guaranteed preferential margins and free entry for a variety of products-fruit, maize, dairy products, etc., and a guaranteed preference but with no free entry for wine; (b) non-contractual preferences with duty free entry enjoyed by South African manufactured products. The Star pointed out(") that about 40 per cent of South Africa's exports to Britain go in under Imperial preference, enjoying a lower customs tariff than similar goods from outside the Commonwealth. Whereas a variety of manufactured or processed goods exported to Britain were classified as non-contractual, and preferences were protected by the "Standstill agreement" expiring on 31 May 1961("1), the contractual preferences could be cancelled on six months' notice. This might affect exports of maize, fruit, canned foods, wine, tobacco, copper, asbestos, dairy products, etc. New Zealand has already cancelled her special preferences on all South African goods in this category. (s) Rand Daly Ma l, 6 July 1961. ()) In an article in the University of the Witwatersrand's Conivocation Commentary, No. 2 of 1961. (00) 14 August 1961. (11) See p:ive 7.

RELATIONS: 1961 187 It was announced on 13 August(12) that Britain had decided that South Africa's foreign status was "not compatible with her continued participation in the Commonwealth Sugar Agreement". South Africa had been enjoying guaranteed markets in the Commonwealth pool at prices above world rates. Representatives of the sugar industry, and later, the Minister of Economic Affairs went overseas to try to make a new bilateral pact with Britain, or to negotiate a transfer of South Africa's sugar quota from the Commonwealth Agreement to the International Sugar Agreement. After lengthy negotiations they succeeded in concluding a bilateral agreement in terms of which for the next five years Britain will buy an amount of sugar equal in quantity to South Africa's previous basic negotiated price quota under the Commonwealth Sugar Agreement, which amounted to 70 per cent of her export crop. But the price will be less favourable, and it is estimated(3) that the Natal sugar industry will lose by at least R2,500,000 a year. On the other hand, it will receive about R3,600,000 more than it would have done at the present world price. UNEMPLOYMENT Main industries affected The number of unemployed people in South Africa rose during 1961 to the highest level since 1948 (the earliest year for which information was given in the official publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years). The motor assembly industry was badly affected, largely because of import control but also due to the general shortage of funds. According to various Press reports"), some 800 White. Coloured and African workers were retrenched by firms in Port Elizabeth and Uitenhage between February and July. In the latter month two of the largest companies decided to work a four-day week until further notice. During September one of these firms retrenched 1,100 workers for a fortnight. The repercussions of this were felt by allied industries such as tyre, rubber and safety glass manufacturers and motor car dealers. The scarcity of funds also led to a falling off in the building industry. According to a Star report on 16 June, building activity in Johannesburg and on the Reef had decreased by about 65 per cent during the previous two months. The volume of work diminished in other centres, too, and contractors were forced to retrench workers. Again allied trades, such as foundries and various other branches of the engineering industry, were affected, and the architectural profession was badly hit. (12) Sunday Times of that date. (13) Star, 16 November. (14) e.g. Rand Daily Mail, 29 July, 11 September. Star, 6 July, etc.

188 A SURVEY OF RACE There has also been a certain amount of unemployment in the clothing, textiles, furniture, leather and other trades. Towards the end of September 1961, however, it appeared that the position was beginning to improve slightly. Official statistics (a) Workers covered by these statistics The statistics published by the Department of Labour include only White, Coloured and Asian workseekers and a few African women, who have registered at Departmental offices. Those who do register and cannot be placed are instructed to report regularly at a central or branch office. If they do not do so by the tehth of each month their names are removed from the lists until they again report. If they have contributed to the Unemployment Insurance Fund for the necessary period, they may claim benefits at the same time and same office. Judging by on-the-spot investigations conducted in various towns, notably Durban, it appears that large numbers of unemployed persons do not register. These probably include many people who have exhausted their benefits by being out of work for more than 26 weeks, numbers who could not find work when they left school and have never contributed to the Fund, casual or seasonal workers, and others who feel that they are unable to afford the transport costs involved in reporting, or who have waited so long that they conclude that they are unlikely to receive help. Persons who are working short-time or slack-time are not included. Unemployment figures for Africans, collected by labour bureaux, are published by the Department of Census and Statistics. These are not only considerably out of date (the most recent published figures at the time of writing were for January 1961), but they are also certainly not comprehensive. They deal with African men only. They probably do not include many of the men who have been endorsed out of urban areas because they did not qualify to remain if no suitable alternative employment was available when they lost their jobs. The figures do not take into account the many Africans in urban areas who are unemployed but are afraid to report to a labour bureau in case they are endorsed out or are offered only work of a much lower category than that to which they are accustomed. And it is most unlikely that all the Africans in the Reserves or in White farming areas who are in need of employment but are prevented by influx control regulations from going to the towns are registered as work-seekers. (b) Published statistics The latest figures that had been published in the official Bulletin of Statistics at the time of writing showed that in May 1961 there were 15,599 Whites and 14,552 Coloured and Asians regis-

RELATIONS: 1961 189 tered as unemployed. In January 1961 there were 63,837 registered African workseekers. In all cases these figures were considerably higher than they had been a year previously. The Star(5 quotes the Minister of Labour as having said at the end of September that by then there were about 17,000 Whites and 16,000 Coloured and Asian registered as unemployed. Half of the Whites were women, 80 per cent of whom were married. (c) Comments on the situation as affecting Non-Whites As is mentioned above, the situation in Durban demonstrates how misleading the official figures may sometimes be. The Minister of Labour said in the Assembly(") that on 25 May 1961 there were 4,374 registered unemployed Asians in Durban. The Natal Region of the Institute of Race Relations estimates that the total number of unemployed Indians in that city is nearer to 20,O00(("7). It is reported(8 that a recent survey amongst the 100,000 Indians of Clairwood and Merebank revealed that one out of every two employable adults was out of work. Employment opportunities for Indians in occupations other than trade have been progressively curtailed in recent years. Men who are retrenched have little opportunity of finding other posts. After their unemployment benefits have become exhausted their only hope, in most cases, is to offer themselves for such casual and often unskilled work as may be available, to earn a few shillings a time. The extended family system gives some protection. but the effect naturally is that each breadwinner has an increasingly large number of dependants to support. The chairman of Durban's Finance Committee is reported( ") to have said that the plight of a large number of Indian families had reached the point of actual starvation. Voluntary societies and trade unions were helping where they could. During June the police were called to a clothing factory in Durban when 500 unemployed Indians failed to disperse after about 50 advertised jobs had been filled2"). Some unscrupulous employers are taking advantage of the situation to underpay Indian workers, or to force them to return part of their wages. In August an Indian clothing manufacturer was found guilty on 46 counts of having made women return money, and ten counts of underpayment of employees who had agreed to work for lower rates than those laid down by the Industrial Council because of their difficulty in finding jobs. A spokesman for the Industrial Council is reported to have said (15) 29 September 1961. (16) 23 June 1961, Hansard 21 cols. 8865-6. (17) Minutes of meeting held on 11 September. (18) Sunday Times, 24 September. (19) Ibid, 8 October. (20) Rand Daily Mail, 27 June 1961.

190 A SURVEY OF RACE that such cases were apparently rife, but it was difficult to get evidence because the victims were afraid of being dismissed("). Coloured, Indian and African school-leavers in Cape Town, on the Reef, in Port Elizabeth and other centres are finding it increasingly difficult to obtain employment. It is reported(22) that a private Coloured employment bureau in Cape Town was forced to close in December 1960 because of the lack of openings for applicants. Of 300 young people who had applied during the previous two weeks to be apprenticed in various trades, only three could be placed. An additional reason for unemployment amongst Africans is that many employers are paying higher wages, making better use of their labour, and finding that in consequence they can manage with fewer workers. A Contact report states(23) that the number of unemployed African workseekers registered with the Non- European Affairs Department in Johannesburg rose from 10,784 at the end of May to 16,742 at the end of June 1961. In consequence, as has been mentioned in an earlier chapter, no further entry permits are at present being granted to applicants from other parts of the country who wish to seek work in this city. The Institute of Race Relations intends finding out what employment actually is found by groups of Non-White children who leave certain Johannesburg and Reef schools at the end of 1961 at the Standard VI, J.C. and matriculation levels. (d) Action taken by workers During September 1961 the S.A. Congress of Trade Unions (Sactu) was instrumental in forming a Union of Unemployed Workers in Durban. Its members were mainly Non-White. A telegram was sent to the Department of Labour in Pretoria asking for an interview, and the Deputy Minister wired back agreeing to receive a deputation. On subsequently learning, however, that its members would include Africans, for whom his Department was not responsible, he rescinded this offer, advising the Non-White delegates to visit the Departmental officials in Durban, who would explain the position. But, unaware of this decision, they had already left. When they visited the Sactu offices in Johannesburg the premises were raided by the police, who arrested Mr. Leon Levy, Sactu's president, because he had been banned from attending gatherings. (Mr. Levy was subsequently acquitted). The deputation did present itself at the Labour Department in Pretoria, and, although members were refused an interview, they handed in a memorandum calling, inter alia, for higher rates of unemployment pay for longer periods, for the Unemployment (21) Natal Mercury, 10 August. (22) Star, 13 December 1960. (23) 24 August 1961.

RELATIONS: 1961 191 Insurance Act to be amended so that all Africans could become contributors to the Fund(24), for the abolition of job reservation, for family allowances for the unemployed, for larger food subsidies and for a national minimum wage of R2 a day25). On 7 October 1961 a group of unemployed Whites in Johannesburg, backed by Sactu, created a Council of Unemployed Workers. After an initial refusal, the Minister of Labour agreed to meet representatives, who put forward similar demands to those outlined above. IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION Provisional official figures showing immigration and emigration in 1959 and 1960 are: Whites Non-Whites Immigrants: 1959 ... 12,563 35 1960 ... 9,789 16 Emigrants: 1959 ... 9,379 123 1960 ... 12,613 93 RESERVATION OF WORK DETERMINATIONS PUBLISHED PRIOR TO 1961 Although, as is mentioned later, the Industrial Tribunal is making various investigations, no new types of work were by law reserved for persons of any specific racial group during 1961. There remain only seven determinations, two of which have been suspended until December 1962. These are: (No. 1, 1957, for the clothing industry, was held to be ultra vires). No. 2, 1957, reserving for Whites the driving of motor transport vehicles in the Durban municipal cleansing department. No. 3, 1957 (suspended), reserving for Whites fifteen categories of work in the section of the Iron, Steel and Metallurgical industry that is concerned with the manufacture of door and window metal surrounds, cliscoe windows and air-tight louvres. No. 4, 1958, reserving for Whites the posts of firemen and traffic policemen above the rank of constable in the Cape Town area, and placing restrictions there on the employment of Coloured ambulance drivers and attendants and traffic constables. (24) Workers earning less than R546 a year. and African casual and seasonal workers. mine workers, domestic servants and agricultural workers are at present excluded. (25) Star. 23 September.

192 No. 5, 1959, No. 6, 1959, No. 7, 1959 No. 8, 1960, A SURVEY OF RACE reserving for Whites the operation of lifts in certain types of buildings in Johannesburg, Pretoria and Bloemfontein. reserving for Whites skilled work in the building industry in urban areas of the Transvaal and Free State other than in African townships. It is understood that various exemptions have been granted, notably in respect of Coloured artisans working in Coloured group areas. (suspended), dealing with the section of the Iron, Steel and Metallurgical industry that is concerned with the manufacture of various types of domestic metal and electrical appliances. Twenty-seven categories of work were reserved for Whites, except in the Western Cape, where Coloureds could be employed in five of these categories. This determination would have resulted in the displacement of numbers of NonWhites, but it was suspended. for the clothing industry. This is a most complicated measure, the basic object of which is to prevent the percentage of Whites employed by any employer, or of Whites and Coloured together, from falling below the percentages that obtained at set dates. DETERMINATIONS REPUBLISHED IN 1961 Three of these determinations became technically invalid in 1961. During May a Pretoria builder was prosecuted for having used an African to drive a crane: an occupation that had been reserved for Whites. He was acquitted on a technicality. The Industrial Conciliation Amendment Act of 1959 provided that any provisions of a determination relating to the prohibition of the replacement of employees of one race by those of another may be declared binding immediately, but that any other provisions will not come into force until at least six months after the date of publication of the determination. Determination No. 6, for the building industry in the Transvaal and Free State, was published on 18 September 1959, and the Government Notice concerned stated that it would be effective as from 18 March 1960. In the case mentioned, the defence contended successfully that this date should have not been earlier than 19 March. A Pretoria magistrate declared the Government Notice to be ultra vires. The Government then republished Determinations No. 6, 7 and 8, which will now come into effect, respectively, from 5 December 1961. 20 March 1962 and, in the case of No. 8, at various dates, the latest being 5 December 1961. In effect, then, most of the provisions of these determinations were not in force during the second half of 1961. Moreover, as is described below,

RELATIONS: 1961 193 total exemption was granted from the terms of Nos. 3 and 7 until 11 December 1962. SUSPENSION OF DETERMINATIONS Nos. 3 AND 7 During 1960 the parties to the National Industrial Council for the Iron, Steel, Engineering and Metallurgical Industries negotiated a new agreement which incorporated wage increases that had been granted voluntarily to Africans during the year, and which also prescribed considerably higher wages in the (mainly operative) categories of work that had been reserved for Whites in terms of Determinations Nos. 3 and 7. The Minister of Labour commented(26) that this would render "the employment of cheap Non-White labour in these occupations impossible". The principle of "the rate for the job" afforded insufficient protection to the White man, he said. This rate must be fixed at a sufficiently high level to enable a European to live on it. Then "the White man, with his superior knowledge, must be able to retain that work against the Non-White with his inferior civilization". In view of the Industrial Council's decision, the Minister agreed to suspend Determinations Nos. 3 and 7 for the currency of the agreement, i.e. until 11 December 1962(27). He said he hoped that similar action would be possible in other cases. The effect of these decisions is that employers may still use Non-White labour in the occupations that had previously been reserved for Whites, but that in all cases wage-rates in these occupations, which apply to White and Non-White alike, are to be raised considerably. COMMENTS ON JOB RESERVATION AS SO FAR APPLIED As will be seen, few categories of work have so far been reserved by law for Whites. Existing determinations are designed more to forestall the employment of increasing numbers of NonWhites in particular jobs, to preserve the status quo, than to deprive Non-White people at present doing this work of their employment. But, of course, further Non-White progress in the fields concerned is blocked. The determination for the clothing industry set a new pattern in that an arrangement was devised by means of which, as time goes by, more and more of the work in Transvaal factories and those in major urban areas of the Cape and Natal will be reserved in the first place for Whites, and in the second place for Coloured. It would appear that new factories in other areas will be able to employ Africans. The scheme being tried out in the engineering industry has also been applied in various smaller industrial concerns. The (26) Senate, 12 April, Hansard 10 cols. 2954, 2993, 2996. (27) G.N. 2008 of 9 December 1960, and G.N. 2014 of the same date.

194 A SURVEY OF RACE Minister of Labour said in the Senate during April(2-) that when a complaint about Non-White competition is received, the employer is notified. If he agrees to raise the wages to a level considered adequate for Whites, no further action is taken. If lie does not the matter is referred to the Industrial Tribunal for investigation. The pattern for the clothing industry is preferable to that adopted in earlier determinations; but even if this is followed in further cases it is nevertheless clear that at a time of economic depression it would be the Non-White workers who would be the first to suffer. FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS IN PROGRESS Three types of investigations have been referred to the Industrial Tribunal, from which no determination has as yet resulted. Firstly, it has been directed to investigate whether measures are desirable to protect Whites against inter-racial competition in: (a) the building industry in Natal and the Cape; (b) motor transport driving on the Free State goldfields; (c) motor transport driving in the Springs municipal Health Department; (d) the trade of barman in Durban, Pietermaritzburg and certain other districts of Natal; (e) work in abattoirs and the wholesale meat trade on the Witwatersrand and in Pretoria; (f) the occupations of welding, painting and crane driving in the Iron, Steel, Engineering and Metallurgical Industries. Secondly, it is investigating whether measures are desirable to protect both Whites and Coloured against inter-racial competition in: (a) the motor assembly industry; (b) the manganese mining industry on the West Rand; (c) the occupation of passenger lift attendants in the Cape Peninsula and in Durban. And thirdly, it is examining the desirability of measures to safeguard employees generally against inter-racial competition in: (a) motor transport driving in the magisterial area of Durban; (b) the footwear industry; (c) the furniture industry; (d) the road transport industry in the Cape Peninsula. In every case, interested persons were invited to submit representations and to furnish suggestions as to how the matters concerned could be dealt with without making determinations. It is ('8) 12 April 1961. Hansard 10 cols. 2998, 3068.

RELATIONS: 1961 reported(29) that the Federation of Furniture and Allied Trades Unions of South Africa, which is representative of some 9,000 White, Coloured and Indian workers, told the Tribunal that it is opposed to the introduction of job reservation. As there is no interracial competition, the union said, no protection is needed. Relationships between the various groups in factories have always been good. WAGES AND THE COST OF LIVING FOR URBAN AFRICANS RECENT STUDIES OF THE COST OF LIVING FOR URBAN AFRICANS Durban At the Unilever Technical Conference held in November 1960 Professor 0. P. F. Horwood, head of the Department of Economics at the University of Natal, delivered a paper on the living costs of Africans in the Durban area. His Department, he said, had recently studied a carefully selected sample of 1,246 households of two or more persons (the members of which numbered 6,149) in four African townships. The "household" adopted as a unit included members of the family and any others who pooled their incomes and were dependent on household funds for the major items of their maintenance. The average size of the households was 4.93 persons. Each worker supported an average of three dependants: the average number of workers per household was 1.26. The median earnings of the men in all areas were R26.9 per month(3"): they were highest in Lamontville and lowest in Cato Manor, where the largest proportion of labourers lived, possibly because of the higher rentals charged elsewhere. Women domestic servants earned an average of less than R8.7 a month. The median total household income was highest in Umlazi Glebe (R35.5 a month), lowest at Cato Manor (R26.4), and in all areas averaged R33.4. The household incomes were then compared, inter alia, with the actual reported expenditure on the poverty datum line items of rent, food, clothing, fuel, lighting, cleansing, and transport to and from work, plus the expenditure on "non-poverty datum line" items such as furniture, medical care, church contributions, education, remittances to relatives, insurance, house repairs, tobacco, liquor and fines. There was an unexpected result, in that the average family had an apparent undisclosed income of .4 a month. The survey showed: (29) Rand Dailv Mail, 13 February 1961. (30) All sums of money mentioned in this summary have been converted into decimals and into monthly, rather than weekly, amounts by the writer.

196 A SURVEY OF RACE Per month Mean actual expenditure on poverty datum line items R47.2 Mean actual expenditure on non-poverty datum line item s ...... R 15.6 .8 Mean household wage income ...... R33.4 Apparent undisclosed income ...... R29.4 Various reasons for this discrepancy were suggested, for example that the whole instead of the pro rata cost of items bought on credit had been included, also items intended for resale. Possibly some families had exaggerated their expenditure for purposes of prestige. Some may have bought stolen goods and quoted the full retail price whereas they actually paid less. Numbers may have added to their incomes from wages by making and selling clothing, food dishes or furniture, or by manufacturing or selling liquor, or by selling dagga or stolen goods. Some families had, in fact, not paid their rents. Those at Cato Manor, but not elsewhere, could add to their incomes by letting rooms. However, the investigators could not explain the discrepancy to their satisfaction. They then worked out the average costs of the "reasonable" requirements of a household of five persons, the non-poverty datum line items being calculated on a very conservative basis. The allowance for furniture, for example, was limited to the depreciation on an original amount of R200 over a period of 20 years at a simple rate of 5 per cent per annum. The requirements worked out as follows: Per month Re Food ...... 28.20 Rent ...... 5.85 Other poverty datum line items ... 12.12 Furniture ...... 0.86 Medical expenses ...... 0.43 Education ...... 0.65 Insurance ...... 0.43 Tobacco and drink ...... 1.83 R50.37 This budget does not include various items of expenditure which have come to be regarded as a normal part of urban life, such as food and clothing other than the minimum requirements, repairs to clothing and dry cleaning, recreation and leisure activities, toilet requirements (other than soap), house and garden improvements and repairs, charitable contributions, reading matter and stationery, and savings.

RELATIONS: 1961 197 The analysis led to the final conclusion that the average household of five persons would need an income of R52 a month to maintain an urban standard of living. Pretoria The Bureau of Market Research of the University of South Africa has published a study entitled Income and Expenditure Patterns of Urban Bantu Households: Pretoria Survey. It investigated a random sample of 1,200 households in the two African townships of Pretoria. The mean size of all households investigated was 6.3, but if "other" members of the family and adult children were excluded, the average family consisted of five persons. It was found that the wages of household heads averaged .36 a month for unskilled workers, and R32.02 for workers in all occupations. The average monthly household income was .51 for a family of five, .11 for one of six, and R47.60 for one of seven. The costs of the poverty datum line items of food, clothing, rent, fuel and light, transport and tax were worked out for families of varying composition. In the summary that follows only the figures for the averaged-sized families of five are given. Three types of families of this size were considered: A. adult male (heavy worker), wife, boy aged 14 and two other children aged 12 and 10; B. adult male (moderately active), wife, children aged 7 and 4 and a baby; C. adult male (moderately active), wife, girl aged 16, boy aged 14 and an elderly dependant. The monthly costs of the poverty datum line items for these families were estimated to be: Family A Family B Family C Rc Rc Rc Food ...... 22.56 15.53 20.68 Clothing ...... 9.31 6.89 9.12 Rent ...... 5.18 5.18 5.18 Fuel and light ...... 3.03 3.03 3.03 Transport ...... 2.62 2.62 2.62 Tax ...... 0.29 0.29 0.29 R42.99 R33.54 R40.92 As the average household of five had an income of R43.51 a month, it appeared that family A would have a balance of RO.52 a month after paying for the poverty datum line items. Family B would have a balance of R9.97, and family C, R2.61.

198 A SURVEY OF RACE The picture changed so far as families of larger sizes were concerned. Of two families of six of varying composition, one would have a balance of R1.29, and the other a deficit of R2.18. Of two families of seven members, one would have a deficit of R8.87 and the other a balance of RO.32. The position altered, too, if households whose heads were unskilled workers were considered. The average monthly income of all such households was found to be R42.91. Of the three families of five members referred to above, only family B needed less than this amount for bare necessities. A household of six with only one wage-earner could not afford even the necessary minimum of food and clothing. Few families with only one wageearner could afford the estimated minimum for all items. In practice, of course, the families, did spend money on other items than those included in a poverty datum line budget. It was found that on an average the households covered by the survey spent R9.75 a month on such items, which are in fact essentials, as washing and cleaning materials, hire purchase on furniture, burial fund contributions, household equipment, the support of dependants living away from home, personal care and recreation. Of the seven types of families considered, only family B could afford such things without having to cut expenditure on the poverty datum line items. The other families had to reduce expenditure on food and clothing below the minima necessary for health. South Africa generally In a paper entitled "The Effect on the Economy of South Africa of the Rising Rates of Pay for Unskilled Labour", written in November 1960, Professor O.P.F. Horwood stated that the average income of nearly six million Africans engaged in modern economic activity was little over R 100 a head per year. The average per capita income of occupied persons in the Reserves was between R14 and R26 a year. The Minister of Finance said in the Assembly on 15 February 1961'(") it was estimated that the average per capita income of Whites was R820 a year, of Asians R160, of Coloured R116, and of Africans R92. Mr. Harry Goldberg, chairman of the Bantu Wages and Productivity Association, is reported(32) to have said in October 1961 that some 19 per cent of the African workers of Johannesburg were "faced with the appalling problem" of trying to support themselves and their families on R30 a month or less. Only 27 out of every 100 African households had incomes of more than R40 a month. (31) Hansard 4 col. 1359. (32) Rand Daily Mail, 11 October.

The investigations made by Professor Hobart Houghton in rural African villages in the Ciskei are described on page 114. RECENT WAGE INCREASES It was reported by the Minister of Labour in the Senate on 12 April 196101) that all wage determinations for unskilled labour had recently been revised. These affected about 87,000 Africans. He was endeavouring to have such determinations reviewed at intervals of not less than five years in future, the Minister added. He was insisting, unless there were exceptional circumstances, that whenever industrial council agreements were revised, wages for the lower-paid employees should be fixed at rates which at least equalled those prescribed for unskilled labourers. His policy, when issuing wage investigation references to the Wage Board, was to give priority to industries in which large numbers of unskilled workers were employed. In terms of Wage Determination No. 223, of 8 September 1961, unskilled workers in the commercial distributive trade were given considerable increases in pay. The principle of the rate for the job applies in this trade. The lowest minimum wages now prescribed in the districts of the Cape, Bellville, Simonstown, Wynberg and Johannesburg are R28.60 a month for a woman general worker, R35.75 for a male general worker, and R36.83 for an ironer. A woman shop assistant must be paid a minimum of R37.00, rising after four years to R60.25. The payment of cost- ofliving allowances has been suspended. The effect is that, if minimum rates are paid, an African male general worker, who cleans the premises or unloads lorries, for example, receives very little less than does a newly-engaged White woman shop assistant. Before recommending that this determination be made, the Wage Board heard evidence from employers, trade unionists (including Africans), the Institute of Race Relations and others. It is reported34) that the wages of about 110,000 Africans in the engineering industry have been raised by 22 per cent during the year under review. Unskilled workers are paid an average of about R32. Labourers in the building industry received a monthly wage increase of R4.33 as from 1 July. Oil companies have raised the "take home" pay (after deductions) to R44 a month. Numbers of individual firms have announced wage increases or the introduction of non- contributory pension or medical funds for their African employees. Mr. E. R. Silberbauer, Director of the Bantu Wages and Productivity Association, said in January 1961(3") that during the past year about R40-million had been added to the African wage bill. Mr. Harry Goldberg, chairman of this Association, is (33) Hansard 10 cols. 2951-2. (34) Star, 5 June, 22 June, Rand Daily Mail, 7 September. (35) RR 14/61. Paper entitled "Personnel Methods in Industry and Commerce". RELATIONS: 1961 199 reportedt1') to have stated that African wages in Johannesburg were climbing at the rate of about 7 per cent a year. Both men stressed that there was no reason for complacency, however: the rate of increase was too slow. In terms of a new wage determination, the wages of about 12,000 African unskilled workers employed by the Durban City Council were raised in July 1960 to an average, including cost-ofliving allowance, of .24 per month. In August 1961, as a result of representations by a liaison committee representative of employers and employees, a further voluntary increase of R4.33 per month was granted, overtime pay was raised, and the pay of Non-Whites on the graded staff was stepped up by amounts ranging from RIO to R16 monthly,"). Although the Johannesburg City Council pays higher wages than those stipulated by the Wage BoArd, it has been criticised for not granting further increases. Councillor H. MacCarthy contributed an article to the Rand Daily Mail on 7 September 1961 in which he said that the City Council has a payroll of 20,000, and of this number only 600, or 3 per cent, receive a "basic minimum wage" of R49 a month. These are the skilled building artisans. About 10,000 men who live in hostels or compounds receive the "pitifully inadequate" wage of R26. Those in the next highest group, numbering 5,000, earn .70. During 1961 the Johannesburg City Council engaged the National Institute of Personnel Research to investigate all aspects of its employment of labour. According to the Press(3), in its report this Institute conceded that it might not be practical politics for the Council to raise the minimum wage to a "living one" of R48, however realistic this figure might be. It added, "However unethical the practice of paying a wage which is less than a family needs to live decently, we have carefully calculated a sub-minimum wage which would go some way towards relieving the extreme poverty in which a proportion of the Council's labour force lives". It recommended that a minimum wage of R35 a month be paid to unskilled workers, with considerable increases for graded workers. At the time of writing the Council had not reached a decision in regard to this recommendation. It had, however, decided as a first step to grant an incentive bonus of R4.33 a month to African street cleaners, payment of this being dependent on the satisfactory performance of duties. Those who receive the bonus will have monthly wages of R30.55. These workers are charged 80c a month for rent, as against R2.50 payable by men who live in hostels(3"). (36) Rand Daily Mail, 11 October 1961. (37) Star, 22 August 1961. (38) Star, 7 and 9 August 1961. (39) Rand Daily Mail report. 18 October 1961. A SURVEY OF RACE 200

RELATIONS: 1961 201 It was announced in November that Mr. MacCarthy, who was a United Party City Councillor, had resigned from this party in protest against the Council's procrastination, and would contest his seat as an Independent. (He later joined the Progressive Party). In the article mentioned earlier, written in November 1960, Professor Horwood said that often, when wage determinations are gazetted, many of the workers to whom they apply are already receiving at least the new minima. In numbers of cases the new wage rates, expressed in real terms (at constant-1938-prices), represent no advance at all. Neither the latest determinations nor the pay increases made by a relatively few enlightened employers had, thus far, had more than a trivial effect on average wage incomes. Since the war, although the real wages of White employees in industry had risen by over one-third, those of Non-White workers had increased hardly at all, Professor Horwood said. His contention was borne out by delegates to the National Development Foundation Conference, mentioned below, who are reported(4") to have stated that although there had been a steady increase in productivity since 1945, and although the real wages of Whites had kept pace with these increases, by comparison the real wages of African workers had worsened. RECOMMENDATIONS THAT MINIMUM WAGES SHOULD BE RAISED On 7 April 1961 the House of Assembly debated a motion by Mr. B. J. van der Walt (Nationalist Party) "that this House requests the Government to continue with its policy of gradually increasing minimum wages in accordance with the progress in the economic sphere in South Africa'"'41. The Progressive Party moved an amendment that "this House requests the Government to consider the advisability of appointing a commission to enquire into the basic cost-of-living of urban and rural workers with a view to instituting a system of regional minimum wages". Spokesmen for the latter party pointed to the need for a continual process of reclassification of jobs, and urged that Africans should be allowed to participate in the collective bargaining system. No vote was taken. The National Development Foundation organized a three-day conference in Johannesburg early in October 1961 on "The Economics of Increased Bantu Wages and Productivity". During the discussion Mr. Harry Goldberg pointed out that as productivity increased, many employers might find that they needed fewer workers. If numbers were discharged in consequence, great hardship might result. He said that, instead of retrenching workers, (40) Race Relations News, October 1961. (41) Hansard 11 cols. 4049-4096.

