University of Nevada
Reno
Geothermal Resources of the Western Black Rock Desert, Northwestern Nevada:
Hydrology and Aqueous Geochemistry
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
in Hydrology and Hydrogeology
by
Alan Herbert Welch »\ >
l - l • ' ‘ > V..
October 1985 m in4 UBRAftY Tliesi'6
The dissertation of Alan Herbert Welch is approved:
Department Chairman— ’ /
University of Nevada
Reno
October 1985 ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people have contributed to the completion of this effort.
Members of my dissertation committee, in particular Roger Jacobson,
deserve commendation for their efforts. Various members of the U.S.
Geological Survey have also contributed greatly: Donald H. Schaefer and
Douglas K. Maurer were enjoyable co—workers and helped get me through many of the long days on the Black Rock, Alan M. Preissler provided able
assistance in the field and office and finally Frank Olmsted was a
source of encouragment and inspiration. My family also deserves thanks for their patience with this nonsense and for occassionally prodding to
finally put this all together. iii
ABSTRACT
The western Black Rock Desert includes several systems, some of which exceed 150 and may reach 200 degrees Celsius at depth based on chemical geothermometry. Geochemical and isotopic data, used in conjunction with hydrologic and geophysical information, indicate that several hydrologically distinct systems are present and are all recharged by local meteoric water.
The cation composition of the thermal water appears to be controlled by alumino-silicate minerals that are commonly found in other active hydrothermal systems. Estimates of the equilibrium temperatures at which some mineral pairs are stable, when compared with the more commonly applied geothermometer estimates, indicate that thermodynamic data may be useful for estimating deep aquifer temperatures. The use of a chemical geothermometer with a thermodynamic foundation (rather than an empirical formula) allows the incorporation of geologic and mineralogic information into the evaluation of a hydrothermal system.
Disadvantages of this approach can be inadequate thermodynamic data and a lack of mineralogic data.
The thermal water at Great Boiling and Mud Springs, which has a chloride concentration of about 200 milligrams per liter and 4,500 milligrams per liter total dissolved solids, appears to have been affected by shallow evapotranspiration in an adjacent playa prior to deep circulation. This model of recharge within the basin floor is distinctly different from models proposed for most other hydrothermal systems in the northern Great Basin. The conclusion that shallow evapotranspiration is occurring is based on the isotopically evolved iv character of the the water and the correspondence between the stable isotope composition and the chloride concentrations in the thermal and local nonthermal water. Systems at Trego Hot Springs and Fly Ranch may
also be recharged by water that has been affected by shallow evapotran- spiration prior to deep circulation. A consequence of this conclusion is that the primary control on the geochemistry is evaporative
concentration prior to deep circulation with perhaps only relatively minor net mass transfer from the aquifer matrix to the aqueous phase,
except for an obvious increase in silica concentrations within the hotter parts of the system. A small amount of net mass transfer is
consistent with a system that has a large water to rock-surface-area
ratio, such as a fault-controlled or fractured system. The small or nonexistent oxygen shift is consistent with this type of system. V
CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ------ii
ABSTRACT ------iii
INTRODUCTION ------1
Purpose and scope ------1
Geographic setting ------2
Previous investigations ---- 4
Methods and procedures ----- 5
AQUEOUS GEOCHEMISTRY ------8
Major constituents ------8
Major element evolution 8
Thermodynamic controls ■ 24
Stable isotopes ------37
Isotope evolution ----- 41
Dissolved gasses ------59
Geothermometry ------61
HYDROLOGY ------83
Climate ------83
Recharge and discharge ----- 84
Shallow ground-water flow — 94
Thermal ground water ------96
HEAT FLOW ------98
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ------108
REFERENCES CITED ------118 vi
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Figure 1. Map showing the location of the study a r e a ------3
2. Map showing ground-water sampling locations ------9
3. Diagram showing chemical types of ground water in the
western Black Rock Desert ------11
4-5. Graphs showing:
4. Chloride versus sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, total alkalinity, carbonate alkalinity
and sulfate------13
5. Calcite saturation indices versus temperature -- 22
6 . Graph summarizing the temperatures over which
secondary alumino-silicate minerals have been
observed in active hydrothermal systems ------26
7-11. Graphs showing:
7. Activity of potassium versus sodium and calcium,
and calcium versus sodium ------28
8 . The hydrogen versus oxygen isotopic composition - 39
9. The relation between parameters representing
evaporation for hydrogen isotopes ------46
10. The hydrogen isotopic composition versus
chloride------48
11. The relation between parameters representing
evaporation for oxygen isotopes ------51 vii
Page
Figures 12-14. Graphs showing:
12. The oxygen isotopic composition versus
chloride------56
13. Estimates of deep aquifer temperatures ---- 65
14. Temperature versus log[Na+] - 1 og[FC*"] ,
log[Cai+] - 21og[K+'], and log [Ca^+ ] -
21og[Na+ ] ------78
15-20. Maps showing:
15. Hydrologic boundaries------*- 85
16. Phreatophytes along the western flank of
the Black Rock R a n g e ------88
17. Conductive heat flow in the western Black
Rock Desert------100
18. Heat flow in western United States------104
19. Map showing the depth to bedrock in the
western Black Rock Desert ------105
20. Estimated temperatures at the base of the
valley fill ------107
21-22. Diagrams showing:
21. Fault-plane and mountain-block conceptual
models of recharge to a hydrothermal system 109
22. Conceptual model of the hydrothermal system
in the western Black Rock Desert------115 viii
TABLES
Page
Table 1. Comparison of isotopic analyses ------38
2. Apparent initial chloride and fractionation factors — 45
3. Chemical composition of gasses from major hot springs 60
4. Summary of thermal aquifer temperature estimates ----- 62
5. Estimates of evapotranspiration in the western
Black Rock Desert------90
6 . Estimates of evaporation from thermal pools ------91
7. Estimates of recharge from local precipitation ------93
8 . Estimated convective heat f l u x ------102
APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Chemical, isotopic, and related data for
ground-water samples collected prior to 1979 ----- 124
2. Chemical, isotopic, and related data for
ground-water samples collected from 1979 to 1982 — 128
3. Estimates of deep aquifer temperatures ------134
4. Data for wells in the western Black Rock Desert -- 136
5. Piezometer head and flow measurements------138 INTRODUCTION
Purpose and Scope
The purpose of this effort is to examine the basic hydrology of a geothermal area in the northern Great Basin through the use of a multi disciplinary approach with an emphasis on the use of geochemistry and isotope hydrology. The part of the Black Rock Desert discussed here provides an opportunity to examine not only the relationships between the shallow, nonthermal water with the thermal water but also to explore the relationships between the several shallow thermal areas. Several of the important issues this report will investigate are: (1) The' hydrologic connection, if any, between the various known thermal areas;
(2) how the system is recharged; and (3) the controls on the aqueous geochemistry that can be deduced from shallow information. A multi disciplinary approach was chosen in an attempt to address these questions as it was felt that the various types of data collected would constrain any conceptual heat- and mass-flow flow models more effectively than if a more limited approach were employed.
This report presents basic geochemical and hydrologic data along with an attempt to use the information to examine the validity of integrated conceptual models of the hydrothermal resources of the western Black Rock Desert. 2
Geographic Setting
The study area consists of the western arm of the Black Rock
Desert, an area of about 2,000 square kilometers (km^) in parts of
Humboldt, Pershing, and Washoe Counties, Nevada (figure 1). The major population centers, the towns of Gerlach and Empire, have an aggregate population of less than 1,000 persons. A major geographic feature of the western Black Rock Desert region is a central, flat lake bed (or playa) at an altitude of about 1,190 meters (m) above sea level. The
Granite and Calico Mountains to the west of the playa rise abruptly from the basin reaching an altitude of 2,760 m at Granite Peak, the highest point in northwestern Nevada. To the east and south of the basin are the Black Rock and Selenite Ranges, respectively. The Quinn River, the largest surface-water source in the study area, discharges onto a low area at the southern end of the Black Rock Range. Hualapai Flat, a relatively small basin, is separated from the playa by a low ridge extending south from the Calico Range.
Thermal water discharges from springs and flowing wells from
Soldier Meadows to Gerlach. Wells discharge warm to hot water in
Hualapai Flat and the Mud Meadows area. Springs located along the margins of the basin discharge thermal water, primarily at Soldier
Meadows, from Double Hot Springs to the southern end of the Black Rock
Range, at Trego and in the vicinity of Gerlach. The thermal springs are generally undeveloped except for casual bathing and minor irrigation. 3
119
Area of report-
Soldier Meadows
EXPLANATION
Thermal Spring - Tail indicates direction of flow
Hardin ' C it V ^
Division f a *
STUDY AREA
Hualapai Flat
Empire
Base from U.S. Geological Survey State base map. 1965 20 miles
Figure 1.-Study area and thermal springs. Previous Investigations
The geology and geophysics of the study area as related to the hydrothermal activity in the area have been presented by Keller and
Grose (1978a and b) and Schaefer and others (1983). Keller and Grose
(1978a and b) present results of geologic and geophysical investigations in the southern part of the study area and speculate on the nature of hydrothermal systems in the northern Basin and Range province. Schaefer and others (1983) discuss the geology and geophysics of a larger part of the western Black Rock Desert. Reports by Schaefer and others (1983),
Garside and Schilling (1979), Keller and Grose (1978a and b), and
Olmsted and others (1973) review the main sources of information related to geothermal activity in this region. Previous hydrologic studies have been conducted by Sinclair (1963) on the Black Rock Desert and Sinclair
(1962) and Harrill (1969) provide basic information on Hualapai Flat such as well locations, water budget estimates, and some water-quality data. The hydrology of the geothermal systems has been discussed by
Olmsted and others (1975, p. 119-149). Analyses of thermal water have been presented by Sanders and Miles (1974), Anderson (1977), and Mariner and others (1974, 1975, and 1976).
The aqueous geochemistry and hydrology of other hydrothermal systems have been extensively studied. The results of the previous work are discussed in the appropriate sections as they apply to the systems in the western Black Rock Desert. Methods and Procedures
Geochemical sampling included measurement of selected unstable parameters and preservation in the field. Field procedures were similar to those outlined by Wood (1976).
Analyses for pH and alkalinity (carbonate and bicarbonate) were performed in the field. The pH measurements were made using Orion models 399A and 407A portable meters. Measurements of pH were taken after standardization using two NBS buffers (with nominal pH values of
4, 7 and 10) that spanned the sample value. The standards were measured a second time after the field measurement. If the second measurement of the standards was not within 0.2 pH units from the initial reading then the standardization and measurement procedure was performed again. This procedure was repeated until the measured values for the separate standards before and after the sample measurement agreed to within
0.2 units. The temperatures of the standards were brought to within
2° C of the sample prior to measurement. Alkalinity determinations were performed using the incremental method described by Wood (1976). The end point used for bicarbonate corresponded to the amount of acid added to reach the maximum rate of pH change per volume of titrant added.
The temperature was measured using mercury-filled glass thermometers. Maximum reading thermometers were employed at thermal springs. The maximum value found at an orifice is the value reported in appendix 2. The temperature measurements were all taken as close to the source of the water as possible: flowing wells were taken at the top of the casing and springs were taken as close as possible to areas with the greatest amount of flow and, in the case of thermal springs, the highest temperature. Specific conductivity measurements were taken using a Yellow Springs
Instrument Co. Model 33 meter. Standards were measured that spanned the range of values measured in the field. The field values were then corrected using the values measured for the standards. The values were then adjusted to a temperature of 25° C.
Samples for cation and anion analysis were collected and filtered through 0.45 micrometer pore-size filters using hydrostatic pressure prior to placing in acid-washed polyethylene bottles. Doubly-distilled nitric acid was added to samples collected for cation analysis to adjust
the solution to a pH of about 2. Samples collected for anion analysis were not acidified. Samples collected for silica were diluted with
deionized water when semi-quantitative field analysis indicated
concentrations above 50 milligrams per liter (mg/L). The dilution was
performed to prevent polymerization of silica prior to analysis and is a
commonly employed procedure for collection -of geothermal samples.
Samples collected for stable isotope analysis were placed in 100 ml
glass bottles with teflon—lined or polyseal caps. The caps were sealed with parafin upon returning from the field (generally within a week of
collection) to further guard against the loss of water vapor. All
bottles and reagents were provided by the U.S. Geological Survey Central
Laboratory in Arvada, Colorado. Gas samples were collected In evacuated glass gas sampling tube.
Samples were collected using an inverted funnel placed over areas in thermal springs that were evolving gas. The funnel and tubing that connected the funnel to the gas sampling tube were initially full of water and then the funnel was placed over the rising gas. The water was then displaced by the gas and a stopcock was opened to permit the gas to enter the gas sampling tube. The stopcock was then closed and the gas sampling tube sent to the analyst.
Most of the cations (calcium, magnesium, sodium, barium, lithium, manganese, strontium, and zinc) were analyzed using induction coupled plasma spectroscopy unless the specific conductivity was greater than
6,000 microsieraens in which case atomic absorption spectroscopy was used. All potassium analyses were performed using atomic adsorption spectroscopy. Chloride, silica and boron concentrations were determined colorimetrically, and sulfate concentration was determined using a turbidimetric titration. An ion selective electrode was used to analyze for fluoride. The stable isotope analyses were determined using mass spectroscopy. The gas analyses were performed using chromatography.
The laboratories that performed the various analyses are indicated in appendix 2 and table 3. AQUEOUS GEOCHEMISTRY
Major Constituents
A major part of the field work conducted in support of this project consisted of the collection of ground-water samples and their analysis for major and minor constituents and stable isotopes (locations are shown on figure 2). The results of previous analytical work are presented in appendix 1. The data arising from the effort conducted in support of this project are given in appendix 2.
Major Element Evolution
The major element chemistry of water in the western Black Rock
Desert varies primarily from a dilute, mixed cation-bicarbonate or mixed cation and anion type to a saline sodium—chloride-bicarbonate type
(figure 3). The more dilute water is generally found in the upper elevations, Soldier Meadows and Hualapai Flat, which are represented by the letters 'R', 'S’ and 'U', respectively, on figure 2. Increasing salinity in both the thermal and nonthermal water roughly corresponds to an increasing distance along the general shallow, ground-water flow path
(primarily from north to south). The geothermal water has a range in salinity from fairly dilute in Soldiers Meadows (dissolved solids content of about 250 mg/L) to moderately saline in the vicinity of
Gerlach (dissolved solids content of about 4,500 mg/L). The nonthermal water has a greater range in total dissolved solids, with the upper altitude water being more dilute than any of the thermal water and the saline water in the playa sediments having the highest salinity. FIG U R E 2 .- Ground - water sampling locations. The letters indicate the sampling locality and generally from north to south are: S * Soldier Meadows, H = Hardin City, M = Mud Meadows, B = southern Black Rock Range, U = Hualapai Flat, P = playa, 0 = Trego Hot Springs and McClellan Ranch, G = Great Boiling and Mud Springs, and R = recharge (primarily upper altitude cold springs).
■I 10
The anion chemistry of the thermal water generally shows an increase dominated by chloride with decreasing latitiude (figure 3).
This trend generally corresponds to an increase in dissolved solids content. The thermal springs with a higher dissolved solids content and greater chloride dominance are in the vicinity of the main playa in the
Black Rock Desert.
The evolution of the geochemistry is similar to that examined by investigators in other closed basins. (See Eugster and Jones, 1979, and
Eugster and Hardie, 1978, for overviews of this subject.) Although most of the previous investigations have concentrated on the chemical evolution of surface water, the methods used to examine the processes responsible for the evolution are applicable to this study. For this reason a brief introduction is presented in order to provide a framework for understanding the aqueous geochemistry of the western Black Rock
Desert.
A change in dominant cation and anion corresponding to a general increase in salinity is a typical feature of ground-water systems
(Freeze and Cherry, 1979, p. 237-302). A typical anion sequence consists of the change from an initial carbonate plus bicarbonate dominated water to a mixed anion and eventually a chloride dominated water. Within the final chloride dominated type and often within the other types, the chloride concentration can also be used as an indicator
of the geochemical 'maturity.' This increase in chloride has been used up to high concentrations (up to saturation with respect to halite) as
an indicator of general degree of evaporative concentration in closed
basins (Eugster and Jones, 1979, p. 615). Within the western Black Rock 11
B - southern Black Rock Range Distribution of samples with D - Double Hot Springs 90-100 percent NA + K G - Great Boiling and Mud Springs SAMPLE NUMBER OF H - Hardin City AREAS SAMPLES
M - Mud Meadows b — 2 0 - Trego Hot Springs and McClellan Ranch d — 6 9 — 2 P - Playa wells h — 3 R - Recharge m — 6 o — 4 S - Soldier Meadows P — 3 U - Hualapai Flat r — 3 s — 5 u — 8
100 80 100
See tabulation
FIG U R E 3.-- Chemical types of ground water in the western Black Rock Desert. Desert chloride becomes increasingly dominant proceeding from the
Soldier Meadows-Mud Meadows area southward to Trego Hot Springs and finally to Great Boiling and Mud Springs. Sodium is typically the dominant cation in thermal water as is the case for the water in this study area.
Plotting the concentration of another solute against the chloride concentration helps in examining the behavior of the solute as evaporation proceeds (see Eugster and Jones, 1979, p. 614, 615). The concentrations of major ions have been plotted against chloride in figure 4a in order to show the effect of increasing concentration on the individual solutes. As discussed in the section on stable isotopes, the primary cause of the salinity increase appears to be evapotranspiration.
Other possible causes for salinity variations are discussed in this section.
Sodium appears to generally be conserved relative to chloride as indicated by the 1:1 slope in figure 4a. The departure from a 1:1 slope by the data shown on figure 4a indicates that sodium is not being completely conserved. Exchange of sodium for other cations, such as magnesium and calcium, may be responsible for the departure from the 1:1 slope. The increase in sodium and chloride at high concentrations
(above about 1,000 mg/L of sodium or chloride) is consistent with evaporative concentration and the dissolution of halite. As discussed in the section on isotope evolution, a major process controlling the chloride concentrations is evaporation. At low concentrations (less than about 100 mg/L of soidum or chloride) the controls on sodium and chloride are less certain but may include evaporative concentration and LOG SODIUM, IN MILLIMOLES PER LITER 1. 0. 0 0. 0 15 0 2.5 .0 2 1.5 .0 1 .5 0 .0 0 .5 -0 .0 -1 alkalinity, and sulfate Versus chloride. The lines represent the slope that would would that slope represent linesthe The Versus sulfate and chloride. alkalinity, eutfo cnevto o h lte constituents. plotted the of conservation resultfrom FIG U R E 4. - Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, total alkalinity, carbonate alkalinity, total magnesium, calcium, potassium, Sodium, - 4. E R U FIG LOG CHLORIDE, IN MILLIMOLES PER LITER PER IN MILLIMOLES CHLORIDE, LOG .0 3 .5 3 1 3 LOS POTASSIUM, IN MILLIMOLES PER LITER LOS CRLCIUM, IN MILLIMOLES PER LITER 3 LOG MAGNESIUM, IN MILLIMOLES PER LITER S *S SoldierMeadows P • Playa wells U ■ U Hualapai Flat Recharge - R B suhr lc Rc Range southern - Rock Black rg Ht Springs and Hot McClellan Ranch Trego - •City Hardin SpringsMud GreatandBoiling- • Springs Hot Double - Mud MeadowsMud ------0 0. . 15 0 2.5 2 .0 2 1.5 1.0 .5 0 .0 0 O CLRD, N ILMLS E LITER PER IN MILLIMOLES CHLORIDE,LOG 1 ------1 ---- .0 3 .5 3 1 6 LOO (TOTAL CARBONATE). IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER - .5 0 1.0 - .5 -0 0 . -1 0 0. . 1. 2. 2.5 .0 2 .5 1 1.0 .5 0 .0 0 O CLRD, NMLIOE PR LITER PER IN MILLIMOLES CHLORIDE,LOG
0 3.5 3 .0 3 17 is LOG (CARBONATE ALKALINITY). IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER 4 0.5 0. 5 10 . 2. .5 2 .0 2 1.5 1.0 .5 0 .0 0 5 . -0 0 . 1 - .S LOG CHLORIDE, IN MILLIMOLES PER LITER PER IN MILLIMOLES CHLORIDE, LOG .0 3 .5 3 k LO0 SULFATE, IN MILLIMOLES PER LITER 0 LOG CHLORIDE, IN MILLIMOLES PER LITERPER INMILLIMOLES CHLORIDE,LOG 0 5 10 5 2. .5 2 .0 2 .5 1 1.0 .5 0 .0 .5 3 b the incorporation of solutes in fluid inclusions. Except for Hualapai
Flat (which is in part underlain by playa sediments) the geographic areas that yield water with low sodium and chloride concentrations do not appear to contain strata that is likely to contain halite. The processes of evaporative concentration, halite dissolution, and mixing of dilute with more saline water may be important controls for water with intermediate concentrations (between about 100 and 1,000 mg/L of sodium or chloride).
The potassium concentrations are shown relative to those of chloride in figure 4b. Potassium concentrations show a wide range for those samples with log (Cl) values of less than about 1.0. The samples from Soldier Meadows plot in two groups on figure 4b. The samples with the lower potassium concentrations all have measured temperatures of
35°C or greater with the exception of one from a large pool that undoubtedly has been affected by conductive heat loss. The lower potassium concentrations may be a result of temperature dependent equilibration at depth as discussed in the section on geothermometry.
There is a generally conservative trend indicated by the thermal water sampled at Soldier Meadows, along the western base of Black Rock Range
(the Hardin City, Double Hot Springs, and Black Rock area), Trego Hot
Springs, Great Boiling and Mud Springs. The samples from Hualapai Flat with source temperatures greater than 30° C also plot along this trend.
