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The British battalion of the international brigades and the Spanish civil war, 1936–39

Dr Matthew Hughes

To cite this article: Dr Matthew Hughes (1998) The British battalion of the international brigades and the Spanish civil war, 1936–39, The RUSI Journal, 143:2, 59-74, DOI: 10.1080/03071849808446252 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/03071849808446252

Published online: 20 Mar 2008.

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Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rusi20 MILITARY HISTORY THE BRITISH BATTALION OF THE INTERNATIONAL BRIGADES AND THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR, 1936-39

DR MATTHEW HUGHES

en Loach's 1995 film Land and Freedom broke new ground in bringing In 1995 the film Land and Free- the Spanish Civil War on to the screen. It also gives a very particular dom brought the Spanish Civil view of the conflict in Spain from 1936-39. The film follows closely War to life on screen while offer- ing a view of the war as being a George Orwell's experiences in Spain in the Republican militia of the KPartido Obrero de Unification Marxista (POUM—United Marxist Workers' popular revolution crushed by 1 unfettered Stalinism in the form Party) as outlined in his Homage to Catalonia (1938). At the film's end there is a of a regular Republican army. memorable scene where well-disciplined, smartly-uniformed Communist troops However, Dr Hughes here argues brutally disarm the populist militia force. The militia members plead with the that the lack of unity and disci- faceless New Model Army of the Spanish Republic but to no avail. Loach offers pline within the Republican the vision of a popular revolution crushed by unfettered Stalinism in the form of camp was just as much to blame a regular Republican army. The 'regular' forces only appear on the screen to for Franco's victory as the bully hapless militia members. Loach prefers to focus on the personal experi- strength of Franco's forces. In ences of an English working-class man, David Can, in the POUM militia on the 'fact, Franco took advantage of quiet, peripheral Aragon front. Reviews of Loach's film, both by historians and the lack of organisation in the ex-Brigaders, make this point, although with different degrees of vigour.2 Paul Republican. ranks and experi- Preston encapsulated the feelings of many Republican veterans who felt 'dimin- enced little difficulty in outflank- ished by the political and personal self-indulgence on the Aragon front of the ing the militia units defending attractive boys and girls of the POUM1.3 the road to Madrid. Dr Hughes challenges the view that badly- Reality behind the vision and the British Army, admitted that disciplined, poorly-equipped, ill- his unit would have done better con- led popular militias stood any The reality was that groups like sidering what he learnt during the chance against Franco's Moroc- the POUM obstructed Republican Second World War.5 William can regulars and Spanish For- victory. General Franco stifled Alexander, one of the commanders eign Legion. The British Nationalist opposition in his zone of the British battalion, wrote in Battalion and the other foreign from groups such as the Carlists and 1937 to his sister how in Catalonia, supporters for the Republican the Falange to present a solid front. where anarchism was strongest: cause performed prodigious feats By contrast, the Republic failed to 'When the anarchists start doing of bravery in these trying con- use its considerable resources to full things—and by that I mean fight- ditions, and the International effect. POUM-type units were part of ing—they will . . . realise the need Brigades as a whole were a great the problem. The time that the for unity of command, discipline and help to the Republic. But this was Republic took to establish itself effort.'6 The worry of being in the not enough since the Republic allowed Franco the breathing space line next to an Anarchist unit was was disjointed and unable to pull to organise his forces. Franco's mar- remarked on by one veteran of the together at the critical moments tial background, coupled with the war: 'Nobody in Madrid felt easy failure to capture Madrid in 1936, with an anarchist formation on his made him realise the significance of flank.'7 Technical branches of the regular forces in what would be a Republican forces such as the navy drawn-out war of attrition. James were particularly badly served by Albrighton, a 19 year old British vol- radicalism. Sailors' Soviets kept run- unteer in the Muerte es Maestro Cen- down ships languishing in port and a turia, summed up the difference superior Republican navy con- between the two sides when he noted tributed little to the war effort.8 in his diary how Anarchist militia- Many in the Republican zone, men told to carry out an order including the middle classes and 