202 A SURVEY OF RACE some firms reduced the number of new engagements to fill vacancies. Mr. G. C. V. Graham, Chairman of the Cape Midland Chamber of Industries, urged, as he had done previously, that under Government compulsion, the wages of semi-skilled and unskilled workers should be stepped up by fifty per cent in five stages of straight ten per cent increases. In the first stage employers might require credit facilities, but after this the higher purchasing power would lead to a higher output, and this would reduce the unit costs of production and off-set what cost-raising effects higher wages might have. In summing up the discussion at the end, Mr. L. H. Walton, General Manager of the S.A. Associated Newspapers, said that wage increases should be regarded as the primary challenge to industry and commerce, with the achievement of increased productivity as a secondary challenge(42). Professor Horwood commented on Mr. Graham's proposals in the article that is mentioned above. The calculations made may be arguable, Professor Horwood said. but the substantive conclusions suggested by his analysis cannot be ignored, (i) that positive and imaginative action is called for at once to break through the "poverty barrier", and (ii) that industry can absorb a reasonable increase in unskilled wage rates because its inflationary effect can largely be countered by better management and better supervision. There is much to be said, Professor Horwood continued, for the view expressed in the Financial Mail of 9 September 1960 that "the criterion of 'the ability of an industry to pay' has for too long been a convenient excuse for sheltering the Wage Board. 'Ability to pay' is not a constant factor-it is what management makes it". TRADE UNIONISM INDUSTRIAL CONCILIATION AMENDMENT ACT, No. 18 OF 1961 The Industrial Conciliation Act of 1961 dealt mainly with mixed trade unions, that is, those with White and Coloured and/or Asian members: Africans may in any case not belong to such unions. When the Bill was under debate, the Minister of Labour said('), "We have made it quite clear since before 1956 that we do not like mixed trade unions. We would like to facilitate in every way the separation of members of mixed trade unions, on racial grounds. Then we would like them to form their own trade unions . . . I sincerely hope that on this voluntarybasis the .. . mixed unions will break up. . ., but we are not going to force them to do it ... We are opening the way for them to do it". (4?) Star reports. 5 and 6 October 1961. (1) Assembly. 1 March 1961. Hansard 6 col. 2202.

RELATIONS: 1961 203 The principal Act (No. 28 of 1956) provided that when a new uni-racial union wishes to hive off from a mixed union, in determining how representative this mixed union is, the Industrial Registrar may, having regard to the nature of the industry and the area in which the new union seeks registration, regard the mixed union as being sufficiently representative, irrespective of the number of its members. The same applied in the case of employers' organizations. This provision was deleted in 1961. The Minister explained(-) his reasons for doing so. The S.A. Motor Industry Employers' Association, he said, had objected to the registration in the Brits area, which it had neglected, of a new Genootskap van Werkgewers in die Motornywerheid, even although this new organization had as members the majority of motor employers in the area concerned. The matter was taken to court and the older organization won the case, on the point that, in the judge's opinion, the Registrar had not taken into account the nature of the industry and the area in which registration was sought. The judge decided that as the older organization was sufficiently representative of employers in the motor industry in South Africa as a whole, the fact that its members in the Brits area were in a minority was of no consequence. Unless this subsection were deleted, the Minister continued, and while that judgment stood, it would be practically impossible for a new employers' organization or trade union to obtain registration in cases where existing organizations or unions were registered on a national basis and had a monopoly in respect of the area and interests for which they were registered. The effect is that it will be possible for trade unions to be de-registered for particular local areas where they are held to be unrepresentative, though their registration may continue for other areas where they are representative. Another 1961 amendment altered the provision which stated that if a mixed union objects to the registration of a new uni-racial union, its objection will not be considered if at the date of application the new union had as members over half of the White (or Coloured, respectively) persons employed in the industry, trade or occupation concerned within the area in respect of which the mixed union is registered. The amendment, as finally adopted, in effect added the words "or in any local authority area included therein". THE SPLITTING OF MIXED UNIONS The Minister of Labour said in the Senate3 that at the end of 1956 there were 184 registered trade unions. Of these: (2) Assembly, 27 February. Hansard 6 col. 2045. (3) 6 February 1961, Hansard 3 cols. 458-9, 607.

A SURVEY OF RACE 55 catered for Whites only; 16 catered for Coloured and/or Asians only; 113 were registered in respect of both White and Coloured. Not all of these 113 unions were mixed, however. Although many were registered as being open to members of both groups, in fact they had only White or only Non-White members. It appears, from figures subsequently published4', that in 1957 there were 59 genuinely mixed unions. No further such unions may be registered. The Minister added that at the end of 1960, of 186 unions then registered: 92 catered for Whites only; 38 catered for Coloured only; 56 were mixed, and six of these were engaged in splitting. He said that 31 of the 56 mixed unions had separate branches and meetings with all-White executives (in a subsequent speech he said 29). Dealing with exemptions (some granted for a specific and others for an indefinite period) he stated that: 6 unions had been completely exempted because they had very small numbers of members of one or other race; 12 unions had been exempted from having all-White executive committees because there were too few White members for this to be feasible; 17 unions were not required to hold separate meetings; 18 unions were not required to establish separate branches. (There is some overlapping). Of the 56 mixed unions, 33 were predominantly White and 23 predominantly Coloured. Twenty-four of them had fewer than 50 members of the minority group. On another occasion(') the Minister said that in no case where unions had split had it been necessary for the Industrial Registrar to make a decision in regard to the division of assets. According to an investigation conducted by the writer('), by July 1961 eleven of the mixed unions had divided along racial lines, five were about to do so. and one had de-registered as a result of the 1956 Act. These divisions took place for a variety of reasons. Seven unions split amicably, by mutual consent, to forestall any possible coercion by the Government, or because the legislation made it difficult for a mixed union to function satisfactorily. Two decided to divide along racial lines because they felt that Coloured workers would be deprived of any effective voice in policy matters if they (4) Special Report No. 236 issued by the Bureau of Census and Statistics in 1961. (5) Senate. Hansard 10 of 1961, col. 2959. (6) South African Trade Unionism: A Study of a Divided Working Class, published by the S.A. Insiitute of Race Relations.

RELATIONS: 1961 205 rcmained in mixed unions. Four more broke up because the Coloured members apparently felt that the all-White executive committees did not further their interests adequately. It seems that in one case the decision was made mainly because of a clash of personalities. One union decided to become all-White to try to forestall the registration of a new body that would cater for Whites only: its Coloured members have since organized separately. The union that deregistered decided to continue as mixed but to operate outside the machinery of the Act. The last of the unions mentioned above was faced with a situation that is likely to affect others. In terms of the Act, it is illegal for a mixed union to extend its interests, or its area of operation, unless it does so in respect of one racial group only (either White or Coloured and/or Asian). This union wished to recruit White members employed in a large new undertaking and, to do this, was forced to state that it would in future expand in respect of Whites. In consequence it is now unable to take in new areas of employment for Non-Whites. When a further group of Non-White employees in the industry wished to become trade unionists, it was necessary to form a separate organization for them. There is likely, however, to be close liaison between the two bodies. Groups of Afrikaner nationalist workers have been using the machinery provided by the Act to break away from older-established unions that have a mixed membership. AFRICAN TRADE UNIONS Although African trade unions cannot be registered and are not officially recognized, their membership has grown fast in recent years, although it is still only a little over half that claimed by the I.C.U. in 1927. According to information supplied by the coordinating bodies there were 20,075 members in 1958, while by 1961 the total had increased to 59,952. In large numbers of cases there is a close liaison between African unions and the parallel White or Coloured body. Difficulties experienced by African trade unions are outlined below. MEMBERSHIP OF TRADE UNIONS IN 1961 The table that follows shows the membership of trade unions in 1961, according ,to the co-ordinating bodies to which they are affiliated('). These bodies are, firstly, the S.A. Confederation of Labour, which is made up of the right-wing Co- ordinating Council (7) Membership figures claimed by the co-ordinating bodies are stated. In some cases rival bodies have challenged these figures. A few unions are affiliated to more than one body: in such instances they are omitted in the figures for one or other of these. This affects the membership of the S.A. Federation of Trade Unions. Some of the unaffiliated unions did not send their membership figures. In a few cases their racial composition has had to be surmised. Their membership has been estimated by deducting known figures, in respect of the unions that did send returns, from total figures for all the unions, which were kindly supplied by the Secretary for Labour.

206 A SURVEY OF RACE of S.A. Trade Unions, the S.A. Federation of Trade Unions and the Federal Consultative Council of S.A. Railways and Harbours Staff Associations. These bodies approve in general of the Government's policies of job reservation, the separation of Coloured and White workers into segregated unions or branches, and the nonrecognition of African unions. The centre group is the S.A. Trade Union Council (T.U.C.), which is opposed to these policies but which has decided that in existing circumstances in South Africa it should confine membership to registered unions, thus excluding African ones. Its officials give a considerable amount of assistance, however, to the African body known as Fofatusa (the Federation of Free African Trade Unions of S.A.). Further to the left is the S.A. Congress of Trade Unions (Sactu), which affords equal rights to registered and African unions, and which is a member of the Congress Group because of its belief that it must participate in political action in order to achieve the abolition of laws and policies that discriminate against Non- White workers. Sactu's annual conference was to have commenced on 31 March 1961. Two days beforehand the Minister of Justice, acting under the Suppression of Communism Act, prohibited this organization from meeting during the period 31 March to 30 June inclusive. However, as many of the delegates had arrived early, it was decided to "beat the ban" by holding a meeting on the evening of 30 March. Membership of the co-ordinating bodies and the unaffiliated unions is as follows in 1961: Co-Ordinating body Number of members No. of unions White Coloured Asian African S.A. Confederation: Co-ordinating Council 12 22,293 --Federation ...... 9 48,176 175 - S.A.R. and H ...... 7 79,689 - Total ...... 28 150,158 175 T.U.C...... 49 110,427 44,726 11,850 Fofatusa ...... 17 - - - 18,385 Sactu ...... 46 498 12,384 1,650 38,791 Total ...... 112 110,925 57,110 13,500 57,176 Unaffiliated ...... 108 49,344 19,444 4,233 2,776 Combined totals ...... 248 310,427 76,729 17,733 59,952 The combined total membership of all the unions is 464,841 Of the White trade unionists, 48.2 per cent belong to the rightwing bodies. 32.2 per cent to the central T.U.C.. 0.1 per cent to the

RELATIONS:1961 207 left-wing Sactu, and the remaining 19.5 per cent to unaffiliated unions. Numbers of unions with a large Afrikaans-speaking membership are amongst those that are unaffiliated. A majority of both the Coloured and the Indian trade unionists belongs to centre- of-the-road and to mixed White/Coloured unions. Of the Coloured, 0.2 per cent are in unions affiliated to the Federation, 58.6 per cent in T.U.C. unions, 15.9 per cent in Sactu unions, and 25.2 per cent in neutral unaffiliated bodies. Corresponding figures for the Indians are 67.4 per cent T.U.C., 9.1 per cent Sactu, and 23.5 per cent unaffiliated. According to the writer's investigations, the Coloured and Indian members of the T.U.C. feel it is to their material advantage to retain this membership. The unions are able to give them considerable assistance. Furthermore, there is a large amount of unemployment amongst these people, particularly the Indians; workers are anxious to preserve their jobs and are afraid that association with left-wing bodies may lead to their dismissal. However, there are left-wing minorities within some of the T.U.C. unions. Members of the unaffiliated unions state that they prefer to remain neutral until such time as a non-political and non-racial co- ordinating body is set up on a nation-wide basis. Of the Africans, 64.7 per cent are in Sactu unions, 4.6 per cent in unaffiliated unions, and 30.7 per cent in Fofatusa unions. Reasons why Sactu has a larger African than a Coloured and Indian membership may include the exclusion of Africans from other co-ordinating bodies and from industrial councils, their inability to join registered unions, and the readiness of the left-wingers to help them to organize and to train leaders. It was suggested to the writer that another reason may be that Africans have the greater ebulliency: they feel that the future is with them. But Indian and Coloured trade unionists do not share this feeling of ultimate victory. They are in danger of being crushed between White and Black nationalisms, they are living in a state of insecurity, and they want at least to preserve their jobs. There are, however, many difficulties facing African trade unions. They have no official status, and, because of the migratory labour system, they generally have a fluctuating membership. Many, if not most, of the leaders lack adequate training and experience. Numbers of those who have been longest in the movement have, under the Suppression of Communism Act, been ordered to resign from their unions or are banned from attending meetings. Strikes by Africans are illegal, and it has also been rendered illegal for Africans to represent workers before industrial councils or conciliation boards, and for employers to collect their trade union dues or benefit fund subscriptions by means of stop-orders. Because the control of influx to the towns has been very much tightened, Africans are nervous about voicing complaints in case they are dismissed and then ordered out. It has been made more and more difficult for African unions to find office accommodation or places in which to hold meetings. THE WORKING OF THE NATIVE LABOUR (SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES) ACT THE MACHINERY OF THE ACT The Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) Act, No. 48 of 1953 as amended by Act 59 of 1955, has been summarized in earlier volumes of this Surveys). Briefly, the Act provides for White Native Labour Officers to act as intermediaries between workers and employers, for nominated African Regional Native Labour Committees, sitting under the chairmanship of these officials, to assist them, and for a central (White) Native Labour Board as a court of appeal. Works committees may be set up in industrial or commercial establishments that employ not less than twenty Africans. This Act does not apply to Africans employed in agriculture, mining or domestic service, or by governmental or educational services. Native Labour Officers and Regional Committees have been appointed on the Witwatersrand and in Pretoria, Durban, East London, Port Elizabeth and Cape Town. In the Assembly on 17 March 1961 the Deputy Minister of the Interior tabled a list of the members of these committees9). REPRESENTATIONS IN REGARD TO WAGES Whenever an industrial council or a conciliation board is to meet to discuss matters which may affect conditions of work for Africans, the Native Labour Board must be informed. If this industrial body is organized on a national basis an official of the Board may attend the meeting to watch the interests of the Africans. Otherwise, a local Native Labour Officer may be instructed to attend. Informal negotiations with individual employers also take place. Government officials maintain that African workers have benefited considerably as a result of this work. The Deputy Minister of Labour said in the Assembly on 7 April 1961(10) that in 1959 wage increases which varied from 32-c to R18.96 a month were obtained in respect of 183,000 Africans; and in 1960 increases ranging from 51c to R12.67 per month were brought about for a further 135,000 workers. (,) 1952-3, pagec 79; 1954-5, page 168. (9) Hansaid S col. 3158. (10) Hansard 11 co!. 4107. 208 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1961 209 These improvements in wages were decided upon at meetings Lttended by Labour Department officials; but they did not necessarily result from representations they made. Officials informed the writer that they do not intervene unless they are asked to cxpress an opinion or unless, in their view, the proposed wages are well below those paid for similar work in other industries in the Ltrea concerned. African trade unionists state that their wages are generally well below the minimum required to provide a family with the bare essentials of living. Therefore, if they were permitted direct representation at these meetings, they would probably ask for higher wages than the prevailing averages, and might well obtain more than the officials secure on their behalf. HANDLING OF LABOUR DISPUTES No recent information has been published about the number of labour disputes that have been settled by Native Labour Officers and Regional Committees. Officials informed the writer that they try to prevent disputes wherever possible. Both employers and workers are urged to report any dissatisfaction or sign of unrest. When disputes do occur the officials try to settle them as amicably as possible, without publicity. The African workers are interviewed apart from the employers, and are given full opportunity of explaining their grievances. They are warned of the penalties for striking. Members of the Regional Committees may be asked to intercede. If a dispute cannot be settled locally, officials of the central Board visit the area concerned to conduct a full investigation. Should they also be unsuccessful, the matter is referred to the Wage Board. When a stoppage of work does occur, the Africans are not prosecuted if the matter was due to a misunderstanding, the officials state, or if the employer was in any way at fault, or if the stoppage was not a strike as defined in the Act-in general, it constitutes a strike only if it is accompanied by actual demands made on the employer. If an illegal strike does occur, however, a report is made to the Public Prosecutor. It is undoubted that the Labour Department has successfully settled large numbers of disputes. Its officials are, however, distrusted by many African workers, particularly trade unionists. The latter possibly fail to realize that the function of these officials, as laid down in the Act, is to keep the peace, and not to act as advocates specifically for the workers. Numbers of Africans told the writer they feel that the Labour Department tends to side with the employers and works hand- in-glove with the police. Africans who are politically aware resent the paternalistic nature of the system, and ask for the same freedom as others possess to negotiate directly with their employers and to organize without restrictions with the aim of improving their status and working conditions.

A SURVEY OF RACE WORKS COMMITTEES The Deputy Minister of Labour said in the Assembly on 17 May 1961FI that sixteen works committees then existed. The Labour Department states that three more have since been formed under its auspices; and others have been created independently by individual employers. The writer investigated the functioning of a number of these committees. It would appear that many of them are doing very useful work in bringing management and labour into closer touch, enabling the workers' views and problems to be brought to the employers' notice, and the employers' policy and plans to be explained to their employees. Trade unionists state, however, that these committees do not meet all requirements, for through them the workers can organize on a factory basis only, and the full collective bargaining system cannot operate. STRIKES OR LOCKOUTS OF AFRICAN WORKERS According to official information, 33 strikes of African workers took place in 1960 despite the efforts of the Labour Department. They involved 2,199 Africans, 364 of whom were prosecuted and 294 convicted. When this information was given, one case was pending. Some of the major strikes or lockouts that occurred during the period under review are described below("). Port Elizabeth bus strike Towards the end of 1960, the manager of the company that runs the buses in Port Elizabeth asked the African staff to accept a system in terms of which single- decker buses serving the African townships would be operated by drivers only. Passengers would obtain tickets from ground conductors at the terminus in New Brighton Township and at two terminii in town. This arrangement was accepted for a trial period, but dissatisfaction with it mounted amongst the bus staff and also the passengers. Finally, on 10 January 1961, the African staff put various demands in regard to pay and overtime to the manager, and stated that unless he agreed to provide conductors on the single- decker buses, these would all remain at the depot on the following day. while the double-deckers would go slow. As the workers' demands were not met, these threats were carried out. As a result, most of the African public had to walk (11) lhnsatd 17 col. 6625. 02) More detailcd accOUnts are given in the publication South Alrican Trade Unionism, Op cit. 210

; tALATIONS: 1961 211 ,, avork. That afternoon, eleven employees who had apparently led Il dispute were dismissed, and armed police arrived at the depot. When news of this spread, all the bus drivers ceased work, so that 'o buses were operating. Each day thereafter the bus workers oported at the depot, but refused to go on duty unless their claims ,vere met. During the next few weeks the management recruited about hundred African employees to operate a skeleton bus service, but this was almost entirely boycotted. From 11 January to 21 February, when a temporary settlement was reached, members of the African public either walked between twelve and twenty-eight miles to and from work (the distance depending on where they were employed), or walked a considerable distance to make use of another bus service, or went by train. The Railways Administration put on extra trains to serve an additional 8,000 passengers per day. For a time the people walking to work were harassed by the police. Fearing that the situation was becoming explosive, the Institute of Race Relations made representations to the Government, following which there was less interference. As the result of a report by the Inspector of Labour, 193 busmen were charged with participation in an illegal strike; but the magistrate granted an adjournment to enable the defence to prepare its case. It was rumoured that a general strike amongst the Africans of Port Elizabeth would commence on 20 February unless a settlement had been reached by then. Meanwhile, involved negotiations were taking place between leaders of commerce and industry, the management of the bus company and the Africans. It was eventually decided that the company would take back all the workers on their previous conditions of service, pending negotiations for a new agreement between the parties. If full agreement could not be reached, remaining points in dispute would be referred to a tribunal with a retired judge as chairman and two other members, one appointed by the management and the other, an African, by the workers. The findings of the tribunal would be binding on both parties. The busmen lost their wages for the period during which they had not been on duty. In spite of this settlement, the Attorney-General for the Eastern Cape announced that the case against the workers would be proceeded with. Later he agreed to accept admissions of guilt, and the bus company offered to lend R15 to each of its employees concerned to enable them to pay the sum imposed. The employees accepted this arrangement. As full agreement on conditions of service could not be reached between the company and the workers, an arbitration tribunal sat during April. At the time of writing its findings had not been made

A SURVEY OF RACE public, but in the meanwhile the company had raised wages and made acceptable modifications to the one-man bus system. Natal leather workers During November 1960 about 4,500 Indian and African leather workers in Natal, who were dissatisfied with the terms of a new industrial council agreement, came out on strike, demanding higher wages. As this action had not been authorized by the executive committee of the National Union of Leather Workers, strike pay was refused. Forty-nine Indian leaders were prosecuted, and on being found guilty of striking illegally received average sentences of R8 or seven days. No action was taken against the Africans because, in the opinion of the authorities, they had been led into the strike against their better judgment. Strikes organized by Sactu (a) Hospital workers, Durban During August 1961, about 300 African nurses, student nurses and labourers at the King George V Hospital in Durban staged an eight-hour walk-out following the alleged caning of eleven students by a White member of staff. They also complained about their meals and began a boycott of these, being supplied with food by Sactu. A few days later the Durban Hospital Workers' Union (affiliated to Sactu) sent a memorandum to the Superintendent demanding better meals, minimum wages of R3 a day for seniors and R2 for students, maids and labourers, free uniforms. and certain special allowances (13) After two weeks of tension, twenty nurses were dismissed, and the other members of the trade union were told that unless they resigned before the end of the month they. too, 'would be discharged. They apparently did resign. (b) Match workers, Durban In March 1961 about 360 African members of the Match and Timber Workers' Union staged a demonstration at the Lion Match Company, demanding wages of R2 a day. The employers agreed to make certain wage concessions, granting higher pay than that laid down in the relevant wage determination. They also introduced a non-contributory pension scheme, and made available free of charge the services of a factory doctor and medicines he prescribed. It was stated that later, during August, one of the trade union leaders was dismissed. About half of the African workers tried. unsuccessfully, to see the manager in regard to his re-instatement, (13) Natal Mercury, 10 August. 212

,t,:j__\-lONS: 1961 213 :j then staged a demonstration during the lunch break. The ii~oicc were summoned. When the men failed to return to work, .ifter having been warned by the management that they would *, therwise be dismissed, and failed to disperse after having been ,rdered to do so by the police, 140 of them were arrested. Of iese. 136 were found guilty of participation in an illegal strike and \\Crc each sentenced to a fine of R10 or ten days. All lost their jobs. (c, Walter and Deane, Pinetown During March 1961 about 60 African employees of Messrs. Walter and Deane in Pinetown, Natal, sought an interview with the manager to demand an increase in pay. As they refused to obey an order to return to work the police and Labour Department officials were summoned. Those who had ceased work were arrested, convicted of having participated in an illegal strike, and fined an average of R10 each. (d) Toy workers, Johannesburg African women employees at the Clayton Products toy factory in Johannesburg, who were receiving R3 a week, decided during September 1960 to write "Please, we want more" on their pay envelopes before handing these back. According to the manageress they then stopped working. The women were dismissed; but Sactu then intervened and the workers were taken back at increased rates of pay. In spite of the fact that the dispute had been settled, two months later 43 African women were charged for participating in an illegal strike. The magistrate acquitted them, on the ground that there was conflicting evidence as to whether a lock-out or strike had in fact occurred. (e) Blind workers, Durban During August 1961, eighty sightless Africans, who were employed by the Natal Bantu Blind Society (a charitable institution) on making cane furniture and basketry, went on strike in a demand for higher wages. After a break-down in discussions they were dismissed and told that if they wished to return they would have to re-apply. All but thirteen of them were later re-engaged. EMPLOYMENT OF AFRICAN JUVENILES URBAN AREAS The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said in the Assembly on 14 February04) that an inter-departmental committee, under the chairmanship of the Deputy Minister, was Hansard 4 of 1961, col. 1262.

A SURVEY OF RACE investigating the problems connected with idle and unemployed Africans, including juveniles. The question of the training of juveniles to become useful and law-abiding citizens was included in the terms of reference. It is understood that this committee has asked major local authorities to supply it with information about the number of Africans in their areas, the number attending school, and how many are in or out of employment. It seems likely, unless influx control is relaxed, that it will become increasingly difficult for Africans from the farming areas and Reserves to find employment in the larger towns, except possibly in types of work that are not popular amongst urban Africans, for example domestic service or heavy labouring work. The reason is that there are large numbers of juveniles growing up in these areas for whom employment will eventually have to be found. In an address given at the National Management Conference in Durban in July 1960("5) Mr. Harry Goldberg said that in the Johannesburg area there were about 175,000 children under twenty years old, and each year about 7,000 reached the employable age. By 1966 this figure would probably have increased to between 10,000 and 12,000 in Johannesburg, and between 60,000 and 70,000 in South Africa as a whole. The Johannesburg municipality has a scheme in terms of which as many as possible of the unemployed African boys of between fifteen and eighteen years of age are enrolled and kept occupied until work can be found for them. After details of their aptitudes and physical capacity have been taken they are sent to the vocational training centre at Dube Township, where physical training and sporting activities are arranged for them and meals of soup and bread provided. Alberton municipality and officials of the Peri-Urban Areas Health Board at Alexandra Township have instituted schemes similar to that operating in Boksburg('6) for arranging light morning employment, under careful supervision, for teams of African boys under sixteen years of age who are not at school. Meals and transport are provided. The Institute of Race Relations is undertaking a sample survey of the work actually found by Non-White children in Johannesburg on leaving school at various levels. FARMING AREAS At its meeting in November 1960(17) the Cape Provincial Synod of the Anglican Church denounced the system in force in Zululand in terms of which labour tenants and members of their families over eight years of age may be required to work for the owner of (15) "The Impact of the Bantu on Consumer Markets and Purchasim, Pov.. '!6) See 1958-59 Survey, page 305. (I-) Rand Daily Mail, 26 November 1960. 214

RELATIONS: 1961 215 the farm for six months each year. The farmer's written consent must be obtained for the children to attend school during this period. It was stated that many farmers withhold such consent, with the result that the children can go to school for half the year only. EMPLOYMENT IN VARIOUS BRANCHES OF THE ECONOMY AGRICULTURE Numbers employed and wages During the year under review a report was published on agricultural and pastoral production and sugar cane plantations in 1957-58(18). This covers all land holdings in rural areas and those of one morgen or more in extent in urban areas, the products of which are intended for sale. It states that during the month of June 1958 the numbers of owners or tenants and the members of their families who were actually engaged in farm work were 93,217 White men, 33,271 White women, 4,432 Non-White men and 1,640 Non- White women. The employees on farms of Whites were as follows: Domestic servants Regular farm Seasonal and employees casual workers Whites: Men ...... - 12,976 2,137 Women ...... 102 386 203 Coloured and Asians: Men ...... 1,010 94,401 101,038 Women ...... 21,052 5,374 29,019 Africans: Men ...... 11,490 621,911 383,480 Women ...... 111,843 81,224 273.353 The employees on farms of Coloured and Asians were: Domestic servants Regular farm Seasonal and employees casual workers Coloured and Asians: Men ...... 5 428 495 Women ...... 27 35 83 Africans: Men ...... 46 1,536 2,342 Women ...... 174 575 1,403 Details are given of the total cash wages paid to employees during the year ended 30 June 1958, and of the value of payments made in kind to workers of each racial group; but as the wages of adults and juveniles are combined it is impossible to arrive at accurate average figures. 08~) U.G. 70/1960.