The samples from wells drilled in playa sediments (the 'P' samples) appear to define a second trend although with lower potassium to chloride ratios, perhaps as a result of removal by clays (as documented for saline Lake Abert by Jones and Weir, 1983) in the playa sediments. The calcium and magnesium concentrations show considerable variation with respect to increasing chloride (figures Ac and d).
Plotting of the analyses for the lower temperature water in Soldier
Meadows and Hualapai Flat generally indicates conservation of calcium and magnesium. The thermal water shows considerable scatter and the water from the playa sediments shows the greatest variation of any of the groups of samples.
The effect of increasing salinity on the total carbonate (HCO3 +
2- _ 2- CO^ ) and carbonate alkalinity (HCO3 + 2C0^ ) is indicated by figures
5e and f. There is a nonconservative trend with a slope less than one formed by the majority of the points on both these figures. Loss of inorganic carbon could be due to outgassing or mineral precipitation.
Since carbonate alkalinity is unaffected by carbon dioxide outgassing carbonate precipitation is indicated for the water represented by the nonequilibrium trend on figure 4f. Thermodynamic calculations using a modified version of the program SOLMNEQ (Kharaka and Barnes, 1973) indicate that almost all of the water with source temperatures of about
50° C or greater are at or near saturation with respect to calcite
(considering the values of log (AP/K) in the range of ±0.5 to be in equilibrium as suggested by Paces, 1972). The saturation indices for calcite are displayed on figure 5. Those analyses that result in apparent oversaturation may be a result of shallow outgassing prior to making the pH measurement. The relationship between calcium and inorganic carbon in the playa sediments is consistent with evaporation concentrating these solutes and resulting in calcite precipitation. 22
------1------— 1------1------1------
f- - - »—• B o _J cc o u u li. a: 1 - o B ft 00 B O p SJ lg L_ u X S R f f t ® h P u 'ft Ob B D § ' tl G Q P R0 u s D HO + 0.5 *—i^ 0 - s s s N o s #-H R ~ f- R U a: -1 - B * southern Black Rock Range cn H ZD D ■ Double Hot Springs G - Great Boiling and Mud Springs a: U to a r H - Hardin City M - Mud Meadows O - Trego Hot Springs and McClellan Ranch - CD -2 - o R P - Playa wells R - Recharge S - Soldier Meadows U - Hualapai Flat
-3 ____ i______l______1------1------0 50 100 150 200 250 TEMPERRTURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS FIG U R E 5.— Saturation idex for calcite versus temperature. As discussed in the text the magnesium • corrected cation estimates are used for water with a source temperature greater than 25C, otherwise the measured temperature is employed. Since the calcium to dissolved inorganic carbon ratio is less than one the calcium concentrations decrease more rapidly than the carbon as evaporation proceeds, resulting in low calcium concentrations. The next section begins with a brief discussion of the modifications to SOLMNEQ and how it was used in this study.
The data points other than for the playa water on figure 4g indicate that the sulfate is not being conserved at higher chloride concentrations. The water in the playa has a distinctly lower sulfate to chloride ratio indicating that there may be a sink for sulfate in sediments. Bacterial reduction of sulfate to form H2S or iron sulfides has been invoked as a mechanism for sulfate loss in other closed basins
(see Eugster and Jones, 1979, p. 626, for a general discussion of this topic). The black organic muds penetrated by drilling on the playa in the Black Rock Desert form a suitable geochemical environment. All samples are well undersaturated with respect to gypsum, thus gypsum does not appear to be responsible for the apparent decrease in sulfate.
Eugster and Jones (1979, p. 626) also suggest that sulfate sorption may also be an important process in saline environments. The sulfate concentrations in the water with the greatest chloride concentration
(from well GRL') has a higher sulfate to chloride ratio than the other playa samples indicating that the sulfate may be, at least in part, a result of the oxidation of sulfide minerals. Dissolution of halite would also result in the lower sulfate to chloride ratio. The stable isotope data, as discussed in a later section, indicates that evaporation rather than dissolution is probably the primary control on the chloride concentrations. 24
Thermodynamic Controls
The use of activity diagrams can assist in evaluating the controls on the major cations. The results of plotting the activities of species in solution on an activity diagram can be compared to phase relations shown by idealized activity diagrams created using thermodynamic data.
Sources of error associated with calculating the activities of species include the analytics (and associated sampling problems) and the method of calculating the activities of the various species (including the thermodynamic data). For this study, a modified version of the program
SOLMNEQ (Kharaka and Barnes, 1973) was used to calculate the activities.
The activities were calculated for all of the complete analyses and additionally the activities at the magnesium-corrected Na-K-Ca tempera ture (Fournier and Potter, 1979) were calculated for the thermal samples
(samples with measured temperature greater than 25° C) using a mass balance approach on H+ (Kharaka and Mariner, 1977). The calculations using the higher temperature represent an attempt to more closely approximate the conditions within the deep, thermal aquifer. The problems associated with producing a theoretical activity diagram include the selection of appropriate phases and their corresponding thermodynamic data. The selection of phases within this study is complicated by the lack of lithologic information on the deep aquifer.
The selection of phases is based on the observed slopes formed by the calculated activities and the occurrence of minerals in other hydro thermal systems. The selection of thermodynamic data is a problem in spite of major advances in evaluating existing data at 25 C and 25 elevated temperatures (Robie and others, 1978; Helgeson, 1969; Helgeson and others, 1974; 1978; 1981). Despite these problems, activity diagrams appear to be useful in indicating the possible controlling phases.
In order to more closely estimate the pH in the deep aquifer the aqueous model in the program SOLMNEQ allows the calculation of the pH at an elevated temperature. The estimation of the pH is approached by holding the total hydrogen concentration in all aqueous species constant and redistributing the species at some specified temperature. The magnesium-corrected cation geothermoraeter of Fournier and Potter (1979) was used to estimate the the temperature of the samples with source temperatures greater than 25° C. The estimated temperature was then used as the higher temperature in the thermodynamic calculations. The thermodynamic data used in the calculations have been updated by Y. K.
Kharaka to include more recent work by Helgeson and others (1974; 1978;
1981) and the improved thermodynamic data have been used for the
calculations. All activities and saturation indices presented in this
report result from these calculations.
The generalized summary of phases present in active geothermal
systems (figure 6) was used as a guide in selecting phases for
consideration. The temperature range of about 100-200° C is considered
reasonable for the systems in the western Black Rock Desert, based on
geothermometry as discussed in the next section. Phases considered as possible stable (equilibrium) phases include calcite, quartz, montmorilIonite, albite, laumontite and wairakite for the system
Ca-Na-K-C02-Si-H20. Magnesium has not been considered due to a lack of
adequate thermodynamic data for magnesium—bearing minerals. AMORPHOUS SiO2
QUARTZ
K -FELDSPAR
ALBITE
CALCITE
MONTMORILLONITE • MONT —I L LITE
IL LITE
CHLORITE •------— — — ------n _
EPIDOTE
PREHNITE ------— — ------
HEULANDITE -
STILBITE —
PTILO LITE
LAUMONTITE ------— ------
WAIRAKITE
I I I I
100° 200° 300‘
TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS
FIG U R E 6.-- Temperatures over which secondary alumino-silicate minerals have been observed in active hydrothermal systems. Modified after Henley and Ellis, 1983. 27
The data plotted on figure 7a indicate: (1) the sodium to potassium activity ratio is different for the geothermal areas consisting of Soldier Meadows, Hardin City-Double Hot Springs-southern
Black Rock Range, Hualapai Flat and Great Boiling and Mud Springs; and
(2) a slope of 1 is indicated by data for each of the above groups. A slope formed by plotting of activity ratios is a strong indication that some mineral phases are controlling the relative activities.
Furthermore, the slope can be very useful in indication of what phases may be controlling the activities. In the case of the sodium-potasssium activities the slope of one is consistent with either a albite-microcline or Na-montmorillonite-Ca-montmorillonite phase boundary. The associated controlling reactions can be derived from the reactions for the minerals as follows:
For Na-montmorillonite and K-montorillonite:
Na-Montmorillmonite
3 Nao.33Al2.33313 .670^0 ( ^ ) 2 + H2O + 6 OH- = Na^+ + 7 A1(0H)^ +
11 HaSiO° ^ A and
K-MontmorilIonite
3 Kq .3 3 ^ 2 . 33^^3.670lo(0^)2 + 30 H2O + 6 OH - K+ + 7 A1(0H)^+ 11 H^SiO^ 28
FIG U R E 7.-- Activity diagrams for potassium versus sodium and calcium and calcium versus sodium. LOG [Cfi2+] - 2 LOG [H+]
31
By subtracting the second reaction from the first the result is:
Na-MontmorilIonite K-MontmorilIonite
3 Na0.33A1 2 .33Si3 .67o10 (OH)2 + K+ - H+ = 3 Ko.33Al2 .33Si3 .67010 (OH)2 +
Na+ - H+ with the associated thermodynamic relationship being
[Na+] L o g ----- = 3 Log K'p (Na-Montmorillonite) - Log Kf (K-Montmorillonite) [H+] [K+] L o g ---- [H+]
where the square brackets indicate activities and the K-p is the
temperature dependent equilibrium constant for the indicated mineral.
Similarly for albite and microcline:
Albite
NaAlSi30g + 8 H20 = Na+ + A1(0H)^ + 3 H4SiO^
Microcline
KAlSi308 + 8 H20 = K+ + A1(0H)^ + 3 H4SiO^
By subtraction and as before:
Albite Microcline
NaAlSi30g+ K+ - H+ = KAlSi30g + Na+ - H+
with the associated thermodynamic relationship.
[Na+ ] r jr+l L o g ---- Log i— _ = Log k t (Albite) - Log KT (Microcline) [H+ ] [H+ ] It can be seen by inspection that the two thermodynamic expressions
[ K + ] define a linear relationship with a slope of 1 for log --- versus log [Na+ ] -----(which is exactly equivalent to the relationship between log [KT*"] [H+ ] and log [Na+ ]) with the position of the line being controlled by the equilibrium constants at a given temperature. For the position of the minerals being considered, the phase boundary on the activity diagram can be evaluated using the polynomial expressions the for ftp of the minerals presented by Arnorsson and others (1982, table 6). These expressions, which are based primarily on the work of Helgeson and others (1978) and Helgeson (1969), can be used to evaluate the log [Na+ j
- log [K-*-] relationship as follows:
3 Log KT(Na-Montmorillonite) = 15273.90 + 1.7623 T - 978782/T +
62805036/T2 - 5366.18 Log T
3 Log Kq’(K-Montmorillonite) = 15075.11 + J..7346T - 967127/T +
61985927/T2 - 5294.72 Log T
Substitution of these two polynomial equations into the thermodynamic formula yields:
[Na+ ] L o g ------Log -— - = 198.79 + 0.0277 T -11655/T + 819109/T2 - [H+] [H+ ] 71.46 log T where T is in degrees Kelvin. 33
Similarly for albite and microcline:
Log KT(Albite) = 36.83 - 0.0439 T - 16474/T + 1004631/T2
Log KT (Microcline) = 44.55 - 0.0498 T - 19883/T + 1214019/T2 by substitution into the thermodynamic equation yields:
[Na+ ] [KT*-] L o g ---- - Log --- = - 7.72 + 0.0059 T + 3409/T - 209388/T2 [H+ ] [H+ ]
The equations for Log ----- — Log ---- define the lines plotted on [H+ ] [H+] figure 8a. The data for the several geothermal areas appear to be related to the temperature dependent albite—microcline phase broundary.
The temperature-dependent relationships seem to be fairly consistent with the temperatures estimated using some of the commonly applied geothermometers. The polynomial equations for the albite-microcline and
other reactions discussed in this section were used to calculate the
temperature at which the aqueous solutions would be in equilibrium. The
results of the calculations allow, comparison with the standard
geothermometers (table 4). The potental for using the sodium and
potassium activities to predict deep aquifer temperatures is discussed
further in the section on geothermometry. The suggestion that albite
and microcline control the sodium and potassium activities in thermal water is not new. Ellis (1970) has postulated that this control is the
reason that the sodium-potassium geothermometer has proved to be
accurate in many areas. Arnorsson and others (1983) have compared log [Na+/K+ ] values for water from drill holes in Iceland to equilibrium values calculated for the albite-microcline reaction and found good agreement in the temperature range of about 50° to 250°C. Thus, at least for basalt aquifers (which is the dominant rock type in Iceland) this reaction appears to be controlling the sodium to potassium ratio.
The apparent poor correlation of the montmorillonite boundaries shown on figure 7a indicates that sodium and potassium are not controlled by these minerals.
Much of the data plotted on figure 7b indicate that the calcium and potassium activities are controlled by a temperature dependent equilibrium. As is apparently the case for the potassium and sodium activities, the data define the same slope for each of the several geothermal areas. Although the slope is the same (in this case the slope is 2:1) the data define different, parallel lines as a result of differing values of log [Ca2+] - 2 log [KT*-] (which is equivalent to [Ca2+] [K+] l o g ------2 l o g ----) for the several areas. [H+ ]2 [H+]
The activities of calcium and potassium may be controlled by the minerals wairakite and microcline. The reaction can be written as.
2 K+ + CaAl2Si4012 °2H20 + 2 H4SiO° (aq) = 2 KAlSi30g + Ca2+ + 6 H20
Wairakite Microcline
Using the polynomial equations given by Arnorsson and others (1982,
table 6), the corresponding thermodynamic relationship is (assuming
saturation with respect to quartz):
[Ca2+] [K+] L o g ------2 L o g ---- = -27.28 + 0.0149 T + 12130 T - 626127/T2 [H+ ]2 [H+ ] For the lauraontite-microcline boundary, the corresponding polynomial expression is:
[Ca^+ ] [r+] L o g ------2 L o g -----= -22.33 - 0.0168T + 8790/T - 511940/T2 [H+ ]2 [H+] for the reaction:
2 K+ + CaAl2Si4012 »4H20 + 2 l^SiO0 = 2 KAlSi30g + Ca2+ + 8 H20 4 Laumontite Microcline
The thermodynamic equations were used to calculate the phase boundaries plotted on figure 7b. The temperature dependent phase boundaries appear to give a good indication of the deep aquifer, temp erature (as indicated by standard geothermeters). The data for Great
Boiling and Mud Springs, Hualapai Flat, Trego Hot Springs, and the area from the southern end of the Black Rock Range to Double Hot Springs appear to be controlled by the laumontite-microcline reaction. This conclusion is based on a comparison of the temperatures estimated using the magnesium—corrected cation geothermometer with the position of the plotted points relative to the phase boundaries indicated on figure 7b.
For instance, the data for Great Boiling and Mud Springs lie alond the
200°C laumontite-microcline phase boundary, whereas, geothermometry yields a range of 178-204°C (table 4) which is near the upper tempera ture limit at which laumontite is found in active hydrothermal systems according to Henley and others (1984; also see figure 6). If wairakite- microcline reaction is controlling the geochemistry then somewhat higher temperatures would be required for agreement with the thermodynamic data used here (figure 7b and table 4).
The temperature—dependent equilibrium for the wairakite—albite phase boundary as represented by the data in Amorsson and others, (1982, table 6), does not agree well with the values obtained using the magnesium-corrected geothermometer (table 4). The chemical reaction and associated polynomial equation for the wairakite-albite reaction are:
Albite Wairakite
Ca2+ + 2 NaAlSi30g + 6H20 = 2 Na+ + CaAl2Si4012 °2H20 + 2H4SiO° 4 and [Ca2+ 1 [Na+ 1 L o g ------2 L o g ------11.84 + 0.0031 T + 5321/T - 207351/T2 [H+]2 [H+ ]
For the laumontite-albite reaction:
Ca2+ + NaAlSi30g + 8H20 = 2Na+ + CaAl2Si401 2 o4H20 + 2H4SiO°
The polynomial expression is:
Log l £ f L l - 2 Log = -6.89 + 0.0050 T + 1972/T - 93164/T2 [H+ ]2 [H+ ]
The data for the various geothermal areas plotted on figure 7c indicate a 2:1 slope, which is consistent with the slope for a wairakite-albite or laumontite-albite reaction. As noted above the albite—wairakite reaction does not appear to be the control on the sodium—calcium relationship. For the Great Boiling—Mud Springs area,
Trego Hot Springs, Hualapai Flat and the Hardin City-Double Hot Spring- southern Black Rock Range areas, the temperatures calculated using the cation geothermometer are less than those which are consistent with the phase boundary (table 4). The albite—laumontite boundary is more consistent with the cation values (with the exception of Double Hot
Springs) although the range in values calculated using the polynomial equation for the albite-laumontite reaction have a much wider range than that indicated by the cation estimates (table 4). 37
Stable Isotopes
Most of the stable isotope data presented here are from analyses performed in a U.S. Geological Survey Laboratory. Some of the analyses presented in appendix 1 were conducted at the University of Arizona.
Comparison of results for duplicate samples (table 1) indicates that a
difference exists between the two laboratories. In the analysis of the
data, all the University of Arizona data were adjusted by using the
average differences. The original data, as received from the
laboratories, are presented in the tables.
Measurements of the stable isotope composition of thermal and nonthermal water have often proven useful in indicating the origin of
the water and processes that have been responsible for geochemical
evolution. With few exceptions, the deuterium and oxygen-18 data have
indicated that thermal water is a result of recharge of local meteoric water (Truesdell, 1976, p. xx). This conclusion has been based on the
observation that the deuterium content of thermal water is essentially
the same as that of local meteoric water. The difference in oxygen
isotope composition, commonly termed an "oxygen shift, is generally
attributed to exchange with the aquifer matrix. Another process that
can affect the isotopic composition is evaporation which can cause a
change in both the deuterium and oxygen— 18 concentrations. The
"evaporation trend" shown on figure 8a indicates the general direction
of the change caused by evaporation (see Gat, 1971, for a discussion of
the effect that evpaoration has on the stable isotope compositions of
water). TABLE 1.— Comparison of stable isotope analyses performed by two laboratories
Difference between 6D 6180 results from two laboratories University University OO o Site name USGS1 of Arizona^ USGS1 of Arizona^ 6D o» 1
Mud Springs Orifice 2 - 99.5 - 95.5 - 11.1 -10.8 4 .3
Thermal Spring #1 Mud Meadow -126 -124.0 - 16.6 -16.5 2 .1
FI WL AJRAN SOLCR -121 -118.0 - 15.6 -15.0 3' .6
WW 3922T1 -123 -116.0 - 15.8 -15.7 7 .1
WW 3922T2 -123 -114.0 - 15.8 -15.0 9 .8
WW 3922T3 -123 -115.0 - 16.0 -15.7 8 .3
WW 3983T2 -121 -119.0 - 15.9 -15.5 2 .4
WW 3983T1 -122 -115.0 - 16.0 -15.7 7 .3
Flowing Well #3 -123 -117.0 - 16.0 -16.4 6 -.4
3989T -126 -124.0 - 16.6 -16.0 2 .6
Wheeler Spring -115 -114.0 - 14.9 -14.6 1 .3
AVERAGE 4.6 .3
STANDARD DEVIATION 2.8 .3
1 Analysis performed under the supervision of T. B. Coplen,
U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Va.
^ Analyses performed at the Laboratory of Isotope Geochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz DELTA DEUTERIUM. PER MIL 1 0 -10 - -130 - -140 - -80 - ■120 -90 - 0 1 1 70 -18 |- - - d Meadows ud M - M Range Rock Black southern - B G - Great Boiling and M ud Springs Springs ud M and Boiling Great - G Springs Hot Double - D H - Hardin City City Hardin - H O - Trego Hot Springs and McClellan Ranch Ranch wells Playa McClellan - P and Springs Hot Trego - O S - Soldier Meadows Meadows Soldier - S R - Recharge Recharge - R -Haaa Flat Hualapai - U o el B0 B0,ad R0a hy rbbyd nt representpotential not do probably as they BR10 and BR09, BR08 wells for playa trend was determined using a linear regression equation excluding the data the regression linear excluding a using equation wasdetermined trend playa hw h rcag ae: h suhr () ape r rmte rnt Rne and Range Granite samplesthe are from (S) southern The recharge water: theshows The oxygen. and stablehydrogen isotopesof the between Relation .- 8 E R U FIG ot ad h nrhr smls N aefo onhp 9ad 0 north. 40 and 39 townships arefrom and 37 samples (N) townships in northern Mountains the andCalico the samplesnorth arefrom (M) middle the vicinity, inset graph The as discussedtext. the in system, water - ground the'deep recharge to ■ _i 16 _ ___ DELTAOXYGEN-18. PER MIL -14 FT T IF H S N E G Y X O I ------12 -10 - 17 - s N h - M - N s - s N N ______------ONS N IO T A C O L Y L R E H T U O S ONS N IO T A C O L Y L R E H T R O N DDLE LOCATI S N IO T A C O L E L D ID M N -8 R ECHARGE WATER ECHARGE M M m n M , ------N f i l------S ri -6 -13 39 -4 40
The isotope composition of recharge, as represented by cold springs and one spring runoff sample, appears to be generally lighter
(more negative) with increasing latitude (figure 8b). The reason for the trend towards a lighter isotope composition with increasing latitude is not obvious. The thermal water in Soldier Meadows has an isotope composition similar to that of the cold springs in the area. The samples from the northern area (as defined on figure 8b) include the only available samples for the Black Rock Range. The springs in the
Black Rock Range are similar in composition to the water along the base of the mountains although some of the thermal water has a somewhat heavier oxygen isotope composition indicating that the water may have been affected by wall-rock interaction (an oxygen shift) or evapotranspiration.