'refused and instead of being sent to army officers accustomed to disci- the guard house (now I come to pline, looked to the Communists to think of it, we have no guard room) present a tough, united exterior. LEO . . . held a discussion, and in the end Charlton, a former British air attache Dr Matthew Hughes is a lecturer in voted to see if they should obey the in America, summarised the prob- 4 modern history at Nene College, cabo [corporal]'. One Catalan Anar- lems inherent in the untrained mili- Northampton. chist militiaman, who subsequently tia system in a report which looked at served in the French Foreign Legion the situation in 1936: 'The Militia © RUSI Journal April 1998 59 1 MILITARY HISTORY which attempted to stem the rebel ill-led popular militias stood any total for the whole war is broadly onrush in the plains of Toledo, and chance of success against Franco's accurate.14 Nationalist claims of in Estremadura, was not a disciplined Moroccan regulars and Spanish For- 125 000 'red hooligans' with the army. Lacking officers, and without eign Legion (or Tercio) troops.12 If Republic should be ignored.1^ No training, they comported themselves the Republic were to defeat the more than 20000 volunteers served with heroism, it is true, but a spirit of Nationalist rebels, did they need the in the International Brigade at any individualism permeated their ranks discipline of a modern army? Leon one time.16 That the Republican which does not count for very much Trotsky's organisation of the Red forces by April 1937 exceeded in a modern army.'9 Tom Wintring- Army in the Russian Civil War, 350000 in total puts the Interna- ham, one of the British Battalion 1918-22, with Tsarist officers re- tional Brigades' contribution in pro- commanders, in his account of the employed and old-style discipline portion: a maximum of eight brigades war, English Captain, again pointed to in the Republican Army were pri- fundamental inadequacies in the marily international.17 By September militia where they failed to zigzag After over two 1938 there were only 12 000 volun- their trenches to prevent fire being years' fighting in teers left in Spain and the Brigades directed down the length of the had been leavened with Spanish trench.10 As a result of this lack of Spain the conscripts. In total, 10 000 Brigaders basic field craft Nationalist planes died in Spain.18 easily routed militia columns by straf- International . The Brigades were used as defen- ing these simple trenches from the sive and offensive 'shock' troops at air. Franco's 'Army of Africa' had lit- Brigades were critical moments in the fighting; tle difficulty outflanking and routing withdrawn in Until the Republic organised and the militia units defending the road trained regular mixed brigades (with to Madrid. This was the context of November 1938 in four infantry battalions), the Inter- the emotionally charged scene of national Brigades were among their uniformed, conscript soldiers disarm- a Mast desperate best troops. POUM-type units were ing the idealistic POUM volunteers garrisoned on inactive sectors of the in Loach's film. effort' by the front while the International The Soviet Union had her set of Brigades acted as the Republic's priorities in Spain and the evolution Republic to gain mobile reserve, moving between of a conventional Republican army emergencies. After over two yean' was used by the Soviets as a means to international fighting in Spain the International usurp power. The Republic was faced goodwill and force Brigades were withdrawn in Novem- with something of a Hobson's choice: ber 1938 in a 'last desperate effort' by either leave the militia system intact Franco to expel his the Republic to gain international and lose the war, or build a Soviet- goodwill and force Franco to expel trained army that might win the Italian and German his Italian and German forces.19 In war but could be used for control this the Republic failed, the non- afterwards. Burnett Bolloten's argu- forces. sense of non-intervention meant ment that by May 1937 the Soviet- that in 1939 Franco emerged tri- dominated Communists controlled umphant and Franco's German ally Republican Spain is convincing.11 re-imposed provides a historical par- took its lessons from the Spanish Franco always claimed he was fight- allel. The irony is that the POUM cockpit into the Second World War. ing international communism; was portrayed by its opponents as a It is not apparent what Benito Mus- assuming Bolloten's detailed argu- Trotskyist front organisation. solini learnt from the poor showing ment to be correct, Franco was fight- The International Brigades pro- of his army fighting for Franco as it ing a democracy in July 1936, but by vide an exemplar of the change that collapsed at battles like Guadalajara late 1937 he was indeed confronted occurred in the Republic from 1936 in March 1937.20 Perhaps Mussolini, by the Comintern. For