Crops produced and stock owned In this report, information is given about the production of maize and kaffir corn during the year ended 30 August 1958. The amounts produced, in 200-1b bags, were: Maize Kaffir corn Whites ...... 31,688,949 1,361,527 Coloured ...... 8,538 922 Asians ...... 4,220 582 Africans on farms of Whites ... 2,830,511 231,615 Africans in the Reserves ...... 2,522,465 456,923 The cattle, sheep and goats owned by members of the different groups in 1958 were: Cattle Sheep Goats Whites ...... 6,984,742 34,496,592 1,713,387 Coloured ...... 15,331 104,475 66,876 Asians...... 6,512 1,078 1,445 Africans on farms of Whites 1,261,145 362,158 584,797 Africans in the Reserves ... 3,816,355 3,419,594 2,665,017 Conference called by Eastern Cape Coastal Agricultural Union During August 1961 the Eastern Cape Coastal Agricultural Union called a conference to consider the report of the Commission of Inquiry into European Occupancy of the Rural Areas(9) and to discuss ways of improving the productivity of Non-White farm labour. A spokesman for the Institute of Race Relations pointed out how low Non-White farm wages were, and urged that minimum rates of pay should be laid down. It seemed that these views were generally acceptable; but farmers felt that spectacular improvements could not be made until the general efficiency and productivity of labourers improved. The fear was expressed that unemployment might result: numbers of workers would possibly become redundant if training schemes were introduced and wages increased, and influx control would make it impossible for these people to be absorbed in the towns. The conference decided to ask various organizations to comment on whether the Government should be asked to introduce a minimum wage for farm workers, and what the basis for such a wage should be. It was also agreed to press for the establishment of regional schools at which outstanding young workers could be given an elementary technical education. Inquiry into the labour tenant system An inter-departmental committee of enquiry, headed by Mr. J. A. F. Nel, M.P., has completed a report on the labour tenant system, in terms of which the head of an African family and/or (i,,) Sec 1959-60 Survey page 198. 216 A SURVEY OF RACE one or more of his dependants work for a farmer for part of the year in exchange for the family's right to live on his farm and, usually, to run cattle on a portion of it and to cultivate a piece of ground. The committee condemned this system, and in particular the practice of requiring minor children to carry out contracts of service. It recommended that the entire scheme should be abolished within seven years. For a start, in cases where the head of a family worked full-time in an urban area, his dependants should be removed to a town in an African area. Where the head of the family himself carried out the contract, attractive conditions should be provided to encourage him to become a full-time farm worker. The committee suggested that the present Labour Tenant Control Board should be converted into a Labour Control Board, its scope being widened. It should appoint inspectors who, inter alia, would investigate the accommodation provided for farm labourers, which, the committee stated, often left much to be desired("). MANUFACTURING According to the official Bulletin of Statistics, during 1960 there were averages of 208,900 Whites, 125,800 Asians and Coloured and 357,000 Africans employed in private manufacturing. Average salaries and wages were R1,826 for the Whites, R571 for the Coloured and Asians, and R348 for the Africans. MINING The same publication states that in 1960, on average, 65,005 Whites, 3,438 Coloured, 429 Asians and 524,176 Africans were engaged in mining and quarrying. In this case the average cash salaries and wages were R2,327 for the Whites, R327 for the Coloured and Asians, and R140 for the Africans. The Africans also received free food, accommodation, medical treatment, certain items of clothing and other benefits, the estimated value of which is not stated. As had also been the case the previous year, both the actual number and the percentage of Africans employed by members and contractors of the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association who were drawn from within the borders of South Africa increased slightly from 1959 to 1960. Statistics as at 31 December 1960 were(2"): Number Percentage South Africa ...... 145,437 36.67 High Commission Territories ...... 72,960 18.39 East Coast and Tropical Territories ... 178,293 44.94 396,690 100.00 (20) Star report. 28 Ju!y 1961. (21) From the annual report of W.N.L.A. for 1960. RELATIONS: 1961 217

218 A SURVEY OF RACE It has been said that it may become difficult for the mining industry to recruit as many African workers as it needs from the Tropical Territories if the governments of these states decide not to co-operate(2). However, at present the industry has an adequate supply of labour from these territories, and there are insufficient avenues of employment for the workers in their home countries. CONSTRUCTION The Bulletin of Statistics, states, too, that during 1960 there were, on average, 22,300 Whites, 11,300 Asians and Coloured and 70,500 Africans employed in private construction. Their average salaries and wages were R1,890, R753 and R338 respectively. The African figure would be slightly higher if the skilled building workers employed by local authorities had been included. COMMERCE The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said in the Assembly on 28 April 1961(23) that 223,946 Africans were employed by Whites in commerce. No recent figures are available relating to other racial groups, or to self-employed Africans or those working for Indian and Coloured traders. An educational Trust, the Commercial Training Association, was formed in Johannesburg during 1960 with assistance from several large firms in the city. Its chairman is Mr. Quintin Whyte, Director of the Institute of Race Relations. Early in 1961 it commenced running classes in Orlando for African businessmen in such subjects as shop management, book-keeping, company law, advertising, banking, insurance and salesmanship. An African business-man, Mr. A. Mopedi, is to erect a building in Orlando West to rehouse private classes run for Johannesburg Africans in shorthand and typing, book-keeping, dressmaking and tailoring. Classes in cooking will then also be provided(24). A new publication entitled The African Businessman was launched in September 1961. Restrictions on the number of branches which banking institutions may establish in African townships(2") have been lifted. The National Development Foundation has been assisting leading Indian commercial men in Durban to organize management and business training for Indian traders, and recently announced plans to provide training in management for African business and professional men 26. (22) Star, 4 April 1961. (23) Hansard 14 col. 5518. (24) Digest of South African Affairs. 26 May 1961. (-) See 1957-58 Survey, page 172. (26) Star. 6 June and 22 September 1961.

THE PUBLIC SERVICE AND RAILWAYS ADMINISTRATION Employment figures for 1960, as given in the Bulletin of Statistics, are : Whites Coloured Asians Africans Public Service excluding Post Office ...... 73,800 7,500 700 97,400 Post Office and Communications ...... 31,698 2,553 68 7,218 Railways ...... 109,461 9,810 625 96,678 Average salaries and wages in the Railways Administration were R1,690 for Whites and R294 for Non-Whites. So far as other branches of the Public Services are concerned, only a total wage figure for all racial groups was given. In a statement made to a Select Committee on Public Accounts, the Commissioner for Inland Revenue is reported(27) to have described the quantity and quality of staff available in his department to be "hopelessly inadequate". Recruiting was carried out almost entirely from one section of the population. "The chronic shortage of manpower in the class from which permanent appointments may be made makes it inevitable that the ratio of satisfactory to unsatisfactory recruits is at a level far below the ratio found in commerce and industry", he said. The Chairman of the Public Service Commission is reported to have told the Select Committee it appeared that the country's available White manpower was not adequate for the work which had to be done, and that the Public Service could expect to continue suffering from a chronic shortage. In an address given to a Railway trade union during October 1961, the General Manager of Railways is reported(28) to have referred to the "White labour policy" in the Public Service. Some of the work that the White railwaymen were doing, he said, was already being done by Non-Whites in industry. He advised them to be careful lest they were left behind. "The writing is already on the wall: it could happen in this generation if you are too smug to notice the signs of the times". Commenting on the report of the Select Committee on Public Accounts, a leading article in the National Business Executive of Southern Africa stated("), "The White public servant is in what amounts to sheltered employment". The Departments of Police, Justice, Prisons, Transport and Posts and Telegraphs offer limited opportunities for Non-White advancement, generally in the service of their own people, as do the Departments of Coloured Affairs and Bantu Administration (27) Rand Daily Mail, 15 April 1961. (28) Star, 3 October. (29) Star report, 6 June. RELATIONS: 1961 219 and Development for members of the racial groups concerned. The very large majority of the posts for Non-Whites in the Public Service are, however, for unskilled labourers. Several awards were made to Non-White policemen during the year under review. In presenting the Queen's Gold Medal to Sergeant J. Meno, the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development is reported(3") to have said that the award was made for exceptional bravery and devotion to duty "seldom surpassed in the history of the S.A. Police". Medals for bravery were also awarded to Constable G. Mkize, (posthumously) to Constable M. Dhlovu, to Constable E. Walters, to Railway Constable J. Phaka, and others. Detective P. Ndhlapo, who was killed while arresting an escaped prisoner, was given a funeral with full military honours. PERSONAL SERVICES A very well-equipped restaurant for Non-Whites has been opened at the Johannesburg station. It can seat 250, and attached to it is a cafeteria that can cater for 150 persons. A new hotel for Non-Whites, called the Taj Mahal, has been built at Raisethorpe, part of the Indian group area of Pietermaritzburg. Further hotels of high standard are to be erected in the predominantly Indian areas of Burghersdorp in Johannesburg, the Warwick Avenue area of Durban (the Etna), and the Clairwood area of Durban (the New Moon)("). During 1960 the Local Road Transportation Board of the Cape Peninsula decided that a taxi-owner must employ drivers of the same race group as the passengers he was authorized to carry. After several appeals had been made to it, the National Transport Commission referred the matter back to the local board for further consideration. It was eventually decided that a few Coloured taxi-owners who had conveyed Whites for a number of years would be permitted to continue doing so until the end of 1961, when the matter would be reviewed(32). According to an article by the Director of Bantu Labour in the issue of Bantu for April, there are about 400,000 Africans employed as domestic servants. THE PROFESSIONS Medicine It was also stated in the April issue of Bantu that in 1959 there were 67 African medical practitioners and 18 interns registered with the Medical and Dental Council. The numbers of Coloured and Asian doctors were not given. (30) Rand Daily Mail, 18 April. (31) Sunday Times, 9 July, and Rand Daily Mail, 21 September. (32) Cape Argus, 19 January. 220 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1961 One of the Africans, Dr. Rex Tatane, qualified at the University of the Witwatersrand with the assistance of a Bantu Welfare Trust scholarship, and received subsequent training at the St. John Ophthalmic Hospital in Johannesburg. During 1961 the S.A. National Council for the Blind granted him a scholarship to complete his specialist training in London30). An Indian who has done most useful work is Dr. Dorasamy Chetty, a graduate of the University of the Witwatersrand and the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. He worked for some years for the World Health Organization studying malaria eradication programmes in the Far East, and then was put in charge of an international team of 60 whose task it was to wipe out malaria in Mysore, India. After his period of service there had ended he was anxious to return to work in South Africa, but as he could not find a post that would enable him to practise and teach preventive medicine he was forced to enter private practice as a general practitioner'4). Dr. M. V. Gumede has been appointed Bantu District Surgeon for the district of Mapumulo in Zululand. The article in Bantu, quoted above, stated that African doctors appointed to Grade III posts in the Government service were paid on the scale R1,200 x 60 - R1,560 plus cost-of-living allowance. The scale for Grade II posts was R1,620 x 84 - R2,040. Africans had the same leave and pension privileges as the White doctors. Nursing This article stated, too, that in 1959 there were 1,859 qualified African general nurses, 2,205 who had also trained as midwives, and 569 qualified in midwifery only. There were 2,779 African pupil nurses and midwives. Twenty-two centres provided nursing training, eleven training in midwifery, and at seven centres mental training was available. In 1958-59, in Transvaal hospitals, there were ten African matrons, 92 sisters, 116 staff nurses grade I, 133 staff nurses grade II, 192 nursing assistants, 1,205 student nurses, 347 male orderlies, 422 women orderlies, five trained radiographers and one sisterradiographer. Salary scales (to which cost-of-living allowances are added) were: Staff nurse grade II... R480 x 20 - R600 - R660 Staff nurse grade I ... R660 x 60 - R840 Sister ...... R720 x 60 - R1,080 Matron ...... R1,080 x 60 - R1,200 A two-year course of training for African and Coloured sister-tutors was started at the Baragwanath Hospital at the begin- (33) Rand Daily Mail, 15 September. (34) Star, 6 September.

A SURVEY OF RACE ning of 1961; and a course leading to a diploma in nursing has been instituted at the Natal Medical School. Other professions During the year under review several Indian educationalists have been offered senior posts or awarded fellowships. Dr. S. Cooppan of the Department of Economics at the University of Natal was selected by the Government of Brazil to assist in research on the co-ordination of educational and economic development programmes there. Dr. A. D. Lazarus, principal of Sastri College in Durban, was invited by the United States Government to study university and college systems in America. Dr. M. B. Naidoo, also of Sastri College, was appointed as associate professor of geography at the Trenton State University, New Jersey. Mr. Jack Naidoo, vice-principal of the M. L. Sultan Technical College in Durban, was awarded a fellowship to enable him to study the development of technical and higher education in India. Mr. H. M. Dyazi, of the staff of the University College of Fort Hare, received a scholarship from the Institute of International Education, New York, to enable him to study at Yale and afterwards at the University of Illinois. Mr. Nimrod Mkele has been appointed a public relations officer for a well-known firm of soft drink manufacturers. Mr. Ezekiel Mphahlele, formerly of Pretoria, has been appointed director of the African programme of the Congress of Cultural Freedom, and will be stationed in Paris. Mr. B. M. Kies is the first Coloured man at the Cape to be admitted as an advocate of the Supreme Court. EDUCATION LEGISLATION UNION EDUCATION ADVISORY COUNCIL BILL The Union Education Advisory Council Bill was again introduced in Parliament in 1961, and was referred to a Select Committee after its first reading. It provides that a Union Education Advisory Council is to be appointed by the Minister of Education, Arts and Science, to consist of not less than seven and not more than twelve members, including one person from each province who has special knowledge of education matters there and is recommended by the Administrator concerned. Members will be appointed in a fulltime capacity for periods not exceeding five years. The Minister will designate the chairman and vice-chairman.

RELATIONS:1961 223 This council will advise the Minister in regard to the policy to be adopted in connection with the education of White persons. Specific questions may be referred to it by the Minister or an Administrator. It may appoint standing and other committees, the chairman of any such committee being a member of the Council. After consultation with the Administrator and any other Minister concerned, the Minister may appoint a committee consisting of a member of the Council as chairman and two other persons to carry out, at any State, Provincial or Aided school, such investigation as he directs in connection with any matter affecting the basic principles of education. No proposed legislation relating to the education of White persons shall be introduced in Parliament or a provincial council except after prior consultation with the Minister and any other interested Minister of State or Administrator. Opposition speakers, who resisted the Minister's motion for leave to introduce the Bill, said(') that the measure would enable the Government, through the Council, to interfere with the domestic affairs of schools, and to make inroads on the powers of the Provincial Administrations. The Governor-General would be able to withhold consent if the provinces introduced ordinances of which the Minister had disapproved. It was feared that the Nationalist Party was attempting to enforce its ideology, particularly in connection with the Christian National Education policy. It is reported(2) that 80,000 people signed protests against the Bill. BANTU EDUCATION AMENDMENT ACT, NO. 55 OF 1961 In the Bantu Education Amendment Act of 1961 the definition of "Secretary" was widened to enable Regional Directors, or administrative officers under their control, to deal with such matters as the appointment of school committees or the granting of building subsidies for additional classrooms. The Department was empowered to assist financially with the establishment of school hostels. The principal Act provided that no-one may establish or conduct a Bantu or Native school which has not been registered. The Amendment Act deleted the last five words, and stated that such schools may not be established or registered unless they conform to the requirements for registration and have been registered with the Department or exempted from registration. The Minister of Bantu Education explained(3) that as the original Act had pro(1) Assembly, 2 May 1961, Hansard 15 cols. 5695-9. (2) Rand Daily Mail, 3 May 1961. (3) Assembly, 9 June 1961, Hansard 19 col. 7720.

224 A SURVEY OF RACE vided only for registration, or the refusal or cancellation of registration, the exemptions he had granted had in effect been ultra vires. This situation was now to be remedied. Various new provisions relating to registration were introduced, for example that the Minister may register a school for such period as he may specify, and unless this period is extended, when it expires the school will become disestablished and will cease to function even if it still conforms to the requirements for registration. The Minister said(4) that in various cases schools had previously been granted temporary certificates of registration, but it had been found that there was not provision for this in the Act. Temporary certificates had, for example, been granted to schools situated in townships which were to be removed. When the subsidies paid to Catholic schools ceased, more than 600 applied for registration as private schools, and temporary certificates were issued pending the consideration of individual cases. The Amentment Act makes it necessary for the Minister to afford a school an opportunity of making representations to him before he cancels its registration because of a breach of a specified condition. The principal measure empowered the Minister to impose any condition to which registration shall be subject; the Amendment Act added that he may from time to time rescind, revoke or vary such conditions or add further conditions, but before doing so must give the school the opportunity of making representations. The Minister said5) that from the beginning he had made registration subject to certain conditions, and one of these was that he could at any time review or alter them. This had been found to be ultra vires, thus the position was now being rectified. The Amendment Act empowered the Minister to make regulations prescribing requirements to which a school shall conform for registration and the form in which it shall apply for registration and be registered. It also corrected an error made in regulations issued in 1960, which omitted to state that school boards or committees which had been established in terms of 1955 regulations would continue to function until they had been re-appointed under the new ones. FINANCING OF BANTU EDUCATION ESTIMATES OF EXPENDITURE FOR 1961-62 The estimated expenditure from the Bantu Education Account for the year ending 31 March 1962 is(6): (4) Cols. 7721-2. (5) Col. 7723. (6) Estimates of Expenditure to be Defrayed from Revenue Account, U.G. 9:1961 and Additional Estimates.

RELATIONS: 1961 Salaries, wages and allowances ...... Other administrative costs, including examination expenses ...... Supplies and services ...... Bursaries and study loans to pupils ...... School feeding ...... Subsidies: Community schools ...... State-aided schools ...... Night and continuation classes ...... Financial assistance to community schools for capital expenditure ...... Redemption of loans from Loan Account for capital expenditure ...... Maintenance of university colleges: Fort H are ...... Zululand ...... The N orth ...... Ex-gratia payments to Churches for property taken over at Fort H are ...... R 3,055,000 915,000 677,800 40,400 80,000 13,071,800 1,861,800 2,000 240,000 147,700 489,900 191,900 272,700 7,600 ,053,600 The total anticipated expenditure is R669,600 greater than during the previous year. The amounts for school feeding and for night and continuation classes are reduced-very considerably so in the latter case-and nothing is provided for vacation courses and teachers' classes. The sum allocated for financial assistance to community schools for capital expenditure remains the same. Otherwise each item shows an increase, especially the sum needed for the redemption of loans. LIKELY INCREASE IN EXPENDITURE In a paper entitled "The Financing of Bantu Education", given at the 1961 Council meeting of the Institute of Race Relations(7), the then Secretary for Bantu Education, Mr. F. J. de Villiers, said that for the five years 1955-1960 the actual expenditure (excluding university colleges) had increased annuallyata rate of about 3.9 per cent compound interest. Assuming the rate of increase to be maintained at 3 per cent, the likely expenditure in the next few years would be: Schools University colleges Total RRR 1961-62 ...... 20,150,000 920,000 21,070,000 1962-63 ...... 20,854,000 960,000 21,814,000 1963-64 ...... 21,584.000 1,000,000 22,584,000 1964-65 ...... 22,340,000 1,000,000 23,340,000 (-) RR 64/61. Figures indicating sums of money have been converted to decimals. 225

REVENUE Mr. de Villiers said that the revenue of the Bantu Education Account for 1960-61 was: R Fixed contribution from Consolidated Revenue Account 13,000,000 Four-fifths of the general tax paid by Africans ...... 6,400,000 Miscellaneous receipts (boarding fees, etc.) ...... 500,000 R19,900,000 The estimated expenditure for 1960-61 exceeded the revenue by R484,000; but no deficit was expected because of a credit balance of about R1,284,000 that had been carried forward. Mr. de Villiers estimated that the revenue for the next four years would be: R 1961-62 ... 21,276,280 1962-63 ... 21,441,804 1963-64 ... 21,610,640 1964-65 ... 21,782,852 Assuming that his estimates are accurate, and allowing for the credit balance, it appears that by 1963-64 the expenditure will outstrip the revenue. He stated that by 1964 the whole position would have to be reviewed. MEANS BY WHICH EXPENDITURE HAS BEEN PRUNED Re-organization The expenditure on Bantu education had been kept as low as possible, Mr. de Villiers said, by the application of the following measures: (a) the introduction of double sessions in the sub-standards; (b) the policy of appointing, so far as possible, women teachers (with low qualifications) for the lower primary classes: (c) the grading of farm schools into junior and senior schools with a corresponding saving on salaries; (d) the diversion of school feeding funds to the expansion of educational facilities, where requested by school boards. Financing of buildings Numerous other methods have been used. Rents in municipal housing schemes have been increased by amounts up to 20c a month to pay for the erection of lower primary schools. School boards are expected to collect money for building higher primary and secondary schools and then to apply to the Department for grants on the R for R basis. 226 A SURVEY OF RACE

Equipment Far less equipment is supplied to African schools than was formerly the case. The equipment provided for the teaching of science, for example, is said to be most inadequate. Replacements of this equipment, and of that needed for classes in woodwork, homecrafts and arts and crafts are supplied on a R for R basis only. Very small allowances are made for libraries: of 2 c a head in lower primary classes, 5c a head in higher primary classes, and in secondary schools on a R for R basis to a maximum of 10c per pupil. The schools have to find the money needed for replacements of furniture and repairs to the buildings. Consequently school funds have been established, with revenue derived from bazaars, concerts or sales of work, and, in addition. pupils in secondary classes may be required by the school fund committee to make compulsory contributions amounting to not more than R1 per pupil per quarter. Those in vocational or technical schools or classes may be called upon to pay a further R6 a year8). Voluntary levies may be requested in addition to the compulsory subscriptions. Primary school pupils may be asked to make voluntary contributions, the maximum amounts being 5c a quarter in lower primary, and 20c a quarter in higher primary schools. School boards may collect up to 10 per cent of the revenue of each school committee in their areas. The pupils have to supply their own writing materials. The only text-books provided are readers in three languages, issued to primary schools annually on a basis of one-quarter of the enrolment (one-third in the sub-standards). The Department spends R50,000 annually on books for use by teachers. The parents have to buy school uniforms, also, according to a statement by the Minister of Bantu Educationd, they have to spend an average of R69.50 per child during the years he proceeds from Standard I to the Junior Certificate class, as follows: R49.40 for text-books, exercise books, atlases, slates, pens, pencils, erasers, ink, rulers, etc.; R15.60 for school fees; R4.50 for examination fees. The Natal Mercury'°) calculated that African parents pay three times as much in direct costs as do Whites. The disparity in examination fees was described in last year's SurveyP'). Leases of church buildings It has been decided that all leases contracted between the Department and churches for the use of halls or other church (8) R 2118 of 23 December 1960. (9) Assembly, 24 March 1961, Hansard 9 col. 3583. (10) 2 March 1961. (11) Page 218. RiELATIONS: 1961 227

228 A SURVEY OF RACE buildings used as schools will terminate at the end of 1961. Where necessary, new leases must be contracted between the churches and the local school boards. The school boards will be expected to pay the rentals as from the beginning of 1962, but where they are unable to do so, for example in large centres where numbers of church buildings are used, the boards may apply to the Department for a subsidy to cover part of the cost. PER CAPITA EXPENDITURE In the paper mentioned above, Mr. de Villiers gave figures showing the per capita expenditure on African education. The enrolment figures do not include pupils in unaided (mostly Roman Catholic) schools. Expenditure figures exclude amounts spent on the maintenance of university colleges. Capital expenditure on the loan account is omitted. but the redemption of loans actually paid has been included. A figure for 1960-61, subsequently given by the Deputy Minister of Bantu Administration and Development2', has been added to Mr. de Villiers's table. Year A mount Enrolment Per caput cost RR 1953-54 ... 16,032,494 938,211 17.08 1955 ...... 15,769,550 1,005,774 15.68 1956 ...... 17,277,660 1,090,601 15.88 1957 ...... 18,036,350 1,143,328 15.78 1958 ...... 17,990,126 1,259,413 14.28 1959 ...... 18,457,830 1,308,596 14.10 1959-60 ...19,473,200 1,411,157 13.80 1960-61 ... Not stated Not stated 13.60 (The 1959-60 expenditure figure is an estimate) As was mentioned in last year's SurveyP3), the latest year for which overall figures are available for pupils of other racial groups is 1953. In that year the per caput expenditure was R127.84 for White children, R40.42 for Coloured and Asians, and R17.99 for Africans(4). As Dr. Ellen Hellmann pointed out in a paper entitled "Some Comments on Bantu Education"("), these figures show the inadequate provision for African education relative to that for other racial groups. And the table given above makes it clear that the per caput expenditure on African pupils has actually been decreasing since the Bantu Education Act was passed in 1953. (12) Assembly, 7 March 1961, Hansard 7 col. 2520. (13) Page 210. (14) The last figure, given by the Department of Education. Arts and Science, differs from the one quoted by Mr. de Villiers. (15) RR 206/60.

RELATIONS: 1961 NUMBERS OF AFRICAN SCHOOLS AND PUPILS SCHOOLS AND TEACHING POSTS Mr. de Villiers gave the following information position on 30 June 1960: Type of school Community ... Farm ...... Government ... Scheduled ... Factory ...... M ine ...... Unaided Roman Catholic Totals ... ENROLMENT Number of schools ... 4,712 ... 1,698 ... 208 ... 22 ... 31 ... 79 ... 257 ... 714 7,721 Teaching posts Subsidized 19,649 2,816 1,375 335} 24,175 Unaided 1,102 44 412 1,913 3,485 Type of school Community ... Farm ...... Government ... Scheduled ... Factory ...... M ine ...... Lower primary 834,351 153,070 16,450 1,342 3,795 11,729 Higher primary 307,335 19,691 8,216 457 1,026 3,386 Secondary 32,935 11,650 184 Teacher training 320 3,946 Vocational training 15 1,259 Total 1,174,956 172,761 41,521 1,983 4,821 15,115 Total subsidized 1,020,737 340,111 44,769 4,266 1,274 1,411,157 Unaided ...... 17,227 1,028 608 29 267 19,159 R.C ...... 59,244 20,284 3,223 214 290 83,255 Total unaided 76,471 21,312 3,831 243 557 102,414 Grand total ... 1,097,208 361,423 48,600 4,509 1,831 1,513,571 The number of boys and girls were: Lower primary ... Higher primary ... Secondary ...... Teacher training ... Vocational training Boys ...... 558,253 ...... 169,362 ...... 24,503 ...... 814 1,103 754,035 Girls 538,955 192,061 24,097 3,695 728 759,536 as to the 229

230 A SURVEY OF RACE ADEQUACY OF PRIMARY SCHOOL FACILITIES Mr. de Villiers gave the following information relating to the year 1960: No. of African children Places available Percentage in 7-14 years age group in primary schools provided for Reserves ...... 851,600 696,000 81% Urban areas ...... 618,200 590,000 95% European farms ... 691,600 172,000 25% Total ...... 2,161,000 1,458,000 67% He pointed out that primary school facilities were available for most of the children in urban areas, and for a very high proportion of those living in the Reserves. Many of the available places were still occupied by pupils of over 14 years of age, but these formed a diminishing minority. A great deal of progress was still necessary in White farming areas. Attention was being given to this, however: 350 new farm schools had been established in the past three years. In the country as a whole, the backlog was being decreased by 60,000 places a year. The Transkei had already reached a school enrolment percentage almost as high as could be expected under a system of compulsory attendance. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOLARS Mr. de Villiers did not give the distribution of pupils by standards in 1960. The distribution by type of school can be calculated, however, and is here compared with figures for previous years given by Dr. Ellen Hellmann in the paper quoted above. Dr. Hellmann chose the year 1953, when the Bantu Education Act was passed, and dates five years before and five years after this. Type of school Percentages of pupils 1948 1953 1958 1960 Lower primary ... 76.0 72.3 74.2 72.8 Higher primary ... 21.6 24.1 22.7 24.0 Secondary ...... 2.5 3.5 3.1 3.2 Dr. Hellmann pointed out that between 1948 and 1953 the percentage of pupils in the sub-standards decreased, while there was an increase in all other standards up to Standard VIII (Junior Certificate). During the next five years the percentage in lower primary schools again rose, because of the introduction of double sessions in the sub-standards and the system of automatic promotion in force up to Standard II. It would appear that since 1958 the distribution of pupils has shown a slight improvement, probably because a proportion of the additional children enrolled in the sub-standards in 1955, when the double-session system was introduced, is proceeding further

RELATIONS: 1961 231 upwards in the schools. The position is still unsatisfactory, however, as is seen if the distribution figures for Africans are compared with those for other racial groups("). The latest available information reflects the position in June 1958. Coloured and Whites Asians Africans Sub-standards ...... 20.3 34.9 45.6 Stds I and IL ...... 19.9 28.3 28.6 Stds III and IV ... 19.7 20.5 14.8 Stds V and VI ...... 18.0 11.6 7.9 Stds VII and VIII ... 13.9 3.6 2.9 Stds IX and X ...... 6.0 1.0 0.2 Unclassified ...... 2.2 0.1 The percentages in lower primary classes (up to Std II) were 40.2 for Whites, 63.2 for Coloured and Asians, and 74.2 for Africans. MEDIAN AGES OF PUPILS According to the Official Year Book for 1960, the median ages of pupils in June 1958 were: Sub- All standards Std VI Std X scholars White boys ...... 7.00 13.73 17.58 11.10 99 girls ...... 7.00 13.65 17.42 11.05 Coloured and Asian boys ... 7.96 14.88 18.70 10.78 ...... girls ... 7.92 14.46 17.91 10.35 African boys ...... 9.37 16.63 19 plus 11.37 girls ...... 9.11 15.89 19 plus 11.16 VARIOUS CONDITIONS IN AFRICAN SCHOOLS PROMOTIONS In a paper entitled "Bantu Schools under Bantu Education''°7), Dr. A. B. Xuma quoted the terms of the Departmental circular No. 37 of 1960 on the promotion of pupils, which states: "(a) In Std I1 promotion will not be automatic. A pupil will be permitted to repeat this class once and if he fails again he will have to leave school. (b) In Stds III to VI... weak pupils will be permitted to repeat a class once, but where a pupil cannot attain the standard required for promotion at the second attempt, the principal must submit a detailed report concerning the pupil to the Inspector for final decision by the latter. (16) Percentages calculated by the writer from distribution figures ziven in the Official Year Book for 1960. (17) RR 11/61.

232 A SURVEY OF RACE (c) ... Where there is a waiting list at any school, over-age pupils (over 16 years) may not in any circumstances be allowed to remain in school. (d) Form I pupils obtaining an average mark of less than 30 per cent in the end of the year examination, and Form I and Form II pupils failing for a second time, must leave school. In exceptional cases the Inspector of Bantu Education may permit such pupils to return provided the principal can furnish sound reasons therefor". The Pretoria Joint Council of Europeans and Non-Europeans took up the question of Std II pupils with the Department of Bantu Education, and, in a letter dated 6 May 1961, was informed that where pupils attend regularly but nevertheless fail for a second time, it is probable that they are mentally retarded. The solution of this problem lay in the provision of special schools or classes for retarded children; but it had so far not been possible for the Department to establish such facilities. If the failure was due to illness or other circumstances beyond the control of the parents, however, the Department would give favourable consideration to parents' representations for the readmission of their children. Dr. Xuma commented that it was obvious that there was a very high rate of failures, "a situation unknown during the previous system of education". He stated that in Std VI there is an external examination in the vernacular. If he wishes to proceed to a secondary school a pupil must obtain a "continuation pass", that is, he must pass in the first or second classes. For a second class pass a student must obtain an average mark of at least 50 per cent. and must not fail more than two subjects. Students gaining an average mark of between 40 and 49 per cent get a third class pass and are entitled to a School Leaving Certificate, but if they wish to proceed further with their education they must repeat the class to try to obtain at least a second class pass. VERNACULAR MEDIUM In the paper mentioned above, Dr. Ellen Hellmann pointed out that there has been a general deterioration in standards since the introduction of the vernacular as the teaching medium up to and including Std VI. The production of handbooks for teachers and of text-books has lagged behind, especially so far as arithmetic is concerned. Teachers experience much difficulty. The standard of English has dropped perceptibly: for historic reasons this was previously usually the medium of instruction from about Std IV on. The insistence on complete equality of treatment of English and Afrikaans from the sub-standards onwards, and the little time given to each, is producing pupils with a very inferior ability in both official languages.