The thermal ground water in Mud Meadows is similar in composition to the upper altitude springs in the Calico Range to the west. Water collected from Wheeler Creek (figure 8b) has a distinctly heavier composition than that found in the upper altitude springs or Mud
Meadows. The sample from the creek was taken near the mid-point on a fan and may have been affected by evaporation prior to sampling thus this sample may not accurately represent the isotope composition of recharge to Mud Meadows. Wheeler Springs is located near the axis of the valley and may be a mixture of water that was recharged directly into the mountain block and surface water like that sampled at Wheeler
Creek that has been under evaporation. Thus the water from Wheeler
Spring may also have been affected by evaporation. The water from the Granite Range is heavier than the other upper altitude cold springs in the area but is distinctly lighter than the water issuing as Great Boiling and Mud Springs. The isotope evolution
of these hot springs is discussed in the next section.
Isotope Evolution
The deuterium concentration in lakes undergoing desiccation in an
arid climate appears to be controlled by isotopic equilibrium between
the liquid and the vapor phase of the water leaving the lake. Friedman
and others (1976), for instance, have shown in a study of Owens.Lake in
eastern California that equilibrium controlled the deuterium
concentration in the lake during a change from -120 to -20 per mil.
A change in isotope composition that proceeds under Rayleigh conditions
(an equilibrium proess with immediate removal of the vapor) can be
described by the equation (Dansgaard, 1964):
R 1 log ---- = (- - l)log 6 n Q Ko where, RQ = initial deuterium concentration,
R = final deuterium concentration,
a = ratio of the deuterium concentration in the vapor to that in
the liquid, and
0 = fraction of water remaining in the liquid phase relative to
the initial volume. 42
An alpha value (a) can be calculated if the other parameters in the
Rayleigh equation are known or can be estimated. For the Black Rock
Desert the value of theta (0) can be approximated by assuming that the chloride concentration is an indicator of evaporative concentration, as was done in the discussion of the major elements. If chloride acts conservatively in the aqueous phase (chloride is affected only by evaporation) then,
e = ^ o ci where, Cl = final chloride concentration, and
Cl0 = initial chloride concentration.
The term fR 1 can be converted to the 6 notation using the Ro definition:
6 = R - 1 x 1000 Rstd where, R = ratio of the heavy to the light isotope in the sample, and
R std = ratio of the heavy to the light isotope in the standard.
Use of this definition allows calculation of vising the equation: Ro R = (1000 + R^ (1000 + 6f)
where, Sj_ = initial 6 values, and
6f = final 6 values. 43
The selection of the initial chloride concentration value can be made on the basis of either the analyses of water that represents recharge to the area of interest, or by finding a value that creates a line on a plot of log(__) versus log 0 that extrapolates to the origin. Ro
The extrapolation to the origin is required by the definition that the initial water has a 6^ = 6f and 0=1. Two points on a 6D versus chloride concentration graph— selected either on the basis of two data points or two points along a line formed on the basis of a regression fitted for a set of data— can be used to determine a Cl^ for a given
6D^, using the equation:
log R2 log Cl, = lo6 Ci - log Rj log C11 ------, _ log *i------log R2 where, Clj = chloride concentrations for point 1,
Cl2 = chloride concentrations for point 2,
Ri = 6Di + 1000 , and 6D : + 1000
R? _ 6Di + 1000 6D2 + 1000
The above equations were used to calculate values for the initial
chloride and alpha values using the data shown in table 2. The data for water from six of the playa wells have an apparent alpha of about
1.0079, the first apparent alpha value shown in table 2. That the
log(R ) and log 0 values plot along the same line in figure 9 indicates Ro that the water at these sites could have evolved by evaporation from water with a similar initial chloride and deuterium concentration. Water that has evolved with a constant alpha from the same intial chloride and isotope composition will plot along a line that passes through the origin on a (log R/R0) versus log 6 plot. The data for
Great Boiling and Mud Springs also lie along the same line in figure 9 which can be taken to imply the thermal water at these springs has been affected by the same processes that has affected the water at the six playa wells.
The three points that plot above the line shown on figure 9 that represent water from the playa (the "P" sites) are from wells located in the topographically lowest portion of the playa (wells BR08, 09"and 10 in figure 20). Water at wells BR09 and 10 appparently could evolve from water with a similar chloride and deuterium composition with an apparent alpha of about 1.01. The water at well BR08 would require an apparent alpha of about 1.013 to evolve from a similar recharge water.
The calculated apparent alpha values are less for the water in the
Black Rock Desert than those found for lakes affected by evaporation in arid environments but are in the range that can be calculated for ground water in other closed basins. Alpha values of about 1.05— 1.08 have been determined by Friedman and others (1976) using a Rayleigh-type equation for the Salton Sea, Owens Lake in eastern California, lakes in the Grand
Coulee in Washington and two lakes in the northeastern Sahara Desert.
This range in alpha values is for lakes containing water with the same general range in salinity as the water used for the apparent alpha
determinations in this study. The alpha values for the lakes affected
by evaporation agree fairly well with experimentally determined
equilibrium alpha values. A range of 1.055-1.097 for the temperature TABLE 2.— Apparent initial chloride and fractionation factors (alpha values) calculated using
Rayleigh distillation equation. The 6D^ and 6180^ values used for the calculations, -128 and
-17 per mil, respectively, were selected on the basis of the trends shown in figure 9.
6D Chloride 6180 (per concentration, (per Sample site mil) in mg/L Alpha Cli mil) Alpha Cli
Spring at T40N 24E R24ABD -125 52 1.0079 34 -16.4 1.0016 36 Playa well GRB -77 44,000 -5.6
Spring at T40N 24E R24ABD -125 52 1.013 40 -16.4 1.0018 37 Playa well BR08 -69 7,200 -7.6
Spring at T40N 24E R24ABD -125 52 1.010 37 -16.4 1.0019 38 Playa well BR09 -78.5 9,400 ' -6.8
Spring at T40N 24E R24ABD -125 52 1.0092 36 -16.4 1.0017 36 Playa well BRIO -86 6,100 -8.4
■p~ Cn
■nMMMHHHRMMMi - LOG (R/Ru) 0 - 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.01 0 .04 . 011 - 1.0 - - - — FIG U R E 9. - The relation between parameters representing evaportion for hydrogen hydrogen parameters for between representing evaportion relation The - 9. E R U FIG - u Meadows Mud - M Springs Mud and • Boiling G Great H Hardin City City Hardin H Range Rock • Black B southern D Double Mot Springs Mot Double D paetapafrte yrgn isotopes. hydrogen the for alpha apparent isotopes. The line that passes through the origin was used to calculate usedthewaspasses to origin that the line through The isotopes. - _ .5 0 I __ 0.0 _ 0 i _ .5 _i 1 .0 __ O ( ) A T E H (T LOG 1 .5 .5 1 2.0 .5 2 .0 3 .5 3 46 47 range of about 10 40°C can be derived from a compilation by Friedman and
O'Neil (1977, figure 34). An apparent alpha for ground water in the western Carson Desert of about 1.005-1.007 can be calculated using chloride and stable isotope data (for wells 8A, 49A and 58B) presented by Olmsted and others (1984) using the same procedure described above.
The difference in alpha values at equilibrium and for the Black R Rock Desert yield greatly different slopes on log (e) versus log (— ) R0 plot (figure 10). Thus the apparatent volume of water lost through evaporation is much less from the playa than would be estimated using an apparent alpha similar to that found for evaporating surface water.
The evaporation process has also been mathematically described by
Craig and Gordon (1965) for a model consisting of a series of steps which includes molecular diffusion and fully turbulent flow above the evaporating liquid. The equation for isotope fractionation using this model is given by (Gat, 1980, p. 36) (after making the variables compatible with those used herein) as:
log (R0/R) h(Rs ~ Ra)/R s " 1 + “ ~ AE
log 0 1 - h + AE where, Rs = the isotope concentration in the liquid,
Ra = the isotope concnetration in the atmospheric moisture,
AE = the kinetic excess separation factor, and
h = the humidity in the fully turbulent atmosphere (normalized
with respect to saturated vapor at the temperature of the
liquid surface). DELTA DEUTERIUM, PER MIL -no -130 -120 -no -100 -BO - B - -BO - -70 -70 BO ■ 5000 I 1.- Rlto bten hoie n te stablehydrogen. isotopes the and of chloride between Relation -- 10. E R U FIG 00 100 00 200 00 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 CHLORIDE, INMILLIGRAMS PER LITER CHLORIDE, INMILLIGRAMS PER LITER S ■ Meadows S Soldier Ranch McClellan and Springs Hot • Trego 0 ■ ulpi Flat ■ Hualapai U •P wells Playa • Meadows M Mud Springs Mud and ■ Boiling G Great Springs Hot Double - D Range Rock Black southern - B ■R Recharge • City H Hardin 1 ------20 0 70 1000 750 500 250 0 1 ------r 40000 45000 ,OnB 48 50000 49
As can be seen by inspection of this equation log (R/R0 ) is linearly related to log 9. Since those parameters appear to be linearly related— as shown on figure 9 and 11— for both the hydrogen and oxygen isotopes (using chloride as a measure of e) this equation is of a form that is consistent with the data for the western Black Rock Desert.
One problem with applying this equation is that addition parameters are required— namely AE, humidity and Ra. Using estimates of these parameters may, however, allow an evaluation of whether the Craig and
Gordon model may yield values more in line with laboratory observations.
An « value may be calculated using the previous formula after rewriting in terms of the 6 notation as (assuming 6^ = 6S):
log ((6-5 + 1,000)/( 6f + 1,000)) (6i - 6a) ------:------(1 - h + AE) - h ------+ 1 + AE log (Cl-jVClf) (6± - 1,000)
The kinetic excess separation factor^which is the difference between the equilibrium and effective — can be approximated using the formulas
6D = 15 • (1 -h) per mil and 6180 = 13 • (1 -h) per mil (Merlivat, 1978).
The composition of the atmospheric moisture is difficult to estimate the isotopic composition of rainfall taken together with an equilibrium fractionation factor multiplied by 0.8 has been used by Zimmerman and others (1967). This approach yields 6D = -190.
The humidity of the atmosphere at the point where fully turbulent flow occurs is also difficult to evaluate. High humidity values yield - values that approach laboratory values (using a AE calculated from the humidity and the 6a values given alone). A normalized humidity of 0.75 yields an « of 1.046 using the data for well GRB and the spring at 50
T40N S24E S24ABD. This value is much closer to the equilibrium values observed in the laboratory (1.055 at 40°C) than the value calculated using a Rayliegh model (1.0079). The 11 value calculated is quite sensative to the humidity value— a humidity of 0.50 yields an of
1.022. It is not clear whether these humidity values are unrealistically high for ground water evaporating from fine-grained sediments. The lines on figures 9 and 10 for an equal to 1.0079 using a Rayleigh model are identical to ones predicted by the molecular diffusion model of Craig and Gordon (1965) using the values given above.
Thus, the positions of the plotted date cannot be used to distinguish between the two models. Further field and (or) laboratory work is needed to evaluate the validity of eith model in this type of setting.
Water issuing from Great Boiling and Mud Springs appears to have undergone significant evaporation, based on the chloride and deuterium concentrations measured for the spring water. An apparent alpha (using either the Rayleigh or Craig and Gordon, 1962 model) for the water from these hot springs in the range found for the majority of the wells sampled in the playa could explain the observed deuterium and chloride
concentrations at the hot springs. This is shown by the fact that the
data for these hot springs plot along the same lines in figures 9 and 10 as the majority of the wells sampled in the playa. - - LOB (R/Ro) 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.003 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 - .0 1 ■ ■ I 1.- h rlto bten parameters oxygen representing between evaporation relationfor The - 11. E R U FIG paetapafrte xgn isotopes. oxygen the for alpha apparent isotopes. The line that passes through the origin was used to calculatewasused thepasses to origin that the line through The isotopes. 0.5 -0 s*s* s 5 S • Soldier Meadows Meadows •S Soldier Ranch McClellan and Springs Hot • O Trego - ulpi Flat Hualapai - U •P wells Playa Meadows Mud - M Springs Mud and • Boiling G Great Springs Hot • D Range Double Rock Black southern - B •R Recharge City • H Hardin H 5 § 5 H R R 0.0 H 11 * / B * p* R rpf* D S R A .5 0 f B / n B C6 So X u OG ( ) A T E H (T G LO 1.0 l.s 0 "Q*„ 2.0 .5 2 .0 3 .5 3 5 1 Figure 10 is useful in demonstrating that the hot springs near
Gerlach are not a result of simple mixing of cold, dilute recharge with water in the playa that has evolved with an apparent alpha of about
1.008 using a Rayleigh model. Mixing would result in a plotting
position along a line connecting the points representing the two
compositions of the two mixing end members. One example using recharge
with a 6D = -128 and chloride concentration of 34 mg/L and water in the
playa as represented by water at well GRL. Mixing of water from these
sources would result in a water with a composition represented by some
point along the labeled "mixing line" on figure 10 .
The hot springs compositions cannot created by simple mixing of
two solutions along the line representing evolution of water with an
apparent alpha (using the Rayleigh model) of 1.008. Mixing of recharge
with the same composition as described above with water from the central
part of the playa could result in the composition measured at these hot
springs. This may not be hydrologically reasonable, assuming that the
evolution of water with apparent alpha values of about 1.0 1 or greater
is restricted to the central portion of the playa. Since this area
probably represents the most distal portion of the groundwater flow
system, deep recharge of water from this area would appear to be
unlikely. The recharge of water that has undergone evaporation with an
apparent alpha in the range seen for lakes (1.05 to 1.08) could mix with
dilute recharge (or with thermal water such as that at Trego Hot
Springs) to form water with the composition seen at these hot springs. The oxygen isotope data can be examined using the same approach as was used for the hydrogen. One possible complicating factor could be
the exchange of oxygen isotopes between the water and the aquifer
materials. This oxygen shift is common in geothermal systems with the water becoming isotopically heavier (less negative). For the systems
examined in this study there does not appear to be a demonstrable oxygen
shift. This may, at least in part, be due to the fairly large apparent
effect that evaporation has had on the stable isotopes in the thermal
water which may make a small shift (of perhaps as much as 2-3 per mil)
impossible to detect.
The oxygen isotope data show the same general features as seen for
the hydrogen isotopes. The data for the water in the playa yield
oxygen—alpha values of for a Rayleigh model 1.0016—1.0019 using the da^a
shown in table 2. A Craig and Gordon (1962) model yields an alpha of
about 1.002 using a normalized humidity value of 0.75 and an atmospheric
6180 of -14.A for the data from GRB and the spring at T40N S24E R24ABD.
The data for the water in the playa yield and theta values that Ro generally plot along the same line in figure 11. The data for Great
Boiling and Mud Springs lie along this same trend. That these thermal
springs lie along the same trends for evolution with an apparent alpha
for oxygen as the water in the playa (see figures 11 and 12 ) can be
taken to imply that a similar process has affected the water found
these two areas. As is the case for the hydrogen isotopes a laboratory
derived alpha (of 1.0093 at 25°C from Friedman and O'Neil, 1977, figure
7 ) does not agree with the observed data (figure 1 1 ). The magnitude of any oxygen shift, if present, for the thermal water appears to be small— about 2 per mil or less. The plotting of the
thermal water to the right of the meteoric water line (figure 8b) cannot
be taken as proof that rock-water interaction is responsible for the
offset as ground water in arid and semi-arid environments commonly is
shifted toward a heavier oxygen isotope composition (see, for example,
Gat, 1971, figure 3). The local recharge water (figure 8a) does show a
tendency to plot to the right of the meteoric water line by an amount
that corresponds to an oxygen isotope offset of about 1 per rail. Since
most of the thermal water (except for Great Boiling and Mud Springs) has
an apparent offset of about 2 per mil or less the oxygen shift appears
to be about 1 per mil or less.
The very close correlation for the deuterium and oxygen isotopes
between the nonthermal water in the playa and water at Great Boiling and
Mud Springs can be taken to imply that there is very little, if any,
oxygen shift in the thermal water. If a significant oxygen shift were
present the data would not plot along the same trends in figures 11 and
12. Other hydrothermal systems in the northern Basin and Range that
have estimated (on the basis of chemical geothermometry) or measured
temperatures greater than 150°C with little (less than about 2 per mil)
or no oxygen shift are the Soda Lakes anomaly (Olmsted and others, 1984)
and Leach Hot Springs (Welch and others, 1981). This apparent lack of a
demonstrable oxygen shift at systems in the western part but away from
the margin of the Basin and Range physiogrphic province (thus excluding
the systems at Steamboat Springs, Nevada, Coso Hot Springs and Long
Valley, California) appears to be a common feature. This may result of some combination of (1 ) flow in a fractured system thus lmiting the water-rock interaction as a result of a high water volume to rock surface area ratio, and (2 ) a fairly great age for the system thereby allowing the rock to become in equilibrium (isotopically) with the water.
The acceptance of the argument that the oxygen and hydrogen isotope
and chloride data are primarily controlled by evaporation requires the
invoking of a number of assumptions including time invariance of the
recharge isotope compostion. As a comparison with the data for the water in the playa is central to this issue a similar original (at the
onset of evaporation) isotope composition and chloride concentration is
implied for the non-thermal and thermal water. In the above discussion
a one—step process was considered— thus, some combination of evaporation
combined with chloride dissolution was not discussed. Chloride
dissolution may, in fact, be occurring. Possible examples are
represented by the points plotting to the right of the majority of the
data and below the main playa-evaporation trend in figures 10 and 1 2 .
The assumption that the original isotopic composition of the thermal
water is that of the nonthermal water involves consideration of the
possible effect of past climates on the isotopic composition of the
meteoric water. If the thermal water was recharged about 10,000 years
ago, or earlier, then the effect that a pluvial climate might have had
on the isotopic composition must be considered. For a change in mea
annual temperature of about 1°C the 6D would change by about 5 per mil
according to a relationship developed by Dansgaard (1964). If the
pluvial climate consisted of cooling of about 2.8°C less than present 56
FIG U R E 12. - Relation between chloride and the stable isotopes of oxygen. (as suggested by Mifflin and Wheat, 1979) then the resulting effect on the isotopic composition would be to have a lighter hydrogen isotope composition of about 14 per mil. A lighter isotope composition in recharge is not, however, indicated by the data presently available as the present day recharge throughout most of the area composition similar to that found in the thermal water. The only area where there appears to be a distinctly different composition is in the vicinity of Gerlach where the recharge is lighter than the water issuing from Great Boiling and Mud Springs. A lighter isotope composition in the recharge, which might have been present during a pluvial period, would imply that the water at these hot springs would have evolved to an even greater extent than is implied by the composition of current recharge.
The assumption that the chloride concentrations at Great Boiling and Mud Springs are controlled by shallow evaporation deserves consideration. Alternate sources of chloride are: (1) dissolution of halite and (2) mixing with shallow (nonthermal) chloride-rich water that has an isitope composition that is heavier than that in the thermal water.
Although halite has.not been reported in the playa sediments, its presence would not be unusual in a closed basin setting like the Black
Rock Desert. Furthermore, only the uppermost part of a thick sequence
of sedimentary fill has thus far been penetrated. The dissolution of
halite therefore cannot be shown to be unlikely based on geologic
evidence but the heavier isotopic composition would not result from
simple dissolution. If dissolution is the dominate source of chloride,
then another process would need to be invoked to explain the heavier isotope composition in these thermal waters. Based on present knowledge of the behavior of stable isotopes the process of evaporation appears to be the only explanation other than mixing with other, heavier ground water.
Water with a composition like that found at Great Boiling and Mud
Springs could be formed by mixing of a low-chloride thermal water (with
an isotope composition similar to that found in local recharge) with an
isotopically heavy, high-chloride nonthermal water. If mixing is
occurring then equilibration of the cations and silica at a temperature
of about 170°C or greater is indicated by geothermometry calculations
(see table 4 and the geothermomoetry section). Accepting that mixing,
if present, must occur at a relatively great depth (to allow for
equilibration) then the origin of an isotopically heavy water at depth
needs to be considered. The preceeding discussion concerning recharge
of isotopically evolved, high-chloride water is therefore again raised
which leads back to the conclusion that water that has undergone
extensive shallow evapotranspiration prior to recharge to a deep
aquifer. Dissolved Gasses
Estimates of aquifer temperatures using isotopic and gas composition data generally do not agree well with the values obtained from the more widely used alkali and silica methods. The composition of gas collected at selected orifices and associated temperature estimates using the method of D'Amore and Panichi (1980), which is the only gas geothermometer that does not require a knowledge of the gas-water ratio,
are presented in table 3. The temperature estimates are all lower than
the 'best' estimates presented in table 4. There are several possible
reasons for this difference, including:
1. Non-attainment of equilibrium at depth with the phases (CaC03,
CaS04 , FeS2 , Fe304 , C, C02 , CH4 , H20, H2S, H2, and 02) used in the model
by D'Amore and Panichi (1980). A lack of knowledge concerning the
phases present at depth makes an evaluation of this factor difficult.
2. The methane might be from a deep source, such as magma or the
upper mantle. The methane to carbon dioxide ratios found in all of the
spring gasses presented in table 3 is greater than in the 34 geothermal
systems considered by D ’Amore and Panichi (1980). Since the estimated
temperature is inversely related to this ratio an additonal source of
methane could result in an estimated temperature greater than that which
would be calculated if equilibrium were achieved. A deep source of
reduced carbon is consistent with the observation by Barnes and others
(1978) that high carbon fluxes correspond to areas of tectonic activi y
and the suggestion by Barnes and Mariner (1979) that carbon in some
carbon dioxide rich springs is primarily from the ma TABLE 3.— Gas compositions and associated temperature estimates for thermal springs. Compositions are in volume percent and temperatures are in degrees Celsius. Analytics were performed by W. C. Evans, U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, Calif.