this reason, as it attempted to form a convention- like the Austro-Hungarian Field when it was first published in 1961, al army. Foreign volunteers eager to Marshal of the First World War Con- the undemocratic and censorious fight fascism arrived in Spain soon rad von Hotzendorf, deserved a bet- Francoist regime, not usually known after the military uprising in July ter army: one capable of defeating for its promotion of foreign books, 1936. By October 1936 there were opponents more substantial than seized upon and advanced Bolloten's sufficient numbers in the Republican Abyssinian tribesmen. He never got work. zone to form International Brigades, it. Then again, perhaps his army whose battalions, or 'legions of deserved a better leader. They never babel', were based loosely around got one. The International Brigades 13 as 'shock troops' common language. By late 1936 there was a British company, by Janu- The British battalion This article is not primarily con- ary 1937 there were sufficient Eng- cerned with the political machina- lish-speaking soldiers to form a Britain sent some 2500 volun- tions of the Spanish Civil War. British battalion. Figures for the teers to Spain,- most of whom fought Rather, it seeks to challenge the view ' International Brigades vary accord- in the British battalion, 1200 were portrayed in Land and Freedom that ing to the author's political stand- wounded and 526 were killed: 'an badly-disciplined, poorly-equipped, point, but 35-40000 Brigaders as a extraordinarily high proportion', and 60 MILITARY HISTORY 2Z2 one reflecting the intensity of the their captors that they had been oth- 'Dublin Castle Murder Gang', in the battles in which the British were erwise unemployed in Italy and 'had assassination of the Mayor and ex- involved.21 The British fought as a no idea where they were going until Mayor of Limerick.28 Common cause unit in four key actions of the war: they arrived in Spain.'23 One British was to unite an otherwise disparate the battles of Jarama (February party member explained his decision group of individuals. 1937), Brunete (July 1937), Teruel to go to Spain with the lines: 'My The battle of Jarama in February (January-February 1938) and Ebro short period of University life was 1937 was the British battalion's (July-August 1938). This article will useful. But in a world of wars and baptism of fire. The Nationalists examine the development of the revolutions new tasks are on the attacked south of Madrid to cut the International Brigades with particu- agenda: Let us see that they are car- Madrid-Valencia highway and encir- lar emphasis on the British battalion ried out.'21* This idealism was not cle the capital. The British, as part of in the overall context of a changing the 15th International Brigade, were Republican Army. Stress will be sent, along with regular Republican placed on the evolution of a 'conven- ... the idea that units, to hold the line. Peter Kemp, tional' army as a necessary means of unemployed men one of the few from Britain who defeating the Nationalists. fought with Franco, was highly British volunteers arriving in from the impressed by the British performance Spain were a mixed group of Com- at Jarama.29 The British battalion munists and non-Communists. The Embankment in fought 'very well indeed' and writing Communist Party organised the jour- from the opposing side Kemp remem- ney to Spain for party members; London were bered how bitter the Nationalists others made their own way to were of the International Brigades for the border, including Winston press-ganged into prolonging the war.30 Frank Thomas, Churchill's nephew, Esmond Romil- going to Spain in Franco's Spanish Foreign Legion ly, who described his experiences in and at Jarama, recalled how the Spain in BoadiUa (1937), and the has never been British Brigaders presented his unit author Laurie Lee whose adventures with more 'solid opposition' than he in Spain are colourfully outlined in A proved ... was accustomed to: 'One night in Moment of War (1991). There were particular they made a bayonet undoubtedly some dilettantes and charge against us at dusk ... momen- rogues among those who bought atypical and reflected a genuine feel- tarily the Bandera [battalion] gave their tickets for a 'weekend' in Paris, ing of revulsion at fascism among way'.31 Morale and motivation in the but the idea that unemployed men volunteers for the International International Brigades in these early from the Embankment in London Brigades. battles were vital.. were press-ganged into going to Volunteers from countries such as Spain has never been proved: 'I left a France and Germany had experience The lack of training and good comfortable home to come out of peacetime conscription besides here ... we were not compelled to ideological fervour. Among the equipment fight, but on the contrary, are eager British, however, some had fought in The British battalion had been to get to grips with the fascists. The the First World War, some had hastily put together for Jarama, and best friend I have here is my machine trained in the OTC (Officers' Train- so by the end of 12 February, of an gun, and the more fascists it kills the ing Corps), or had served in the regu- original complement of 600, only more I love it.'22 C Day Lewis's lar British Forces or Territorials. 