RELATIONS: 1961 233 FARM SCHOOLS Dr. Xuma said that a farm school is controlled by a manager, who may be the farm owner or the owner's appointee, and has exclusive powers in regard to the appointment or dismissal of teachers. As was mentioned in an earlier volume of this Survey('8, the Minister of Bantu Education stated in 1959 that part of the children's school instruction must be training in the normal activities on the farm. Farmers with schools on their properties may, if they wish, make use of the pupils under a teacher's supervision to assist with the work on the farm as part of the curriculum. The Minister added recently(9) that children wishing to attend these schools must obtain written consent from the farmer on whose land they live, and also from the owner of the farm on whose land the school is situated. Previously, he said, a farm school could be subsidized only if it had 25 pupils. It had now been decided that smaller schools, with at least 12 pupils, could also receive subsidies at lower rates. Dr. Xuma pointed out that teachers at these schools receive lower salaries than those with similar qualifications who are employed elsewhere. In the majority of farm schools the tuition does not proceed further than the Std II level. EXAMINATION RESULTS Std VI In reply to a question in the Assembly on 31 January 1961(2), the Minister of Bantu Education said that the African Std VI passes in recent years had been: Dept. of Dept. of Education, Year Bantu Education Arts and Science Total 1958 28,158 256 28,414 1959 31,201 192 31,393 1960 37,525 194 37,679 The Minister did not indicate how many pupils had failed; but according to information furnished by his Department, 70.9 of those who wrote its examination at the end of 1959 succeeded in passing. Junior Certificate The Deputy Minister of Bantu Administration and Development gave detailed figures relating to African Junior Certificate results2')1. In 1953, he said, 6,763 students wrote the examination. of whom 3,236, or 47.85 per cent passed, 218 or 3.23 per cent of them in the first class. (18) 1958-59, page 260. (19) Assembly. 28 April 1961, Hansard 14 cols. 5552, 5554. (20) Hansard 2 col. 414. (i) Assembly, 7 March 1961, Hansard 7 cols. 2513/4.

A SURVEY OF RACE He gave figures for subsequent years which are omitted here; but in 1960 and 1961 the results were: No. enrolled No. passed 1959 Bantu education examination ... Other examining bodies ...... 1960 Bantu education examination ... Other examining bodies ...... 6,807 2,436 8,725 1,837 3,031 926 4,900 590 Percentage passes 44.4 38.0 56.1 32.1 Percentage first class passes 2.6 1.7 4.0 1.1 From 1962 Africans who take correspondence courses will have to write the Junior Certificate examination set by the Bantu Education Department, and not the national examination set by the Department of Education, Arts and Science. A similar arrangement in regard to Std VI students came into force in 1961("2). Matriculation The following information, given by the Minister of Bantu Education("), relates to African pupils at state and state-aided schools only; it excludes those at private schools or taking correspondence classes. African matriculation candidates 1953 5471954 5231955 5951956 7681957 7451958 6601959 629 1960 716 Obtained matriculation exemption(24) 90 127 110 164 135 113 43 28 From 1959, when the sharp drop in passes took place, African candidates wrote the examination of the Joint Matriculation Board. Previously many of them had written provincial examinations. In discussing these extremely poor results the Minister said(") that there was a shortage of graduate teachers in the higher (22) Rand Daily Mail, 26 August 1961. (23) Assembly. 14 February 1961, Hansard 4 cols. 1256-7. (24) The standard required for admission to university college's. (25) Assembly, 28 April 1961. Hansard 14 cols. 5568-5572. Obtained school leaving certificate 169 107 120 190 157 153 75 100 Total percentage passes 47.3 44.7 38.7 46.1 39.2 37.6 18.8 17.9

RELATIONS: 1961 standards because new schools had been opened and numbers of teachers had been promoted to be principals of new schools, subinspectors, supervisors of schools or secretaries of school boards. He admitted that his Department had been too hasty in substituting African for White teachers in the upper forms. Furthermore, he said, the Joint Matriculation Board required a higher standard in English Higher than the provinces had done. In 1958, for example, 50.1 per cent of the candidates who wrote this subject passed, while in 1960 only 21.9 per cent did so. He gave figures showing the percentage passes in various subjects: Perce Domestic science ... African languages ... Commerce ...... Botany ...... Geography ...... Biology ...... Chemistry History ...... Agriculture ...... Latin ...... Zoology ...... Mathematics ...... Physics and chemistry English Higher ... The Minister then of school: ntage pa 100 68 to 89.9 80.3 76.9 75.1 71.4 67.2 60.8 57.2 54.5 46.5 43.7 21.9 analyse sses 100, varying for different languages I the results according to the type Percentage passes Schools with some White members of staff ... 20.5 Schools staffed by Africans only ...... 11.3 Schools which have hostels ...... 21.1 Day schools ...... 12.0 The Department would have to go more slowly in substituting Africans for White teachers in matriculation classes, he said, and would have to give attention to the provision of hostel facilities. According to a Press report(26), as from 1963 the Joint Matriculation Board will accept an African language on the higher grade in the place of English or Afrikaans for admission to universities. This is likely greatly to increase the difficulties of such students if they want thereafter to study professional or technological subjects. SENIOR POSTS FOR AFRICANS IN THE DEPARTMENT The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said in the Assembly on 31 March 1961(27), on behalf of his colleague, (26) Evening Po't. 25 February 1961. (2-) Hansard 9 col. 3334.

A SURVEY OF RACE that none of the 30 higher administrative or 70 higher professional posts in the Department of Bantu Education was occupied by Africans. The establishment included 49 African sub-inspectors and 159 African supervisors. ROMAN CATHOLIC SCHOOLS It was announced during October 1961 that as from 1962 new entries to Roman Catholic schools will be restricted to children who are members of this church or have at least one parent who is a member. According to a Press report"'), parents who are not Roman Catholics have in the past been able to sign a form stating that they wish their children to become Catholics and to be instructed in the Catholic faith. The new ruling will seriously curtail the Church's missionary work among Africans. It is understood"') that only slightly more than half of the pupils at such institutions are Church members. The Institute of Race Relations wrote to the Minister'" asking him to reconsider this decision, particularly in view of the fact that the Department was still not in a position to provide educational facilities for all African children of school-going age. FINDINGS ON BANTU EDUCATION BY THE INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS At the Council meeting of the Institute of Race Relations in January 1961 the resolutions given below were passed. "1. The Institute reaffirms its conviction that the conception of Bantu education as a separate type of education designed specifically for Africans to fit them for restricted fields of activity within the South African community is unsound in principle and harmful in practice. "2. It notes that the African people, while they have perforce to acquiesce in the operation of the Bantu Education Act, are in agreement with neither its aims nor its practice. In particular they are opposed to vernacular medium instruction in the higher primary schools on the grounds that it impairs secondary and higher education, that the Bantu languages are deficient in scientific and abstract terms, that fluency in an official language is required both for effective participation in commercial and industrial life and for access to the Western cultural heritage. "3. The Institute reiterates its condemnation of the freezing of the contribution to the Bantu Education Fund from the Consolidated Revenue Account at £61 million and of the practice whereby ( ) Rand Daiy Maid. 18 Oc~ober. (29) Sunday Times. 22 October. (11', RR 187'61. 236 the expansion and improvement of Bantu education is made dependent on revenue derived directly from the African people. It notes with profound concern that while expenditure rose by 7.9% in the period 1957/8 to 1959/60, enrolment increased by 23.4%, and that the per caput expenditure per African pupil decreased from £8.54 in 1953/4 to £6.90 in 1959/60. It points out that this reduction of an already low level of unit expenditure has been brought about by economies which are undermining educational standards. "4. Among the unsatisfactory measures to which the stringent economies imposed by the Department of Bantu Education have led. the Institute draws attention to the following: (i) the introduction of double sessions with one teacher taking two classes in succession; (ii) imposing on School Boards the responsibility for paying half the cost of higher primary and secondary school buildings; (iii) the reduction in the supply of free school books and of grants for equipment; (iv) the concentration on teacher training at the Lower Primary Teachers Certificate (Std VI plus three years) level; (v) the failure to effect the necessary raising of teachers' salaries and to institute a pension scheme for teachers; (vi) the failure to make more adequate provision for the education of African children in European farming areas; (vii) the virtual elimination of school feeding. "5. The Institute views with the gravest apprehension the growing imbalance of the Bantu education system, as seen in its emphasis on mass education up to Std II and its relative unconcern to promote with the requisite vigour schooling at higher levels, with special regard to the need for secondary schools in the urban areas . . . "6. In the opinion of the Institute, the available evidence relating to the operation of the Bantu Education Act, including the sharp increase in the matriculation failure rate, leads to the conclusion that a perceptible deterioration in educational standards has taken place. "7. The Institute is of the opinion that an essential factor in arresting this deterioration and enabling Bantu education to progress is its emancipation from its constricting dependence on the direct taxation of Africans. "8. The Institute expresses its gratification that expenditure on special education for Africans is to be financed by Treasury and RELATIONS: 1961 237

238 A SURVEY OF RACE hopes that adequate provision will be made for all those requiring this form of education. "9. The Institute reaffirms its 1958 recommendations relating to School Boards and Committees to the effect that: (1) their members should be duly elected by popular vote at open meetings and not, as at present, largely by nomination of officials, chiefs and headmen; (2) their appointment and their continued terms of office should not be subject to the approval of departmental officials or the Minister; (3) they should be given the power to co-opt as members. in an advisory capacity, missionaries and other interested and qualified non-Africans. "10. The Institute urgently calls upon the Government to revert to the system whereby the funds required for Bantu education are provided from the Consolidated Revenue Fund. It calls upon the Government and the people of South Africa, both as a moral duty and a practical necessity, to assume full financial responsibility for the education of the African people. It calls for the realization that the full utilization of the material resources of the Union and the provision of a greater measure of welfare for all can be accomplished only if opportunities are provided for the development of the abilities and skills of all its peoples". Findings dealing with university education are given later. DISTURBANCES AT AFRICAN SCHOOLS The Minister of Bantu Education announced in February(") that ten students of the Moroka High School at Thaba 'Nchu had been refused re-admission as a result of their behaviour the previous year. Trouble occurred at the Swartbooistad School near Hammanskraal early in May, when a number of boarders refused to go to their classes in protest against the food served at the hostel, and tried to prevent others from attending. Teachers and school board members are said to have thwarted an attempt to stone the school. The leaders of the demonstration were expelled and told that they would not be admitted to any other Government schoo32). There was considerable unrest at numbers of African colleges and schools at the end of May, when the republic was proclaimed. According to various Press reports the students at the University College of Fort Hare stayed away from their lectures on 29 and 30 May, as a protest against the republic. On 1 June the college authorities announced that lectures would be suspended until (3 ) Assembly. 7 February. Hansard 3 col. 859. (32) Rand Daily Mail, 3 May 1961. further notice, and later stated that the college would be closed until 18 July. All the students were sent home: this was three weeks before the term was due to end. White students of the University of Rhodes staged a demonstration in protest, and boycotted their classes on 5 and 6 June. The Fort Hare students were not required to apply for re-admission, all being allowed to return when the college re-opened. Just before the end of May the police raid the,' IH!dtown Training College and High School: it was stated(33) that they were checking whether any of the students had dangerous weapons. As the students refused to let them search their trunks, these were taken to the police station and examined there. In indignation over this the students boycotted their classes on 29 and 30 May. High school pupils handed a list of their grievances to the principal. Discussions were held between the school authorities and available parents: about 90 parents took their sons away for two days. It is said(31) that some male students started a fire in the principal's office which was put out by the staff. Eventually, on 5 June, the authorities decided to close the institutions 24 days before the end of term. The students were informed that they would have to apply for re-admission: it is understood that numbers of them were not taken back the following term. The Lovedale United Theological School (near Fort Hare) was closed on 7 June "because of the unsettled state of African opinion in the Eastern Cape"(3"). Students at the Lovedale High School failed to attend their classes on 12 June, and also stayed away from a church service held the previous day. All of them (about 450 in number) were sent home and the school was closed two weeks before the term was due to end. When it re-opened towards the end of July, about fifty of the boys were not re-admitted. On learning of this all the rest again boycotted their classes in protest. They were once more sent home, and the Minister appointed a committee to investigate the unrest. Its findings were not published; but when the school again opened on 15 August the boys who had been expelled were not taken back. There were disturbances, too, at the Freemantle Institution near Queenstown and at the Botha Sigcau High School near Flagstaff. Some students were expelled. The gravest troubles in the Eastern Cape, however, took place at St. John's College at Umtata. It is reported(3") that after submitting various complaints to the principal, the students held a meeting in defiance of the proclamation prohibiting gatherings in the Transkei, and that a Government vehicle was burned, the thatched roof of the college library set (33) e.g. Star, 1 June. (34) Rand Daily Mail, 5 June. (35) lbd. 6 June. (36) Star, 9 June and 22 June. RELATIONS: 1961 239

A SURVEY OF RACE alight, and some furniture damaged. According to a Contact report7, 207 boys were charged with various offences. Of these. 101 were acquitted and the rest found guilty of addressing, holding or being present at an illegal gathering, and, in some cases, also of public violence. Three boys were sentenced to a fine of R50 or 120 days' imprisonment, eighteen to R30 or 90 days', and 85 to cuts with a light cane. It is understood that an appeal was noted and the students re-admitted in the meanwhile. Trouble occurred at other schools besides those mentioned in the Eastern Cape. It is reported("8) that on Republic Day twenty senior pupils at the Bantu High School near Warmbaths in the Transvaal refused to accept the flags and medals offered to them. (Pupils at numbers of other schools also took this action.) The Emmarentia students boycotted a flag-raising ceremony and gathered for a meeting on the playing fields. The police ordered them to disperse. Angry that the police had been summoned. the students then refused to eat an ox that had been slaughtered for the occasion and boycotted their classes next day. Again the police were called in. Twenty boys and nine girls were expelled. Students at the Kilnerton Institution, near Pretoria, stayed away from their classes for five days during June. According to various reports9 they were angry because ten girls had been expelled for petty offences, and also wished to demonstrate their sympathy with the action taken by the Lovedale and Healdtown students. The police patrolled the grounds but there were no incidents, the pupils going home as usual at the end of the term. It is understood that a few of them were not re-admitted after the vacation. Another institution where trouble occurred at this time was the Ndaleni Training College and High School near Richmond in Natal. Following demonstrations at the end of May all the students were suspended, and forty of them were not re- admitted at the start of the new term. When the rest returned and heard of this, and also found that they were required to sign a list of rules stating, inter alia, that no student meetings were to be held without the warden's permission, 80 students decided to leave in protest. All but 17 of them returned later, however. It was announced4") that these 17 boys and the 40 who had been expelled would be allowed to apply for admission to other schools but, if accepted, could not start before 1962. Later, during September. there was a disturbance at the Bensonvale Training School near Aliwal North in the Eastern Cape. The school authorities confiscated 30 knives and a pistol ('7) 27 July. (3-) Star, 10 June. (39) Star, 22 and 23 June and Contact. 27 July. (40) Natal Daily News, 8 August.

RELATIONS:1961 241 from the boys. When the latter demanded that these be returned. the authorities closed the institution temporarily and announced that students who wished to return would have to fill in a questionnaire. SCHOOLS FOR COLOURED AND INDIAN CHILDREN THE CAPE PROVINCE School building programme in Cape Town Officials of the Cape School Board informed the writer that since 1946, with the assistance of teachers, they have conducted three house-to-house surveys, assessing existing and future needs for Coloured school accommodation. On the basis of the information obtained, five-year building programmes were instituted. In 1946, there were some 15,000 Coloured children in the 7 to 13 age group who could not be admitted to schools in the Cape School Board area: by 1955 this figure had been reduced to 3,500, and by February 1959 to less than 2,300. The Department is, thus, catching up on the backlog as well as catering for the natural increase in the population. In 1934 there were only two Coloured high schools in this area, whereas by 1960 there were seventeen. Between 1955 and 1961 additional accommodation was provided for 9,800 primary and 1,588 secondary school pupils in Cape Town. By January 1962 another 4,000 pupils will be catered for. Accommodation is required not only for children not yet at school, but also for those at schools which are still overcrowded. About seven or eight schools are still forced to have double sessions in the kindergartens: this may be unnecessary by 1962. Similar surveys have been conducted in the area of the Parow School Board, under which schools in the northern municipalities fall. It was estimated in 1961 that there were 1,168 Coloured and Asian children in this area of the 7 to 13 age group who were not attending school. So far as is known, no such surveys have been undertaken in other parts of the Cape, thus there is no information available for the province as a whole about the number of children for whom school accommodation is lacking. Effect of the Group Areas Act Officials of the Cape Provincial Education Department and the Cape School Board gave the assurance that Coloured pupils will be permitted to continue making use of State, provincial and State-aided institutions which are sited in areas now zoned for Whites for as long as these institutions are needed. But the necessary educational facilities are now being planned simultaneously with new housing schemes. As Coloured people move into their group areas, most of them will prefer to send their children to schools nearer at hand, it is considered, and in consequence the mission schools in White areas will gradually fall into disuse.

242 A SURVEY OF RACE Educational statistics According to the publication Educational Statistics of the Cape Department of Education, there are more Coloured (including Asian) children than Whites attending school in that province. The figures that follow refer to the last quarter of the year. Number of schools (in- Increase or cluding private schools) 1959 1960 Decrease White ...... 1,162 1,153 Decrease of 9 Coloured ...... 1,389 1,422 Increase of 33 Average number of pupils White ...... 196,790 199,990 Increase of 3,200 Coloured ...... 241,287 253,210 Increase of 11,923 Mr. G. J. Golding kindly assisted the Institute of Race Relations in obtaining much detailed information about Coloured education in the Cape Province. A brief summary only of it is given here. The number of schools for Coloured and Asian pupils was as follows in 1959: State State-aided Private Primary ...... 137 1,197 34 Secondary ...... 46 8 The percentage distribution of pupils in the second quarter of that year was: Class % Class % Sub A ... 21.4 Std V ... 6.2 Sub B ... 16.3 Std VI ... 4.1 Std I ...... 15.2 Std VII ... 2.0 Std II ... 12.8 Std VIII ... 1.3 Std. III ... 11.2 Std IX ... 0.5 Std IV ... 8.7 Std X ... 0.3 Of 754 Coloured and Asian pupils who wrote the Cape Senior Certificate examination (post Std X) in 1958. 416, or 55 per cent, passed. There are no farm schools or schools for retarded Coloured children. The official school feeding scheme was abolished in 1958. A voluntary Peninsula School Feeding Association was then set up in Cape Town, but this organization is experiencing extreme difficulty in raising the funds it needs. Equipment is supplied to Coloured schools on the same basis as for Whites. No tuition fees are charged; but. averaged over their children's school careers, both Coloured and White parents pay about R2 a year to school funds. R15 for books in secondary schools and R5 for writing materials. No transport is provided for Coloured pupils in rural areas who live some distance from the nearest school: transport facilities are made available for White children in such circumstances. Various municipalities, teachers' associations, schools and

RELATIONS: 1961 243 private individuals have provided bursaries for high school students and pupil teachers; the latter may also qualify for Departmental loans, or grants which average R30 per quarter. The cost of education to the province per pupil per year is R121.11 for Whites and R49.13 for Coloured children. In 1959 there were two Coloured teacher training colleges in the Cape, giving two-year post-Senior Certificate courses for the Coloured Primary Advanced Certificate, and eight teacher training schools providing training for women only for the Lower Primary Certificate (two years post-Junior Certificate). One-year courses were available at various centres for trained teachers who wished to specialise in infant school work, art, manual training, music or physical education. In the fourth quarter of that year there were 497 men and 948 women students attending these institutions. The numbers of Coloured and of White school principals were not stated; but, also in 1959, there were 82 White and 670 Coloured assistant teachers in secondary schools, and 81 White and 6.812 Coloured in primary schools. Salary scales vary according to the teacher's sex, qualifications, post, etc. For purposes of comparison with other provinces, two scales are given here, in each case for Coloured men. Cost-of-living allowances have been consolidated with basic salaries. Matriculated teacher with an approved teaching certificate: R780 x 60- R1,800 Teacher with a bachelor's degree and a professional certificate. in a primary school: R1,080 x 30 - R1,800 x 40 - R2,120 Teachers with bachelors' degrees receive slightly higher salaries if they teach in high schools, the top notch of their salaries then being R2,200. ORANGE FREE STATE Information about Coloured education in the Orange Free State was obtained with the generous assistance of the National Council of Women. In 1960 there were 33 primary schools there for Coloured pupils, all State institutions, and only one high school, situated in Bloemfontein. Altogether there were 2,210 boys and 2.135 girls enrolled, the percentage distribution being: Class % Class % Sub A ... 20.0 Std V ... 6.4 Sub B ... 17.8 Std VI ... 4.7 Std 1 ...... 16.1 Std VII ... 1.1 Std II ... 13.6 Std VIII ... 0.7 Std III ... 10.9 Std IX ... 0.2 Std IV ... 8.3 Std X ... 0.2 It is estimated that about five per cent of the children of school-going age are not attending school.

A SURVEY OF RACE There are no farm schools or special schools, and no feeding scheme operates. Parents are not called upon to pay tuition fees. Pupils may apply for boarding loans of R40 a year, secondary school students and pupil teachers may be granted conveyance loans of R15 a year, and pupil teachers may also apply for boarding loans of R72 a year. The province recently commenced training Coloured teachers for Afrikaans primary education: in 1960 there were ten students in their first year. The schools were staffed by one White and 32 Coloured principals, and 8 White and 133 Coloured assistant teachers. Salary scales for male Coloured assistants with the qualifications mentioned were: Teacher with a school leaving certificate and two years' professional training: R900 x 60 - R1,800 x 40 - R1,960 Teacher with a bachelor's degree and a teachers' certificate: R1,080 x 60 - R1,800 x 40 - R2,120 TRANSVAAL Miss M. McLarty, M.P.C., very kindly obtained information about Coloured and Indian education in the Transvaal. In 1958 the numbers of schools were: Coloured Asians Both Chinese State primary schools ...... 24 23 41 State secondary schools ...... 5 6 2 State-aided primary schools ... - - 1 2 State-aided secondary schools - 1 - Unsubsidized private schools - - 6 1 Primary schools with secondary "tops" are included in the figures for secondary schools. In June 1958 the pupils attending State and State-aided schools included 9,686 Coloured boys, 9,143 Coloured girls, 9,717 Asian boys and 8,243 Asian girls: a total of 36,789. Their percentage distribution was: Class % Coloured °' Asians Sub A ...... 18.2 15.6 Sub B ...... 15.1 14.4 Std I ...... 12.7 12.7 Std II ...... 12.3 12.2 Std III ...... 11.5 11.7 Std IV ...... 9.6 9.6 Std V ...... 7.9 8.8 Std VI ...... 6.2 6.2 Std VII ...... 3.3 4.1 Std VIII ...... 2.0 2.7 Std IX ...... 0.7 1.3 Std X 0.5 0.7 During March 1961 the Transvaal Provincial Council rejected a motion that Coloured education should be made compulsory up to Std VI or the age of fifteen. There are no farm schools or special schools for Coloured and Asian children, but the Province gives financial assistance to five nursery schools. At the end of 1958 there were 197 Coloured and Asian entrants for the Transvaal Secondary School Certificate (post Std X). Only 68 candidates, or 35 per cent of the total, passed. The Indians have provided very many of their own school buildings, handing these over to be administered by the Province. Most of the Coloured and Indian schools in the Transvaal are appallingly overcrowded: pending group areas proclamations few new buildings have been provided, even in cases where Indians were prepared to donate the land and the money, and no improvements have been made to existing buildings in areas likely to be zoned for Whites. Since Lenasia was set aside for the Indians of Johannesburg the Province has built three schools there; but, at a conference of the Indian community convened by the Institute of Race Relations in December 1960 it was stated that of the 1,704 pupils attending these schools, 90 per cent came from other areas, the majority having to travel more than 40 miles a day. The Province makes no distinction between Whites, Coloured and Asians so far as the provision of school equipment is concerned; but again the uncertainty caused by the Group Areas Act has held up the development, for example, of laboratories. Playing fields are inadequate and in any case are often not fully utilized because the children have long distances to travel home. The cost to the Province per pupil per year is .18. The children receive free tuition and text books throughout their school careers. School fees may be charged in some cases, but in no Provincial school may these exceed R8 a year in secondary, and R2 in primary schools. The arrangements for transport in rural areas are the same for Coloured and White children: a pupil who lives more than three miles from a school is either transported by bus or given a season ticket for travel by other means. In 1961/62 the Province allocated R13,000 for transport of Coloured and Asian children, R650,000 for study grants, R80,000 for study loans. R10,000 for boarding grants in small towns, and R20,100 for school feeding. The school feeding scheme was described in last year's Survey')P. The parents at the Fordsburg Indian school in Johannesburg have themselves provided an excellent health clinic. Teachers are trained at two institutions: the Johannesburg Coronationville Training Institute for Coloured, which in 1961 had 108 full-time students and 39 attending part-time refresher coursesQ2), and the Training Institute for Asiatic Teachers in Fordsburg, Johannesburg. (1) Page 223. (2) Rand Daily Mail, 5 May 1961. RELATIONS: 1961 245

The teachers in Coloured and Asian schools in June 1958 were: White Coloured Asians Principals ...... 25 58 17 Assistants ...... 104 754 250 Of the combined total of 1,208, 287 were women. There is reported to be a shortage of academically qualified teachers. especially for subjects such as mathematics and Latin. Until recently, student-teachers who wished to take full- time academic courses had to attend English-speaking universities since the Afrikaans universities were closed to them: as was described in last year's Survey"', such teachers are experiencing difficulties in schools where the medium of education has been changed to Afrikaans, and this is probably one of the main reasons for the poor matriculation results. It is reported that another reason is the substitution for White teachers of less-well-qualified Coloured ones. Salary scales for Coloured and Asian male teachers with approximately the same qualifications as those mentioned in the case of the other provinces are: Teacher with matriculation and two years' further training: A post ...... R820 x 40 - R1,340 B post ...... R780 x 40 - R1,300 Teacher with matriculation and four years' further training: A post ...... R980 x 40 - R1,500 B post ...... R940 x 40 - R1,460 NATAL A similar survey is being conducted for the Institute in Natal. but has so far not been completed. According to the Official Year Book for 1960, in 1958 there were 1,492 primary and secondary schools for Non-Whites under Provincial control, with 309,679 pupils and 7,397 teachers. At the end of that year 504 Coloured and Indian pupils wrote the Natal Senior Certificate examination, of whom 231, or 46 per cent, passed. Education is compulsory for White and Coloured children from the age of seven until they pass Std VI or complete the school year during which their fifteenth birthday occurs. There is still insufficient school accommodation for education to be made compulsory for Indians, in spite of the very large sums of money they have themselves contributed for the erection of schools. Some years ago Dr. S. Cooppan estimated that from 1929 to 1945 the Indian community of Natal raised more than R620,000 towards the cost of school buildings, and further large sums for the necessary land 4 . White and Coloured pupils in primary classes in State and in certain aided schools receive free books and school requisites, but, (3) Page 221. (4) 1954-55 Survey, page 188. for further details. 246 A SURVEY OF RACE according to the Year Book, only indigent Indian pupils do so. Boarding and other grants are awarded on merit in secondary and teacher-training schools, and indigent Coloured children may receive boarding and transport subsidies. There are two teacher-training institutions, one for Coloured and the other Indians, both sited in Durban. SCHOOLS FOR WHITE CHILDREN PROVINCIAL EXPENDITURE According to an article in the Star of 25 March 1961, provincial expenditure on the education of White children is as follows: Percentage of Provincial Cost per pupil budget spent on education per year of White children Transvaal: Primary education ... R90.66 35.1 Secondary education . R141.74 Agricultural education R194.06 Handicapped pupils . R185.68 Cape: (Some schools are feepaying ...... R134.06* 33.0 Natal: ...... R131.95 22.0 Free State: ...... R136.00 43.9 * As is stated above, Mr. Golding reports, after consulting the Department, that this figure should be R121.11. In the Transvaal White pupils receive free textbooks up to and including the matriculation stage. White children in the Cape have free books in primary schools only, those in Natal in certain primary schools, while in the Free State free books are provided only to children of indigent parents. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS According to the Official Year Book for 1960, in June 1958 there were 614.178 White children attending State and State-aided schools. Their percentage distribution was I') Class % Class % Sub-standards 20.5 Std VI ... 9.6 Std. I ...... 10.3 Std VII ... 8.2 Std. II ...... 10.3 Std VIII ... 5.9 Std III ... 10.3 Std IX ... 3.4 Std IV ... 10.1 Std X ... 2.5 Std V ... 8.9 (5) These figures differ slightly from the ones given on page 231. since in this case the unclassified pupils are omitted. RELATIONS: 1961 247