Nitro Carbon Hydro Tempera Sample site Oxygen Argon gen dioxide Methane Ethane Helium gen ture
Great Boiling Spring <.04 1.37 79.00 15.12 4.78 .04 .02 .39 113
Trego Hot Spring 0.01 1.81 93.59 1.25 3.11 <0.01 0.05 <0.01 72 * Black Rock Spring 3.42 1.27 74.34 18.66 2.24 <.01 .09 <.005
Double Hot Spring Orifice 1 .43 1.77 89.48 4.83 3.13 .01 .12 .005 / 3
Double Hot Spring Orifice 2 .40 1.80 89.66 4.88 3.21 .01 .11 . UU5 /Z
* The estimated temperature is not given As the >3 percent oxygen is believed to
indicate atmospheric contamination. It is not known whether the oxygen is a result of
contamination associated with sampling or shallow mixing at the spring. 3. The lack of analytical data for hydrogen sulfide required the use of an estimated value-0.001 percent was used following the
suggestion of D'Amore and Panichi (1980, p. 554). A greater value might
reasonably be expected as indicated by the presence of dissolved
hydrogen sulfide in the aqueous phase as measured using a
semiquantitative field technique. A greater value for hydrogen sulfide
result in lower temperature estimates which makes the agreement with the
'best' estimates even poorer.
Geothermomet ry
The temperature of deep thermal water is commonly estimated using
chemical data. The most widely applied methods are based on the silica
or relative cation concentrations found in a thermal water. Additional
methods using gas and isotope compositions have also been utilized. The
silica and cation methods have been applied to water in the Black Rock
Desert by Mariner and others (1974) and Anderson (1977). The
sulfate-water oxygen isotope method has also been applied to one
analysis for Great Boiling Springs by Nehring and Mariner (1979) and
Nehring and others (1979).
The results of applying silica and cation geothermometer
calculations to water with source temperatures greater than 25° C in the
study area are presented in appendix 3 and summarized m table 4. TABLE 4.— Summary of thermal aquifer temperature estimates
[Temperature estimates are in degrees Celsius]
Na-K-Ca
Location Silica 1 Uncorrected corrected K-Mg Mg-Li
Great Boiling and Mud Springs 149-170 (A) 186-208 (6=1/3) 178-204 151-167 132-144
Trego Hot Springs 124-125 (A) 124-126 (6=1/3) 120-124 116-130 129
McClellan Ranch 127-134 (C) 134-169 (6=1/3) 134-164 98-143 .
Hualapai Flat (Fly Ranch) 124-128 (A) 141-152 (6=1/3) 136-147 85-137 83-84
Southern Black Rock Range^ 145 (A) 148 (6=1/3) 144 105 74
33-84 Double Hot 133-137 (A) 123-125 (6=1/3) 96-131 77-107 Springs^ 103-113 (H)
97-118 63-84 Hardin City 113-127 (A) 129-141 (6=1/3) “ 129-130 16-23 Mud Meadows^1 110-124 (C) 171-203 (6=1/3) 79-129 79-98 80-99 (H)
81-118 Soldier Meadows^ 111-114 (C) 18-41 (6=4/3) 67-120 40-98 60-85 (H) TABLE 4.— Summary of thermal aquifer temperature estimates— Continued
[Temperature estimates are in degrees Celsius]
Albite- Laumon- micro- Wairakite- Laumontite- Wairakite- tite- Location Na-Li cline microcline microcline albite albite
Great Boiling and Mud Springs 23-27 192-228 225-245 127-242 230-267 196-236
Trego Hot Springs 4 121-123 174-176 118-120 219-227 95-118
McClellan Ranch — 114-156 144-197 38-60 193-204 171-201
Hualapai Flat (Fly Ranch) 35 153-172 191-205 143-163 218-242 92-179
Southern Black Rock Range^ — 166 194 146 216 86
48-75 Double Hot — 127-131 166-173 106-116 199-211 Springs^
— 111-271 Hardin City 111-271 189-191 138-141 225-253
— Mud Meadows4 — 232-294 163-192 102-143 127-151
1 Soldier Meadows^ 12-63 91-112 127-169 58-111 92-172
1 Letters in parentheses indicate the silica geothermometer: (A), adiabatic quartz method; (C), conductive quartz method; (H), conductive chalcedony method. The adiabatic estimates are more applicable to samples with boiling and near boiling measured temperatures. The conductive methods are applicable for the lower temperatures.
2 Based on a single sample. See the text for a discussion of this area.
3 Based on data collected during this study only.
4 Excludes data for well WW3922T2 as discussed in the text.
5 Excludes two very low (2° and 21°C) and one very high (155°C) value from the Na-Li range. 64
The chemical geothermometers are based on several assumptions as discussed by Fournier and others (1974). These assumptions are that:
(1) temperature-dependent reactions occur at depth; (2) all constituents involved are sufficiently abundant; (3) water-rock equilibration occurs in the thermal aquifer; (4) no change in composition occurs as the water moves from the thermal aquifer and the sampling point; and (5) the thermal water does not mix with cooler, shallow ground water. The use of a plot like figure 13 can assist in evaluating the internal consistency of the estimates and may indicate whether any of the above assumptions have been violated.
The estimates for water from the Great Boiling-Mud Springs area plot in a fairly limited region in figure 13a which is below the "equal temperature" line. The adiabatic rather than conductive quartz estimate is probably more applicable for these samples as the source temperatures
are generally at or near boiling. The magnesium-corrected cation
estimate of Fournier and Potter (1979) is used rather than the uncor
rected value as there is somewhat better agreement with the adiabatic
quartz value. The corrected values are within 10° C or less of the
uncorrected values, a difference that does not affect the following
discussions regarding the possible reasons for the difference between
the cation and quartz silica estimates. As discussed by Fournier and
others (1979) possible reasons for plotting below the equal temperature
line include mixing with cooler ground water, precipitation of calcite
and precipitation of silica. The presence of siliceous sinter in the
spring area indicates that silica precipitation may be a reason for the
lower temperature values estimated using the quartz geothermometer. 65
250 1------1------1------1 A l B - southern Black Rock Range cnLJ D - Double Hot Springs ZD G - Great Boiling and Mud Springs 200 “ H - Hardin City - cc M - Mud Meadows LJ O - Trego Hot Springs and McClellan Ranch a . S - Soldier Meadows / 9 31 U - Hualapai Flat • LJ D y ' f-< 150 - D e O n D DB D t—i t-H 16 O n , M 0 CE SS6S B CD b y az 100 dd — i— i a az B
N - n / u D ca 50 / - az ZD CD
/ D d . ______1______1______1______i______50 100 150 200 250 MAGNESIUM CORRECTED TEMPERATURE
FIG U R E 13.— Comparison of estimates of deep aquifer temperatures. An 'equal temperature line' is shown in each graph. All axes are in units of degrees Celsius. MAGNESIUM CORRECTED TEMPERATURE 67
MAGNESIUM CORRECTED TEMPERATURE 68
250
50 100 150 200 250 MAGNESIUM CORRECTED TEMPERATURE 200
150
100
50
0 50 100 150 200 MAGNESIUM CORRECTED TEMPERATURE 70
350
50 100 150 200 250 MAGNESIUM CORRECTED TEMPERATURE 71
250
50 100 150 200 250 MAGNESIUM CORRECTED TEMPERATURE 72
Precipitation of calcite cannot be ruled out although calcite has not been noted in the hot springs area. The relatively narrow range in calcium concentration (generally from 67 to 79 mg/L) from water with source temperature from 46°C to boiling indicates that if calcite is being precipitated then it is occurring at depth. The relative insensitivity of the cation estimate to the calcium concentration also argues against calcite precipitation being the main cause of the disagreement between the geothermometers. Using the analysis from Mud
Springs orifice 1, a calcium concentration of over 8,000 mg/L would be required to make the cation estimate agree with the 160°C quartz.-silica value. The possibility of mixing is not easy to eliminate entirely although the relatively narrow range in chloride concentration (a constituent that would probably be conserved during mixing) and the fairly limited range in stable isotope composition indicate that mixing is probably not occurring. If there is, in, fact, no mixing or calcite precipitation then the magnesium-corrected cation geothermometer indicates that the deep aquifer supplying water to the Great Boiling
Spring-Mud Springs area has a temperature in the 178-204°C range. The uncorrected cation estimates are somewhat higher, with a range of
186-208°C There is very good agreement between the cation and adiabatic quartz estimates for the data from Trego Hot Springs. The data indicate deep aquifer temperatures in the 120-125° C range. Estimates based on previous sampling of McClellan Ranch (located approximatey 8.5 km west- southwest of Trego Hot Springs) show good agreement for the one sample with a high (92° C) measured temperature. A later sample had a much lower measured temperature and yields a cation estimate higher than its quartz-silica estimate and the estimates for the other sample. The
reason for this discrepancy is difficult to assess although the lower measured temperature make the more recent sample suspect as far 'as possible mixing. Based on the higher temperature sample, the deep aquifer temperature is tentatively estimated to be in the 130-134°C range. Samples from the Fly Ranch area of Hualapai Flat (section 1 of
township 34 N, section 23 E) yield a fairly narrow range in quartz and
cation estimates within this group (124-128° C and 136-147°C, respectively) but the agreement between the two methods is only fair.
As was the case for the Great Boiling-Mud Spring area the data plot below that equal temperature line in figure 13a. The large amount of calcite actively being precipitated in this area indicates that at least some of this disagreement is due to a loss of calcium subsequent to reaching equilibration in the deep thermal aquifer. A calcium concen tration for the sample from Hualapai Flat 18 of about 500 mg/L would yield an uncorrected cation estimate of about 128 C. This amount of precipitation is not believed to be completely unreasonable so the quartz—silica range of 124— 128° C is considered to be a better estimate for this area. Thermal water found along the western flank of the southern Black
Rock Range generally plot above the equal temperature line in figure
13a. The water with the lowest chloride concentration in the group
shows excellent agreement between the magnesium-corrected cation and
adiabatic-quartz estimate. The the exception of the relatively cool
sample from well 51A all of the remaining samples plot above the equal
temperature line. This could be a result of: (1) evaporation (as
discussed by Fournier and others, 1979): (2) "overcorrection" by the magnesium correction. The variability of the chloride concentration within this group combined with the common occurrence of a large, wet surface area in the surrounding many of the springs imply that there is
evaporation. The lack of direct correspondence between the chloride and silica concentrations however indicate that the silica is not a result of simple evaporative concentration or mixing with a cool water with a uniform composition. The chloride variability may in fact be a result of some combination of shallow mixing with cool water of variable composition and evaporation at the surface or thermal water with a variable composition. The variable composition prevents the use of mixing models such as discussed by Fournier (1977). The best estimate of a deep aquifer temperature is therefore based on the one water yielding a good agreement between the cation and silica methods. The relatively low chloride concentration (84 mg/L) indicates that this water is probably the least affected by evaporation and the high measured temperature makes the use of these values somewhat more reliable. The geothermometry for Double Hot Springs indicates fair agreement
between the cation and adiabatic quartz estimates. Data collected
during the study indicate a fairly narrow range for the adiabatic quartz
and Na-K-Ca methods of 133-137°C and 123— 125°C, respectively. The
chalcedony geothermoraeter yields a corresponding range of 103-113°C.
These two silica methods thus yield ranges 10°C greater or lesser than
that estimated using the cation method. It is not clear which of the
two silica methods might be more appropriate in this case. The kinetics
of quartz may be too slow in this temperature range (140°C and less) to
act as the control on silica concentrations. Due to this uncertainty
the cation method may provide a better estimate in this case, yielding a
"best" estimate of 123-125°C. If previously collected analytical data were included a somewhat wider range (115-126°C) would result.
The estimates for the thermal waters Hardin City area are in the
same general range as that found for Double Hot Springs. Based on this
limited sampling the Mg-corrected cation estimate appears to yield a
best estimate of 129-130°C. The similar chloride concentrations found
in the two areas combined with the similar temperature estimates imply
that these areas may be fed by the same deep, thermal aquifer. The data for the Mud Meadows area yield a wide range in temperature estimates. The Na-K-Ca method appears to give unrealistically high values considering the measured temperatures and the conductive-quartz values. The magnesium correction gives values that are, if not accurate, at least more consistent with the silica estimates. The two samples with the highest measured temperatures show reasonable agreement between the Mg-corrected cation and conductive quartz estimates yielding a "best" estimate of 119-128°C. The sample from well WW3922T2 plots below the equal temperature line in figure 13b. That this may be due to mixing is supported by the fact that the chloride concentration 'is significantly higher than that found in the other thermal samples. For this reason the geothermometry estimates for this well are not included in summary of table 4.
The water from Soldier Meadows, although the agreement between the silica and cation methods is poor, appears to yield the lowest tempera ture estimates of any of the areas discussed in this section. The cation method using 3 = 4/3 (as recommended by Fournier and Truesde.il,
1973, for estimates less than 100°C) yields obviously low values as the maximum estimated value is 16°C lower than the highest measured temperature. As there does not appear to be any reliable criterion for selecting one conductive silica method over another the quartz may only be used as an apparent maximum value of 110-114°C. If chalcedony provides the applicable method then a range of 60-85°C would result, which in some cases is only slightly above the measure values. Evaluation of the geothermometers based on thermodynamic data is difficult because the true deep thermal temperatures of the various systems are not known. In an attempt to obtain a qualitative evaluation of the results obtained by applying these geothermoraeters, one of the more commonly applied geothermometers, the magnesium—corrected alkali method, is used as a standard for comparison (figures 13c-g). The relationships between the activities and temperature for the various reactions at equilibrium are shown on figures 14a-c. Although agreement between a thermodynamically based value and the alkali method does not necessarily indicate that the thermodynamic method is valid a comparison of results should be useful in deciding whether the new approach is worth further evaluation.
The results of the microcline-albite geotherraometry agree with the alkali results within about 20°C for water with alkali values greater than 140°C (figure 13c). Although there is considerable scatter for samples with lower alkali values many of the samples have values that agree within 20°C. The samples which gave the poorest agreement are from the area south of Double Hot Springs, the Mud Meadows area, and one sample from Hualapai Flat. As discussed earlier in this section most of the samples from along the southern part of the Black Rock Range yield poor agreement between the alkali and silica methods. It is worth noting that, as was the case for the silica and alkali methods, the sample with the lowest chloride concentration along the southern Black
Rock Range yields a fairly good agreement between the alkali and microcline-albite methods. The water from the Mud Meadows area is relatively cool, with source temperatures less than 55 C, and may be too low for albite and microcline to be in equilibrium. LOG\ n J\- LOGfc*] for major cations. major for I 1. eain ewe tmeauead h qiiru atvt ratios activity equilibrium the and temperature between Relation 14.— E R U FIG 7 8 79 80 81
The agreement between the microcline-laumontite and the alkali methods is fairly good, particularly for samples with alkali values greater than about 120°C (figure 13d). In general, except for some of the samples from Soldier Meadows the agreement is within about 15°C.
The agreement between the wairakite-mi crocline and alkali methods is generally not very good although there is a general 1:1 slope formed by most of the data plotted on figure 13e. This may indicate that the thermodynamic data are in error and that more accurate information might yield a better agreement between the two methods. Deep temperature measurements and mineralogy would help in more closely evaluating this situation.
The agreement between the albite-wairakite and the alkali methods is only fair, with the albite-wairakite method yielding values about 30°C greater than the alkali method (figure 13f). Although there is considerable scatter, the data for the Great Boiling and Mud Springs area and Soldier Meadows could be joined to form a line with a 1:1 slope, indicating that the disagreement may be related to the thermodynamic data. Comparison of the albite—laumontite method and the alkali method shows considerable scatter although the results for Great
Boiling and Mud Springs show good agreement. In summary, the deep thermal aquifers generally have higher estimated temperatures proceeding from north to south along the general ground-water flow direction. Exceptions are Trego Hot Springs, which may be affected by flow from the eastern area of the Black Rock Desert or recharge from the mountains to the south, and Hualapai Flat which receives recharge from the Granite Range to the west or flow through the basin—fill sediments. The highest temperatures are associated with
Great Boiling and Mud Springs and may exceed 200° C at depth.
The use of thermodynamically-based geothermometry shows considerable promise for application in systems such as the western Black Rock Desert where deep temperature measurements and mineralogic data are unavailable. Clearly more work is needed to refine this approach with well constrained field data and probably thermodynamic evaluations. HYDROLOGY
Climate
The climate in the western Black Rock Desert is typified by low
rainfall, warm summers and cold winters with large diurnal temperature
changes. Average annual precipitation on the basin floor for the period
1931-1957 is about 14 cm (5.5 inches), based on data collected in the
Gerlach—Empire area (R. Olson, U.S. Weather Service, oral communication,
1985). Although upper altitude precipitation data are not available for northwestern Nevada, Sinclair (1963, table 1), using information from a map by Hardman (1936), estimates that areas above 2130 m (7,000 feet) in altitude recieve 38-51 cm (15-20 inches) of precipitation annually. The majority of the precipitation falls during the non-summer months from storms coming over the Sierra Nevada to the west.
Potential evaporation rates are high although exact values have not been determined for the study area. The closest station where evaporation data have been collected is a Rye Patch Dam, located about
90 kilometers (55 miles) to the east of Gerlach. A rate of about 76 cm
(30 inches) was measured for the period June to September 1983, or several times the precipitation rate. The rapid disappearence of a lake that generally forms during the winter or early spring on the local playa gives a qualitative indication that actual evaporation rates can be high. The lake, which can cover an area on the order of tens of square kilometers with depths reaching a meter or more, can evaporate over a few months time and is often completely gone by June. 84
Recharge and Discharge
Approximate limits of the hydrologic system are shown in figure 15.
With the exception of the boundaries extending from the southern end of the Black Rock Range southward to Pahsupp Mountain and from the Granite
Mountains to the Selenite Range the limits of the system correspond with the approximate hydrologic boundaries of Sinclair (1963). For the purposes of this report, with the exception of the two segments just specified, the boundaries are considered to be hydrologic boundaries.
Although some flow is probably moving across some segments of the boundary the volumes are probably small compared to the total flow in the system (again with the possible exception of the two segments mentioned above).
The creation of a water budget for the western Black Rock Desert is made difficult by large uncertainties in several of the components of the overall budget. Unfortunately some of the components that comprise major portions of the budget are those with the largest uncertainty.
The collection of data that would allow the formulation of an accurate budget would require years of gaging—an effort that is well beyond the scope of the present work. Such a budget would be useful in constrain ing hydrologic models of the geothermal system. The following discussion is presented in an attempt to document the major problems associated with formulation of a water budget for the entire hydrologic system. FIG U R E 15.-- Hydrologic boundaries in the western Black Rock Desert. 86
A water budget for the western Black Rock Desert can be represented
by the formula: , ~'v
Qriv + Qprec + Quf = Qetl + Qphr + Qof where Qriv = inflow from the Quinn River,
Qprec = precipitation falling within the budget area,
Quf = contribution from ground-water inflow,
Qetl = evaporation of surface and ground water from the playa,
Qphr = evapotranspiration lost due to phreatophytes and
evaporation from thermal-spring pools, and
Qof = ground-water outflow from the budget area.
Npftjp.of the components of the water budget that represent input to the system none is constrained. Evaporation from the playa is difficult to estimate because the average areal extent and depth of the ephemeral lake have not been measured. In some years the lake may cover an area of as much as 900 km- (200,000 acres). The depth of the lake is variable but may reach depths of a meter or more. If an average depth of 8 cm (3 inches) were achieved then evaporation of the volume of water represented by the lake (74,000,000 m^) would be the largest discharge component in the budget for a year. This estimate is presented only to indicate a general order of magnitude for evaporation to allow comparison with other components in the budget. This value is greater than all of the other output components combined, indicating that a large error in this value prevents the formulation of a well-constrained budget. The other output components are probably much less than the amount of evaporation from the playa. The amount of outflow from the western Black Rock Desert is
probably small as noted by Sinclair (1963, p. 15) as the hydraulic
gradient in the basin-fill sediments in the southern part of the area
is very small. Based on hydraulic head measurements in shallow (about
6.1 m) and intermediate (about 100 m) depth wells the maximum difference
in head within the playa is less than about 6 m (appendix 3). The very
low horizontal gradient indicates that there is very little horizontal
flow within the playa sediments. Additionally, the sediments are
probably predominantly low permeability lacustrine deposits in the
Gerlach-Empire area.
The rate of evapotranspiration from areas other than the central
playa is probably much less than the rate for the playa itself.
Estimates are not available for the entire study area. Available
estimates for the various areas are shown in table 5. The procedure
used for estimating evapotranspiration in this effort consisted of using
either flow data or phreatophyte mapping combined with estimates of
evaporation from open water at the largest thermal springs (table 5).
Phreatophyte mapping conducted along the base of the Black Rock Range is
shown in figure 16. The use of flow data cannot be rigorously defended
as an accurate measure of evapotranspiration—the adoption of this
approach was dictated by availablity of existing data and the amount of
effort that would be required to obtain a better estimate. In using flow data as a measure of evapotranspiration the assumption is made that all of the flow is lost to the atmosphere. In the case where springflow supplies ground—water recharge the evapotranspiration estimate will be too great. In areas where evapotranspiration is supplied by ground 88 n*“i» water the estimate will be too low. Although phreatophyte mapping is
not available for all of the area, such as the the eastern part of
Soldier Meadows, the majority of the water that does discharge at the
surface due to evapotranspiration is represented in table 5 (except for
the playa which is considered as a separate component).
Evaporation from the surfaces of thermal—spring pools contribute to
the total discharge from the study area. Estimates of the evaporation
from warm water are considered to represent only general magnitudes.
The approach presented by Olmsted and others (1975, p. 71-72) is adopted
for use here. The approach is based on a quasi-empirical mass-transfer
equation presented by Harbeck (1962). The data presented by Olmsted and
others (1975, p. 70), which utilized weather data for Winnemucca
(located about 150 km east of Gerlach) were used to estimate evaporation
rates for the thermal ponds as presented in table 6. Both the surface
areas and temperatures are estimates. The temperatures are estimated using the measured temperatures (which represent maximum values for the pools) and arbitrarily subtracting 15°C. The lower temperature is
believed to more closely represent the surface temperature which is the value required by the adopted procedure.