248 A SURVEY OF RACE RACE STUDIES IN TRANSVAAL SCHOOLS The Transvaal has introduced weekly periods for race studies into the high school curriculum, and two series of text books have been published. In a report on this matter(') Miss M. McLarty, M.P.C., welcomed the move. While much of the material in the text books, she said, was to be commended, there were criticisms to make. Particularly in the first series the sections dealing with Indian people suffered from a bias in presentation. The omission of certain facts also constituted a bias in approach. Sections which dealt with Africans tended to idealize tribal life, to ignore the achievements of urban Africans, and to treat the latter group as being a "problem". At a conference in Johannesburg organized by the Education Vigilance Committee in February, Professor M. G. Marwick of the Department of Social Anthropology at the University of the Witwatersrand is reported(2) to have said that certain parts of some of these books had introduced "inexcusable biases". He read some passages which reflected the Nationalist Government's point of view on controversial matters. The conference called for a revision of the syllabus and a withdrawal of all textbooks guilty of a one-sided presentation. A committee at the Johannesburg College of Education prepared supplementary notes for teachers in an attempt to give them a more balanced approach. SPECIAL SCHOOLS According to the Annual Report of the Department of Education, Arts and Science for 1960('), in June 1959 the enrolment at special schools was: White Coloured Asians Africans Schools for the physically handicapped ...... 326 - -Schools for epileptics ...... 165 - - Special schoolsfortheblind...218 67 22 218 Special schools for the deaf ... 685 337 24 327 Special schools for the cerebral palsied ...... 230 - - 1,624 404 46 545 Five new African schools have been opened: for deaf and blind children at Thaba 'Nchu and in Zululand (N.G. Mission Church), and for deaf children at Port Elizabeth, at Woodlands (1) RR 223/60. (2) Evening Post, 20 February 1961. (3) U.G. 70,1960. near King William's Town and at Hammanskraal in the Transvaal (Roman Catholic). All will receive State subsidies4. The Witwatersrand Mental Health Society is hoping to start a day-school for mentally defective African children in Johannesburg5'. Regulations for the establishment and subsidization of special schools for Africans were published as R 526 of 30 March 1961. In his paper given at the Council meeting of the Institute of Race Relations in January 1961, Mr. F. J. de Villiers, then Secretary for Bantu Education, said that during that year his Department would take over the control of special education for Africans from the Department of Education, Arts and Science. With a per caput cost of well over R200 a year, this type of education entailed a very high expenditure, and accordingly the Government had requested Treasury to arrange that the estimates for this service should not be financed from the Bantu Education Account. VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AMENDMENT ACT, No. 20 OF 1961 The principal Vocational Education Act, of 1955, enabled the Government to take over the control of technical colleges6). The Amendment Act of 1961 empowered it also to take over the maintenance, management and control of any State- subsidized continuation class. Introducing the Bill, the Deputy Minister of Education, Arts and Science said7 that most of the technical colleges had originally started as continuation classes. Where a continuation class was expanding rapidly, the State would now be able to take it over without waiting for it to develop into a fully-fledged college or school. NUMBERS OF STUDENTS According to the Annual Report of the Department of Education, Arts and Science for 19608), in June 1959 the students enrolled at technical colleges included 9,119 studying full-time. 45,715 part-time, and 13,558 doing correspondence courses. The racial groups of the students were not mentioned, but it was stated that there were 860 full-time and 4,703 part-time Non-White students, mainly Indians, at the M. L. Sultan Technical College in Durban. Mr. G. J. Golding informed the Institute of Race Relations that some 8,180 Coloured students are studying at the Non-White branch of the Cape Technical College; and large (4) Minister of Bantu Education, Assembly 21 February 1961, Hansard 5 col. 1662. (5) Star, 28 February. (6) See 1954-55, Survey, page 198. (7) Senate, 14 February 1961, Hansard 4 cols 886-7. (8) U.G. 79/69, page 52. RELATIONS: 1961 249 numbers of Coloured and Asians are registered, too, at technical colleges at other centres. From information contained in the report mentioned above9) and given in the paper by Mr. F. J. de Villiers delivered at the Institute's Council meeting, it appears that the enrolment at technical and vocational schools in the years stated was as follows: Whites Coloured Asians Africans 1959 1959 1959 1960 Commercial and technical high schools ...... 4,633 - - Technical high schools for adults ...... 229 - - Housecraft high schools ... 1,073 Trades schools ...... 6,004 Vocational classes for Africans ...... - - - 1,831 Other vocational classes . 329 548 2 Schools of industries ... 2,247 - Reformatory schools ... 331 - 39 TRAINING FOR COLOURED STUDENTS In terms of Proclamation R 91 of 24 March 1961, the establishment, conduct, control and subsidization of vocational schools and classes for Coloured students was transferred to the Department of Coloured Affairs. Mr. G. J. Golding reported to the Institute that there are nine schools at various centres in the Cape where vocational training is given. Four teach dressmaking and domestic science, one domestic science only, one domestic science and commercial subjects. two provide a commercial course, and one gives training in carpentry, masonry, cabinet making and motor mechanics. Boarding subsidies are granted to needy scholars. Vocational training is also available at reform schools and industrial schools for Coloured children found to be in need of care under the Children's Act: there are four institutions of these types in the province. A variety of technical, commercial and other vocational classes is available to adults at continuation classes conducted at three centres in the Cape. These classes are liberally subsidized. As is mentioned above, the Technical College of the Cape has about 8,180 Coloured students, who are studying technology, commerce, domestic science, printing, hairdressing, pharmacy or physical education. Numbers of them are apprentices. If necessary, the college assists students with their fees and travelling expenses. The Coloured Affairs Department is establishing a technical high school for 400 boys at Athlone, Cape Town, Mr. Golding (9) Pages 58. 67, 87. 250 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1961 251 states, which will open in 1962 with an initial enrolment of about 150. Boarding facilities will be available for 60 pupils. The entrance qualification will be Std V, and students will take a two-year course in such subjects as tailoring, upholstering, plumbing, furniture-making, carpentry, painting and decorating. The education and text-books will be free: in deserving cases hostel accommodation and clothing will be provided free of charge. Students who pass the two-year course and then leave will enter apprenticeships; but it will also be possible to proceed to take a technical matriculation. It is planned that successful candidates who take further training subsequently at technical colleges or universities will be absorbed as teachers or lecturers. The Department hopes eventually to establish similar schools, but proceeding to the Std VII level only, in rural areas of the Cape. It is also establishing an agricultural gymnasium at Kromme Rhee near Stellenbosch. to provide short courses for Coloured farm workers. Vocational training facilities are available to Coloured students in Durban and Pietermaritzburg in Natal; but there are no such courses in the Free State or Transvaal. TRAINING FOR INDIANS The M. L. Sultan Technical College for Indians in Durban has been mentioned above. A new technical college, which will open in 1962, is being built in Pietermaritzburg at a cost of some R120,000, equal shares having been contributed by the Government and the Sultan Trust. There are no technical training facilities for Indians in the Transvaal. TRAINING FOR AFRICANS Proclamation R 91 of 24 March 1961 transferred the control and subsidization of vocational schools and classes for Africans to the Department of Bantu Education. The information in the paragraphs that follow was given by the Minister of Bantu Education("), the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development("), Mr. F. J. de Villiers in the paper quoted earlier, and Mr. J. H. Dugard in the Bantu Education Journal for September 1961. From the beginning of 1961 the Department of Bantu Education introduced technical and commercial Junior Certificate courses, for which students take four general educational and two specialized subjects. Normally they study for three years post-Std VI; but students who have already passed the J.C. and wish to take commercial or technical subjects may be admitted to the second year of the course. (10) Assembly, 28 April 1961, Hansard 14 col. 5574. (11) Assembly, 21 March, Hansard 9 col. 3334.

252 A SURVEY OF RACE These J.C. courses are available at existing vocational departments of eight secondary schools, at Lovedale, Edendale, Vlakfontein, Moroka (Thaba 'Nchu), Mfundisweni (Transkei), Amanzimtoti (Natal), Teko (Transkei) and Setotolwane (Northern Transvaal). A special technical secondary school to provide these courses, which can accommodate 150 students, has been opened in Port Elizabeth. A start has been made with the establishment of further schools of this type in Umtata, Zwelitsha and Sibasa, and others will be set up in Mafeking, Nongoma and Kwa Mashu, Durban. In addition, technical or vocational subjects are taught at 13 private and 17 Government schools. A specialist art teachers' course is available at Ndaleni in Natal. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION ENROLMENT AT UNIVERSITIES, 1959 The enrolment at universities in June 1959, as given in the Annual Report of the Department of Education, Arts and Science for 1960(l), was: Whites Coloured Asians Africans University of Cape Town ...... 4,471 461 133 39 University of Natal ...... 2,679 50 489 187 University of the Orange Free State 1.816 - - University of Potchefstroom ...... 1,635 - - University of Pretoria ...... 7,177 -- University of Rhodes ...... 1,280 - - University of Stellenbosch ...... 4,117 - - University of the Witwatersrand ... 4,813 30 193 74 University of South Africa(2) ... 7,107 211 601 1,252 University College of Fort Hare ... - 70 100 319 Totals ...... 35,095 822 1,516 1,871 DEGREES, DIPLOMAS AND CERTIFICATES AWARDED IN 1959 According to the same publication('), the degrees, diplomas and certificates awarded in 1959 were: Whites Coloured Asians Africans Degrees ...... 3,713 43 81 107 Diplomas and certificates 1,142 29 16 51 The degrees awarded to Non-White students were: Coloured Asians Africans Doctors' degrees ...... - - 2 Masters' degrees ...... - 4 1 Hon. Bachelors' degrees 2 3 3 Bachelors' degrees ...... 41 74 101 (1) U.G. 79/1960, pages 39-40. (2) Correspondence courses only. (3) Pages 45 to 47. summarized by the writer.

RELATIONS:1961 253 WHITE AND OPEN UNIVERSITIES Admission of Non-White students to the open universities From information given in the Assembly by the Minister of Bantu Education and the Deputy Minister of Education, Arts and Science during February and March(4, it would appear that at the end of 1960 there were 159 Coloured, 274 Asian and 81 African students who applied for permission to enter open universities as new students. The responsible Ministers granted permission to 117 Coloured, 155 Asians and 7 Africans; but large numbers of these students were refused admission by the universities themselves on academic grounds: no statistics have been published. In terms of R 434 of 23 December 1960, the GovernorGeneral declared that no further Africans would be allowed to register for the first time at an open university (other than at the University of South Africa, which provides correspondence classes only) in the Departments of Chemistry, Physics, Zoology, Botany, Mathematics, Applied Mathematics, Geography, Psychology, Agriculture, Afrikaans, English, History, Economics, Commerce, Sociology, Social Work, Anthropology, Native Administration. Bantu Languages, Classic Languages, Philosophy, Political Science, Law or Divinity, or in the Faculty of Education. It is reported(') that enquiries by the University of Natal revealed that Non-White students attending open universities will not be permitted to change to a different course of study from that for which they originally enrolled. The Deputy Minister of Education, Arts and Science said on 14 March(') that new facilities for maxillo, facial and oral surgery at Baragwanath Hospital had made it possible to offer dentistry courses to Non-Whites at the University of the Witwatersrand. So far no applications had been received. Dr. I. J. Mahomed, a Coloured man, has been appointed a lecturer in mathematics at the University of the Witwatersrand, and will rank equally with his White colleagues. This is reported7) to be the first time that any White or open university has appointed a Non-White lecturer outside the Departments of Bantu Languages. Action taken at the University of the Witwatersrand The University of the Witwatersrand in particular has continued its fight for academic freedom. It was announced in January that a triennial public lecture- "The Chancellor's Lecture"-would be instituted to commemorate the ceremony held in April 1959. when the university pledged itself to the undertaking set out below. 8) (4) 28 February, Hansard 6 col. 2101, and 7 March, Hansard 7 col. 2513. (5) Star, 21 December 1960. (6) Assembly, Hansard 8 col. 2941. (7) Sunday Times, 27 August 1961. (8) Ibid, 8 January.

During April two plaques, in English and Afrikaans, were unveiled in the university's main block stating: "We affirm in the name of the University of the Witwatersrand that it is our duty to uphold the principle that a university is a place where men and women, without regard to race and colour, are welcome to join in the acquisition and advancement of knowledge; and to continue faithfully to defend the ideal against all those who have sought by legislative enactment to curtail the autonomy of the University. Now, therefore, we dedicate ourselves to the maintenance of this ideal and to the restoration of the autonomy of our University". An "Academic Freedom Week" was held during April to protest against apartheid in the universities. Speakers stressed that the "tribal colleges" would produce resentment against a system which had segregated them and curtailed their opportunities, and would become breeding places of Black nationalism; and that the White universities would suffer because they would find it difficult to recruit top quality staff and would become increasingly isolated from the community of universities of the world. Hundreds signed a book of dedication to the ideal of free universities and also a petition to the Minister of Education asking him to restore university autonomy. During August the American Alumni Council gave its annual Service Award, made "for outstanding services to education", to the University of the Witwatersrand, the citation commending the University for its "vigorous defence of the role of a free university and the principles of intellectual freedom during a time of intense political controversy". The distinction of receiving this award had previously been confined to institutions in the United States. Student organizations For the first time in its 37-year history, in 1961 the National Union of S.A. Students elected an African, Professor Z. K. Matthews, as its honorary president. An African student, Mr. W. Mhlambiso, who was expelled from Fort Hare in 1960, was elected vice-president. For a second consecutive year Mr. A. Leftwich was elected president. Non-White students from the open universities and an Indian teacher training college were able to attend the annual N.U.S.A.S. conference. The Rector of the Durban Indian University College allowed his students to attend as individuals; but it is reported() that students at the Coloured and African university colleges were forbidden to send delegations or to attend in their personal capacities. Afrikaans-speaking universities, which are not affiliated to NUSAS, were not represented. Early in 1961 a meeting of English and Afrikaans-speaking student leaders agreed to hold joint discussions, and invitations (9) Contact, 27 July. 254 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1961 255 were sent out by the Students Representative Council of Rhodes University. The meetings were, however, cancelled at the last moment because, of the Afrikaans institutions, only the University of Stellenbosch had agreed to attend, and even its students were not prepared to discuss items on the agenda dealing with university (10) autonomy Loss of staff and of bursaries During 1961 a movement which began some years ago has gathered momentum: the emigration of many of South Africa's eminent academic men, both White and Non-White. It is increasingly difficult to find suitably qualified people to replace them. It was reported at the NUSAS conference that the executive committee of the Association of University Teachers of Britain had agreed that. while they would not black-list the South African universities, they would take active steps to warn anybody contemplating leaving Britain to teach in a South African university against doing so while the apartheid policy persisted("). It was announced in May('2) that, as a result of South Africa leaving the Commonwealth, her students would probably no longer qualify for Carnegie grants (unless South Africa was included under the foreign section), Nuffield Travelling Fellowships, fellowships initiated at a meeting of Commonwealth representatives in 1959, scholarships under the British Council of Universities interchange scheme, or bursaries awarded for post-graduate study by the Royal Society. The "conscience clause" As has been mentioned in earlier volumes of this SurveyP3), the charters of all South African universities except Potchefstroom contain a clause providing that no test of religious belief shall be imposed on any person as a condition of his becoming, or continuing to be, a student or member of staff. nor shall any preference be given to or any advantage withheld from any person on the ground of his religious belief. This clause was omitted in the Extension of University Education Act of 1959. which provides for the establishment of NonWhite university colleges, and in the University College of Fort Hare Transfer Act of 1959. During 1961 a Private Member's Bill was introduced in the Assembly which aimed at dropping the conscience clause in the charter of the University of the Orange Free State so far as academic staff appointments were concerned. This measure was placed low on the order paper, and did not pass its Second Reading stage. (10) Rand Daily Mail, 5 August. (11) Star, 18 July. (12) Sunday Times, 7 May. (13) 1957-58. page 198: 1958-59. page 270.

According to a report over Radio South Africa(4), when addressing a conference of the Vereniging vir Christelike Hoer Onderwys (Society for Christian Higher Education), held in October 1961, the Minister of Education, Arts and Science said that the conscience clause had no place in South Africa, because it was an importation from overseas by people who did not know South African conditions. Resolutions calling for the appointment of Christian teachers in schools and for the deletion of the conscience clause from the charters of all South African universities were approved by the Synod of the Cape Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk in November 1961("). A few days later, however, the Rector of Pretoria University stated that he would uphold this clause. UNIVERSITY COLLEGES FOR AFRICANS Financing of the colleges In the Assembly on 21 February 1961(6) the Minister of Bantu Education gave information about the financing of the two new university colleges for Africans, as follows: University College University College of the North of Zululand Total amounts so far spent on establishing the colleges R676,712 R654,636 Running and maintenance costs, 1960 ...... R208,180 R161,240 Annual amounts received in fees, 1960...... R10,800 R6,200 Grants received from tribal or other bodies ...... R13,672 R500 The Minister also said7) that the running and maintenance costs at Fort Hare had been R392,000 in 1960. Estimated costs for 1961 were R489,900 at Fort Hare, R272,700 at the College of the North, and R191,800 at the College of Zululand. Questioned about the average costs per Non-White student, the Minister of Economic Affairs and the Deputy Minister of Education, Arts and Science said") that in 1960 there were 896 Non-White students enrolled at the University of Natal, where the average cost per student was R468 a year. In the same year 41 students were enrolled at the University College of Zululand, the average cost per student being R1,724 (excluding capital expenditure). Staff Information about the staff of the colleges was given in the (14) As quoted in the Sunday Times, 8 October 1961. (15) Ibid, 12 November. (16) Hansard 5 col. 1663. (17) Assembly, 10 February, Hansard 3 cols. 1088-90. (18) Assembly, 10 March 1961, Hansard 7 col. 2774. 256 A SURVEY OF RACE

Assembly by the Minister of Bantu Education on 10 February(9) and by the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development on 6 June 1961(0). The first set of figures reflected the position in 1960, and the second as at 30 April 1961, thus there are differences, particularly in regard to Fort Hare, where the staff had been augmented in the interim period. So far as can be ascertained from these figures, the colleges are staffed as follows: Fort Hare The North Zululand Professors ... 16 8 4 (mainly White) (One African (All White) and 7 White) Seniorlecturers 22 15 18 Junior lecturers 31 - (There are at least (Two African (There are at least 13 African lecturers) and 13 White) 5 African lecturers) Assistants and other members of staff ... 172 54 36 (Including 5 African) During the year under review Mr. W. M. Kgware was appointed a Professor of Education at the University College of the North, and Dr. M. 0. M. Seboni received a similar appointment at Fort Hare. Advisory Senates The Minister of Bantu Education told the Assembly(2') in February that Advisory Senates (consisting of African members) had been set up to assist the White Senates at Fort Hare, where there were nine members, and the Zululand College, where there were three. A body of this nature had not been set up at the College of the North at the time when the Minister spoke; but he said that Professor Kgware was consulted by the Senate on all relevant matters. Students According to statements by the Ministers of Bantu Administration and Development and Bantu Education, on 21 March, 28 April and 10 February respectively2 , in 1961 there were 515 African students registered at the three colleges. Of the matriculated students, 148 were studying for a teachers' diploma. At least 63 were non-matriculated students taking diploma courses in commerce, social work or agriculture. Thus, at most, there were 304 students taking degree courses. Of the first-year degree students enrolled in 1960, the numbers who passed all their subjects were 12 at Fort Hare, six at the (19) Hansard 3 cols. 1088-90. (20) Hansard 19 cols. 7373-4. (21) 7 February 1961, Hansard 3 col. 868. (22) Assembly. Hansards No. 9 col. 3335, No. 14 col. 5567, No. 3 cols. 1088-90. RELATIONS: 1961 257

A SURVEY OF RACE College of the North. and two at the College of Zululand. These represented 21.4 per cent, 33.3 per cent and 28.5 per cent respectively of all students in this category. The total enrolment at the new university colleges for the years stated was: 1960 1961 Fort Hare ...... 360 335 The North ...... 87 129 Zululand ... 41 51 Three students were refused re-admission when the colleges opened in 1961. As has been mentioned earlier, Mr. W. Mhlambiso. who had been secretary of the S.R.C., was not permitted to return to Fort Hare(3). Two students who had passed their first-year science courses were not accepted back at the College of the North. The Minister of Bantu Education said(-24) that Mr. Mhlambiso had been insubordinate, and the other two were refused on the grounds of misconduct. The unrest that existed at Fort Hare at the time of the declaration of a Republic is described in an earlier chapter. According to a Press report(2'), there is now an elected S.R.C. at the College of the North. The regulations have been relaxed: for example, only first-year students now require permission to leave the college precincts. State study loans and grants It was announced in the Bantu Education Journal for November 1961 that additional study loans and grants are available, as follows: (a) Study loans Degree courses and U.E.D. courses (post-graduate course for teachers) - the existing R100 to R120 a year, plus an additional R30 annually for the purchase of books. Bantu Education Diploma (post-matriculation course for teachers) - the existing R80 plus R20 for books. Other Diploma courses-the existing R100 plus R20 for books. (b) Merit bursaries for deserving students Two annually of R200 a year each. (c) Study grants Teachers taking a one-year course in commercial subjects at the Zululand College could previously be assisted by study grants of R150 a year. The Department has now instituted ten more such grants at each of the three colleges (i.e. a total of 30 annually), for teachers who wish to improve their qualifications in Afrikaans, English, Science or Mathematics. (23) See 1959-60 Survey, page 236, for an account of action taken by the S.R.C. during 1960. (24) Assembly. Hansard 6 cols. 2103, 2330. (25) Rand Daily Mail, 14 March 1961.

RELATIONS: 1961 Conditions which are attached to the study loans were set out in last year's Survey'6). UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF THE WESTERN CAPE The Deputy Minister of Education, Arts and Science said on 10 February(-7) that capital expenditure on the Coloured college was R83,350 in 1960, while it was estimated that a further R71.550 would be spent in 1961. (The college is housed in temporary premises formerly used as a school). Running and maintenance costs had been R357,050 in 1960, and would probably be R395,150 in 1961. The staff consisted of eight White professors and one Coloured and sixteen White lecturers. Of the students enrolled in 1960, 106 had a matriculation certificate or exemption, and 50 had not. Of the matriculated students, 60, or 56.4 per cent, passed all their first-year degree courses at the end of the year. (Not all of these students were studying for degrees: many were taking teachers' diploma courses). None of the students had State bursaries. The Deputy Minister had said earlier(28) that in 1961 there were 77 students taking Arts and 85 Science Courses, while 101 were studying Education. According to information supplied by Dr. 0. D. Wollheim(29), efforts are being made to provide the best education possible. The staff are fairly well-qualified. Discipline is comparatively relaxed, students have a fair degree of autonomy, and an S.R.C. has been elected. The medium of instruction is almost entirely Afrikaans. Twelve bursaries worth a total of R1,440 each are to be awarded by the Cape Provincial Administration to Coloured students wishing to take the four-year course in Librarianship. Posts in the Provincial Library Service will be available for those who complete the course(3"). UNIVERSITY COLLEGE FOR INDIANS It was announced in November 1960 that early the following year the University College for Indians would be opened in temporary premises on Salisbury Island, in Durban Bay, in buildings formerly used by the S.A. Navy. The Council had been appointed under the chairmanship of Prof. A. J. H. van der Walt. The Rector would be Prof. S. P. Olivier. During the following month a conference was held in Durban, attended by 170 delegates, which decided to call upon the Indian people not to co-operate with the Government in the establishment of this college. Indians would be encouraged, instead, to prepare for overseas degrees. (26) Page 235. (27) Assembly, Hansard 3 col. 1088. (28) Hansard 2 col. 693. (29) RR 141/61. (30) Race Relations News. July 1951.

A SURVEY OF RACE A Proclamation R 2050 of 15 December made the Regulations for the University College of the Western Cape (R 30 of 8 June 1960 as amended) applicable to the Indian College. They are similar to those in force at the African Colleges. The prospectus states that courses are available leading to the degrees of B.A., B.A. (S.S.), B.Sc. and B. Comm., and to a Diploma in Social Science. No hostel accommodation was provided during the first year. There is a cafeteria and a swimming bath on the campus. and other sporting facilities are to be provided. Students travel to the college either by means of a regular ferry service from a jetty near the centre of the city, or else by taking a train to the other side of the island and then walking just over a mile, across a causeway. Railway concessions are available. Salary scales, announced by the Deputy Minister of Education, Arts and Science on 21 April(31), are: Professors: White ...... R3,900 x 120 - R4,500 Indian ...... R3,200 x 100 - R3,700 Senior lecturers: White ...... R3,060 x 120 - R3,900 Indian ... R2,500 x 100 - R3,200 Lecturers: White ...... R2,100 x 120 - R3,060 Indian ...... R1,740 - R1,800 x 80 R2,200 x 100 - R2,500 It is understood that in 1961 there were about 120 students, and three Indians on the staff. Meanwhile, opponents of this scheme went ahead with independent plans. Indian business and professional men set up a University Education Committee (Natal), which plans to enrol students with the University of London, initially for courses leading to the B.A., B.Sc. (Economics), B.Sc. (Social Science) and LL.B. degrees. Duplicated copies of lectures and tape recordings of these by London professors will be supplied, also various Durban educationalists will give "live" lectures of not less than two hours a week in each subject. The first task of the Committee, during 1961, was to prepare students for the British General Certificate of Education advanced level examination, since the London University does not recognize the South African matricution as an entrance qualification(32). NATAL MEDICAL SCHOOL The National Bureau of Educational and Social Research has supplied details of the fifteen bursaries made available annually by the Government to Non-White students wishing to study medicine at the University of Natal. They are awarded to Africans in the first instance: only if there are not enough African candidates are bursaries granted to Coloured and Indian students, in that order. (31) Assembly, Hansard 13 cols. 5043-4. (32) Sunday Times, 8 January 1961. 260

RELATIONS: 1961 261 Since 1958 there have been sufficient numbers of suitably qualified Africans. The amount of the bursaries is a year during the preparatory and first years, and then R400 for each of the following five years. If a student fails his examinations he does not receive a bursary for the "repeat" year, but if he then passes it is resumed. Should he fail and give up the course he is expected to repay the full amount he has received. Successful students who practise within South Africa are required to repay one- half of the amount received; but if they leave the country they must refund the whole sum. The condition that graduates must take up positions in the Public Service for a certain number of years has been withdrawn. In theory, 105 students could be receiving bursaries in any one year, but because of failures only 68 were doing so at the beginning of 1961. FINDINGS ON UNIVERSITY EDUCATION BY THE INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS At its meeting in January 1961, the Council of the Institute of Race Relations resolved: "The Institute reaffirms its opposition to the invasion of university autonomy by the Extension of University Education Act and the Fort Hare University College Transfer Act of 1959, and sees no reason in the light of developments at the new colleges to change its attitude. "It deplores in particular: (a) the Government's refusal to permit individual Non-Whites to register at the open universities, even in some cases where alternative facilities are not provided at the ethnic colleges, which has deprived students of available bursaries, and even in cases where potential students are patently unable to attend the appropriate ethnic college and the open universities have indicated that they are prepared to admit them. (For example, the English-speaking Coloured in Natal, who are precluded from entering either the existing Non-European section of the University of Natal or even the new Indian College in Durban, but have to go to the College of the Western Cape, where the teaching medium is mainly Afrikaans); (b) the precipitate and at present unnecessary multiplication of ethnic institutions for Non-Whites at great cost to the State, when at the same time the system of secondary education under the Bantu Education Administration actually has a limiting effect on the number qualifying for the university matriculation; (c) the introduction of disciplinary control over staff and students which has inhibited the intellectual freedom and undermined the security of teachers and students, and appears to have led to dismissals on political grounds."

A SURVEY OF RACE HEALTH AND NUTRITION VITAL STATISTICS Provisional vital statistics for the White, Coloured and Asian sections of the population are('): Whites Coloured Asians Birth rate per 1,000 of the population (1960) ...... 25.0 49.5 36.5 Ex-nuptial births as a percentage of the total births (1958) ...... 1.6 36.8 2.8 Death rate per 1,000 of the population (1960) ...... 8.6 16.6 8.0 Infant death rate per 1,000 live births (1960) ...... 30.1 127.2 64.3 There are no equivalent official figures relating to Africans because so many of them fail to register births and deaths, especially in rural areas. Registration is more complete in the towns. but even there large numbers of births are not recorded. NOTES ON HEALTH SERVICES South Africa's first centre for African paraplegics is to be established on ground adjoining the Baragwanath Hospital, which has been leased to the National Council for the Care of Cripples. The Germiston Cripples Care Association is providing a new home for African crippled children at Natalspruit. The S.A. National Council for the Blind is continuing its campaign against trachoma amongst Africans in the Northern Transvaal. Besides using ointments for the treatment of affected eyes, it is now also giving sulphonamide drugs which are taken orally. No more recent statistics relating to hospital and general health services than those given in our last Survey2) have been published. NUTRITIONAL SURVEYS During 1961 the National Nutrition Research Institute sent out questionnaires to medical practitioners, asking for reports on NonWhite child patients. Replies were sent relating to 200,000 patients, of whom 44,509 suffered from deficiencies associated with malnutrition. There were 4,470 cases. of kwashiorkor, 3,478 of marasmus, 3,132 of pellagra, 567 of scurvy and 393 of rickets; and also 15,404 cases of gastro-enteritis and 9,360 of tuberculosis('). (1) Official Bulletin of Statistics. (2) Page 242. (3) Rand Daily Mail, 13 October 1961. 262

The head of this Institute, Dr. F. W. Quass, is reported to have said, "In spite of the poor response to the questionnaire it is apparent that malnutrition and its associated deficiency diseases exist to a far greater extent than even the most pessimistic nutritionist expected." According to a Star report(4) which quotes the S.A. Medical Journal, it was found at the Karl Bremer Hospital in the Cape that 66 per cent of the Non-White patients aged between one and two years received less than one pint of milk a day. Many had none. Of the children between six months and twelve years of age, only 10.9 per cent were of average normal weight or heavier, while 41.1 per cent were 25 per cent or more below this normal weight. Surveys conducted by the Association for the Improvement of Bantu Wages and Productivity and, more recently, by the Institute of Race Relations, show that many thousands of African workers have no breakfast before leaving home, and often no lunch either. The Institute hopes early in 1962 to publish the results of an investigation it is conducting of the nutritional habits of urban Africans and of existing industrial feeding schemes. Comments on reasons for the success or failure of these schemes, and recommendations to employers, will be included(5). PLAN TO SUPPLY SKIMMED MILK POWDER TO AFRICAN CHILDREN The Government has been discussing with local authorities in Pretoria, Durban and Cape Town a pilot scheme in terms of which young African children attending municipal clinics would each be supplied with one pound of milk powder per week. SURPLUS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS Although South Africa produces possibly only about onethird of the dairy products which should be consumed by her people to maintain themselves in reasonable health, there has for a number of years been a surplus of butter and cheese because a large proportion of the population cannot afford these products, and many have as yet not developed a taste for them. The surplus has been sold at a loss in Britain. During November 1961, in order to protect its home producers, the United Kingdom asked South Africa and other countries to prune their exports of subsidized dairy products very considerably. As a result, according to the Star"), South Africa may have 40,000 tons of butter in store at the end of 1961, as against 28,000 in December 1960. In an editorial published the following day the Star suggested increasing, at least temporarily, the State subsidy on butter to bring it within the reach of more people, without racial differentiation in price (which might lead to a black market). (4) 26 August 1961. (5) A preliminary article was published in Race Relations News for September 1961. (6) 7 November 1961. RELATIONS: 1961 263

A SURVEY OF RACE Meanwhile, every effort should be made to popularize the product and to improve its distribution. It was subsequently announced that the price of butter would be reduced by five cents a pound, and of cheese I1 cents a pound. "COFFEE CARTS" IN JOHANNESBURG A few years ago there were some 1,600 African-owned coffee carts operating in the industrial and commercial areas of Johannesburg. They provided a well-nigh essential service in selling hot drinks and food to African workers who had left home without any breakfast and had travelled long distances to work, and also in serving snacks at lunch-time; but many of them were most unhygienic structures with no facilities for washing utensils or keeping food clean. It is reported7) that in recent months the Johannesburg municipality has removed about 900 of the most derelict structures from the streets. It has encouraged employers to establish canteens, and it planned to order about a hundred well- constructed refreshment kiosks, with proper facilities, to replace the remaining coffee-carts. These would be leased to Africans. The scheme has, however, been vetoed by the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development, who insisted that Africans should not be allowed to trade outside their own areas. (7) Rand Daily Mail, 29 September 1961 264

RELATIONS: 1961 WELFARE WELFARE SERVICES WELFARE ORGANIZATIONS AMENDMENT ACT, NO. 75 OF 1961 The Welfare Organizations Amendment Act of 1961 provided that welfare organizations wishing to apply for registration must publish notices stating their intention and outlining their objects. Anyone may lodge an objection within a period to be prescribed. The Board (now called the National Welfare Board) may reject the application if it appears that the objects and area of operation of the organization are substantially the same as those of another organization that is already registered and functioning effectively. It may also reject the application if it considers that the objects which fall within the definition of a welfare organization are ancillary or incidental to the other objects of the organization concerned. Alternatively, the Board may demand that these other objects be deleted from the constitution. The main Act stated that an organization whose application for registration had been refused could appeal to a committee constituted by the Minister. The amending measure provided that if an objection to an organization's registration is lodged the matter will be referred to the Minister, whose decision will be final. It was previously laid down that registration may be cancelled on various grounds, for example, if an organization has not functioned for a continuous period of two years. A new provision is that, after consulting the Board, the Minister may cancel a certificate of registration on any other ground besides those specified in the Act. In explaining this clause in the Assembly(') the Deputy Minister of Social Welfare and Pensions said that the Minister and he were concerned that welfare organizations should not be used as a cover for activities which had quite a different object. Certain "communist organizations", he added, would like to exploit welfare organizations for their own purposes. Previously, unregistered organizations could apply to magistrates for 90-day permits authorizing them to collect money for an object referred to in the definition of a welfare organization, if the circumstances giving rise to the proposed collection were of a transitory nature. A magistrate who granted such an application was required to inform the Board. The Deputy Minister said2) that there had been no control over the expenditure of moneys so collected. The amending (1) 13 June 1961, Hansard 20 col. 7943. (2) Col. 7900. 265 measure states that such permits may be issued on the directions of a Minister and will be subject to prescribed conditions, one of which will be the submission of financial returns to the Board. CURTAILMENT OF THE WELFARE ACTIVITIES OF TRANSVAAL LOCAL AUTHORITIES Following recommendations by the Hoek Commission, the Transvaal Provincial Department of Local Government informed local authorities that they must abandon all active welfare work by 30 June 1961, leaving this to voluntary organizations (which they might assist by grants-in-aid) or to State Departments. They were, however, encouraged to provide recreational facilities. As a result, the Johannesburg Municipality was forced to close its sheltered employment depots (the Government refused to continue subsidizing these) and to discontinue services such as food distribution schemes for needy families and the provision of refreshments to children at play centres3). SERVICES FOR AFRICANS TAKEN OVER BY THE DEPARTMENT OF BANTU ADMINISTRATION AND DEVELOPMENT The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said in the Assembly on 5 May(') that his Department had taken over, from the Social Welfare Department, the control of: 16 African orphanages; 3 places of safety; 2 community centres; 5 workshops for the blind; 61 creches (3 of these had since closed of their own accord but one more had been established); 4 homes for the aged (one more had since been established and two more were planned). Eight African social workers had been transferred to his Department, and since then 83 probation officers had been appointed for the administration of African child welfare. On an earlier occasion5' the Deputy Minister said that, of these 91 African social workers, 38 were employed in urban areas and 53 in the Reserves. WELFARE PROJECTS FOR AFRICANS During the year under review further welfare projects have been handed over to all-African control and management('), notably the Entokozweni Welfare and Community Centre at Alexandra Township and the Donaldson Orlando Community Centre, Johannesburg. (3) Star, 6 February and Rand Daily Mail, 7 and 25 April. (4) Hansard 15 col. 5970. (5) 7 March. Hansard 7 col. 2515. (6) See 1959-60 Survey. page 250 for a descripton of this policy. 266 A SURVEY OF RACE The Transvaal Association of Non-European Boys' Clubs held a number of fund- raising events and, with assistance from the Bantu Sports Club Trust, has collected enough money to commence building the Dube Boys' Club in Johannesburg, which will have a swimming bath, arts and crafts rooms, a library, a diningroom and kitchen and a large hall for plays and music festivals7'. The Pretoria Rotary Club has provided an old-age home for Africans at Atteridgeville, Pretoria. It contains ten flats(8. PENSIONS PENSION LAWS AMENDMENT ACT, NO. 78 OF 1961 In his Budget Speech(9), the Minister of Finance announced that the ratio between the rates of social pensions for Whites, Coloured and Indians, which had been disturbed in recent years, would be restored to 12:6:5. This would be achieved by granting additional bonuses to Coloured and Indians, their basic pensions being left unchanged. Legislative authority for this was contained in the Pension Laws Amendment Act. This measure also empowered the State President to assign the administration of the Act in respect of persons of any specified class or race to any Minister, or partly to one Minister and partly to others. The rates of pensions for Whites and Africans were left unchanged. In the table that follows, reflecting the new rates of old age, blind and disability pensions, the "second bonus" shown for Coloured and Asians is that granted in 1961, but in the case of Africans it is an additional amount that was granted some years earlier. For certain legislative purposes the two bonuses are treated separately. Maximum Max. pension basic plus bonuses pension 1st bonus 2nd bonus Free means plus free means RRRRR Whites ... 228 48 - 180 456 Coloured City ... 99 24 15 90 228 Non-City 75 24 15 78 192 Asians City ... 87 20.40 7.80 72 187.20 Non-City 63 20.40 7.80 60 151.20 Africans City ... 24 13.50 3 24 64.50 Town ... 18 13.50 3 18 52.50 Rural... 12 13.50 3 12 40.50 Full details of the conditions attaching to pensions for Africans were given in Bantu, April 1961. As was explained in last year's (7) Star, 27 March 1961. (8) Ibid, 5 September. (9) Assembly, 15 March 1961, Hansard 8 col. 3007-8. RELATIONS: 1961 267 A SURVEY OF RACE Survey'), the maximum rates given above for Coloured and Asian pensioners are, in fact, available only to such persons who are certified by the District Pensions Officer to be "of a superior class." In the absence of any such certification the maximum pension payable is in each case R6 lower than the amount shown. Details were also given last year about the operation of the means test. UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AMENDMENT ACT, NO. 13 OF 1961 In terms of the Unemployment Insurance Amendment Act of 1961, the schedules for rates of contributions and benefits were converted to the decimal system. As there were no exact equivalents in cents for amounts previously given in pence, it was decided that contributors in the lowest income groups should benefit from this fact, while those in the higher income groups should help to make good the difference. There was one exception to this general rule: the benefits for persons earning between R1,638 and R2,500 a year were slightly increased. As before, those earning more than R2,500 a year are not eligible to become contributors. Nor are Africans earning less than R546 a year or employed as casual or seasonal labourers, mine workers, domestic servants and agricultural workers. Certain new conditions were included. Applicants for benefits may, for example, now be required to submit proof that they have sought work actively('). WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION AMENDMENT ACT, No. 7 of 1961 Numerous categories of disabled workers and their dependants became entitled to increased benefits under the Workmen's Compensation Amendment Act of 1961, particularly seriously disabled workers. Considerable increases were provided for in the case of Africans who become permanently disabled. An analysis of the changes was made in RR 93/61. AMOUNTS PAID IN SOCIAL PENSIONS AND GRANTS The information contained in the table that follows was given in the Assembly on 31 January 1961 by the Ministers of Bantu Administration and Development, the Interior, and Labour("). It refers to the year 1959-60: Type of pension Number of Total amount Average amount pensioners paid per head Old age pensions R R White ...... 86,883 21,407,288 246.31 Coloured & Asian 50,995 4,407,258 86.43 African ...... 202,206 5,236,670 25.90 (10) 1959-60, page 254. (11) See RR 82/61 for a more detailed description of this measure. (1) Hansard 2 cols. 440-443. 268

RELATIONS: 1961 269 Blind pensions White 1,077 262,832 244.04 Coloured & Asian 1,678 152,868 91.10 African ...... 14,498 387,326 26.721 Disability grants White ... 11,484 2,933,816 255.47 Coloured&Asian 11,270 945,394 83.88 African ...... 50,169 1,336,746 27.45 War Veterans' pensions White ...... 27,632 9,562,012 346.05 Coloured & Asian 1,315 123,848 94.18 African ...... 818 24,728 30,22 Maintenance grants(13) White ...... ? 2,331,306 ? Coloured ...... ? 737,884 ? Family Allowances(3) White ...... ? 47,682 ? Coloured ...... ? 1,846 ? Unemployment benefits White ...... ? 8,966,000 ? Coloured ...... ? 2,494,000 ? Asian ...... ? 994,000 ? African ...... ? 230,000 ? According to the Report of the Pneumoconiosis Compensation Commissioner for the year ended 30 March 1960('), the following amounts were paid to miners and their dependants in 1959-60: W hites ...... R4,665,266 Coloured ...... R39,820 Africans ...... R2,024,820 (13) Africans and Asians do not qualify for these grants. (14) U.G. 10/1961.

A SURVEY OF RACE RECREATION THE ARTS LITERATURE In the book An African Treasury, edited by Langston Hughes and published by Gollancz in 1961, articles by Non- were featured, among them Peter Abrahams, Can Themba, Bloke Modisane, Richard Rive and Peter Kumalo. The Bantu Language Institute, set up by a committee elected at the 1959 conference of African authors") , held its inaugural meeting early in 1961. As a first task it is preparing works of reference similar to the Afrikaans Woordelys en Spelrejls (lists of words and rules for spelling) in the main African languages of the country. An English Academy was established in mid-1961 to maintain and propagate the highest standards of English. Africans have taken far more interest in this development than in the creation of the Bantu Language Institute. According to an article in the World -), they regard English as a more powerful and more universal vehicle for the expression of thoughts than any other language spoken in South Africa. His vernacular tongue limits the scope of an African's development, it was stated. The World, which is staffed mainly by Africans, is to become a daily newspaper, entirely in English, from January 1962. The larger weekend edition, which includes a pictorial magazine, will still be issued. A new magazine called Township, which is sponsored and published entirely by Africans, appeared in Durban at the end of September. It was announced during September that the editor of a new Strand magazine, to be published in Britain, would be Miss Noni Jabavu, daughter of the late Professor D. D. T. Jabavu of Fort Hare. During the January 1962 school vacation the Transvaal NonEuropean Library Service is to run a course for Non-Whites in the fundamentals of modern librarianship, which will be held at the Kilnerton Institution near Pretoria. The Southern Transvaal Region of the Institute of Race Relations has set up a committee which has begun a scheme for supplying local African secondary schools with catalogued libraries and bookshelves. PAINTING The Polly Street Art Centre in Johannesburg, at which such well-known artists as Gerard Sekoto and Sydney Kumalo received (1) See 1958-59 Survey, page 291 % 20 Sep ember 1961.

RELATIONS: 1961 271 their first training, has recently been responsible for the emergence of another painter, John Hlatywayo, who held an exhibition in Johannesburg in February 1961. Two other Africans, "Morningstar" Motaung and Solomon Kaphoia, exhibited their work at leading Johannesburg galleries during July. Simon Lekgotho, who has exhibited in London, New York and Canada, was commissioned by the S.A. Reserve Bank to paint a picture to add to its collection of works by established artists. Paul Ramagaga was invited by the Harmon Institute in New York to submit work for an exhibition it sponsored in Boston. MUSIC The African Music and Drama Association, which is a subsidiary, established in Johannesburg, of Union Artists, has about 120 pupils in its music section and some 35 doing courses in drama. They are charged a nominal fee, the balance being paid from the Edward Joseph Memorial Trust Fund. The proceeds from the first nights of King Kong, in Johannesburg and in London, were paid to this fund. Early in 1961 the Association entered twenty-five African students, who had been trained by Joseph Friedland and Gideon Nxumalo, for the music theory examinations conducted by Trinity College, London. Of these, twenty-three passed, eighteen of them with honours. During 1961 the Association provided a more intensive course for twelve young people who were taught instrumental work, singing, theory and the appreciation of music. Miriam Makeba from South Africa was for a second time invited to sing in New York's Carnegie Hall as a guest star in a benefit concert. Jabulane Mazibuko, who trained an African choir in Johannesburg to perform The Messiah, has during 1961 taught another group to sing The Creation. Performances have been given to raise money for charities, specifically an old age home in Orlando. Under the leadership of Alessandro Rota and Mr. D. Quaker, a White operatic group in Johannesburg has held performances to raise money for the eventual establishment of a Coloured opera group there, similar to the Eoan Group in Cape Town. The first objective is to train singers. ENTERTAINMENT THE THEATRE The jazz opera King Kong, described in previous issues of this Survey), had a successful run in London for about six months under the auspices of Jack Hylton Promotions. Jack Hylton and the director, Leon Gluckman, then concluded arrangements for a five-weeks' run in Glasgow and a tour of the Provinces. (3) 1958-59. page 294: 1959-60. page 259.

A SURVEY OF RACE During April 1961 the National Theatre Organization presented a musical satire, George's Journey, written by George Makanya and produced by Teda da Moor. There was an allAfrican cast, members of the Bantu Theatre Company in Cape Town. African Jazz and Variety staged a new African musical Isi-Gu-Bhu (the drums of Africa), produced by Alfred Herbert and once more starring Dolly Rathebe. Another musical, Frustrated Black Boy, written by Godfrey Skosana, was presented by the New Africa Artists' Association. Bertha Egnos promoted Dingaka, a further musical with an African cast. Its star, Ken Gampu, was so successful that the organizers decided to send him to London to study acting. Union Artists presented three one-act plays produced by Cecil Williams, with players from the Music and Drama Association. Earlier, Cecil Williams had introduced an innovation in South Africa by using an African, Douglas Xaba, to play with Whites in a production of Jean-Paul Satre's The Respectable Prostitute. It is reported that Bloke Madisane, a refugee from South Africa, was commended by critics in London for his performance in a play at the Royal Court Theatre. Victor Mcunu from Durban, who has studied singing in London and New York and visited the United States and Europe with touring companies, appeared recently in Oxford in his first straight acting role in The White Man by Michael Picardie of Johannesburg. RADIO ol qoiA s ol uuld si q!Am !?uinuiluoo S 1uQLuu.J3AO) OqJL VHF (Very High Frequency) broadcasting system, which will be virtually free from interference. When this has been done, a full radio service will be introduced for Africans4). The present medium and short-wave transmissions will be continued for some years, but ultimately present radio owners will either have to buy new sets adapted for frequency modulation, or obtain converters. Unless they also possess short-wave sets they will then not be able to hear broadcasts from overseas. During the past year there have been many complaints that certain news broadcasts and talks are "slanted". Considerable numbers of senior members of the staff of the Broadcasting Corporation, including the Director-General, Mr. Gideon Roos, have resigned. SPORTS THE GOVERNMENT'S VIEWS ON INTER-RACIAL SPORT Following representations made to the Imperial Cricket Conference in 1960 by the non-racial S.A. Sports Association, asking that attention be given to the racial discrimination that existed in (4) See 1959-60 Survey, page 260, for details. 272 the national cricket association of South Africa, this last body wrote to the Minister of the Interior asking what the Government's attitude was on various points. In a reply dated 16 June 1960 the Minister stated: "The Government does not favour inter-racial team competitions within the borders of the Union and will discourage such competitions taking place as being contrary to the traditional policy of the Union-as accepted by all races in the Union. "The policy of separate development is in accordance with the traditional South African custom that Whites and Non-Whites should organize their sporting activities separately. The inclusion of different races in the same team would therefore be contrary to established and accepted custom." Questioned later in Parliament about this matter('), the Minister repeated the terms of a statement made by his predecessor in 1956, to the effect that while the Government was most sympathetic towards-and anxious to help-"legitimate Non- European sporting activities", these must accord with the policy of separate development. Whites and Non-Whites should organize their sporting activities separately, there should be no inter-racial competitions within South Africa's borders, and mixing of races in teams should be avoided. Within that framework Non-White sportsmen from outside would not be debarred from entering South Africa to compete with Non-Whites. Visiting Whites would not be allowed to compete with Non-Whites, however. Non-Whites would be permitted to compete with other teams outside the South African borders. It appeared, by implication, that Non-Whites would not be refused permission to represent South Africa in international events. The Minister added that the policy described above would be followed in the issuing of visas and travel documents. CAMPAIGN FOR NON-RACIAL SPORT At the first biennial conference of the S.A. Sports Association, in January 1961, the constitution and views of international and South African sporting bodies were described by Mr. Reg. Honey, South Africa's representative on the International Olympic Committee. This committee, he said, works through national bodies in the various codes of sport, which are affiliated to international organizations. A candidate for the Games must belong to a national body through his club or association. Two years previously he (Mr. Honey) had assured the International Committee that if Non-Whites in South Africa were good enough they would be selected. The S.A. National Committee was in full agreement. But this latter body did not make the selections: (5) Senate, 14 April 1961, Hansard 10 col. 3098; Assembly, 16 May, Hansard 17 col. 6530. RELATIONS: 1961 273

A SURVEY OF RACE this was the function of its affiliated bodies in the different codes of sport. Non- White bodies must, thus, affiliate to national bodies if they wanted their members to be considered. Mr. Honey conceded that Non-Whites had grounds for grievances in that, if they did affiliate, they were required by the sporting bodies to elect Whites to represent them; also that separate trials for the selection of candidates were unsatisfactory as weather conditions and tracks might vary. But he advised the S.A. Sports Association to accept this compromise, since it seemed to be the only way in which Non-White candidates could qualify for selection. The Association was not prepared to do so, and stood out for full and equal opportunities, and not the status of subservient affiliated bodies, represented by Whites. Its Hon. Secretary, Mr. D. Brutus, pointed out that the total votes of a Non-White national organization would be equal only to those of a White provincial body. He added that when separate trials were held in weightlifting no White competitor had equalled the total of 675 lbs. lifted by Precious McKenzie, yet the latter had been ignored and a White candidate had been sent to the Games. Others pointed out that Mr. Brutus had been refused a passport when he wished to put the Association's views before the International Olympic Committee in 1960. Mr. Honey promised that he would put the case of the Non-Whites fairly when this committee next met. Soon after this conference the S.A. Sports Association (S.A.S.A.) launched "Operation Sonreis" (Support Only Non-Racial Events in Sport). Players were asked to refuse to participate in sporting events conducted on racially exclusive lines; and sportsmen were urged to boycott these. S.A.S.A. wrote to the International Olympic Committee asking it to request the S.A. Olympic Games Association to ensure that constituent bodies offered membership to all South Africans on a basis of equality. It suggested that if such an undertaking was not given, another, non-racial South African organization should be offered membership instead. Later. S.A.S.A. decided to set up a preliminary Sub-Committee for Open Olympics as a possible substitute. The Association's activities in regard to specific codes of sport are described below. During October its Hon. Secretary and moving spirit, Mr. Brutus. was banned from attending meetings for five years. COMMONWEALTH GAMES In September 1961 S.A.S.A. urged all Commonwealth Games Associations to exclude South Africa until all its sportsmen were offered membership of national sporting bodies on an equal basis. and were given an equal chance of earning places in teams selected to represent the country. 274

During the following month the Advisory Committee of the Commonwealth Games Federation decided that, as South Africa had left the Commonwealth, it should be excluded from participation in the Games to be held in Perth in 1962. ATHLETICS The S.A. Bantu Amateur Athletics Federation has accepted the arrangement suggested by the S.A. Olympic Committee, having affiliated to the (White) S.A. Amateur Athletics Association. It has a White representative on the executive committee of the latter body. White officials attend its championships and provide a certain amount of coaching. The Non-White championships for 1961 were held at the Orlando stadium in Johannesburg at Easter time, and later an athletics and cycling team competed against Non-Whites in Bulawayo, where the South Africans dominated most events. Among the outstanding Non-White athletes in South Africa are the sprinter Elliot Shale, who has run the 100 yards in 9.6 seconds, the quarter-miler Johnny Mahanyela, who has beaten 50 seconds, Eddie Sethsebi who has run the mile in 4 minutes 16 seconds, the marathon runners Bennet Makgamathe and John Mkanyana, the high jumper Malehase who cleared 6 feet 2- inches in Bulawayo, and the cyclist Thomas Tumo. The President of the Bantu Federation. Mr. F. E. Rodseth, said in a Press interview6) that African standards were improving but that more competition, increased numbers of tracks and better training facilities were needed to enable them to reach international standards. The Bantu Sports Club Trust has done much to help by making R for R grants for the provision of tracks for adults and sporting facilities for children. Its chairman, Mr. L. G. Butt, said in February(') that in the seven years of its existence it had donated more than R180.000 for the improvement of African recreational facilities. The Trust's capital was derived from the sale to the Government of land which had been presented to it by the Centre Syndicate Limited. Although the controlling White athletic body gives assistance to African athletes, it does not allow mixed competitions. Permission was refused for John Mkanyana to run in the Comrades Marathon in May. The Western Province Amateur Athletics and Cycling Association suspended the White cyclist Theunis Theart for three months because he rode behind Coloured cyclists of the non-racial Boland Cycling Union in a race held in August. He did not take part in the race, but rode for practice and to enable the Coloured men to see his style. In September Sidney Trimmer, a judge at the White Western Province gymnastic championships, (6) Star, 27 February 1961. (7) Ib'd, 7 February. RELATIONS: 1961 275 walked out on learning that three Coloured gymnasts who wished to watch the events had been refused admission. He is reported(8) to have said that he did so "to get the people concerned to come out from the facade of 'government legislation' behind which they have been hiding". SOCCER The controlling bodies in soccer, to which reference will be made below, are: FIFA - the Federation of International Football Associations; FASA - the (White) Football Association of South Africa; SASF -the S.A. Soccer Federation, which has a non-racial constitution but which in fact has mainly Indian and Coloured members; SABFA - the S.A. Bantu Football Association; and SAAFA - the S.A. African Football Association. It was mentioned in last year's Survey that in August 1960, FIFA decided to give FASA twelve months within which to comply with its requirement that member organizations, only one of which is accepted per country, must be open to all who play soccer, without discrimination on racial or any other grounds. FASA had previously offered affiliation to the other bodies in South Africa, and had stated that if this offer was accepted it would do all it could to assist the Non- White soccer players. SABFA did accept; but SASF stated that it was not prepared to have merely subservient associate membership of FIFA. At one time SASF was composed of separate Indian and Coloured football associations and of SAAFA. During 1960 the Indians and Coloured decided to merge; but SAAFA preferred not to lose its identity. Arrangements were made in March 1961 for a team of White soccer players in Durban to play a match against a combined team of Indians, Africans and Coloured; but the match was cancelled. SASF reported the matter to FIFA, blaming FASA for being unwilling to sanction multi-racial matches. The president of FASA, however, maintained9) that the Government had refused its permission. At a meeting held in September 1961, the executive committee of FIFA decided to suspend FASA because of alleged racial discrimination in South African soccer. It stated that the question of whether further disciplinary measures should be taken would be discussed at the biennial conference to be held in Chile during 1962. As a result of FASA's suspension, South Africa cannot invite overseas teams to play within her borders, nor can she send teams to compete with any clubs that are in good standing with FIFA. (8) Rand Daily Mail, 4 September. (9) Rand Daily Mail, 3 October. 276 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS:1961 277 Officials of FASA have twice visited Durban, without success, again to try to persuade SASF to affiliate. In November 1961 Africans decided to form a Transvaal professional soccer league, to be run by a committee representative of SABFA, SAAFA and the Johannesburg Bantu Football Association. This will affiliate to FASA. At a ceremony held in Johannesburg, at which members of this league and of FASA were present, it was announced that a well-known firm had presented two trophies to the league and also a sum of R2,000 to be used as prize money for championships. The White officials of FASA offered to help the Africans in every way they could. This whole move was condemned by SASF, which stated(") that it was designed to disrupt the administration of Non-White soccer and to impress FIFA with a view to countering the expulsion of FASA. Mr. Seth Mzizi, the chairman of the new league, denied that FASA had in any way been responsible for its creation. When South Africa left the Commonwealth, FASA lost its affiliation with the English Football Association. CRICKET The decision of the (White) S.A. Cricket Association to seek the Government's ruling in regard to inter-racial teams and competitions has been mentioned earlier. When this body notified the S.A. Sports Association (SASA) of the terms of the reply it had received, SASA answered that the Minister of the Interior had not expressly directed the S.A. Cricket Association to exclude NonWhites from membership, thus the decision to do so rested squarely with this association itself. SASA wrote during February 1961 to the Imperial Cricket Conference in London, asking it to consider requesting the S.A. Cricket Association to admit all South Africans as equal members, and suggesting that, if the latter body did not agree to do so, it should be deprived of its membership of the Imperial organization and of matches of "test" status until such time as South African teams are truly representative. Copies of this letter were sent to all member-countries of the Imperial Cricket Conference. When this body met, during July, it decided to defer until its next meeting, in 1962, the question of whether South Africa should retain its membership after having left the Commonwealth. In the meanwhile, matches between South Africa and other membercountries would rank as "unofficial tests", but could possibly become official retrospectively. The African, Indian and Coloured Cricket Associations have combined to form the S.A. Cricket Board of Control, and intend (10) Rand Daily Mail, 16 November. applying for international recognition. When a match was played between Eastern Province and Western Province sides, in February, for the first time each team consisted of members of various NonWhite groups. During the year under review there have been two matches between White and Non-White teams which strengthened the claims of the Non-Whites for consideration when South African teams are being selected. In December the S.A. Indian XI beat Peter Walker's White team by four wickets. In April John Waite led a White team, which included four Springboks and six Currie Cup players, against A. S. Haque's combined Non-White team. The latter was not the strongest that could have been selected, as the outstanding Basil D'Oliveira did not play and another seven of the best Non-White cricketers were not available. Mr. Haque's team won by 20 runs, particularly good performances being given by the batsman Amien Variava. the bowlers Abdulla Rubdige. Abdul Barnes and Samson Ntshikisa, and the wicket-keeper "Lobo" Abed. In fairness to the Whites it should be said that they were accustomed to grass. but on this occasion were playing on one of the best grounds available to Non-Whites, at Natalspruit, which has a matting wicket and gravel outfields. The Indian community is said(") to have spent nearly R16,000 on improving this ground and providing a covered stand. But the Non-Whites have many disadvantages, such as lack of coaching, the difficulty of practising during the week because of the long distances they have to travel home, and the shortage of playing fields. It is said that some of the best players are able to get a game only about once in three weeks because teams have to take turns to use available grounds. This applied to soccer and other games too. BOXING The chairman of the S.A. Amateur Boxing Association is reported(12) to have said in February that if this organization did not accept affiliation from Non- White boxers it would be expelled from the International Boxing Association. There are various Non-White boxing associations, some of which support the policy of the S.A. Sports Association. Efforts are being made to get them to unite. However, the S.A. NonEuropean Amateur Boxing Association, which has headquarters in Cape Town, agreed to affiliate to the White controlling body. It was offered three White representatives on the committee, but preferred an arrangement in terms of which a liaison committee was set up, with three White and three Non-White members from the two associations, under the chairmanship of the head of the White body. (11) Star, 5 April. (12) Ibd, 8 February. 278 A SURVEY OF RACE

It was agreed that the parallel development of amateur boxing would be fostered, and that the Whites would help to organize Non-White tournaments and tours, and to train officials. In view of the Government's policy, mixed tournaments would not be held in South Africa, but mixed teams might be selected to represent South Africa overseas. Separate trials would be organized, both attended by liaison committee members, and if necessary, final mixed trials might be held privately. At the time of writing a multi-racial tournament was being planned, to take place in Bulawayo during December. There are to be three teams. Whites and Non- Whites from South Africa and Whites from Rhodesia. The Rhodesian selectors were unable to nominate Africans of a sufficiently high standard. Non-White boxers belonging to the associations which have not affiliated to the S.A. Amateur Boxing Association will not be considered for inclusion in the Non-White team to represent South Africa.* GOLF In January 1961 the Indian golfer Sewsunker (Papwa) Sewgolum, who was the holder of the Dutch Open and S.A. NonWhite titles and a member of the British Professional Golfers' Association, applied for entry to the Natal Open championship. The Natal Golf Union referred the matter to the S.A. Golf Union, whose President ruled that the question of Non-White participation in such events would have to be considered by the national executive committee, which could not meet before 11 March. Mr. Sewgolum's entry for the Natal Open thus had to be refused. He entered also for the S.A. Open championship, to be held in East London from March 16 to 18. Meanwhile, it is reported(3) that the S.A. Golf Union obtained two counsels' opinions, which differed, as to whether or not a permit would be needed in terms of the Group Areas Act. Proclamation No. 164 of 1958, issued under this Act, provided inter alia, that, except under permit, no racially disqualified person may be present as a member of or guest in any club save as a representative or guest of the state, a provincial administration, a local authority or a statutory body. Visiting competitors in the S.A. Open championship would be guests of the East London Golf Club. The report quoted above stated that the executive committee of the S.A. Golf Union decided that, although it would not bind itself in regard to future Non- White applications, on this occasion it would accept Mr. Sewgolum's entry provided he obtained a permit from the Department of the Interior. He was informed accordingly but through some misunderstanding did not apply for one. The Golf Union then asked a Member of Parliament to raise * No South African Non-White succeeded in winning a final, but there were outstanding performances by Pascal Radebe, Lucas Matseke and David Moloi. (13) Cape Times, 13 March. RELATIONS: 1961 279

280 A SURVEY OF RACE the matter urgently with the Minister of the Interior. The latter agreed to grant a permit, but for the three days of the tournament only. Mr. Sewsunker, was, thus, unable to practise over the course. He was not able to use the clubhouse, but the club made changeroom arrangements for him elsewhere. He did not find a place among the leading competitors, finishing with 307, whereas thirteen others had scores of 302 or below. Edward Johnson-Sedibe, who won the Transvaal Non-White amateur championship at the age of 15, has been appointed as an assistant professional at the Royal Winchester Golf Club in England. Coloured people are themselves clearing a 135-acre site at Athlone which has been made available to them for a golf course by the Cape Town City Council at a nominal rent. The Coloured Affairs Department and a few private firms and individuals have promised donations towards the costs of developing the course"'). CHESS A non-racial chess club has been started in Port Elizabeth by a group of White and Non-White players5). HOLIDAY RESORTS AND FACILITIES A private company is developing an Indian seaside recort at Tinley Manor Beach, 35 miles north of Durban. Large numbers of plots have been sold to Indians, and it is planned to establish an hotel. a school, restaurants, shops and other amenities. The Hamba Holiday and Touring Club, set up in Johannesburg, plans to arrange train and coach tours to holiday resorts and other places of interest for Non-White tourists. Coastal cruises may be undertaken, also visits to the Kruger National Park when a Non-White camp under construction at Pretorius Kop is ready for use. An Indian business-man in Durban has started a similar service there, known as the Eastern Sight-Seeing Tours. The Proficiency Motorist Club, in Johannesburg, is offering a wide range of services to Non-White members("). (14) Race Relations News, September (15) Ibid. (16) Ibid. September and October.