The total evapotranspiration for the areas listed in table 5 is about 42 m 3/min (18,000 acre-ft/yr). As noted above this total probably represents the majority of the evapotranspiration for the western Black
Rock Desert except for evaporation directly from the playa. In comparison with the very rough estimate of evaporation from the playa
(140 m 3/min) the estimated evapotranspiration from the remaining part of the area is a considerably smaller component of the total discharge. TABLE 5.— Estimates of evapotranspiration in the western Black Rock Desert
excluding the central pi aya
Evapotranspiration rate
Location Method used (see figure 15) (m^/min) (acre-ft/yr) for estimate Reference
Great Boiling 3.3 1,400 Phreatophyte Olmsted and others, and Mud Springs mapping 1975, page 145
Trego Hot 0.075 32 Not specified Waring, 1965, Springs page 34
Hualapai Flat 14.7 6,300 Phreatophyte Harrill, 1969, mapping table 9
Fly Ranch 0.5 200 Not specified Brook and others, 1979, page 77
Black Rock 0.2 80 Not specified Sinclair, 1963 Spring table 3
Double Hot 0.9 400 Not specified Sinclair, 1963, Springs table 3
Base of Black 1.9 820 Phreatophyte This study Rock Range mapping
Mud Meadows 6.0 2,550 Flow This study measurement
Soldier Meadows 5.9 2,500 Flow This study measurement
High Rock Lake 8.2-9.4 3,500-4,000 Phreatophyte Sinclair, 1963 drainage mapping and estimate of lake-surf ace evaporation TABLE 6.— Estimates of evaporation from thermal pools. The evaporation
rates are adapted from Olmsted and others (1975, page 72).
Surface area Surface Evaporation Total ______tempera- rate evaporation ture ______Square Square (degrees Location meters feet Celsius) M/yr Ft/yr L/m Acre-ft/yr
Pool at the 180 1,900 77 76 250 25 11 southern end of the Black Rock Range
Double Hot Springs
Orifice 4 260 2,800 45 18 60 9.1 3.9 Orifice 5 110 1,200 63 316 135 21 9.1 If an accurate estimate of the total input to the system could be obtained then the playa evapotranspiration could be more accurately estimated; however the input cannot be reliably estimated.
Surface water supplied by the Quinn River is a major component of the input to the study area. Unfortunately there are insufficient data to evaluate the average annual input from this source. The nearest surface-water gage (located about 130 km northeast of Gerlach and about
110 river km upstream from the edge of the study area) on the Quinn
River has been operated for only 8 years (1964-67, 1978-81) with an average discharge of 3.2 m-Vmin (1,350 acre-ft) (U.S. Geological Survey,
1982). The period of record does not include years of high flow, such as the 1983-84 water year, which may make the average much lower than the true average discharge (Otto Moosburner, oral communication, 1985).
Recharge from precipitation, based on previous estimates (table 7) is about 70 m^/min (30,000 acre-ft/yr). The distribution of the recharge relative to discharging thermal water will be discussed later in this section.
Inflow of ground water across the boundary between the southern end of the Black Rock Range and Pahsupp Mountain is difficult to estimate.
The hydraulic gradient is probably low and similar to that found in the basin—fill sediments further to the west. The basin fill probably has a low hydraulic conductivity that is similar to that found to the west. TABLE 7. Estimates of recharge from local precipitation.
All values are from Sinclair (1963, table 1), except as noted.
Estimate of recharge
Area (m^/min) (acre-ft/yr)
Granite basin 5 2,000
Watershed south of the Western Pacific Railroad 1 500*
Hualapai Flat (Harrill, 1969, table 4) 16 7,000
West side of the Black Rock Range and the Calico Mountains 19 8,000
High Rock Lake drainage 30 13,000
This value compares with 5 /min (2,000 acre-ft/yr) from Sinclair (1963). The lower value used here is the recharge estimated to be from the Selenite Range and Pahsupp
Mountain Shallow Ground-Water Flow
Movement of ground water in the shallow subsurface cannot be well described based on available information. In general, ground water moves through consolidated sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks in the mountain blocks. Fracturing and faulting caused by multiple periods
of tectonic activity and cooling (in the case of igneous volcanic rocks) have resulted in enhanced vertical permeability that may locally allow
deep movement and recharge of the geothermal systems. Ground-water flow
in the basin-fill deposits occurs primarily through interstitial permeability.
In general the shallow ground water flows from areas of greater to
lesser altitude. In the western Black Rock Desert flow is generally
from north to south from Soldier Meadows through Mud Meadows to the playa. Net easterly flow from the High Rock Lake drainage, Granite
basin, and Hualapai Flat also occurs. Recharge takes place in the mountain blocks and from infiltration of streamflow as it crosses
alluvial fans along the flanks of the mountains. The latter process is probably more important for mountains composed of low permeablility rock
types such as the Granite Range than for areas such as the northern
Calico Mountains which are underlain by fractured volcanics.
Drilling was conducted in the western Black Rock Desert to allow
the collection of geochemical, hydrologic and heat—flow data. Drilling
sites, shown on figure 18, are located primarily on the playa and along
the western base of the Black Rock Range. At some of the sites on the playa two wells were drilled to allow comparison of the hydraulic head
at two different altitudes. The drilling along the base of the Black Rock Range was conducted to allow a better definition of the thermal discharge in that area. Some of the wells were pumped or allowed to flow for brief periods (generally less than 4 hours) to allow the estimation of the hydraulic conductivity utilizing the computational procedure of Brown (1963) and the Thiem equation. The results of this aquifer testing are included in the following discussion.
Water-level contours are available for Hualapai Flat (Harrill,
1969, plate 1) and the thermal area in the vicinity of Gerlach (Olmsted and others, 1975, figure 20a). Based on water-level data collected during this study (appendix 3) Notable features of the area are the very low hydraulic gradient in the playa sediments and the upward gradient found beneath much of the valley floor.
As mentioned in the previous section hydraulic gradients within the playa deposits at the limits of the study area (south of the Black Rock
Range and in the vicinity of Gerlach) appear to be small, indicating that little flow is moving beneath these boundaries (as the hydraulic condictivity. Additionally, the horizontal hydraulic conductivities of these deposits are low, as indicated by brief aquifer tests conducted at some of the wells in the playa. Based on the aquifer tests the permeablility of the playa sediments at a depth of about 100 m below land surface is estimated to be in the range of 0.00005 to 0.0007 cm/sec
(1 to 15 gpd/ft). This range is in reasonable agreement with the range given by Bear (1979, table 4-1) for stratified clay of 0.0001 to
0.0000001 cm/sec. The permeablility of the sediments can reasonably be expected to decrease with depth as a result of compaction thereby further decreasing the amount of flow at greater depths. The depths to bedrock south of the Black Rock Range appear to be less than about about
300 m (1,000 feet) below land surface—much less than the depths to
bedrock beneath the playa farther to the west (Schaefer and others,
1983, plate 4). The depth to bedrock between Gerlach and the Selenite
Range appears to be between 300 and 600 m (1,000 to 2,000 feet).
The presence of an upward hydraulic gradient in the upper 100 m of
sediments is worth emphasizing (as indicated by data in appendix 3 for wells at sites GRB, D, I, and L and BRIO) as this gradient causes an upward component of flow. The reason for emphasizing the upward flow is
that low heat-flow values have been interpreted as indicating that
recharge to a deep geothermal system is taking place beneath the playa
(Mase and Sass, 1980). As will be discussed further in the section on
conceptual models any downward flow in the playa sediments must be
occurring at depths greater than about 100 meters below land surface.
Thermal Ground Water
Information on thermal ground water is limited to direct measurements at the various thermal springs and a few shallow wells.
Geophysical, geochemical, and isotopic data can be used indirectly to provide some information on the system. Nonetheless, the lack of direct access to the deeper parts of the system prevents a complete description of the hydrothermal system. Integration of the geophysical, geochemi cal, and isotopic data will be considered in the section on conceptual models with the hydrologic aspects being discussed in this section. The volume of thermal water (with temperatures greater than 30° C) moving through the study area represents a significant portion (about one third) of the local precipitation-derived recharge. Although the thermal water is not necessarily derived only from precipitation falling within the local hydrologic system the amount of thermal water appears to represent a significant part of the total flow of ground water in the area. The estimate of the amount of ground water discharging from the area is based on measured flows from springs and wells, estimated evapotranspiration (based on phreatophyte mapping and estimated evaporation from spring pools).
The hydraulic head relationship between the various geothermal areas, as deduced from spring-pool elevations and water levels in shallow wells (depths less than about 300 m), are similar the nonthermal ground-water system. In general, the hydraulic head decreases from
Soldier Meadows southward with Great Boiling and Mud Springs apparently having lowest hydraulic head. Although the head relationships indicate a potential for a general north—to—south flow it cannot be determined whether the systems are hydraulically connected. The differing geochemical and isotopic compositions of the water indicate that the various major discharge areas do not merely represent upflow from a single geothermal system, at least not without significant recharge between the upflow centers. The relationship between the areas is considered further in the section on conceptual models. HEAT FLOW
The magnitude and distribution of heat flow in the shallow subsurface can be used to evaluate conceptual models of the hydrothermal system in the western Black Rock Desert. This effort represents an areal extension and expansion of the work by Olmsted and others (1975),
Sass, Kennelly and others (1979), Sass, Zoback and Galanis (1979), and
Mase and Sass (1980).
Heat is lost from hydrothermal systems through radiation, conduction, convection, and advection. Heat lost through radiation is believed to be small compared to the other components. Radiation from warm ground is included in the estimates of conductive heat discharge.
Advective heat discharge, as considered in this study, is the heat removed by water flowing out of the budget area. Since the amount of water moving out of the area is considered to be small, the advective heat loss is also considered to be small. It is possible that permeable materials at the base of the valley fill deposits, such as coarse alluvial fan deposits or fractured volcanics, may allow some thermal water to flow out of the area in the vicinity of Gerlach, however the lack of deep information prevents thorough evaluation of this possibility. Thus, for the purposes of this report the heat loss due to advection is considered neglegible and will not be considered further.
Convective heat discharge is defined as the heat lost through the evapotranspiration of thermal water. The heat removed from the system due to geothermal input is the heat content of the water above that contained by the recharged water. Other sources of heating, such as from radioactive decay, frictional heating from ground-water flow, and chemical reaction are considered negligible. Heat lost by conduction through near-surface materials is defined as the conductive part of the total heat budget.
Conductive heat loss from the western Black Rock Desert can be estimated using temperature profiles in shallow wells (less than about
100 m) and measured or estimated thermal conductivity data. The conductive-heat flow is, at least in part, a result of shallow lateral movement of thermal water that has risen along basin-bounding faults.
Since the convective-heat flow consists of the heat removed from the system by thermal water that part of the heat supplied to the shallow subsurface by the thermal water should not be included in the conductive component. Unfortunately, the available data do not allow a rigorous determination of the amount or lateral extent of thermal water reaching the shallow subsurface.
The conductive-heat flow for part of the western Black Rock Desert is shown in figure 17. The equal heat-flow lines shown on figure 17 are modified from previous work, primarily by Olmsted and others (1975), and
Mase and Sass (1980). The previous work has been modified based on a more detailed examination of the area along the base of the Black Rock
Range. Areas of thermal discharge have been used as a guide for delineating areas of high conductive-heat flow.
Using data indicated on figure 17 the total amount of conductive- heat flow can be estimated. Since some of the conductive—heat flow is supplied by shallow, lateral movement of thermal water areas with conductive—heat flow values greater than 400 mW/m^. This value is somewhat arbitrary, being selected to coincide with areas known or 1 0 0
119° 30’ 119°00'
FIG U R E 17.- Conductive-heat flow in the western Black Rock Desert. Modified after Mase and Sass (1980). Contours units are mW/m2. suspected to have rising or laterally moving thermal water. The areas of upward or laterally moving thermal water are indicated in the field by the presence of warm ground, thermal springs, and large and variable thermal gradients in wells (notable BR02, 03, 05 and 12) as noted by
Mase and Sass (1980, p. 8).
Unfortunately, heat—flow data are not available for the entire area used for the water-budget estimates. The problem with limiting the area is that advection of heat into the area from, for instance, the High
Rock Lake drainage, can affect the total heat budget. Additionally, there are no data for the mountain blocks-the recharge areas. Since the primary purpose of estimating the total heat discharge is to obtain an average heat flow per unit area the selection of the budget area can greatly affect the result.
The total conductive-heat flow for the area shown in figure 17 is estimated to average about 76 mW/m^ in areas not affected by shallow flow of thermal water (Mase and Sass, 1980, p. 10). The conductive-heat flow from the area outlined in figure 18 is about 940 km^ which yields a total heat loss of about 74 MW. The other major component of the heat discharge is the convective component which is estimated using springflow and the corresponding deep aquifer temperatures obtained from the geothermometry calculations discussed earlier which are shown in table 8. The total convective—heat flow from thermal systems within this same area is about 74 MW, or about half of the total heat discharge from the area. The total heat discharge, when averaged over the area indicated in figure 18, corresponds to a heat flow of about 150 MW. TABLE 8. Estimated convective heat flux
Amount of geothermal heating* Heat Area or Discharge (calories discharge spring name (ra^/min) per gram) (Mw)
Great Boiling and Mud Springs 3.3 208 - 11 = 197 45
Trego Hot Springs 0.075 164 - 11 = 153 0.8
Hualapai Flat (Fly Ranch)^ 0.48 153 - 11 = 142 4.8
Base of the Black Rock Range 1.9 181 - 11 = 170 23
Mud Meadows 6.0 156 - 11 = 145 61
Soldier Meadows 5.9 120 - 11 = 109 45
^ Defined here as the amount of heat supplied by geothermal
heating. Calculated as
H = Tf - Tf
where H = heat supplied,
Tf = deep aquifer temperature (the maximum magnesium-correct
cation value from Table TCI was used), and
Tf = temperature of the recharge.
The heat supplied can be estimated using temperatures as in the
range 0 to 200°C, the enthalpy is numerically about the same as
the temperature. The flow volumes were not corrected for the
lower density of the heated water.
^ Brook and others, 1979. A heat flow of 150 mW/m^ is considered high, even for the Battle
Mountain heat—flow high of Lachenbruch and Sass (1977) which may include
the western Black Rock Desert (figure 18). The high value does not
appear to be a result of shallow heat sources such as shallow magmatic
intrusion. The youngest volcanism in the area has been assigned an age
of late Miocene to early Pliocene which corresponds to an absolute age
as young as about 4 million years. This is generally considered to be
too old to supply significant quantities of heat to active hydrothermal
systems.
A possible reason for the apparently high heat flow is that heat is
being advected into the area. The presence of thermal water in the vicinity of Wheeler Ranch makes this a strong possibility. Heating of water in the surrounding mountain ranges could also supply heat to the area and would not be accounted for in this analysis. Unfortunately,
the heat flow in the mountains is not known and the temperature and flow rate of the water entering the area from the north are not well def ined.
In addition to allowing an anlaysis of the total heat flow from the area, the conductive-heat flow data can give insight on the flow regime in the playa sediments. As noted above the conductive heat loss through the playa sediments is low. Additionally, the lowest heat flow values are generally associated with the greater depths to bedrock (figure 19) as indicated by the work by Schaefer and others (1983, plate 4). This general inverse correspondence (greater depths to bedrock corresponding to areas of lowT heat flow) led Sass and his coworkers (Sass, Zoback and
Galanis, 1979; Mase and Sass, 1980) to suggest that recharge might be Sass (1978). Abbrevations Abbrevations Sass (1978).
COASTAL ar^BMHfor BattlfM« ar^BMHfor I------1 — MILES 300 300 600 1 04 119° 30' 119° 00'
FIGURE 19.-- Approximate depth to bedrock. Adapted from Schaefer and others (1983). Depths are in meters. The interval is 305 meters, or about 1,000 feet. supplied by downward flow through the playa sediments. A major barrier to this suggestion is the upward hydraulic gradient present in the shallow part of the playa. If recharge is taking place through the playa sediments then it must be occurring at depths greater than 100 m.
Keller and Grose (1978b) have suggested that the playa might be acting as a insulating cover of low conductivity material resulting in the observed thermal water temperatures. Estimated temperatures at the base of the valley fill do not appear to support this proposition, at least in the vicinity of Gerlach where estimated temperatures beneath the fill do not exceed 40° C within 30 km (figure 20). The estimated temperatures were calculated using the average thermal conductivity found by Sass, Zoback and Galanis (1979) for the playa sediments (1.05
W/m-K), the depth to bedrock (figure 19), and the heat flow from Mase and Sass (1980). In the vicinity of the southern Black Rock Range temperatures may approach 200° C which is within a range that could reasonably be expected for the thermal water in that area. It thus appears that temperatures at the base of the fill may in some cases be great enough to provide the observed geothermal temperatures. In the vicinity of Great Boiling and Mud Springs the indicated temperatures at the base of the valley fill deposits are much less than that estimated for the thermal water. Thus flow to depths greater than the base of the valley fill are required to reach the estimated temperatures. FIG U R E 20.-- Temperatures at the base of the vale- fill estimated from temperature gradients and thermal conductivities, "snperatures are in degrees Celsius. 108
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Integration of geochemical, geophysical, and hydrologic information can help place limits on conceptual models of the hydrothermal system.
Hydrologic models that have been used to describe recharge to other hydrothermal systems in the Basin and Range have, until recently, consisted of either recharge directly in the mountain blocks or into basin bounding faults supplied by surface- or shallow ground-water flow
(figure 21). Recent work by Olmsted and others (1984) in the western
Carson Desert, a Pleistocene Lake Lahontan basin with many hydrologic features that are similar to those found in the western Black Rock
Desert, has led to the suggestion that recharge occurs within the basin-fill sediments. The major element chemistry, stable isotope composition, heat flow, and hydrogeologic features all appear consistent with a model conceptually similar to that proposed for the western
Carson Desert.
Recharge to geothermal systems in the northern Basin and Range is not well understood. Direct evidence for models of recharge is lacking: arguments for recharge models are generally based on patterns of heat flow or hydrogeologic and hydraulic considerations. Although a detailed consideration of all studies that present arguments for recharge models is beyond the scope of this effort, a brief overview is presented to provide a framework within which the systems in the western Black Rock
Desert may be discussed. FIG U R E 21." Fault-plane (A) and mountain-block (B) conceptual models of recharge to a hydrothermal system in the Basin and Range province. MOUNTAIN BLOCK MODEL Ill
The association between basin-bounding faults and thermal springs was recognized by Russell (1885, p. 47, 48). During the century since
the work by Russell many other workers have confirmed the view that many
geothermal systems in the northern Basin and Range are associated with
faults. Recent workers have considered a model that incorporates
downflow, or recharge, deep lateral flow, and discharge largely
occurring within a fault zone at the margin of a basin. This model,
shown schematically as figure 21a, has a limited area for heat capture
due to the steeply dipping nature of most basin bounding faults. The
results of numerical modeling of a hydrothermal system in northern
Nevada indicated a maximum age of about 10,000 years if a temperature of
180°C is to be maintained (see Welch and others, 1981, p. 152-164). A
reliable estimate for the age of a geothermal system is difficult to
obtain, thus the limitation on age is difficult to assess. Additionally
the depth of circulation and the length of the fault segment associated
with a hydrothermal system are difficult to determine. For the system
considered by Welch and others (1981), Leach Hot Springs, the age may be
greater than 250,000 years, based a the geologic interpretation by
Brogan and Birkhahn (1981, p. 88). Age estimates are not available for
the systems in the western Black Rock Desert but if the Leach Hot
Springs system is typical then the age may make the fault-plane model
unrealistic for areas with high aquifer temperatures.
Recharge into alluvial fans along the mountain front may also be an
important mechanism. Recharge into alluvial fans is evidenced by loss
of flow as streams traverse the coarse alluvium and in some cases low
temperatures encountered at shallow depths (Campana and others, 1980). Although recharge of nontherraal aquifers by infiltration into alluvial
fans appears to be an accepted and well established fact in the northern
basin and range the connection to hydrothermal systems has not been
established. Nonetheless this mechanism may be an important source of
water for thermal aquifers.
The mountain-block model has as an essential element recharge
directly into a mountain block as shown in figure 21b. In contrast to
the fault-plane model, the recharge is diffuse rather than confined to
the much smaller cross-section of a fault zone. This model is similar
to the conceptual work by Toth (1962) and the general description of
nontherraal ground-water flow in desert basins by Maxey (1968). A system
like that described by the mountain-block model would have a much
greater area that could supply heat than the fault—plane model and may
therefore be more reasonable for systems that are old or that have
reached thermal steady state. Low heat-flow values in the mountains
would presumably be a consequence of the recharge. This would appear to
be in conflict with the data used by Sass and others (1971) to define
the Battle Mountain heat-flow high. The heat-flow data were obtained
primarily in mountainous areas. Thus, the Battle Mountain heat-flow
high must either represent an area of even higher heat flow than has
been previously suggested or mountain recharge is not a general feature
in the northern Basin and Range. A hybrid model with diffuse reacharge
but with the upflow being restricted to a fault zone is also possible.
The apparent problem with high heat-flow values in the mountains also
applies to this hybrid. The fault-plane and mountain-block models presented in figure 22 both imply that the recharge water is dilute-water that is probably supplied either by spring runoff that infiltrates alluvial fans (figure
21a) or snowmelt that is recharged directly into the mountain block
(figure 21b). Although dissolution could occur in mountainous areas composed in part of evaporite minerals, the chemical data collected in recharge areas in the western Black Rock Desert do not support this alternative. Additionally, evaporite minerals have not been reported in the local mountains. In the Soldier Meadows area the upland areas are dominately composed of volcanic rocks that are generally able to accept rapid infiltration, thereby decreasing the amount of runoff. Thus, in the Soldier Meadows area a mountain-block model is considered to be an acceptable alternative for this area. The dilute, and slightly thermal water in the Mud Meadows area may be supplied by either surface water from Mud Meadows Creek, which is an epherraeral stream, or from precipi tation in the surrounding mountains. The Mud Meadows geothermal water does not appear to be associated with major recent faults, unlike most,
if not all of the other areas. The area appears to be underlain by a
laterally extensive clastic aquifer.
The chloride concentrations in the thermal water along the western
base of the Black Rock Range increase to the south. This increase may
reflect an increasing proportion of water from the playa. The simi
larity of the isotopic composition of the water along the base of the
Black Rock Range and in Soldier Meadows indicates that deep flow from
the north could be supplying water which is represented schematically in
figure 22 by the flow rising to the east. Recharge to the Black Rock Range may also be supplying flow to the system. At most of the sampling sites evapotranspiration is probably affecting the geochemistry where, with the exception of Double Hot Springs, the flow rates are fairly small and the area from which evapotranspiration is occurring is fairly large. The estimated depths to bedrock to the west of Double Hot
Springs and the Black Rock Spring appear to allow temperature to reach / the estimated temperatures. Flow within an aquifer, composed of volcanic or coarse sedimentary rocks near the base of the basin-fill deposits, may be supplying the water to the hot springs.
The thermal water at Fly Ranch in Hualapai Flat, which may reach temperatures of about 130° C at depth, may be recharged after some near surface evapotranspiration as indicated by the somewhat evolved stable isotope composition (figure 8). The chloride concentration of 240 mg/L is consistent with some evaporative concentration. The water at Trego
Hot Springs and McClellan ranch is similar to that at Hualapai Flat in terms of the chloride and possibly, an evolved stable isotope composition.
The thermal water is derived from local recharge as indicated by the stable isotope composition. The most saline thermal water in the area, found at Great Boiling and Mud Springs, has a stable isotope composition that appears to be a result of an evolutionary trend similar to that found for nonthermal water in the playa sediments. Although the water at Trego Hot Springs and the thermal springs along the western base of the Black Rock Range are not evolved (isotopically) the salinity of these springs may also primarily be a result of evaporative concen
tration rather than dissolution of halite, incorporation of fluid F IG U R E 22.-- Conceptual model of thermal ground-water flow in the northern part of the western Black Rock Desert. Recharge from precipitation in the mountains (A ) recharges thermal aquifers through fractured bedrock (B) and alluvial-fan deposits (C ). Discharge of warm water from confined basin-fill aquifers occurs through open wells (D ). Hot (greater than 100 C) water flows near the base of the valley fill, perhaps within volcanic rocks (E ), with surface discharge localized along major basin - bounding faults (F). Flow from north to south within the basin-fill and volcanic aquifers(G) also occurs. inclusions or mixing of saline and dilute water. If the chloride concentration of the water at Great Boiling and Mud Springs is primarily a result of evaporative concentration then only limited net mass transfer from the aquifer to the aqueous phase is required (except for silica) to account for the observed total dissolved solids concentrations. Although the cation composition changes as a result of temperature-dependent rections occuring at depth, the increase in total cations appears to be minor or essentially nonexistent.
In summary, the stable isotope and chemical composition of the thermal water, when used in conjunction with the same data for local nonthermal water, indicate:
1. That the source of recharge to the geothermal systems is local meteoric water.
2. There are several distinct geothermal systems that attain different temperatures at depth.
3. Recharge to the geothermal system that discharges at Great
Boiling and Mud Springs appears to have been recharged by water that was affected by shallow evapotranspiration prior to deep circulation. This
implies that recharge is occurring through basin-fill sediments or, perhaps, along basin bounding faults. The systems at Trego and Fly
Ranch may also be recieving water that has been affected by shallow
evaporation prior to recharge. 117
4. The cation chemistry appears to be controlled by temperature- dependent reactions using minerals found in other active hydrothermal systems. The observed cation compositions appear to be consistent with recent compilations of thermodynamic data. Polynomial equations applied here may be useful in estimating deep aquifer temperatures in other systems.
The use of thermodynamically based geothermometry allows the incorporation of geologic and mineralogic information into the estima tion of deep aquifer temperatures. The application of this approach may be hindered by inadequate thermodynamic data or a lack of mineralogic information on the deep part of a system.
5. The amount of net mass transfer from the thermal aquifer matrix to the aqueous phase is minor (with the exception of an increase in
silica concentrations). Althought the relative proportions of cations
is modified by the temperature dependent reactions the molar sum of the
cations does not appear to increase greatly at the deep aquifer
temperatures. The limited rock-water interaction is consistent with the
small or nonexistent oxygen shift and a large water to rock-surface-area
ratio such as a fault-controlled or fractured system.
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Fournier, R. 0., and Truesdell, A. H . , 1973, An empirical Na-K-Ca geothermometer for natural waters: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 37, p. 1255-1275. 1974, Geochemical Fournier, R. 0., White, D. E., and Truesdell, A. H., basic assumptions: indicators of subsurface temperature - Part I, Journal Research, U.S. Geological Survey, v. 2, no. 3, p. 259-262. Freeze, R. A., and Cherry, J. A., 1979, Groundwater: Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, Inc., 604 p.
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Garside, L. J., and Schilling, J. H. , 1979, Thermal waters of Nevada: Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology Bulletin 91, 163 p.
Gat, J. R . , 1971, Comments on the stable isotope method in regional groundwater investigations: Water Resources Research, v. 7, p. 980-993.
Gat, J. R., 1980, The isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen in precipitation, in Fritz, P., and Fontes, J. A., (eds.), Handbook of Environmental "isotope Geochemistry: New York, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, v. 1, ch. 1, 545 p.
Harbeck, G. E., 1962, A practical field technique for measuring reservoir evaporation utilizing mass-transfer theory: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 272-E, p. 101-105.
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Harrill, J. R., 1969, Hydrologic response to irrigation pumping in Hualapai Flat, Washoe, Pershing and Humboldt Counties, Nevada, 1960-67: Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Water Resources, Bulletin 37, 75 p.
Helgeson, H, C., 1969, Thermodynamics of hydrothermal systems at elevated temperatures and pressures: American Journal or Science, v. 267, p. 729-804.
Helgeson, H. C., Delany, J. M . , Nesbitt, H. W., and Bird, D. K., 1978, Summary and critique of the thermodynamic properties of rock-forming minerals: American Journal of Science, v. 2/8 A, p. 1-229. Helgeson, H. C., and Kirkham, D. H., 1974, Theoretical prediction of the thermodynamic behaviour of aqueous electrolytes at high pressures and temperatures: II. Debye-Huckel paramenters for activity coefficients and relative partial molal properties: American Journal of Science, v. 274, p. 1199-1261.
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Truesdell, A. H., 1976, Summary of section III, Geochemical techniques in exploration: Second United Nations Symposium on the development and use of geothermal resources, San Francisco, 1975, Proceedings, v. 1, p. 831-836.
U.S. Geological Survey, 1982, Water resources data for Nevada, water year 1981: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Data Report NV-81-1, 404 p.
Waring, G. A., 1965, Thermal springs of the United States and other countries of the world - a summary: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 492, 383 p.
Welch, A. H., Sorey, M. L . , and Olmsted, F. H., 1981, The hydrothermal system in southern Grass Valley, Pershing County, Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 81-915, 193 p.
Wood, W. W., 1976, Guidelines of collection and field analysis of ground-water samples for selected unstable constituents: Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations Book 1, Chapter D2, 24 p.
Zimmerman, U., Ehhalt, D., and Munnich, K. 0., 1967, Soil-water movement and evapotranspiration: Changes in the isotopic composition of the water: Proceedings of the symposium on isotopes in hydrology, Vienna 1966, International Atomic Energy Agency, p. 567-584. APPENDIX 1.— Selected analyse* of water from wells and springs in the Black Rock Desert All units are In milligrams per liter, except as noted
Specific Tempera- conductivity Cure pH (mlcro- Sodium Latitude Longitude (*C) (units) siemens) Calcium Magnesium Location Site name
119.0264 80.0 7.90 902 4.8 0.1 180 N36 E26 04 D DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS 41.0464 — 180 41.0464 119.0264 76.0 7.60 4.8 0.2 N36 E26 04 D DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS 230 41.0492 119.0275 77.6 7.90 910 15 0.1 N36 E26 DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS 230 41.0492 119.0275 68.5 7.10 — 17 0.1 N36 E26 DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS, ORIFICE 2 260 119.0275 73.5 6.90 — 15 0.2 N36 E26 DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS, ORIFICE 3 41.0492 68.5 7.10 _ 18 0.2 270 E26 DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS, ORIFICE 4 41.0492 119.0275 N36 8.20 — 78 1.3 1600 N32 E23 15B BORAX SPRING 40.6608 119.3650 86.0 7.15 7610 68 1.2 1400 N32 E23 15B GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 3 40.6608 119.3650 7.40 67 1.4 1300 N32 E23 15B GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 3 40.6608 119.3650 75.0 7.60 8150 73 2.0 1600 N32 E23 15B GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 9 40.6608 119.3650 58.0 8.30 7600 73 2.5 1600 N32 E23 15B GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 18 40.6608 119.3650 98.0 7.40 7600 70 1.0 1400 N32 E23 15B GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 19 40.6608 119.3650 8.20 8100 75 2.5 1800 E23 15B GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 22 40.6608 119.3650 55.3 N32 — — 150 12 1900 N32 E23 15B CREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 23 40.6608 119.3650 35.1 7.60 7800 73 2.0 1600 N32 E23 15B GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 24 40.6608 119.3650 93.5 63.0 7.80 — 75 2.2 1600 N32 E23 15B GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 27 40.6608 119.3650 95.5 7.10 7620 68 2.8 1600 N32 E23 15B CREAT BOILING SPRINC, ORIFICE 28 40.6608 119.3650 65.0 7.70 — 70 2.2 1400 N32 E23 15B GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 37 40.6608 119.3650 45.8 6.80 7600 69 2.3 1800 N32 E23 15B CREAT BOILING SPRINC, ORIFICE 43 40.6608 119.3650 83.8 7.60 7600 96 2.3 1400 N32 E23 15B CREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 46 40.6608 119.3650 7.00 — 73 2.3 1600 CREAT BOILING SPRINC. ORIFICE 55 40.6608 119.3650 78.0 N 32 E23 15B 7300 72 1.2 1500 BOILING SPRING 40.6614 119.3675 92.0 8.00 CREAT 1.0 1500 40.6614 119.3650 84.0 — 7830 89 N32 E23 15BBA GERLACH HOT SPRINGS 1400 119.3550 97.0 7.20 — 73 2.2 N32 E23 10A1 DITCH SPRING 40.6733 7.80 — 75 2.8 1500 MUD SPRINGS, ORIFICE 1 40.6508 119.3839 60.5 — 2.5 1500 40.6508 119.3839 74.0 7.20 74 MUD SPRINGS, ORIFICE 2 2.4 1500 40.6508 119.3839 84.3 7.00 8000 73 N32 E23 16D MUD SPRING, ORIFICE 9 1600 119.3839 42.0 7.10 7600 50 2.3 N32 E23 16D MUD SPRING, ORIFICE 13 40.6508 7.60 — 74 1.0 1400 HORSE SPRING 40.6586 119.3536 63.0 N32 E23 15A — — 2.9 1.4 860 LAKE 0.2 450 40.7700 119.1100 86.0 8.20 2300 11 N33 E25 TRECO HOT SPRINGS 0.2 460 40.7672 119.1108 86.0 8.40 2300 25 N34 E25 TRECO HOT SPRINGS 0.2 320 40.7436 119.1608 36.3 8.60 2150 21 N33 E25 10A MCCLELLAN RANCH WELL 270 119.1730 92.0 7.40 1410 13 0.6 N33 E25 10B MCCLELLAN RANCH WELL 40.7447 119.2997 17.0 8.10 8700 6.0 16 2100 N33 E24 30 PLAYA WELL 40.6958 19 1200 40.8092 119.1794 22.0 7.80 5150 12 N34 E25 16D COYOTE SPRINC 0.2 1000 40.6514 119.4217 20.0 9.70 — 2.0 N32 E23 18D GODEY SPRING 5.0 310 40.7103 119.3367 16.0 7.40 1110 18 N33 E23 26D UNNAMED WELL 1.0 3.0 74 40.7180 119.4833 18.0 8. 10 — N33 E22 27B DEEP SPRING 4.0 270 40.7447 119.1730 20.0 8.40 1980 15 N33 E25 10B UNNAMED WELL — 3.0 300 40.8244 119.4847 10.0 8.10 30 N34 E22 SQUAW SPRINC 4.0 1.0 74 41.3580 119.2178 54.0 8.50 360 N40 E24 SOLDIER MEADOW SPRING 1 76 119.2178 48.0 7.60 357 2.4 .1.5 N40 E24 SOLDIER MEADOW SPRING 2 41.3580 74 119.2178 54.0 8.55 363 3.1 <0.1 N40 E24 SOLDIER MEADOW SPRINC 2 41.3580 9.5 110 40.8064 119.3244 13.0 — 703 30 N35 E23 25B UNNAMED WELL 17 800 40.8658 119.2483 15.0 8.40 4200 18 N34 E24 03BB WELL USGS H-7 14 53 40.8847 119.3333 8.20 480 39 N35 E23 26DB SAND SPRING LAND CO. WELL 4.0 320 40.8667 119.3483 87.0 8. 10 18 N34 E23 FLY RANCH WARDS HOT SPRINGS 13 42 40.8867 119.3150 25.0 8.30 420 31 N35 E23 24DB JOHN FITZ WELL 82 119.3044 26.0 8.10 480 1.8 0.9 N35 E24 06CC RICHARD BAILEY WELL 40.9422 71 n 323 23 13.4 74 N 16 F?4 16A CATNF SPR TNG 41.0133 119.2547 340 80.0 7.91 1800 31 4.2 N34 E23 02 WELL NEAR GERLACH 40.7808 119.3775 18 26.0 7.50 229 19 3.8 N34 E23 34A GRANITE CREEK 40.7939 119.3342 21 54 40.8503 119.3514 22.0 7.20 755 72 N34 E23 10A UNNAMED SPRING 22 0.2 390 40.8605 119.3181 96.0 8.40 1800 N34 E23 01 WESTERN SPRING 28 0.2 380 40.8605 119.3181 32.4 8.40 2100 N34 E23 01 HUALAPAI FLAT SPRING 1 24 0. 2 380 40.8605 119.3181 35.0 8.40 2100 N34 E25 01 HUALAPAI FLAT SPRING 3 22 0.2 410 40.8605 119.3181 94.0 7.20 1950 N34 E23 01 KUALAPAI FLAT SPRING 16 28 0.2 400 40.8605 119.3181 91.0 7.10 2300 N34 1,23 01 HUALAPAI FLAT SPRING 18 17 0.2 440 40.8605 119.3181 33.5 7.90 2060 . N34 J^3 01 HUALAPAI FLAT SPRING 41 18 0.2 430 40.8605 119.3181 32.0 7.90 2100 N34 E23 01 HUALAPAI FLAT SPRING 50 24 0.2 410 40.8605 119.3181 82.0 7.10 2250 N34 E23 01 HUALAPAI FLAT SPRING 63 20 0.2 400 40.8605 119.3181 32.0 8.00 2100 N34 E23 01 HUALAPAI FLAT SPRING 82 27 10 38 40.8658 119.3055 16.0 . 7.90 409 N34 E24 06BB JACKSON WELL 26 9.7 33 40.8797 119.2958 17.0 7.70 366 N35 E24 31AB JACKSON WELL 44 14 35 40.8914 119.3150 21.0 7.30 509 JACKSON WELL 34 13 44 N35 E23 25AC 40.9055 119.3292 24.0 8.20 440 N35 E23 23AD SAND SPRINGS LAND CO. WELL 25 9.0 32 40.9169 119.3156 18.4 7.80 339 N35 E23 13DB HAROLD FERRIS WELL 288 9.0 4.0 21 40.9361 119.3608 23.0 7.40 NEGRO WELL 46 20 40 N35 E23 10B 40.9592 119.3325 13.0 7.20 559 N36 E23 36A UNNAMED WELL 66 15.5 7.30 451 18 6.9 41.1136 119.1319 9.6 2.8 78 N37 E25 09D UNNAMED WELL 41.1142 119.1167 36.1 7.80 446 N37 E25 10D UNNAMED WELL 125 APPENDIX I.— Selected analyaea of water fron wella and aprlngs In the Black Rock Desert All units are in milligrams per liter, except as noted— Continued
Total dissolved Date solids Cation (year- Fluor (calcu anion month- Potas Bicar Carbon Chlor Sul Silica lated) balance Site day) Reference sium bonate ate ide fate ide