RELATIONS: 1961 JUSTICE CRIMINAL STATISTICS No detailed criminal statistics have recently been published; but it is possible to compare provisional 1960 figures, given in the Bulletin of Statistics, with totals for 1958 set out in Union Statistics for Fifty Years. The total numbers of convictions were: 1958 1960 Whites ...... 162,776 220,317 Coloured ...... 158,615 160,480 Asians ...... 31,062 36,388 Africans ...... 1,122,081 947,658 It will be noted that, whereas the numbers increased for Whites, Coloured and Asians, they decreased in the case of Africans. The Minister of Justice said in the Assembly on 19 April 1961() that during 1959 the S.A. Police issued 113,000 reprimands and warnings to minor offenders instead of instituting prosecutions. In 1960 there were 122,000 such reprimands and warnings. It would appear that fewer petty pass offenders are being brought before the courts. The number of juvenile offenders increased between 1958 and 1960 for all racial groups, however: 1958 1960 W hites ...... 13,326 15,050 Coloured and Asians ... 30,650 32,894 Africans ...... 144,083 145,303 THE POLICE FORCE The Police Amendment Act of 1961, and the Government's plans for closer liaison between the Police and Defence Forces, were mentioned in an earlier chapter2). The Minister of Justice gave details of these in the Senate on 6 March 196103). He also said that the course for White recruits to the Police Force was in future to be of twelve instead of six months' duration, and the minimum educational requirement for enlistment had been raised from Std. VII to Std. VIII. Recruits who were not in possession of a matriculation certificate would study six subjects leading to the National Senior Certificate, writing three of those at the end of the year and thereafter continuing to study for the others by correspondence. The six subjects were Afrikaans, English, elementary criminology, sociology and ethnology, criminal procedure and statute law. Policemen who had completed their initial training would also be given facilities for study. Refresher (1) Hansard 13 col. 4908. (2) See page 35. (3) Hansard 7 cols. 1889-96. courses would be held, particularly in the handling of arms and riots. NON-WHITE PRISON WARDERS The Prisons Department recently informed the Institute of Race Relations that African recruits to the Prisons Department are now given a six months' course of training at Baviaanspoort. Trained African warders receive free uniforms and pay at the following inclusive rates per annum: W arder ...... R272 Head Warder ...... R480 - R660 Chief Warder Grade I ...... R560 - R840 Chief Warder Grade I ...... R660 - R1,080 Senior Chief Warder ...... R 1,080 - R 1,440 YOUTH REHABILITATION CENTRES It was announced by the Minister of Justice on 19 April 196() that youth rehabilitation centres were being created to cater for medium and long-term juvenile prisoners. Those with sentences of less than three months would not be sent there, as this period was too short for effective training to be given. White youths would be sent to Leeuwkop prison farm near Johannesburg, Coloured to a farm at Palmiet River beyond Gordons Bay, and Africans to Stofberg farm, near Vereeniging. Leeuwkop could take up to 600 youths. New buildings had been provided with dining rooms, study facilities and a library. There would be facilities for training in several fields of agriculture, building, cabinet making and joinery, fitting and turning, welding and electrotechnical services. Reasonable financial reward would be made for work done, and thrift encouraged. The youths would be issued with work clothing that did not indicate that they were prisoners, also with suits of clothes that they could wear on visiting days and on their release. They would be trade tested by the Department of Labour and, if successful, would leave as qualified artisans, with no indication on their certificates of where the training was given. On discharge they would be given necessary tools, jobs and accommodation would be found for them, and the Social Welfare Department would follow up their progress. LEGAL AID It was mentioned in last year's Survey that the Government intended introducing a new system of legal aid to replace the voluntary bureaux that have operated in the larger centres. The new scheme was put into operation in Johannesburg at the beginning of April 1961. A magistrate, Mr. N. L. Klires, has been appointed as the legal aid official, and has liaison officers on his staff from the Departments of Police, Social Welfare and Bantu (4) Assembly, Hansard 13 cols. 4866-7. 282 A SURVEY OF RACE

Administration. Anyone requiring help, whether in civil or criminal matters, may approach him. If he decides that there is an appropriate organization or Government department that can give assistance, the applicant is referred to it. Should he consider that a genuine legal problem is involved he establishes by a means test whether the applicant is eligible for legal aid, and if so, refers him to an attorney: the law society has been asked to furnish the names of local attorneys who are willing to give such aid. If necessary, the Bar Council will be approached for the services of an advocate. It is planned that similar schemes will be established in offices of the Department of Bantu Administration to serve Africans, and. for other groups of the population, in all centres where a need for legal aid exists and where there are lawyers willing to give assistance. The Government subsidy to voluntary legal aid bureaux has been terminated. The committee of the Johannesburg bureau has decided nevertheless to carry on with the support of public subscriptions until it is clear whether or not the new state scheme will render an adequate service. PENAL REFORM LEAGUE During the year under review the Department of Prisons decided that all prison visits by clergymen should be of a denominational nature: the major denominations were asked to appoint their own representatives for this purpose. In consequence, limitations were placed on the activities in prisons of the Rev. H. P. Junod, Director of the Penal Reform League, whose visits had been made in a non-denominational capacity, and who for many years had devoted himself especially to the care of prisoners condemned to death. Dr Junod had always closely connected his work as a prison chaplain with his functions as the League's Director, and, after considering the Department's decision, felt it incumbent on himself to resign from the League. He left South Africa to become Director of a new institution set up in Geneva to train African leaders. Professor H. Venter succeeded him as Director of the Penal Reform League. RELATIONS: 1961 283

A SURVEY OF RACE EXTERNAL AFFAIRS VISIT BY THE LATE MR. DAG HAMMARSKJOLD As was mentioned in last year's Survey, during March 1960 the then Secretary- General of the United Nations, the late Mr. Hammarskjdld, was asked by the Security Council to make such arrangements, in consultation with the South African Government, as would adequately help in upholding in that country the purposes and principles of the United Nations Charter. Mr. Hammarskjdld made it clear to the South African Government that any consultations would not require its prior recognition of the United Nations' authority; and on that basis South Africa agreed to participate in discussions. Events in the Congo forced Mr. Hammarskjbld to delay visiting South Africa until January 1961. He then found time for a brief visit, during which he had discussions with the Prime Minister and with as many as possible of those who had asked to see him. Dr. Verwoerd said subsequently") that no obstacles had been placed in the way of his meeting whomsoever he wished. The Government had considered, Dr. Verwoerd continued, that misunderstanding might be avoided if the chief official of the United Nations acquainted himself personally with certain major aspects of the South African scene. The talks had been useful and constructive, and the Government had decided to invite Mr. Hammarskj6ld to visit South Africa again in order that the contact might be continued. Mr. Hammarskj6ld is reported() to have told the Security Council that, although Dr. Verwoerd and he had so far failed to reach agreement, the exchange of views on racial questions had served a most useful purpose. He looked forward to a continuation of the talks. But Mr. Hammarskj6ld's tragic death in an aeroplane accident on 18 September made this impossible. BOYCOTTS It was announced by the Minister of Economic Affairs in the Assembly on 7 February3) that boycotts of South African goods had been imposed by legislative measures in India, Jamaica, Antigua, the Sudan, Ghana, Malaya, Barbados and NetherlandsGuiana. Since then, Ethiopia, Nigeria and Sierra Leone have decided upon similar trade boycotts. Sierra Leone and Liberia have closed (1) Assemb y. 23 January 1961. Hansard 1 cols. 15-16. (2) Rand Daily Mail, 24 January. (3) Hansard 3 cols. 854-6. 284

RELATIONS: 1961 285 their ports and airports to South African ships and aircraft except in cases of extreme urgency; and Senegal and Sierra Leone have decided to debar holders of South African passports from entering their territories. The United Arab Republic withdrew its diplomatic mission from South Africa and placed a total ban on the entry of South African goods and on the trans- shipment of these goods at any of its ports. It notified all its consulates that they were not to issue visas to holders of South African passports: applications for visas would have to be made direct to Cairo. (Since June, when these decisions were made, Syria has seceded from the United Arab Republic.) UNITED NATIONS' CONSIDERATION OF APARTHEID, APRIL 1961 Early in April 1961, twenty-four African states, led by Ghana, submitted a resolution to the Special Political Committee asking that the General Assembly should call upon all member-states to consider: (a) breaking off diplomatic relations with South Africa, or refraining from establishing such relations; (b) closing their ports and airports to South African ships and aircraft; (c) boycotting all South African goods, and refraining from exporting goods to South Africa. A milder resolution was submitted by Afghanistan, Ceylon, India, Indonesia and Malaya, asking that all member-states should consider taking such separate and collective actions as were open to them, in conformity with the United Nations Charter, to bring about the abandonment by South Africa of policies based on racial discrimination. The first resolution was passed by 41 votes to 32, with 21 abstentions, by the Special Political Committee, and subsequently by 42 votes to 34, with 21 abstentions, by the General Assembly. In the General Assembly, which then had 99 members, a twothirds majority was required, in assessing which abstentions were not considered. This first resolution thus failed to gain sufficient support, and was withdrawn. The milder resolution was ratified by the General Assembly by 95 votes to one (Portugal), with no abstentions. South Africa, Spain and Nepal did not vote. MOTION OF CENSURE During October 1961 South Africa's Minister of Foreign Affairs, Mr. Eric Louw, made a speech in the General Assembly in which he outlined his country's policy and also criticised certain other states. Liberia then introduced a motion censuring Mr. Louw and the South African Government for this address, declaring it to be "offensive, fictitious and erroneous." This motion was passed

A SURVEY OF RACE by 67 votes to one (South Africa), with 20 abstentions. Britain, France and the United States were amongst nine members who did not participate in the vote, as distinct from casting abstentions. Liberia withdrew a further resolution that the verbation text of Mr. Louw's statement should be expunged from the official records after the Australian delegate had stated that such an action would set a precedent with very serious implications for the future of United Nations' debates. CONSIDERATION OF APARTHEID IN NOVEMBER 1961 At the session of the Special Political Committee in November 1961 nine African states and Iraq introduced a sanctions motion, in similar terms to the Ghana- sponsored motion that had been debated in April. They also proposed that the attention of the Security Council should be drawn to Article 6 of the Charter, which provides that a member who has persistently violated the principles of this Charter may be expelled, and they moved that the Security Council should at an early date consider South Africa's continued membership. The British delegate is reported4) to have said that while the United Kingdom had used every means to bring home to the South African Government its disapproval of the latter's racial policies, it did not support the imposition of sanctions. These might lead only to a stiffening of South Africa's resolve to pursue such policies and thus worsen the position of the very people whom the United Nations was seeking to help. They might drive to despair the many Whites who were not supporters of apartheid. It would not be logical to expel South Africa and so remove it from the influence of the world organization. New Zealand and Italy supported this attitude. Again a more moderate resolution in the terms of the one moved in April was also introduced, this time by Afghanistan, Ceylon, Denmark, India, Malaya, Norway and Venezuela. Numerous amending clauses to both resolutions were proposed. The sanctions motion, calling for the breaking off of diplomatic relations, closing of ports and airports and boycotting of South African goods did not gain a two- thirds majority in the Special Political Committee, but more votes were cast for it than it received seven months earlier. The voting was 48 to 30, with 23 abstentions. The results were along somewhat similar lines so far as the various other clauses of this motion were concerned. The motion calling for an early discussion of South Africa's continued membership was passed by 47 votes to 32, with 22 abstentions. Pakistan's appeal to member-states to refrain from exporting petroleum to South Africa received 44 votes to 31 with 26 abstentions. The (4) Rand Daily Mail, 1 November. resolution as a whole, including an assertion that South African policy endangered world peace and was "reprehensible and repugnant to the dignity and rights of peoples and individuals" was carried by 55 votes to 26 with 20 abstentions. Britain and the United States voted against the motion. There were no Asian countries amongst those who abstained. The Special Political Committee then turned its attention to the milder motion, to which various clauses had also been added by way of amendments. A U.S.S.R. amendment calling on all member-states to refrain from supplying arms or military assistance to South Africa was passed by 50 votes to 29, with 22 abstentions. An assertion that apartheid was incompatible with United Nations membership received 80 votes to two (South Africa and Portugal). A clause deploring the South African Government's continued disregard of resolutions of the General Assembly, and its application of further discriminatory laws and measures, the enforcement of which had "led to violence and bloodshed" was carried by 99 votes to one (South Africa), with one abstention (Portugal). The motion as a whole, containing the key paragraph calling on member-states to consider taking such separate and collective actions as were open to them, in conformity with the Charter, to bring about the abandonment by South Africa of policies based on racial discrimination, received 82 votes to two (South Africa and Portugal), with 17 abstentions. Later, in the General Assembly, supporters of the sanctions motion attempted to obtain a two-thirds majority for it by proposing that there should be no separate votes on individual clauses, the motion being considered in its entirety. This move was defeated by a narrow majority of five votes. The sanctions clause failed to gain the necessary majority. The Canadian delegate, who had abstained in the Special Political Committee, now voted against it, but the attitude of others was unchanged. The voting was, thus, 48 to 31 with 22 abstentions. In view of this, the other clauses were withdrawn. The General Assembly decided to retain the clause of the second resolution which proposed such separate and collective actions as were open to members to induce South Africa to abandon its racial policies. Other clauses did not gain the required majority and fell away. The resolution, as so amended, was passed by 97 votes to two (South Africa and Portugal) with one abstention. Three delegations were absent. UNITED NATIONS' CONSIDERATION OF SOUTH-WEST AFRICA Proceedings instituted at the International Court of Justice As was pointed out by Mr. R. B. Ballinger in his book South-West Africa: The Case Against the Union(), only states (5) Published by the Institute of Race Relations in 1961. RELATIONS: 1961 287 may be parties to suits before the International Court of Justice, thus the United Nations cannot on its own behalf institute proceedings. It may only seek advisory opinions, which are binding neither on the United Nations nor on any state directly concerned in them. Such an opinion was sought in 1950. The Court then stated it considered that while South Africa was not bound to enter into a trusteeship agreement with the United Nations in regard to SouthWest Africa, the Mandate remained in force, and South Africa continued to have the international obligations set forth in the Covenant of the League of Nations and the Mandate, including the submission of reports on the territory. The supervisory functions over the Mandate should be exercised by the United Nations. The United Nations General Assembly subsequently accepted this opinion in the form of a resolution; but South Africa rejected it, stating its view that the Mandate, and its obligations to the international community, lapsed with the dissolution of the League of Nations. During November 1960, in their capacities as former members of the League of Nations, Ethiopia and Liberia instituted an action against South Africa in the International Court. They accused South Africa of substantially modifying the terms of the Mandate without the consent of the United Nations, and of failing to promote to the utmost the material and moral well-being and social progress of the inhabitants of the territory, thus violating the terms of the Mandate. In administering the territory, they stated, South Africa had practised apartheid and applied legislation and administrative decrees which were arbitrary, unreasonable, unjust and detrimental to human dignity, and which suppressed the rights and liberties of inhabitants of the territory essential to their orderly evolution towards self-government. South Africa had exercised powers inconsistent with the international status of the territory, and had failed to render reports or transmit petitions. The Court has been asked to rule that the Mandate is a treaty in force, that South Africa remains subject to the international obligations set forth in the Covenant of the League of Nations, that the General Assembly is legally qualified to exercise the supervisory functions previously exercised by the League, and that South Africa is under an obligation to submit to the supervision and control of the General Assembly regarding the Mandate, and to submit annual reports and to transmit petitions. These are, in essence, the points on which the International Court gave an opinion in 1950; but, as Mr. Ballinger made clear, in this case a binding judgment, and not merely an opinion, will be given. Should the Court's views remain unchanged, and if South Africa does not alter its attitude, the two applicants could then appeal to the Security Council, Mr. Ballinger said. This could lead to such measures as sanctions or the legal revocation of the Mandate. 288 A SURVEY OF RACE

The President of the Court allowed Ethiopia and Liberia until 15 April to file their documentary pleadings, and South Africa until 15 December 1961 to file its counter plea. Proceedings at the United Nations, December 1960 to April 1961 During December 1960 a series of resolutions, which had been initiated in the Trusteeship Committee, were passed in the General Assembly by very large majorities. South Africa's motion that the debate be adjourned because the general question was before the International Court and the issue was thus sub judice was rejected. The Assembly resolved: (a) that South Africa had failed and refused to carry out its obligations under the Mandate (86 to nil with 6 abstentions); (b) that the application of apartheid in South-West Africa was to be deprecated, and that South Africa should be called upon to revoke all laws and regulations based on this policy (90 to nil with 3 abstentions); (c) that South Africa should be urged to cease imprisoning and deporting Africans and to ensure the free exercise of political rights (84 to nil with 7 abstentions); (d) that South Africa should be called upon to seek the aid of United Nations' special agencies and to co-operate with them in urgent programmes to assist the indigenous population (98 to nil); (e) that the United Nations Committee on South-West Africa should be invited to investigate the situation in the territory and to propose steps leading towards internal self-government for the indigenous inhabitants; and that South Africa should be urged to facilitate this mission (78 to nil with 15 abstentions). South Africa did not vote on any of these resolutions. Later, during March, the Assembly requested the committee to proceed immediately to make on-the-spot investigations, and to report back with recommendations for granting the territory a wide measure of self-government leading as soon as possible to complete independence. The committee was asked to carry out this assignment "as fully and expeditiously as possible, with the co- operation of the South African Government if such co-operation be available, and without it if necessary." Just before the Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference in March the General Assembly appealed to all members of the United Nations having close relations with South Africa to bring, as a matter of urgency, all their influence to bear on her Government, "with a view to ensuring that it shall adjust its conduct to its obligations under the Charter of the United Nations and shall give effect to resolutions adopted by the General RELATIONS: 1961 289

290 A SURVEY OF RACE Assembly" (74 votes to nil with 9 abstentions, South Africa and 15 other countries not casting votes). A further resolution, passed in the Assembly by 84 votes to nil during April, referred to members' "grave concern" over the practice of apartheid in South-West Africa and their opinion that the continuance of existing conditions in the territory was "likely to endanger international peace and security". The attention of the Security Council was drawn formally to the situation. Proposed visit by the Special Committee The United Nations' Committee on South-West Africa consisted, during 1961, of representatives from Brazil, Denmark, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Indonesia, Ireland, the Phillipines, the United Arab Republic and Uruguay, under the chairmanship of Professor E. Fabregat of Uruguay. It is reported(6) that South Africa's Foreign Minister, Mr. Eric Louw, wrote to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, and that later her Ambassador sent a similar letter to Professor Fabregat, stating that South Africa would not facilitate a visit by the Committee, as the whole question of South-West Africa was before the International Court and, in any case, the terms of the original Mandate had not required South Africa to allow international supervisory visits. Professor Fabregat informed Mr. Louw that eight members of his committee planned to arrive in South Africa during May; the representative from Ireland had decided not to participate in the tour. The South African Government announced, however, that the committee would not be admitted to South-West Africa nor to South Africa. Its members first went to Ghana, where they interviewed certain political refugees from South-West Africa. From there they sent a message to the Secretary-General of the United Nations stating that the situation in the mandated territory was explosive and could become a grave threat to international peace. Mr. Louw then repeated a suggestion that he had made two months previously to the United Nations: that an independent observer of international standing should be asked to investigate the South African Government's claim that the situation in the territory was not in any way a threat to world peace(). This suggestion was not accepted. Britain had granted committee-members visas to enter Bechuanaland on condition that they would not attempt to cross the border from there. However, there were wide-spread rumours that some members of the committee intended defying this condition and South Africa's prohibition on entering South-West (6) Evening Post, 17 February. (7) Digest of South African Affairs, 24 July.

RELATIONS:1961 291 Africa. It was reported8) that South Africa sent police to patrol the border, and that Mr. Louw said that if committee-members entered the territory they would be arrested and sent back to Bechuanaland. Mr. Louw stated latere9) that he had used the word "detained", and not "arrested". According to the official Digest of South African Affairs of 24 July, Mr. Louw informed the Secretary-General of the United Nations that if the committee attempted to cross the border illegally, the South African Government, however reluctantly, would be obliged to prevent such an attempt, which would involve the United Nations in an act of aggression. At this stage the British Government notified the committee that, as the latter had failed to give an assurance that none of its members would attempt to cross the border, their visas to enter Bechuanaland had been suspended. The committee, which was then passing through Salisbury, decided to go to Tanganyika to interview political refugees from South-West Africa, and after this to return home. Two reports were drawn up for submission to the United Nations. The committee suggested that South Africa should be called upon to withdraw its military forces from the territory, to halt the immigration of Whites, to cease the enforcement of apartheid measures, and to release seventeen Africans who had been charged with violence after the Windhoek riots of December 1959. It also stated that in its opinion the best interests of international peace and security demanded as a matter of great urgency that the General Assembly should undertake a study of the ways and means by which South Africa's administration of the territory should be terminated, and that administration be assumed directly or indirectly by the United Nations. In existing circumstances, it was stated, a solution would probably be impossible without compulsive measures within the purview of the Charter. Proceedings at the United Nations, November 1961 During the debate in the Trusteeship Committee in November 1961, Mr. Louw announced that the South African Government intended inviting three people of international standing, probably past presidents of the United Nations General Assembly, to visit South-West Africa in their personal capacities. Their impressions and opinions of conditions in the territory would be published in full by his Government. Britain tabled a draft resolution proposing that after the (s) Rand Daily Mail, 5 July, quoting a news-release from the S.A. Broadcasting Corporation. (9) Ibid, 20 July.

A SURVEY OF RACE International Court's judgment had been delivered the President of the General Assembly should appoint a special commission of five members to consider any recommendations made by the independent committee suggested by Mr. Louw. The preamble called upon the United Nations to declare itself "convinced of the need to ensure for the people of South-West Africa a future of their own choice". These proposals were not accepted. Instead, it was decided by 86 votes to one (Portugal), with only four abstentions, that a sevennation committee should visit South-West Africa before 1 May 1962 to investigate conditions and to prepare for general elections to be based on a full adult suffrage and held under United Nations' supervision. The committee would be charged, in consultation with South Africa, with achieving the repeal of all and the release of political prisoners.* SOUTH AFRICAN CITIZENS OF INDO-PAKISTAN ORIGIN Once again in 1961 the United Nations attempted to persuade South Africa to hold discussions with India and Pakistan about the treatment of its citizens who are of Indo-Pakistan origin, and once more South Africa boycotted the proceedings, contending that the matter was one of domestic jurisdiction. In March 1961 Ghana tabled a 14-power Afro-Asian resolution expressing deep regret that South Africa had not replied to communications from India or Pakistan and had shown no disposition to arrive at a solution of the problem. South Africa's attention was drawn to the repeated appeals of the General Assembly to enter into negotiations. All member-states were invited to use their good offices to bring about such discussions. This resolution, introduced in the Special Political Committee, was subsequently passed by the General Assembly by 78 votes to nil with two abstentions. For the first time Britain and Australia voted for it. During June India made public the terms of a Note it had sent to the South African delegation proposing negotiations in New York "without prejudice to the position adopted by any of the parties concerned in respect of the issue of domestic jurisdiction". It was announced that Pakistan had sent a similar communication. In a statement issued by the South African Information Service1") Mr. Louw is reported to have said that the South African Government "would not even bother to answer" these Notes. It considered that the Indians living in its country were South African citizens, having given up "long-cherished plans" of repatriating them. The Government of India had no right to * The General Assembly later endorsed this resolution by 90 votes to one with four abstentions. (10) Rand Daily Mail, 18 August. 292 interfere with a South African domestic matter. Mr. Nehru "should rather sweep his own porch and clean up his own backyards". During November 1961 a 13-power resolution in almost identical terms to that described above was once more introduced in the Special Political Committee. For the first time it was unanimously endorsed. The representatives of South Africa and Portugal were not present. Later, the General Assembly also endorsed the resolution unanimously, the South African delegation again having withdrawn. INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION OF JURISTS In December 1960 the International Commission of Jurists published a lengthy report entitled South Africa and the Rule of Law, which was the result of a detailed investigation into the situation in South Africa. Copies were sent to the United Nations, with which the International Commission has consultative status, and to Governments and lawyers throughout the world. It was stated in the report that in its pursuit of a systematic policy of racial separation in all spheres of life, the South African Government had established a rigid and all-embracing network of legislation which denied to a vast majority of the population those opportunities without which the legitimate aspirations and dignity of a human being could not be realized. While the deep sociological problem confronting the Government could not be minimised, it was manifestly apparent that the pursuit of its present policy constituted a serious encroachment upon the freedom of all inhabitants, White and Non-White alike. The effects of the application of apartheid in various fields were analysed. The pass-law system, the Commission considered, had resulted in flagrant abuses of the law involving arbitrary arrest and detention, and had created a situation of which certain aspects could be described only as legalized slavery. No less disturbing were the negation of social rights and of free choice of marriage, and the restriction of assembly. To assure the continuation of the policy of inequality a carefully supervised educational system had been introduced whereby Non- Whites were to receive instruction solely in preparation for their acceptance of an inferior social, economic and political status. Such discriminatory policies were not only contrary to generally accepted concepts of justice and principles of human rights, but also created a potentially explosive situation which might soon lead to even more widespread internal violence than had already been experienced. The very expression of opposition to or protest against the policy of apartheid constituted a criminal offence. South Africa's judiciary had up to the present always enjoyed a high reputation for independence, impartiality and concern for fundamental human rights. Yet a judge could only apply and interpret the law as he RELATIONS: 1961 293 found it. And it was possible that the relative independence of the Bar might become subject to a serious threat: the Minister of Justice had stated that he had instructed his Department to make recommendations on how the admission of advocates could be submitted to stricter control. The International Commission did not wish to present a mere indictment of the ideology and political practice applied in South Africa, it said, but desired rather to create an awareness of the full legal and moral implications of the current situation and to stress the need for a change of policy. To renounce hope that wiser counsel would eventually prevail and that South Africa would meet the challenge of the future by solving its complicated internal problems with justice and foresight would mean to lose faith in the power of free institutions and in the decency of man. MEMBERSHIP OF THE INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION At the International Labour conference in June 1961, Nigeria tabled a resolution, which was amended by India, stating that South Africa's apartheid policy subjected its indigenous African citizens to racial discrimination to their economic and social disadvantage; declaring that its continued membership was inconsistent with the aims and purposes of the Organization; and requesting that South Africa be advised to withdraw from membership until such time as it abandoned its apartheid policy. In a plenary session this resolution was passed by 163 votes to nil with 89 abstentions. South Africa's Deputy-Secretary for Labour announced that his country had no intention of withdrawing. As the constitution of the Organization does not provide for expulsion, stalemate has been reached unless the constitution is amended. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATION AND MEMBERSHIP OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS The withdrawal of the Minister Plenipotentiary for the United Arab Republic from South Africa has left the latter country without a single Non-White diplomat. Of the African countries, only the Federation and the High Commission Territories have representatives in South Africa. Remaining colonies are represented by diplomats from Britain and Portugal. South Africa has a High Commissioner in the Federation, a Commissioner in Kenya, and Consul-Generals in Angola and Portuguese East Africa. It is a member of the United Nations, the Food and Agricultural Organization, the International Labour Organization, the International Telecommunications Union, the Universal Postal Union, the World Health Organization, the World Meteorological Organization, the International Civil Aviation Organization, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the International Atomic 294 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1961 295 Energy Agency, the Commission for Technical Co-Operation in Africa South of the Sahara (C.C.T.A.) and its associated Commission for Scientific Control (C.S.A.), the Inter-Governmental Committee for European Migration, the International Whaling Commission, the International Monetary Fund, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the International Bureau for the Protection of Industrial Property"). PROPOSED VISIT BY THE UNITED STATES ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF STATE FOR AFRICAN AFFAIRS During July 1961 the United States Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, Mr. G. Mennen Williams, made a tour of Africa. The United States Embassy in Pretoria asked whether he might visit South Africa, but the Department of Foreign Affairs replied that "to the regret of the Government it has not been possible to arrange for the inclusion of a visit to South Africa at the time this would have been convenient to Mr. Williams. It is hoped that it will be possible to arrange a visit later at a mutually convenient time"('2 . UNITED STATES-SOUTH AFRICA LEADERSHIP EXCHANGE PROGRAMME The United States-South African Leadership Exchange Programme was commenced in 1958 with the object of developing through non-governmental means a mutual basis of co-operation between professional, business and civic leaders in the two countries. The necessary funds were raised privately. Assistance with the organizational work is given by the Institute of Race Relations. Eleven exchanges were made in 1959, twelve in 1960, and thirteen were planned for 1961. In addition, six South African professors and teachers were invited to participate in the National Science Foundation Summer Institutes on the teaching of scientific subjects, and twelve senior members of the staff of South African universities went to the United States in terms of the Faculty Exchange Scheme. NON-WHITE VISITORS Delegates to a southern regional conference of the geological section of the Commission for Technical Co-Operation in Africa South of the Sahara, held in South Africa during August, were guests of the Government. One of them, from the Congo, was an African. The Government included him in all entertainments and excursions, and arranged accommodation for him with the other delegates at leading hotels. A senior representative of the Africa-Division of the Department of Foreign Affairs met two Cabinet Ministers from Katanga (11) Official Year Book, 1960. (12) Star, 15 July. when they arrived at Airport a few days later. They came for discussions with a firm of consulting civil engineers, but during their visit met members of the South African Cabinet, and stayed at an hotel in the centre of Johannesburg. POLITICAL REFUGEES FROM SOUTH AFRICA Non-White political refugees from South Africa and SouthWest Africa have formed the S.A. United Front, which has offices in Dar-es-Salaam, Cairo, London, Accra and New York. By April 1961 there were 25 refugees in Basutoland. Some left South Africa during the State of Emergency in 1960 and could return, but have chosen not to do so. Eleven would have to face prosecution if they went home. Of these, four estreated their bail when they were facing charges of incitement. South Africa applied for their extradition, which was refused by a magistrate in Maseru on the ground that, in his opinion the charges were of a political nature. Seven escaped to Basutoland from banishment camps in South Africa. The Basutoland Congress Party gave assistance to the refugees at first, but its funds ran short and those who have been unable to find employment are reported to be having a very difficult time. Other refugees have escaped via Bechuanaland to Tanganyika. Apart from a few top-ranking leaders who are flown on from there to London or Accra, the refugees find that their escape trail peters out in Dar-es-Salaam. It was reported(3 in February 1961 that the exile colony there then numbered about 40 and was still growing. At first the Tanganyika African National Union provided refugees with hotel accommodation and pocket money; but as the influx grew the financial burden became too great. The reporter stated that most of the exiles were then living in a converted school provided by the T.A.N.U. Having no proper documents they could not be absorbed into the local life, and nearly all of them were unemployed and frustrated. Philip Kgosana, who also estreated bail, was taken to London from Dar-es- Salaam, later visiting Accra at the expense of the Ghana Government, which also provided him with funds. There have been rumours of dissent within the S.A. United Front between ex-leaders of the banned African National Congress and PanAfrican Congress. A SURVEY OF RACE 296