Spring 74-01-01 Mariner and others, 10 110 616 -0.02 4.5 260 2 59 120 1974 and 1975 _ 170 675 -0.11 Spring 78-01-01 WATSTORE 4.0 420 0 53 83 110 692 0.08 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 5.0 260 2 80 120 10 130 762 0.03 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 5.0 280 0 no 120 10 110 801 0.05 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 6.0 280 0 120 140 10 784 0.08 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 10 280 0 120 140 10 86 170 4450 0.06 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 134 75 0 2100 370 170 4430 -0.03 Spring 74-01-01 Anderson, 1977 130 83 <1 2200 400 4.5 280 4410 0.03 Spring 78-01-01 WATSTORE 67 100 0 1800 340 180 4430 0.05 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 110 90 0 2100 360 190 4600 0.03 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 135 84 0 2200 380 170 4330 -0.01 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 140 90 0 2100 370 4.5 5010 0.05 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 128 88 0 2400 380 180 8850 -0.28 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 270 88 0 5000 1400 170 170 4450 0.06 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 135 66 0 2100 360 180 4590 0.04 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 148 82 0 2200 380 4610 0.02 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 134 160 0 2200 410 170 190 4550 -0.05 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 133 90 0 2300 350 170 4770 0.09 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 130 88 0 2200 360 4.4 4560 -0.06 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 136 83 0 2400 400 4.8 170 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 360 180 4530 0.06 Spring 140 85 0 2100 77-05-08 WATSTORE 370 5.5 160 4460 -0.00 Spring 110 85 0 2200 74- 02-19 Sandersand Miles, 1974 5.5 170 4596 0.01 Spring 113 91 0 2200 390 1977 180 4400 -0.03 Spring 75- 01-01 Anderson, 121 84 0 2200 390 1977 170 4430 0.03 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 135 75 0 2100 380 3.8 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 370 — 170 4400 0.03 Spring 134 70 0 2100 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 — 170 4390 0.03 Spring 143 70 0 2100 380 1977 170 4760 -0.01 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 131 74 0 2400 370 — 1977 180 4080 0.04 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 130 74 0 1900 360 4.1 — USCS unpublished data — — Well 15 —- — 620 230 12 75-01-01 Anderson , 1977 86 4.4 85 1020 0.23 Spring 9.0 190 0 280 74- 01-01 Marinerand others, 1976 86 — 85 1260 0.06 Spring 9.3 150 0 520 75- 01-01 Anderson, 1977 3.0 86 943 0.07 Well 21 100 15 290 140 1963 94 871 -0.01 Well 61-06-12 Sinclair, 8.4 93 0 280 160 2.8 1977 — 61 4620 0.14 Well 75-01-01 Anderson, 75 1450 0 1700 10 61-05-03 Sinclair, 1963 1.5 58 3040 0.01 Spring 15 1210 0 1200 5.8 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 280 0.2 30 2280 0.15 Spring 47 460 0 690 45-04-09 Sinclair, 1963 79 — 44 847 0.04 Well 10 360 48 160 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 38 — 50 348 -0.27 Spring 5.0 150 0 n o 47-09-02 Sinclair, 1963 — 100 893 0.00 Well 9.0 88 14 270 160 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 9.0 0.2 32 516 0.51 Well 4.0 230 0 26 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 18 35 12 63 256 0.11 1.0 90 3 Spring 61-05-06 Sinclair, 1963 39 12 65 266 0.08 0 96 0 21 74-01-01 Mariner and others, 63 0.06 Spring 1.1 92 3 18 41 12 1974 and 1975 61-12-13 Harrlll, 1969 36 424 -0.00 Well 2.2 220 0 86 41 0.1 1969 — — -0.03 Well 67-08-03 Harrlll, 23 550 45 760 390 67-07-25 Harrlll, 1969 — 35 364 -0.05 Well 13 200 0 48 62 84 1115 0.08 Spring 78-01-01 WATSTORE 260 0 280 48 — 1969 - 13 — -0.05 Well 67-09-28 Harrlll, 17 170 0 38 56 — 1969 — ‘ -0.09 Well 67-06-16 Harrlll, 39 170 0 44 77 61-12-12 Harrlll, 1969 0.1 74 298 0.23 Spring 10 110 0 32 22 74- 01-01 Mariner and others, 7.0 82 1000 0.04 Well 17 460 4 240 46 1974 and 1975 Harrlll, 1969 18 234 -0.47 Well 61-12-13 3.5 280 0 21 9.0 0.1 Harrlll, 1969 89 516 -0.03 Spring 61-12-13 10 220 0 93 67 0.1 Anderson, 1977 — 88 1240 -0.04 Spring 75- 01-01 17 460 0 250 250 1977 — -0.04 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 240 240 89 1210 17 460 0 -0.03 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 0 280 190 7.0 90 1210 17 460 0.01 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 250 210 — 90 1210 17 460 0 Spring 75-01-01 Anderson, 1977 200 — 88 1200 0.01 18 440 0 250 a r**> /»_- * ---- 197 7 nn 50 Ws Wfc WJ'l 4U5 Cl iu 460 260 S.4.U 75-01-01 A n d e rs o n , 1977 — B2 1230 0.03 Spring 15 450 0 250 210 Spring 75-01-01 A n d e r s o n , 1977 390 7.0 86 1400 -0.08 14 440 0 260 Spring 75-01-01 A n d e r s o n , 1977 160 — 82 1160 0.02 17 470 0 250 -0.04 Well 61-12-12 Harrlll, 1969 20 0.1 69 287 8.8 180 0 27 -0.04 Well 61-05-03 Harrlll, 1969 20 0.2 66 266 7.1 160 0 25 1969 -0.05 Well 67-05-12 Harrlll. 42 0.1 60 339 1969 8.9 180 0 46 -0.07 Well 67-07-25 Harrlll, 61 — 34 336 1969 16 170 0 48 -0.03 Well 61-05-03 Harrlll, 16 0.2 61 244 1977 4.7 150 0 23 -O.02 Well 75-01-01 Anderson, 12 0.1 64 167 1969 7.0 75 0 13 -0.03 Well 67-05-12 Harrlll, 69 0.1 42 357 5.1 200 0 33 1963 -0.00 Well 61-06-14 Sinclair, 42 32 1.2 84 328 61-06-14 Sinclair, 1963 5.4 150 0 1.8 79 329 -0.01 Well 11 170 0 28 38 ■t- to N> • - S J , - 1 — cn 00 |1 O' 1 O 1 C O N - | ro ro ro •— ■c O O 1 m m via I « ui oo u — O ' v£> O — O OO OO Oq n ro •— ro O' vC •— •— N£> ►- ^ 00
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c o r r to to III I I I K I I I I I I HIM I I I I I I I I I I B 'I r» II I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I III I I P. to A ►- c o ^ B 3 C3 X* O I s a.to 70 o X hs - o I I I I I I I I I 11 INI HIM II | I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I | I II OQ r r n 00 EL K r - 3 S’ toCD
G G C C G : G C C G GGGC CCGG G G GCGGG W >c ?0 -0 *0 H H H H r - O O O O OOCJC) O O O O O O O O O O O O O O o o o o Ct rr O M- b - 3 APPENDIX 2.— Analyses of water collected by the USCS from 1979-1981 from wells and springs In the Black Rock Desert All unlta are In milligrams per liter, except as noted
Tempera- Specific Cure PH conductivity Location Site name Lac 1Cude Longitude C C) (unlta) (mlcromoha) Ca lclum Magnesium Sodium
N35 E27 30CAC TH SP #1 SULPHUR 2NW QD 40.9530 118.9994 89.2 6.99 6620 23 3.4 1 500 N36 E26 09DAC TH SP#1 SOLD CR 4SE QUA 40.9533 118.9992 45.7 8.18 2360 23 4.7 420 N36 E26 34 BAB BLACK ROCK SPRING 40.9739 119.0069 77.0 7.52 2130 14 3.0 460 N36 E26 22CBD WELL BRD51A 40.9950 119.0089 28.0 8.01 12300 200 0.2 900 N36 E26 27BCA WELL BRD52B 40.9855 119.0092 24.0 9.83 4110 1.4 0.1 930
N36 E26 21AA TH SP #4 ORA SOLDIER CR 4S 41.0033 119.0161 87.0 7.32 1670 24 2.1 330 N36 E26 16DA TH SP #3 ORA SOLDIER CR SE 41.0150 119.0164 78.2 7.29 1320 19 2.4 270 N36 E26 16DAC TH SP #3 ORG SOLDIER CR 4S 41.0125 119.0153 46.7 7.10 1540 25 3.6 300 N36 E26 16AA TH SP#2 ORE SOLDIER CR 4SE 41.0236 119.0144 91.0 7.88 1140 9.4 0.5 240 N36 E26 09ABD WELL BRD57A 41.0372 119.0189 40.6 9.29 1160 2.0 <0.1 260
DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS, ORIFICE 1 41.0492 119.0275 82.0 8.09 854 5.4 0.1 200 DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS, ORIFICE 2 41.0492 119.0275 78.0 8.17 871 5.6 0. 1 200
DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS, ORIFICE 3 41.0492 119.0275 84.0 7.80 835 4.9 <0.1 200 DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS, ORIFICE 4 41.0492 119.0275 60.0 8.37 850 5.7 0.3 210
DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS, ORIFICE 5 41.0492 119.0275 78.0 8.13 876 6.0 1.0 210 N36 E26 04 D DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS, ORIFICE 6 41.0492 119.0275 8.13 851 6.4 <0.1 200 N36 E26 04 BAB WELL DHS4 41.0542 119.0267 35.3 8.19 1860 3.8 0. 1 390 N36 E26 04 BAB WELL DHS4 41.0542 119.0267 36.8 8.29 1580 2.8 0.2 350 N36 E26 04BBA WELL DHS5 41.0542 119.0269 35.8 9.49 691 2.0 <1.0 150 N36 E26 04BBA WELL DHS6 41.0542 119.0272 25.5 9.62 1240 2.1 0.5 270 GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 23 40.6625 119.3653 100.4 7.21 7430 74 1.2 1500
CREAT BOILING SPRINC, ORIFICE 46 40.6608 119.3650 88.6 7.30 7530 70 1.1 1400 CREAT BOILING SPRINC, ORIFICE 48 40.6617 119.3653 93.8 7.16 7400 67 1.5 1500
N32 E23 10A DITCH 40.6733 H Q ^ssn 90.0 8 08 7320 56 0.9 1400
HUD SPRINGS, ORIFICE 1 40.6508 119.3839 79.0 7.07 7330 77 2.6 1400 MUD SPRINGS, ORIFICE 2 40.6508 119.3839 91.4 7.70 7460 79 2.8 1500
N37 E26 28DBA WELL BR04 41.0753 119.0181 24.4 8.97 2700 2.7 0.5 660 N37 E26 10DCA TH SP HARDIN CITY SE QD 41.1156 119.0008 50.8 8.80 914 1.5 <0.1 210 N37 E26 03DB WELL BR12 41.1317 119.0000 24.7 10.03 827 2.0 <0.1 180 N38 E26 33C TH SP #1 OR B SOLDIER CR 4N 41.1478 119.0203 70.0 8.75 776 1.9 0.3 170 N37 E26 27 BA WELL BRD53B 41.0831 119.0056 21.0 9.52 3010 3.2 1.0 640
TRECO HOT SPRINGS, ORIFICE A 40.7717 119.1158 86.3 8.27 2250 14 <0.1 470 N33 E24 21CA WELL GRB' 40.7267 119.2650 12.1 9.28 93000 1.7 1.8 31000 N33 E24 01CB WELL CRD 40.7717 119.2167 11.6 11.73 8470 89 <0.1 2300 N34 E26 08CB WELL GRL 40.8450 119.0500 13.0 9.78 32200 3.0 0.4 7300 N34 E26 08CB WELL GRL' 40.8450 119.0500 13.6 9.48 47700 6.1 15 11000
N36 E25 23CDA WELL BR06 40.9928 119.0994 17.0 7.61 26500 21 140 5600 N36 E26 18BAC WELL BR07 41.0217 119.0633 15.8 7.72 15000 19 76 3400 N35 E26 05BBA WELL BROS 40.9358 119.0983 14.0 7.52 20100 34 320 3800 N35 E25 13BBB WELL BR09 40.9064 119.1375 14.8 7.62 25700 34 240 4900 N35 E26 30 AAA WELL BRIO 40.8775 119.1030 13.0 7.32 18200 110 450 3500
N35 E25 27BDD WELL BR11 40.8725 119.1689 15.1 8.41 10300 4.0 6.1 2300 N33 E23 15BCC CRANITE BASIN SPRINC 40.7433 119.3672 14.5 — — — — — N33 E23 06ACB SUMMIT SPRINC 40.7744 119.4150 10.5 — — — — _ N33 E22 13ACD RAILROAD SPRINGS 40.7428 119.4361 12.1 7.99 448 47 5.7 22 N40 E25 22CAC MIDDLE MUSTANG SPRING 41.3555 119.1158 23.0 — — — —
N40 E24 24ACD SP#1 ORB MUD MDW QD NE2 41.3605 119.1944 10.3 7.31 767 7.4 1.5 160 N40 E24 24ABD SP#2 MUD MDW QD NE 24 41.3644 119.1947 11.1 7.49 599 6.4 1.3 130 N40 E24 03ACC SP#1 SOLD MDW QD CHU CU 41.4030 119.2381 11.8 6.85 155 10 3.8 15 128 1979-1981 from wells and springs APPENDIX 2.— Analyses of water collected by the USCS from liter, except as noted— Continued In the Black Rock Desert. All units are In milligrams per
Cation anion Blear- Carbon- balance Site Date Potassium bonate ate Chloride Sulfate Pluorlde Silica
Spring 80—07—08 1700 280 5.8 100 -0.96 19 930 0 Spring 80-06-10 570 180 1.1 54 -0.99 26 120 1 Spring 80-06-24 130 9.4 70 -0.99 14 900 1 180 0.9 31 -0.97 Well 81-06-16 77 510 3 4000 340 40 7.9 1.9 -0.98 Well 81-06-30 38 860 290 700 Spring 80-06-17 210 160 11 115 -0.99 16 430 0 Spring 80-06-16 120 150 11 80 -0.99 11 400 0 80-06-16 140 9.4 55 -0.99 Spring 15 480 0 160 13 130 -0.99 Spring 80-06-10 10 320 1 84 160 9.0 12 -0.99 Well 80-12-09 7.2 230 23 140 140 110 -0.99 Spring 79-12-05 260 2 59 130 12 4.7 115 -0.99 Spring 79-12-05 2 59 130 11 4.7 260 Spring 79-12-85 — — — — 11 115 -0.99 Spring 79-12-05 4.5 2 VO 1 58 130 11 130 -0.99 Spring 79-12-05 4.9 270 3 59 130
12 115 -0.99 Spring 79-12-05 4.8 250 2 61 130 11 110 -0.99 Spring 79-12-05 4.4 250 2 57 130 9.4 50 -0.99 Well 80-08-07 8.6 370 3 270 110 10 55 -0.99 Well 80-11-13 5.2 370 4 220 no 12 37 -1.00 Well 80-08-07 2.7 180 28 48 96 2.2 -0,99 Well 80-1!-!5 58 150 n o 12 4.5 280 170 -0.96 Spring 80-01-17 0 2200 380 4.7 120 100 Spring 80-01-17 — — — — 210 -0.96 Spring 80-01-28 12C 96 0 2100 380 5.1 5.1 160 -0.96 Spring 80-01-16 100 84 0 2300 370 Spring 79-11-28 2000 370 4.6 160 -0.96 110 68 0 79-11-28 — Spring — — — 5.0 190 -0.96 Spring 80-02-05 120 120 0 2200 390 4.6 140 -0.96 Spring 80-01-18 100 120 0 2200 380 — Spring 80-01-18 — — — — —
13 65 -0.98 Well 81-04-08 18 810 38 310 130 0.1 60 -0.99 Spring 80-07-09 4.4 280 9 76 120 11 5.3 -1.00 Well 81-05-06 4.0 140 73 67 97 12 90 -1.00 Spring 80-07-21 5.2 190 5 57 no 3.2 1.7 -0.98 Well 81-07-01 34 460 76 580 no 87 -0.99 Spring 80-04-28 1 550 170 4.4 10 140 16 -0.56 Well 80-11-12 900 44000 3400 6.9 170 9560 Well 80-12-04 2500 400 0.1 2.0 130 80-11-11 92 6.6 1.0 -0.84 Well 56 2220 670 10000 80-11-10 130 10 17 -0.78 Well 150 2550 390 19000 80-08-04 22 1.1 60 —0.87 Well 72 2960 6 9100 80-07-28 40 0.9 63 — Well 61 2820 7 4100 80-07-17 14 0.7 54 -0.90 Well 85 2270 4 7200 0.9 63 -0.88 Well 80-07-16 86 2160 5 9400 23 80-10-08 100 0.3 66 — Well 50 1050 1 6100 Well 80-07-15 2700 12 1.7 51 — 7.5 1480 19 Spring 79-08-22 — — — — Spring 79-08-22 ____ — — — 13 -1.00 Spring 80-01-10 92 0 67 32 0.1 6.2 Spring 79-08-22 — — — —
73 -1.00 Spring 80-04-30 170 0 68 120 11 4.5 Spring 80-05-13 52 140 8.8 75 -1.00 4.3 140 0 80-05-27 9.4 0.5 43 -1,00 Spring 3.0 74 0 6 milligrams per liter, except as noted— Continued
Delta Delta Strontium Zinc deuterium oxygen Plotting Boron Barium Lithium (yg/L) (yg/L) (per mil) (per mil) symbol (yg/L) (yg/L) (yg/L)
- 12.9 B _ 170 720 2000 16 -121 -124 - 15.7 B _ 50 68 310 6 4 -127 - 15.4 B __ 140 160 720 ____ - 14.4 B _ 1800 17500 -124 -124 - 14.8 B — : so 330 190 26 - 15.0 B 230 550 <3 -128 130 - 15.6 B _ 110 190 580 <3 -128 - 15.8 B _ 100 230 550 18 -131 - 15.1 B _ 130 110 0.4 <3 -128 -128 - 15.8 D — 40 39 51 18 —121 - 15. 6a 0 1900 _ 9 — a ____ -129 - 16.2 D 1900 — 70 — - 17. D _ -— — —121a la D _ 20 60 81 <3 — — — - 120a - 15. la D 2000 — 90 ~ - 120a - 15. 7a D 1900 _ 80 — - 119 - 15. 6a D _ 20 60 82 <3 a - 16.0 D _ 40 30 86 5 -130 - 16.0 D _ 50 26 65 5 -129 -130 - 16.4 D — 30 29 60 180 D 58 78 8 -127 - 14.6 30 - 11.6 C _ 90 1600 2800 <3 - 98.0 ____ - . - 11. 0° C _ _ — — 99 0a ____ - 105 - 10. 4a C 8200 — 1700 — a 4 - 99. 0 - 10. 6a C — 80 1500 2700 a - 99.5 - 11.6 c _ 140 1600 2400 6 ____ - 91 - ll . 4a c _ — — “ ~ .oa ____ - 95.oa - 11. 3a G 7900 — 1 700 — - 99.5 - 11.1 C 130 1600 3000 12 - 95 . 5“ - 10. 8a G
-127 - 15.4 H 40 18 130 65 - 16.1 H _ 6 32 36 <3 -131 - 16.0 H _ 120 24 27 120 -130 - 15.9 H _ 30 53 38 3 -130 -129 - 15.4 H — 180 130 140 16 - 15.1 T 50 280 770 <8 -125 - - 5.6 P - 30 450 77.0 - 9.2 P 40 1500 2500 63 - 97.5 - 7.8 P _ _ 260 600 - 89.5 - 82.0 - 6.2 P — — 110 1000 — -8.4 P 460 2900 -88.5 -108 - 12.0 P _ 800 310 1400 69 __ - 7.6 P _ 280 4000 - 69.0 ____ - - 6.8 P __ _ 470 3300 78.5 - 86.0 - 8.4 P — 2900 490 7900 120 - 98.5 - 10.8 P _ 240 80 700 50 -114 - 14.8 R — — — _ - 14.8 R _ — — -109 - 16. 4“ R _ 10 9 250 <3 - 112a -124 - 16.1 R — — — — - 16.3 R 180 56 35 -129 40 - 16.4 R _ 40 140 47 15 -125 - 14.5 R _ 60 9 78 40 -115 APPENDIX 2.— Selected analyses of water from wella and springs In the Black Rock Desert, In milligrams per liter, except as noted— Continued
Tempera Specific ture pH conductivity Location Site name Latitude Longitude (*C) (units) (mlcromohs) Calcium Magnesium
SPR #1 DONNELLY CR. QUA 41.0414 119.1472 14.3 7.51 707 59 15 N37 E25 19DDAC SP#2 DONNELLY CR QD SE1 41.0858 119.1672 17.2 7.61 452 37 3.4 N37 E25 09DC DONNELLY CREEK 41.1142 119.1333 6.4 7.89 286 19 6.8
N39 E26 30BBC SP BELOW LITTLE BIG MTN 41.2567 119.0619 15.0 — — — —
N39 E25 17BCC WHEELER SPRING 41.2867 119.1694 18.0 8.02 678 27 5.5 N39 E25 12CDD RUNNINC WATER SPRINC 41.2905 119.0730 9.5 — — — — N39 E2A 01 BB SP#3 ORB MUD MDW QD NW1 41.3219 119.2064 24.6 8.28 321 11 1.4 N40 E25 29CCC TH SP #5 MUD MDW QD SW2 41.3383 119.1678 27.1 7.23 290 3.0 0. 1 NAO E2A 25DDCA TH SP#10 ORB MUD MDWSE2 41.3389 119.1919 53.3 8.78 362 3.1 0.1
N40 E2A 23DCCD THERMAL SP NO. 2 MUDMEAD 41.3525 119.2167 53.0 8.78 374 3.1 0.1 N40 E2A 23CCDA TH SPR #3 MUD MDW QUAD 41.3539 119.2236 43.8 8.73 355 3.9 0.1 TH SPR #1 MUD MDW QUAD 41.3569 119.1878 57.1 8.93 345 3. i 0,9
NAO E2A 23BCDA TH SPR #6 OR A MUD MDW 41.3608 119.2233 50.8 8.83 336 3.9 0.1
NAO E2A 23ABCD TH SPR 19 MUD MEADOW QU 41.3636 119.2164 35.4 9.01 357 3.2 <0.1 NAO E25 18BBC TH SP#4 SOLD MDW QD NW1 41.3797 119.1872 55.1 8.82 364 2.8 0.2 NAO E25 18BACA TH SP #1 ORA SLDR MDW Q 41.3800 119.1808 38.4 8.93 381 13 3.5 NAO E25 05CCCD TH SP #3 SLDR MDW QD SW 41.3975 119.1664 30.0 7.46 198 10 3.0 N36 E25 16ADC A. JACKSON RANCH WELL 41.0181 119.1297 16.8 8.18 1530 9.3 4.3
N36 E25 16ADC A. JACKSON RANCH WELL — — — — — N37 E2A WW3921 41.0547 119.1136 20.3 9.10 930 1.2 0.2
N37 E2A WW3922T1 41.0733 119.1097 24.2 8.86 603 2.7 0.2 N37 E2A WW3922T1 41.0733 119.1097 — — — — —
N37 E2A WW3922T2 41.0742 119.1097 26.0 8.60 584 3.0 0.3
N37 E2A WW 3922T3 41.0828 119.1050 23.8 8.99 553 2.0 0. 1
N37 E2A WW3922TA 41.0831 119.1042 23.1 9.09 573 2.0 0.1
N37 E25 11 BOB PW290 41.1208 119.1017 38.7 8.17 453 8.9 1.4
N37 E25 1 1 BDB PW1636 41.1211 119.1014 38.6 8.13 451 8.5 1.4
N37 E25 3CCD FL WL WW3985T1 SO CR AN 41.1272 119.1247 15.0 8.15 465 17.0 2.3
N37 E2A WELL AT WAGNER SPRINCS 41.1358 119.1378 31.8 7.86 352 9.6 1.4
N37 E2A FLOTHER WELL NO 2 3989T 41.1442 119.1272 13.6 8.53 480 6.8 0.7
N38 E25 07 AB CALICO MOUNTAINS SPRING 41.1597 119.1836 — — — — —
N38 E25 07AB CALICO MOUNTAINS SPRING — — — — — APPENDIX 2.— Selected analyses of water from wells and springs In the Black Rock Desert In milligrams per liter, except as noted— Continued
Cation Bicar Carbon anion Potaaslum bonate ate Chloride Sulfate Flourlde Silica balance Site Date
20 190 0 100 69 0.4 77 -1.00 Spring 80-04-21 10 140 0 50 34 0.3 66 -1.00 Spring 80-05-12 4.4 110 0 25 20 0.2 43 -1.00 Stream 80-02-06 — — — — — — — — Stream 80-02-06 — — — — — — Spring 79-08-22 O 0 9.6 230 1 41 no 7.6 58 1 Spring 80-03-05 — — — — — — — — Spring 80-03-05 — — — — — — — — Spring 79-08-22 5.4 110 1 17 30 5.6 63 -1.00 Spring 80-05-26 0.9 120 0 21 46 11 46 -1.00 Spring 80-03-12
1.2 93 3 17 38 12 69 -1.00 Spring 80-05-14 1.2 95 3 17 38 3.8 64 -1.00 Spring 80-01-02 1.2 90 2 12 37 11 66 -1.00 Spring 80-01-09 0.8 94 4 26 41 13 60 -1.00 Spring 80-01-01 — — ~ — Spring 80-01-01
1.0 88 3 14 34 12 66 -1.00 Spring 80-04-22 1.1 88 4 18 39 13 66 -1.00 Spring 80-04-29 0.8 89 3 18 39 12 60 -1 .00 Sort” qn_05-2 7 9.8 94 4 13 18 1.9 99 -1.00 Spring 80-03-04 7.6 80 0 12 14 0.5 64 -1.00 Spring 80-03-11
20.0 540 4 220 40 4.7 75 -0.99 Well 80-02-29 — — — — — — — — Well 80-02-29 5.6 490 31 49 17 8.6 74 -0.99 Well 79-12-04 — — — — — — — — Well 79-12-04 o O 8.7 220 8 52 49 2.3 90 Well 79-12-13
— — — — — — — — Well 79-12-13 9.4 220 4 51 50 2.0 90 -1.00 Well 79-12-13 — — — — — — — — Well 79-12-13 6.4 230 11 35 44 2.6 87 -1 .00 Well 79-12-19 — — — — — — -- — Well 79-12-19
7.6 240 15 36 39 3.2 87 -1.00 Well 79-12-13 13 160 1 35 40 1.8 75 -1.00 Well 80-01-29 — — — — — — — — Well 80-01-29 1
13 160 1 23 39 2.0 75 o O Well 80-01-29 — — — — — — — — Well 80-01-29
8.0 180 1 25 45 2.9 75 -1.00 Well 81-04-07 6.1 120 0 35 27 0.8 70 -1.00 Well 79-12-27 — — — — — — — — Well 79-12-77 1
7.8 140 2 35 69 6.4 69 O O Well 80-01-30 — — — — — — — — Well 80-01-30
Spring 79-08-22 APPENDIX 2.— Selected analyse* of water from wells and springs In the Black Rock Desert, In milligram* per liter, except as noted— Continued
Delta Delta Boron Barium Lithium Strontium Zinc deuterium oxygen Plotting (ug/L) (ug/L) (ug/D (ug/L) (ug/L) (per mil) (per mil) symbol
_ 110 16 560 99 -122 -15.5 R — 20 17 90 13 -120 -15.4 R 90 — 10 — -110 -15.0 R — — — — — -107a -1 4 .3a R — — — — — -127 -16.7 R
1100 — 50 — __ -115 -14.9 R — — — — — -H 4 a -14.6a R — — — — — -118 -15.1 R — 20 1000 58 6 -128 -16.0 S 900 — 150 — — - 116a -15.3° S
— 10 160 12 <3 -131 -16.6 S — 7 160 14 <3 -125a -1 6 .6a S — 7 170 24 6 -127a -16.4a S — 3 190 20 <3 -126 -16.6 S — — — — -124a -1 6 .5a S
— 6 170 22 6 -131 -16.7 S — 10 170 K <3 -131 -16.4 S — 10 190 21 <3 -131 -16.6 s 190 — 30 — — -1 IQ** -16.0a r 80 — 10 — — -114a -1 5 .5a s
3400 — 30 — — -121 -15.6 M — — — — — - 118a -15.0a M 1200 — 7 — — -122 -15.8 M — — — — — -1 18a -1 5 .8a M 640 — 30 — — -123 -15.8 M
__ — — — __ -1 16a -1 5 .7a H 610 — 20 — — -123 -15.8 M — — — — — -114a -15.8“ M 640 — 10 — — -123 -16.0 M — — — — — -115a -1 5 .7a M
670 — 20 — — —1 2 1a -1 5 .6a M 500 10 21 53 <3 -121 -15.9 M — — — — — -119a -1 5 .5a M 470 8 17 53 <3 -122 -16.0 M — — — — — -115a -15.7a M
— 120 73 210 21 -124 -15.6 M — 5 15 64 <3 -123 -16.0 M — — — — — -117a -16.4a M 990 — 20 — — -126 -16.6 M — — — — — -124a -16.0a M