RELATIONS:1961 297 SOME RECENT PUBLICATIONS DEALING WITH RACE RELATIONS PUBLISHED BY THE INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS "Things New and Old", by Prof. the Hon. Edgar H. Brookes (Presidential Address). Liberty, Equality, Fraternity-Today, by Prof. D. V. Cowen (Hoernl6 Memorial Lecture). Political Systems in Multi-Racial Societies, by Kenneth A. Heard. South-West Africa: The Case Against the Union, by Ronald B. Ballinger. South African Trade Unionism: A Study of a Divided Working Class, by Muriel Horrell. Looking Outwards: Three South African Viewpoints: South Africa and the Commonwealth, by Dr. B. Friedman. South Africa and the Changing African States, by John Sutherland. South Africa and the Wider World, by Ronald B. Ballinger. A Survey of Race Relations, 1959-60, by Muriel Horrell. 31st Annual Report of the Institute, 1959- 60. Fact Paper No. 9-The Urban African in Local Government: A Study of the Advisory Board System, by Lawrence Reyburn. Fact Paper No. 10-A Precis of the Reports of Commissions Appointed to Enquire into the Events Occurring in 1960 at Sharpeville and Langa. Race Relations Journal: Vol. XXVII No. 4: Symposium on the Racial Policies of South Africa's Main Political Parties. Bantu Marriage at the Cross-Roads, Part I, by Dr. J. F. Holleman. Vol. XXVIII No. 1: Findings of the Institute's Council, 1961. A Review of Recent and Proposed Legislation, by Quintin Whyte. Libraries for Native Africans: An Exploration, by Elizabeth Hoyt. Whither France in Africa? by Mirabel Rogers. Bantu Marriage at the Cross-Roads, Part II, by Dr. J. F. Holleman. Vol. XXVIII No. 2: Personnel Methods in Industry and Commerce, by E. R. Silberbauer. Bantu Marriage at the Cross-Roads, Part III, by Dr. J. F. Holleman. Some Factors Affecting Social Relations in a Natal North Coast Community, by P. L. van den Berghe and Edna Miller. The Anatomy of Prejudice, by Brian Rose. Vol. XXVIII No. 3: Increased Non-European Semi-Skilled and Unskilled Wages, by G. S. V. Graham. The Frontier Tradition and Race Attitudes, by Prof. I. D. MacCrone. Address of the Hereditary Chiefs of Basutoland to Mr. Mennen Williams. Some Comments on Bantu Education, by Dr. Ellen Hellmann. Some Facts about Baragwanath Hospital. Race Relations News-12 issues. Thought (A Journal of Afrikaans Thought for the English-Speaking). Four quarterly issues. (Memoranda issued in roneod form are mentioned in the text of this Survey).

298 A SURVEY OF RACE PUBLISHED BY OTHERS Africa League: A New American Policy Toward Africa, 1961. Allott, A: Essays in African Law (Butterworth) 1961. Almond, G. A. and Coleman, J. S. (Ed): The Politics of Developing Areas (Princeton University Press) 1960. Al-Quadires, A. A. S. K. J.: The Path of Islam (World Federation of Islamic Missions, Durban) 1961. Benson, Mary: Tshekedi Khama (Faber) 1961. Bohannan, P. J. (Ed): African Homicide and Suicide (Princeton University Press) 1960. Broughton, Morris: Press and Politics of South Africa (Purnell and Sons, Cape Town) 1961. Bureau of Market Research, University of South Africa: Income and Expenditure Patterns of Urban Bantu Households-Pretoria Survey, 1961. Burrows, H. R., Kerr, A. and Matthews, Z. K.: A Short Pictorial History of the University College of Fort Hare, 1916-1959 (Lovedale Press) 1961. Calder, Richie: The Agony of the Congo (Gollancz, London) 1961. Carter, Gwendolen M. and Herz, J. H.: Government and Politics in the Twentieth Century (Praeger University Series, New York) 1961. Central Statistical Office, Salisbury: Reports on Budget Surveys in Wankie and in Northern Rhodesia, 1961. Chisiza, D. K.: Realities of African Independence (Africa Publications Trust, London) 1961. Coetzee, J. C.: Onderwys in Suid-Afrika (van Schaik, Pretoria) 1961. Cowen, D. V.: The Foundation of Freedom (Oxford University Press) 1961. De Beer, Z. J.: Multi-Racial South Africa: The Reconciliation of Forces (Oxford University Press for British Institute of Race Relations) 1961. De Ridder, J. C.: The Personality of the Urban African in the Republic of South Africa, 1961. Doob, L. W.: Becoming More Civilized (Yale University Press, London O.U.P.) 1961. Doxey, G. V.: The Industrial Colour Bar in South Africa (Oxford University Press) 1961. Fischer, Louis: The Life of Mahatma Gandhi (Jonathan Cape) 1961. Frankel, S. Herbert: The Tyranny of Economic Paternalism in Africa: A Study of Frontier Mentality, 1860-1960 (Supplement to Optima, December 1960. Anglo-American Corporation of South Africa). Gray, Richard: The Two Nations (deals with the Federation) (O.U.P. for British Institute of Race Relations) 1961. Haselden, Kyle: The Racial Problem in Christian Perspective (Harper, New York) 1960. Hollingsworth. L. W.: The Asians of East Africa (Macmillan) 1960. International Commission of Jurists: South Africa and the Rule of Law, 1960. Jahoda, Gustav: White Man: A Study of the Attitudes of Africans to Europeans in Ghana before Independence (O.U.P. for British Institute of Race Relations) 1961. Johada, Marie: Race Relations and Mental Health (Paris, Unesco and London, Ministry of Education) 1960. Keet, B. B. and others: Delayed Action (Privately published) 1960. Kerr, A. J.: The Native Law of Succession in South Africa (Butterworths) 1961. Mansell, G.: Tragedy in Algeria (O.U.P. for British Institute of Race Relations) 1961. Mason, B. F. (Ed): The History of Race Relations in South Africa (N.U.S.A.S.) 1961. Matthews, Z. K.: Social Relations in a Common South African Society (Supplement to Optima, March 1961. Anglo-American Corporation of South Africa). Mayer, Philip: Townsmen or Tribesmen (Oxford University Press for Border Regional Survey) 1961. Millner, M. A.: Apartheid and the South African Courts (Stevens and Sons, Ltd.) 1960. Parker, Franklin: African Development and Education in Southern Rhodesia (Ohio State University Press) 1961. Pauw, P. A.: Religion in a Tswana Chiefdom (O.U.P. for International African Institute) 1960. Reader, Desmond: Black Man's Portion (Oxford University Press for Border Regional Survey) 1961. Robins, J. W.: Developments in Rural Local Government in Nyasaland (Journal of African Administration, July 1961). Sanger, Clyde: Central African Emergency (Heinemann) 1960. Saunders, J. T.: University College, Ibadan (Cambridge University Press) 1960. Scientific Council for Africa South of the Sahara: Housing and Urbanization (Proceedings of 1959 Conference) 1960. Scobie, Alastair: Women of Africa (Cassell) 1960. Southern Rhodesia: Second Report of the Select Committee of the Southern Rhodesian Legislative Assembly on the Resettlement of Natives (Government Printer, Salisbury) 1960. Spooner, F. P.: South African Predicament (Jonathan Cape) 1961. Sundkler, B.: The Christian Ministry in Africa (S.C.M. Press, London) 1960. Thompson, Virginia and Adloff, Richard: The Emerging States of French Equatorial Africa (Oxford University Press) 1961. Trimingham, J. S.: Islam in West Africa (Oxford University Press) 1961. Van der Horst, Sheila: The Economic Implications of Political Democracy (Supplement to Optima, June 1960. Anglo-American Corporation of South Africa). Van Rensburg, Patrick: Guilty Land (South Africa) (Jonathan Cape) 1962. Wynn Jones, H.: Africa in Perspective (Quadriga Press) 1960. RELATIONS: 1961 299

A SURVEY OF RACE INDEX A Advisory Boards-122, 127 African education-see Bantu municipal franchise, proposals for-127 National Congress-26, 78 political organizations-26 population statistics-83 residence in a Bantu residential area-118 welfare services-266 women, legal rights-132 Africans, acquisition of land by-118 "All-In" Conference-27 et seq., 76 Trials of certain organizers-28, 39, 40 Government policy for the future of-97 also see Bantu, Native Agricultural development in the Reserves-107 production-215 training for Coloured workers-251 Union, Eastern Cape-216 Agriculture, employment in-214 labour tenant scheme-214, 216 Alberton-163, 214 Alexandra Township-1 60, 214 Anglican Church-63 et seq., 71, 214 Apartheid policy-5, 10 et seq., 97, 98, 134, 141, 272 . . 99 Overseas reactions to-4 et seq., 284 et seq. Reactions of Africans in the Transkei-97 United Nations' consideration of-285 Asians-see Indians, Chinese Assembling of persons at times of internal disorder-34 Association for the Improvement of Bantu Wages and Productivity-198, 199 Athletics-274, 275 B Banks in African townships-218 Banishment of Africans-48, 92ff Banning of A.N.C. and P.A.C.-26,78 . . persons from meetings or certain areas-29, 31, 91ff public meetings-24, 31ff, 35ff, 39, 43, 92 South African products-284 et seq. Bantu Authorities-Enquiry into operation in Transkei-52 establishment of-99 finances of-100 urban areas-1 19 views of Transkei Territorial Authority-97 Bantu Education Amendment Act-223 .. .. Catholic schools-229, 236 Church buildings, lease of-227 Disturbances at schools-238 Equipment-227 300

RELATIONS: 1961 301 Bantu Education Examination fees--227 results-233 Expenditure per head-228 Farm schools-232 Financing of-224, 236, 238 . . pruning of expenditure-226, 237 Medium of instruction-232, 236 Posts for Africans in Department-235 Promotions-231 School boards-238 Statistics-229 Teachers-229, 237 Technical and vocational-251 University Colleges-see University Bantu in European Areas Draft Bill-il15 Bantu Investment Corporation-112 also see African, Native Beaufort West-175 Benoni, Group Areas-161 ,, housing-162 Urban Bantu Council proposed-123 Black spots-103, 104 Blind pensions-269 Blindness-262 Bloemfontein- 181 Boksburg, group areas-161 ,, housing-162 Border industries-109 Regional Development Foundation-80 Boxing-278 Boycotts of South African goods-284 et seq. Brakpan-162 Britain's attitude to apartheid-4 et seq., 286 Broadcasting-272 Bronkhorstspruit- 166 Building industry-employment in-218 . . 9 job reservation-192, 194 Bursaries at university colleges-258, 260 C Cape Town, group areas and housing-166 influx control-128 Catholic Church-72 schools for Africans-229, 236 Cato Manor murders-58 Census figures-81 Chiefs- school for sons of-101 Chinese-liquor privileges-146 population registration-85 Christian Council of S.A.-73 Church buildings-lease of for schools-227 clause-i 15 consultations at Cottesloe-10, 63 et seq. Council of Reformed Faiths-73 of England in S.A.-72 of the Province of S.A.-63 et seq., 71, 214 also see under name of Church

302 A SURVEY OF RACE Civic guards-47, 121 Civil Rights League-76 Clothing industry, job reservation- 192, 193 Coe awages, urban and rural- 111 Coffee carts--264 Coloured Affairs Department-134 Coloured areas-136 et seq. Coloured Council--134-136 Coloured Development Corporation-134, 139 Coloured Education-241 et seq. control of-134 effects of Group Areas Act-241 examination results-242, 245, 246 teachers-243, 244, 245 technical and vocational-250 university colleges-see university elections-25, 26 mission stations and reserves-136 National Convention-10, 23 et seq., 76 people, attitudes of-21 et seq. Government policy-9-12, 134ff United Party policy-16 People's Congress-22, 26, 31 People's National Union-22, 26 Persons Communal Reserves Act-139 Political Organizations-21 et seq. representation in Parliament-9, 12, 134, 135 on municipal councils-125 Transvaal People's Organization-22 Commerce, African traders-218 employment in-218 in Reserves-112 ,9 Indian traders-150, 154 ,, wages-199 Commercial Trading Association-218 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference-4 Relations (Temporary Provision) Act-7 South Africa's loss of membership 4 et seq. consequences-7, 186, 255, 274, 277 reactions in South Africa-8 Community Development, Department of-154 Community guards-47, 121 Compensation for African widows-132 $I ,, victims of Sharpeville, Langa and Transkei-55 Congregational Union-64 et seq., 72 Congress of Trade Unions-190, 206 et seq., 212 Conscience clause-255 Conservative Workers' Party-15, 19 et seq. Constitution of Republic-1 Continuation Committee of S.A. Churches' Conference-64. 73 Cost of living-African rural areas-114 in urban areas-195 .... . ,, incomes of racial groups-198 also see Wages Cottesloe consultations- 10, 63 et seq. Cricket-277 Criminal statistics-281

RELATIONS: 1961 303 D Dairy products-263 Defence Amendment Act-34 Further Amendment Act-35 "Delayed Action"-10, 68 Demonstrations at the end of May-31, 36, 238 trials of certain organizers-28, 39, 40 Deportations-48, 92jJ Detention without bail for 12 days-32, 41 Diplomatic relations with other African states-5, 6, 285, 294 Discussion groups on S. African policies- 1, 12, 70 Disorder, provision for dealing with-34 Disturbances among Non-Whites-42 et seq., 238 Doctors-220 Domestic servants-220 Dundee-181 Durban, Cato Manor murders-58 cost of living for Africans-195 ,, group areas and housing-175 representation of Non-Whites on City Council-127 ,, strikes by Non-White workers-212 ,, wages of municipal African employees-200 Dutch Reformed Churches-12, 63 et seq. E East London, housing-172 91 . . proposals for African municipal representation- 127 Economic conditions in S. Africa-184 ,, sanctions-284 et seq. Education, awards to educationalists-222 Bantu-see Bantu Coloured and Asian-see Coloured control of, Government policy-222 race studies-248 technical and vocational-249 et seq. Union Education Advisory Council Bill-222 Universities-see U White children-247 Election, general-14, 18 ,, of Coloured representatives-26 Engineering industry, job reservation-192, 193 Entertainment-271 Entry into certain African areas-43, 45, 95ff Ermelo-165 Estcourt-127 Evaton-165 Exiles from S. Africa-26, 296 External Affairs-284 Extra-Union Africans-131 Eye diseases-262, 269 F Farm labour-214, 216 Farming-see Agriculture Federation of S.A. Women-30

304 A SURVEY OF RACE Feeding, coffee carts-264 nutritional surveys-262 surpluses of dairy products-263 Field sports-272 Government's views on inter-racial sport-272 Flag of South Africa-2 Foreign Affairs-284 et seq. Africans-131 Fort Hare-see University Colleges G Garment workers-see clothing Gatherings, banning of-24, 33ff, 35ff, 39. 43. 92 Gell award-81 General election-14, 18 General Law Amendment Act-32 Germiston-161, 162 Geyser, Prof. A. S.-69 Golf-279 "Granite stand"-10 Group Areas Amendment Act-150 . . date when proclamation will come into force-152 Department of Community Development-154 . . effects on Church and welfare organizations-155 sport-279 for Coloured and Asians on East Rand-161 protests in regard to restaurants-182 H Hammarskjbild, Mr. D.-284 Health-262 et seq. Holiday resorts and facilities for Non-Whites-280 Home guards for chiefs-47 in urban areas-121 Hotels for Non-Whites-220 Housing-155 et seq. Human Rights Welfare Committees-92 I Immigration-143, 191 Income ,Tax Act-109 Incomes of groups of the population- 198 Indemnity Act-50, 55 Indians-Department of Indian Affairs-141, 142 Education-see Coloured education ,, Immigration-143 Municipal franchise-126, 127 Political organizations-30 Traders, Group Areas Act-150, 154 ,, Travel difficulties-142 Unemployment-188 United Nations debates-292 Witbank regulations-143

RELATIONS:1961 305 Industrial Conciliation Amendment Act-202 machinery for Africans-208 development in the Reserves-112 on the borders of the Reserves-109 Industry, employment in-217 Influx control- 83, 117. 119, 128ff et seq. Institute of Race Relations Council meeting-76, 87, 126, 129, 145, 236, 261 Interdenominational African Ministers' Federation-73, 133 International Commission of Jurists-293 Court of Justice-287 Labour Office-294 Organizations-S. Africa's membership-294 Intimidation-33, 51 Job reservation-135, 191 in the Western Cape-135 Johannesburg group areas and housing-155 et seq. influx control-128 juvenile Africans-214 liquor for Africans-149 wages of municipal African employees-200 welfare services-266 Juvenile delinquency-281 employment-214 rehabilitation centres-282 K Kaffir beer-122, 146, 148 Kimberley-173 Kroonstad-182 Krugersdorp-163 Ku Klux Klan-61 L Labour disputes-209 et seq. migrant-83, 117, 119, 128ff et seq., 218 reservation of work-191 ,, tenant scheme-214, 216 also see various types of employment: mining, etc. Lady Selborne-164 Land, acquisition of by Africans in urban areas-118 99 purchased by S.A. Native Trust-102 also see agriculture, Reserves Langa enquiry-54, 78 Leadership Exchange Programme-295 Leatherworkers' strike-212 Legal Aid-282 ,, status of African women-132 Lenasia-156 Liberal Party-18. 19 et seq., 76, 159 Libraries-270 Lift operators, job reservation- 192 Liquor-144, et seq. Literature-see Publications

306 A SURVEY OF RACE Local authorities, control of African affairs-I 15 et seq. welfare services-266 Urban Areas Commissioners-116 Local government, extent of Non-White franchise-125 et seq. Urban Bantu Councils- 119 Luthuli, ex-Chief A. J., Gell award-81 Nobel prize-29 M Mabieskraal, unrest-59 Malmesbury Convention-25 Malnutrition-262, 263 Manufacturing-see Industry Medical practitioners-24, 220 Meetings banned-24, 33ff, 35ff, 39, 43. 92 Methodist Church-64 et seq., 70, 75 Migrant labour-83, 117, 119, 128ff et seq., 218 Mining, employment in-217 Mission Stations, Coloured- 136 Municipal government-see Local authorities and local government Music-271 N Natal Convention-73 ., Medical School-260 National anthem-2 convention, calls for-12, 75 Development Foundation-201, 218 Institute for Personnel Research-200 Union of S.A. Students-76, 254 Union Party-14, 17, 19 et seq. Nationalist Party-8, 9ff et seq., 19 et seq. also see under various legislative measures Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) machinery-208 Separatist Churches-73, 133 also see African, Bantu Nigel-163 Nurses-221 Nutrition, coffee carts-264 surveys-262 surplus of dairy products-263 0 Official languages equal-2 Oudtshoorn-175 P Paarl-173 Painting-270 Pan-African Congress-26, 78 Parliament, election results-14, 19, 26 Pass laws, arrests-281 91 foreign Africans-131 influx control-83, 117, 119, 128ff et seq. . . Institute of Race Relations recommendations-129 movement of labour-117

RELATIONS: 1961 Passports-29, 89 Penal Reform League-283 Pensions and grants-267 et seq. Pensions Laws Amendment Act-267 Personal Service, employment in-220 Pietermaritzburg conference of Africans-28 b1 groupareasandhousing-180 Piketburg-175 Police Amendment Act-35 awards to Non-White policemen-220 criticism of action by-49, 54 training of recruits-281 raids, April and May-36 Pondoland disturbances-42 et seq. Pongola Poort-108 Population, census report- 81 et seq. registration, borderline cases-85, 86 progress of-84 Port Elizabeth bus strike-210 disturbances-37, 60 group areas and housing-170 Potchefstroom- 166 Potgietersrus-166 Presbyterian Church-64 et seq. Preservation of Coloured Areas Act-137 President of S. Africa- 3 Press-ban on reporting events in Transkei-47 editors prosecuted-57 Publications and Entertainments Bill-87 Undesirable Publications Bill-87 Pretoria, cost of living for Africans-197 ,, group areas and housing-163 Joint Council-232 Prison warders-282 Professions, employment in-220 Progressive Party-18. 19 et seq., 76 also see under various legislative measures Prohibition-see banning Public Service, employment in-219 Publications and Entertainments Bill-87 by Non-White authors-270 editors prosecuted-57 of the Institute of Race Relations-297 of others on race .relations-298 Undesirable Publications Bill-87 Q Queenstown-173 R Race studies in Transvaal schools-248 Racial classification-84 Radio-272 Railways, employment in-219 Recreation-270 Refugees from S. Africa-26, 296 Removal orders-44. 48, 92ff 307

308 A SURVEY OF RACE Rentals in African housing schemes-158, 180 Republic of S. Africa Constitution Act-i Reservation of work-135, 191 Reserves, African, agricultural development- 107 . . commercial development-112 .. .) entry into and departure-43, 45, 95ff extent of-102 funds for development-106 industrial development-I 12 villages-1 12 Reserves, Coloured-136 Restaurants, presence of Non-Whites-182 Riots-42 et seq., 238 Rural villages-1 12 Rustenburg-81, 166 S Sabra-10, 79 Sanctions-284 et seq. Schools. disturbances-238 also see education Secondary industry-see Industry Sekhukhuneland-60, 96 Separatist Churches-73, 133 Sharpeville-54 et seq., 78, 165 Soccer-276 Social welfare-265 et seq. South African Bond-15 Bureau for Racial Affairs-10, 79 Coloured People's Congress-22, 26, 31 Congress of Trade Unions-190, 206 et seq., 212 Indian Congress-30 Indian Organization-30 Institute of Race Relations-see Institute Sports Association-272 et seq. Trade Union Council-206 et seq. South-West Africa-287 Special schools-248 Sport-272 Government's view on inter-racial sport-272 Springs-163 Squatters-104 State of Emergency of 1960, aftermath-52, 56 Transkei-43 "Stay-at-home"--31, 36, 37 Strikes-209 et seq. T Table tennis-89 Taxation of Africans-133 Taxi drivers, Coloured-220 Technical education-249 Telephone lines, tapping-96 Theatre-271 Trade Unions-202 et seq. African-205, 207 Coloured and Indian-207 mixed-203

RELATIONS: 1961 309 Traders-see Commerce Transkei, disturbances-42 et seq. emergency regulations-43, 52 Territorial Authority-97 Transport facilities for Non-Whites-159 Treason Trial-62 Trial of Non-White organizers of demonstrations-28, 39, 40 , without jury for murder or arson-32 Trials resulting from disturbances in Transkei-50 state of emergency-52, 53, 56 U Uitenhage-175 Undesirable Publications Bill-87 Unemployment-i 87, 207 Insurance Amendment Act-268 Union Education Advisory Council Bill-222 United English-Speaking South Africans-60 United Nations consideration of apartheid-285 South-West Africa-287 ,, the treatment of Indians-292 motion of censure-285 South Africa's membership-286 United States-South Africa Leadership Exchange Programme-89, 90, 295 Proposed visit by Mr. Mennen Williams-295 United Party-8. 15ff et seq., 19 et seq. also see under various legislative measures University of Cape Town-76, 80 Natal-76, 195 Rhodes-76 South Africa-197 the Witwatersrand-76, 253 Universities, admission of Non-White students-253, 261 conscience clause-255 degrees and diplomas awarded-252 enrolment at-252 loss of staff and of bursaries-255 student organizations-76, 254 University College of Fort Hare-238, 258 of the Western Cape-259 for Indians-259 University Colleges for Africans, advisory senates-257 ...... financing of-256 staff-256 students-257 study loans-258, 260 University Education Committee-260 Urban Bantu Councils Act-I 19 Local authorities-see local V Vanderbijlpark-165 Vereeniging-165 Villages in Reserves-i 12 Virginia-182

310 A SURVEY OF RACE Visas-90 Visitors. Non-White to S. Africa-295 Vital statistics-262 Vocational education- 249 et seq. Education Amendment Act-249 w Wages, farm workers-216 recent increases-199 effect of in real terms-201 recommendations for increases-201, 216 work of Department of Labour for Africans-208 also see cost of living Warmbaths riot-59 Welfare-265 et seq. curtailment of activities of local authorities-266 Organizations Amendment Act-265 services for Africans-266 Weikom-182 Wellington-175 Witbank, regulations for Indians-143 Women, African, legal rights-132 Workmen's Compensation Amendment Act-268 Works committees-210 World Council of Churches-63 et seq., 72, 89, 90 Y Youth-see juvenile z Zululand disturbances-59

RELATIONS: 1961 311 PUBLICATIONS South African Trade Unionism-A Study of a Divided Working Class by Muriel Horrell. Price R1 plus 5 cents postage. Political Systems in Multi-Racial Societies by Kenneth A. Heard. Price RI plus 5 cents postage. Looking Outwards-Three South African Viewpoints by Dr. B. Friedman, John Sutherland and R. B. Ballinger. Price 50 cents plus 3 cents postage. South-West Africa-The Case Against the Union by R. B. Ballinger. Price 50 cents plus 3 cents postage. Liberty, Equality, Fraternity-Today (1961 Hoernl6 Memorial Lecture) by Prof. D. V. Cowen. Price 35 cents plus 3 cents postage.

THE NATURE AND AIMS OF THE S.A. INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS The Institute furthers inter-racial peace, harmony and co-operation in South Africa by seeking the tru.h in all inter-racial situations and by making it known, whether it be popular or unpopular with any Government, party or group. The Institute is not a political body, nor is it allied to or given financial help by any political party or Government. It is not tied to any "ism", is not pro-white or anti-white, or pro-black or antiblack. Institute membership is open to all, irrespective of race, colour or creed. The Institute believes that problems can be solved by hard thinking, hard work and goodwill, on the basis of fact found by dispassionate, objective scientific enquiry. It is concerned not only with tensions between white and black, but between all groups: Afrikaans- and English-speaking, urban and rural, white and black and brown. It opposes injustice and unfair discrimination. It seeks to further the social, economic and political development of all communities in South Africa. INSTITUTE OFFICES HEAD OFFICE: Auden House, 68 de Korte Street. (P.O. Box 97), Johannesburg. CAPE TOWN: 203-205 Bree Street. DURBAN: 11-12 Colonization Chambers, 355 West Street (P.O. Box 803). PORT ELIZABETH: 505 Southern Life Building, Main S:reet. Printed in South Africa by THE NATAL WITNESS (PTY) LTD., Pietermaritzburg i