— — — — — -112 -16.6 M
a Stable Isotope analysis by University of Arizona 134
Footnote to Appendices 1 and 2
1 The plotting symbols correspond primarily to geographic areas.
They are:
B - Wells and thermal springs south of Double Hot Springs along
the western base of the Black Rock Range
D - Wells and thermal springs at Double Hot and Hud Springs and
vicinity
G - Thermal springs at Great Boiling Springs and vicinity
H - Wells and thermal springs in the vicinity of Hardin City
L - One sample from an ephemeral lake in the vicinity of Herlach
M - Thermal wells and springs in Mud Meadows and vicinity
0 - Trego Hot Springs and vicinity
P - Wells in the playa sediments
R - Cool springs and well waters plus one sample of spring runoff
S - Thermal springs in Soldier Meadows
U - Wells and springs in Hualapai Flat and vicinity 135
APPENDIX 3.— Geothermometer temperatures for water with measured source temperatures greater than 25°C. The estimates were calculated by the program SOLMNEQ (Kharaka and Barnes, 1973) except for K/Mg, Mg/Li, and Na/Li. All tempera tures are in degrees Celsius.
Na-K-Ca Quartz Chloride concentration Mg" Na/Li3 Site name (mg/L) Conductive Adiabatic Na/K B“l/3 corrected K/Mg1 Mg/Li2
- PLOTTING SYMBOL B
97 101 TH SP #1 SULPHUR 2NW QD 1700 137 133 26 117 102 — 101 35 TH SP#1 SOLD CR 4SE QUAD 570 105 105 134 170 97 — 88 90 60 BLACK ROCK SPRING 180 117 115 77 141 207 188 190 52 WELL BRD51A 4000 81 84 166 181 128 99 74 10 TH SP #4 ORA SOLD CR 4SE 210 143 137 112 153 103 90 67 13 TH SP #3 ORG SOLD CR 4SE 160 105 106 115 153 144 108 87 67 10 TH SP #3 ORA SOLD CR SE 120 125 122 99 144 105 74 TH SP#2 ORE SOLD CR 4SE 84 152 145 100 148 FLUTTiNO binBUL u
143 138 134 80 — WELL BRD57A 140 45 53 71 64 126 130 106 79 DOUBLE HOTSPRINGS 59 140 135 122 130 95 76 — DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS 53 167 158 57 117 111 109 — DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS 80 140 135 57 56 115 109 WELL DHS2 110 152 145 no 59 120 121 104 — — WELL DHS3 120 144 138 140 138 119 WELL DHS4 120 129 126 93 127 107 33 DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS, ORIFICE 1 59 137 133 60 125 124 126 107 84 DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS, ORIFICE 2 59 137 133 60 132 97 70 DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS, ORIFICE 3 58 143 137 58 123 131 93 75 — DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS, ORIFICE 4 59 143 137 60 125 123 96 77 56 DOUBLE HOT SPRINGS, ORIFICE 5 61 137 133 59 103 ' 56 134 131 130 65 DHS #4 270 102 103 34 118 128 101 49 DHS »4 220 103 91 45 116 0 — DHS #5 48 88 8 40 121 99 84 57 DHS *6 150 —
158 175 205 201 177 149 28 GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 3 2200 167 146 190 185 161 BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 9 2100 172 162 GREAT 202 194 164 SPRING, ORIFICE 18 2230 175 164 167 GREAT BOILING 204 183 2100 171 161 182 208 GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 19 162 2400 173 162 147 193 187 — GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 22 149 25 169 159 159 197 192 174 GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 23 2200 165 201 196 168 — — SPRING, ORIFICE 24 2080 170 160 GREAT BOILING 207 200 170 27 2180 171 161 176 GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 192 162 2180 170 160 167 202 GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 28 166 2340 177 166 176 205 199 GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 37 164 170 160 151 196 189 GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 43 2230 170 160 184 205 200 166 GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 46 2350 166 200 196 175 153 30 SPRING, ORIFICE 46 183 171 GREAT BOILING 141 187 183 162 142 23 48 2300 165 156 GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 197 167 2130 173 162 169 203 GREAT BOILING SPRING, ORIFICE 55 188 170 2200 165 156 150 192 GREAT BOILING SPRING 192 162 2150 174 164 164 199 DITCH 162 170 160 170 203 193 MUD SPRINGS, ORIFICE 1 2100 30 165 166 199 191 159 136 ORIFICE 1 2200 176 MUD SPRINGS, 160 168 202 194 164 ORIFICE 2 2075 170 MUD SPRINGS, 149 141 186 178 151 132 25 ORIFICE 2 2200 157 MUD SPRINGS, 158 181 208 200 167 ORIFICE 9 ?1 30 167 MUD SPRINGS, 160 162 203 194 164 ORIFICE 13 2400 170 MUD SPRINGS, 174 163 177 205 200 180 HORSE 1915 136
APPENDIX 3.— Geothermometer temperatures for water with measured source temperatures greater than 25*C. The estimates were calculated by the program SOLMNEQ (Kharaka and Barnes, 1973) except for K/Mg, Mg/Li, and Na/Li. All tempera tures are In degrees Celsius— Continued
Na-K-Ca Quartz Chloride concentration Hg- Site name (mg/L) Conduct!' Adiabatic Na/K 8-1/3 corrected K/Mg1 Mg/Li2 Na/Li3
— PLOTTING SYMBOL H
TH SP HARDIN CITY SE QD 76 114 113 53 129 129 118 74 TH SP #1 OR B SOL CR 4NE 57 131 127 78 141 130 97 63
PLOTTING SYMBOL M
111 38 — WW3922T2 51 127 124 142 173 156 85 — — UNNAMED WELL 28 124 122 228 192 79 129 98 23 — PW290 35 120 118 248 201 128 98 19 — PW1636 23 119 117 252 203 79 16 — WELL AT WAGNER SPRINCS 35 110 109 193 171 107
------PLOTTING SYMBOL 0
124 127 116 TREGO HOT SPRINGS 280 128 125 51 120 130 129 TREGO HOT SPRINGS ORIFICE A 550 127 124 54 126 114 117 TREGO HOT SPRINGS 520 128 125 51 119 164 143 MCCLELLAN RANCH WELL 290 129 126 141 169 134 136 98 MCCLELLAN RANCH WELL 278 134 130 78
PLOTTING SYMBOL R
76 55 GRANITE CREEK 21 60 65 277 176 PLOTTING SYMBOL S.---
90 113 65 107 52 TH SP #5 MUD MDW QD SW29 21 114 113 23 102 119 72 109 57 TH SP710 ORB MUD MDWSE25 17 111 111 41 101 120 69 105 56 THERMAL SP NO. 2 MUDMEADO 17 111 110 40 40 100 118 69 108 59 TH SPR *3 MUD MDW QUAD 12 114 113 16 85 67 40 81 62 TH SPR 71 MUD MDW QUAD 26 111 no 93 71 43 — — SOLDIER MEADOW SPRING 1 18 113 112 29 34 97 117 70 112 58 SOLDIER MEADOW SPRING 2 18 113 112 94 105 72 118 61 TH SPR >6 OR A MUD MDW Q 14 113 112 33 35 98 107 98 155 59 TH SPR >9 MUD MEADOW QUA 18 112 111 18 87 114 55 104 63 TH SP 14 SOLD MDW QD NW18 18 111 110 208 78 79 21 12 TH SP »1 ORA SLDR MDW QD 13 114 113 319 384 218 73 75 2 —6 TH SP #3 SLDR MDW QD SW5 12 113 112 PLOTTING SYMBOL, u — —
98 147 81 85 83 35 FLY RANCH WARDS HOT SPRINGS 275 128 125 124 115 153 105 91 84 35 WELL NEAR GERLACH 240 126 127 106 150 145 136 — — HUALAPAI FLAT SPRING 1 250 130 127 106 152 146 136 — — HUALAPAI FLAT SPRING 3 240 131 128 105 152 147 136 — — WESTERN SPRING 275 131 128 101 150 145 136 — — HUALAPAI FLAT SPRING 16 250 131 106 152 146 137 — 18 245 130 127 HUALAPAI FLAT SPRINC 147 143 134 — — 41 260 131 128 90 HUALAPAI FLAT SPRINC 124 87 144 140 131 — — HUALAPAI FLAT SPRING 30 250 126 126 86 141 136 129 — — HUALAPAI FLAT SPRING 63 255 129 124 102 152 147 136 — — HUALAPAI FLAT SPRING 82 245 126
1 Giggenback ana others, 1983 2 Kharaka and others, 1985. 3 Fouillac and Mlchard, 1981. WIV9 h h h u m
137 APPENDIX 4.— Data for wells In the western Black Rock Desert
/ Nonlnal Altitude Height of Depth of casing. Inside of of land measuring point screen or cap diameter Type of Other pfcst Location Latitude Longitude surface above land surface at bottoal of casing^ comple data well nuaber north west (meters) (meters) (feet) (meters) (feet) an In tion^ available1
CRA 33/26-32BB 40 62 18 119 17 24 1190 -0.09 -0.29 102* 335* 32 1.25 Sh T.TC.W CRB5 33/26-21CA 40 43 36 119 15 54 1190 -0.12 -0.40 90* 295* 32 1.25 Sh T.TC CRC 33/24-15AA 40 45 00 119 14 30 1190 95* 312* 32 1.25 Sh T,TC CRD5 33/24-1CB 40 46 18 119 13 00 1190 *-0.11 •-0.35 125* 410* 32 1.25 Sh T.TC CRE 34/25-31BB 40 47 36 119 11 36 1190 95* 312* 32 1.25 Sh T.TC
GRP 34/25—20DB 40 49 00 119 10 06 1190 128* 420* 32 1.25 Sh T,TC GRG 34/25-16AA 40 50 12 119 08 36 1190 102* 335* 32 1.25 Sh T.TC CRH 34/25-27CCC 40 48 00 119 07 36 1190 --0.23 --0.75 102* 335* 32 1.25 Sh T.TC.W CRI5 33/25-7CD 40 46 06 119 10 42 1191 -0.10 -0.33 102* 335* 32 1.25 Sh T.TC.W GRJ 34 / 24-34 BD 40 46 18 119 15 06 1190 93* 305* 32 1.25 Sh T.TC
CRK 34/25-18BC 40 49 42 119 12 00 1190 96* 315* 32 1.25 Sh T.TC CRL5 34/26-8CB 40 50 42 119 03 00 119 L --O.10 — 0.33 98* 322* 32 1.25 Sh T.TC DHS1 36/26-4 BAB 41 03 13 119 01 34 1210 -.52 1.70 16.9- 49- 51 2.0 SI L 16.2 53 DUS2 36/26-4 BAB 41 03 15 119 01 34 1210 0.75 2.46 102 4.0 SI DHS3 36/26-4 BAB 41 03 16 119 01 35 1210 -0.L5 -0.50 126.2- 414- 102 4.0 Sc L 127.4 418
DHS6 36/26-4 BAB 41 03 15 119 01 36 1210 .50 1.63 213.1- 699- 102 4.0 Sc L.W 214.3 703 DHS5 36/26-4BBA 41 03 15 119 01 36 1210 *-0.50 --0.17 153.9- 505- 102 4.0 Sc L.W 155.1 509 DHS6 36/26-4BBA 41 03 15 119 01 38 1210 232.6- 763- 102 4.0 Sc L 233.8 767 BR01A 38/25-12CAB 41 12 19 119 04 58 1250 0.80 2.63 68.9- 226- 51 2.0 Sc T.L.TC.W 70. 1 230 BR01 B 38/25-12CAB 41 12 19 119 04 58 1250 28.7- 94- 51 2.0 Sc L 29.9 98
BR02 37/26-2 3 BBB 41 05 50 118 59 29 1231 T.TC BR03 37/26-23BBU 41 05 52 118 59 30 1230 T BR04 37/26-28DBA 41 04 31 119 01 05 1209 0.51 1.67 89.6- 294- 51 2.0 Sc T.L.TC.W 90.8 298 BR05 36/26-4 BA 41 03 06 119 01 24 1216 T.TC BR06 36/25-23CDA 40 59 34 119 05 58 1190 87.2- 286- 51 2.0 Sc T.L.W 88.4 290
BR07 36/26—18BAC 41 01 18 1 19 03 48 1 191 95.7- 314- 51 2.0 Sc T.L.F.W 96.9 318 BR08 35/26-5BBA 40 56 09 119 05 54 1190 96.3- 316- 51 2.0 Sc T.L.F.W 97.5 320 BR09 35/25-13BBB 40 54 23 119 08 15 l 190 41.5- 136- 51 2.0 Sc T.L.F.W 42.7 140 BRIO5 35/26-30AAA 40 52 39 119 06 11 1190 96.3- 316- 51 2.0 Sc t .l .f .w 97.5 320 BR1 1 35/25-27BDD 40 52 21 119 10 08 1190 96.3- 316- 51 2.0 Sc T.L.F.W 97.5 320
BR1 2 37/26-30B 41 07 54 119 00 00 1228 0.88 2.90 45.1 148 . 38 1.5 Sc T.W BRI3 36/25-32CAD 40 57 53 119 09 30 1204 5.8- 19- 51 2.0 Sc L.W 7.0 23 138 APPENDIX 4. Data for wells In the western Black Rock Desert--ContInued
Non!na L Name / Altltude Height of Depth of casing, Inside of of land measuring point screen or cap diameter Type of Ot her test Location Latltude Longitude surface above land surface at hitlora* of casing^ comp Le data *ell number north west (meters) (meters) (feet) (meters) (feet ) mm In tt on^ aval labLe4
BR14 33/25-9DCD 40 44 04 119 10 5b • i 212 6.1- 20- 51 2.0 Sc L 7.3 24 BK15A 32/24-5AB 40 40 25 119 16 23 1218 43.0- 141- 51 2.0 Sc L 44.2 145 BKI 5B 32/24-5AB 40 40 25 119 16 23 1218 25.3- 83- 51 2.0 Sc L 26.5 87 BRD5IA 36/26-2 2CBD 40 59 42 119 00 32 1202 0.37 1.22 85.0- 279- 102 4.0 Sc L.W 86.3 28 3 BRU51» 36/26-22CBO 40 59 42 119 00 33 1202 -0.62 -2.0 84.1- 276- 51 2.0 Sc T , L, W 85.3 280
BRDS2A 36/26-27HCA 40 59 08 119 00 32 1200 0. 72 2.35 89.9- 295- 102 4.0 Sc L 91.1 299 BRD52B 36/26-27BCA 40 59 08 119 00 33 1200 0.36 1.17 90.2- 296- 51 2.0 Sc T , L 91.4 300 BRD53A 37/26-27 BA 41 04 58 119 UO 20 1233 0.38 1.25 90.2- 296- 102 4.0 Sc L.W 91.4 300 BK053B 37/26-27BA 41 04 59 119 00 20 1233 -0.12 -0.4 59.7- 196- 51 2.0 Sc T , L , W 61.0 200 BRD53C 37/26-27HA 41 04 57 119 00 20 1234 9.8- 32- 102 4.0 SI L 10. 1 33
BRD57A 36/26-9ABD 41 02 14 119 01 08 121 1 0.47 1.53 78.3- 257- 102 4.0 Sc L.W 79.6 261 BRD57B 36/26-9ABD 41 02 14 119 01 09 121 1 78.3- 257- 51 2.0 Sc L.W 79.6 261 PUI 37/25-3CCD 41 07 38 119 07 29 1215 -0.12 -0.4 (-34.47) (.113.1) 95 3.75 F PU2 37/25-3CCO 41 07 37 119 07 30 1215 -0.03 -U. 1 (.21.52) (.70.6) 95 3.75 F PU) 17/26 - It) B BA 41 07 36 119 07 28 1215 -0.05 -0.15 (36.14) (118.57) 95 3.75 F
PU4 37/26-IOHBA 41 0 7 34 119 07 27 1215 -0.09 -0.30 (43.38) (142.33) 95 3.75 F PW290 37/26-11 BOB 41 07 15 119 06 Ub 1214 O.U 0.0 (26.9) (80.2) 152 6.0 L.F PWl 636 37/25-9DHA 41 07 05 119 08 02 1232 »0.15 -0.5 308.5 1012 357 14 0 L.W 2 54 10 203 8
PW1636 37/25-11 BOH 41 07 16 119 Ob 05 1214 0.0 0.0 81.7 2b8 254 10.0 0 L.F (88.9) (291.8) PW2896 7 37/25-lOCBC 41 07 03 119 07 34 12 20 O.U 0.0 82.9 27 2 102 4.0 0 L.W (140.4) (490)
1 Value In parenthesl s Is the sound ' Well cased with more than one casing diameter where Indicated. ^ Sc * screen, SI • slotted, Sh - shot, P " perforated, 0 • open casing. 4 T - temperature, G - gamma, L - lithologic log, V - water Level, TC - thermal conductivity, F - flow rate. ^ There Is also a shallow well of approximately 6.1 tn (20 tt) depth and screened at this well site. These are designated t-RB , GRD , etc. 6 Correlation with available drilling Logs somewhat uncertain. Log No. 289 in tin- office of Che State Engineer may not he correct for this well. 139 APPENDIX 5. Selected plezoraetrlc head and flow measurements for wells In the western Black Rock Desert Name Static of Altitude of wate r Open test land surface level Static pressure f lows Date of well (meters) (meters) (ft H20) (m H20) dps) neasuremenl CRA 1, 190 2.02 10-07-80 GRB 1, 190 * * 10-07-80 GRB ' 1,190 2.79 10-07-80 CRD 1, 190 * A 10-07-80 CRD ' 1,190 1.27 10-07-80 CRH 1,190 *0.25 10-07-80 GRI 1,191 0.13 10-07-80 GRI ' 1,191 1.47 10-07-80 GRL 1,191 * * 10-07-80 GRL' 1, 191 2. 10 10-07-80 BR01A 1,250 31.73 12-11-80 BR04 1,209 3.97 11-05-80 BR06 1,190 8.4 2. 56 12-13-79 12-12-79/ BR07 1,191 31.5 9.60 0.002 7-28-80 12-18-79/ BR08 1,190 3.08 0.94 0.006 BR09 1,190 4.30 1.31 0.006 8 -07-80 BRIO 1, 190 10.2 3.11 12-17-79 BRIO’ 1,190 0.96 10-09-80 11-28-79/ B R 1 1 1,190 14.6 4.45 0.022 8—0 7 — 80 B R 12 1,228 1.09 11-05-80 B R 1 3 5.1 12-20-79 DH S 4 1,210 3.5 1.07 6 -16-80 DHS5 1,210 9.4 2.87 6-17-80 B R D 5 1 A 1,202 0.73 1-19-81 B RD51A 1,202 0.61 4-28-81 B RD51A 1,202 0. 77 6-16-81 BRD51B 1,202 * 4-28-81 B RD52A 1,200 7.81 i 4-21-81 B RD52B 1,200 30.98 6-30-81 B R D 5 3 A 1,233 5.83 11-05-80 BRD53B 1,233 *27.74 5-06-81 BRD53B 1,233 *27.57 7-01-81 B R D 5 7 A 1,211 -0.45 11-04-80 B R D57B 1,211 *9. 5 *2.90 4-30-81 PW1 1,215 *0.28 4-07-81 PW2 1,215 *0.06 4-07-81 PW3 1,215 *0.85 4-29-81 PVJ4 1,215 3.40 4-29-81 PV289 1,220 6.68 11-12-80 PW290 5.1 12-20-79 PW1635 1,232 *17.72 4-08-81 PW1636 1,214 *28 12-20-79 * Well flowing but no pressure measurements taken