225 were left in the line. This haste inscription on the Brigades' London 'Many of our men had experience in was not the only reason for the heavy memorial that 'They went because the last war and others came from casualties suffered by the British bat- their open eyes could see no other countries where they had military talion at Jarama. The losses reflected way', reflected the personal decision training' remembered the British vol- their lack of training and the gener- made by Brigaders. The British Gov- unteer John Johnstone.25 Richard ally inchoate state of the Republican ernment obstructed the passage of Bennett went out to Spain with the Army. Recruits were lucky to have volunteers as part of its disinterested poet John Cornford, and wrote how fired three to five rounds of live policy to the war in Spain. The For- as an ex-OTC member he was the ammunition on the firing ranges eign Office sent invoices to all the 'military expert' of his group as he • before going into battle: 'without men taken prisoner by the National- was a good shot and could 'demon- weapons [,] training at Madrigueras ists during the war for the cost of strate the use of the Mills hand [the British base near Albacete] was their subsequent repatriation; Spe- grenades and the Lewis machine rudimentary; a route march each day cial Branch officers at Newhaven did gun'.26 There were Irishmen such as to harden us. Then cases of guns their best to stop men getting across Frank Ryan, who had fought with the arrived ... we were dismayed at their the Channel. Irish Republican Army (IRA), and age—made in Steyr, Austria, and The British battalion was com- British volunteers such as George date stamped 1886! There was no prised of men who had made the Nathan, who had been a Jewish offi- ammunition so we couldn't practise decision to go to Spain. They were cer in the Brigade of Guards, and firing.'32 The issue of modern Soviet motivated and this was to give them who had been attached to the 'Black rifles to the British before Jarama to considerable elan in battle. By con- and Tans' during the Irish War of replace the dated rifles provided trast, Italians fighting for Franco and Independence.2^ Nathan was said to some compensation, but training was taken prisoner at Guadalajara told have taken part, as a member of the still rudimentary and Soviet supplies 61 EZ3 MILITARY HISTORY erratic.33 The British were not the Republican forces. German Franco represented the Catholic and unique in that 75 per cent of them Brigaders doubted if the Republican ultra-conservative trend in Spain had 'never held a loaded weapon in high command had read any 'text- and so his use of 'Moors' for his recori' their hands before' going in to battle books on warfare published since the quista was incongruous. Both sides at Jarama.34 One recruit who had end of the Crimean War.'41 The Ger- were willing to use what outside served in the British Army got a mans might have been right consid- assistance was available. As with the 'good laugh out of the training', ering the Spanish experience of International Brigades, Franco's adding that most men learnt on the modem war. One Brigade veteran Moroccan troops were badly mauled battlefield.35 In 1988 John Hender- felt that the anachronistic Spanish as they were used up in the first son remembered that he fired ten attitude was because the 'twentieth- months of bitter fighting.' rounds on the practice range and century Spaniard had grown up with Jarama highlighted the basic defi- 'that was the sum total of the military a vision of war which seemed to be ciencies in the forces that remained experience of just about everybody'. loyal to the Republic. Much needed The news came through about the The to be done if the Republic were to go Nationalist breakthrough at Jarama on to the offensive to win the war. and 'then we were in the lorries and correspondence of For instance, support on the flanks, up in the line.'36 A Spanish recruit crucial to prevent infiltration, disap- who posed a question about bomb the British peared as units left the field on their trajectories during a training lecture own initiative. Soldiers were left to given by Fred Copeman, the British Brigaders conveys fight individual unsupported actions. battalion commander (and ex-sea- This had been a difficulty on the man dismissed the Royal Navy for how the volunteers Cordoba front in 1936 when units involvement in the Invergordon felt that they were that had successfully advanced then mutiny in 1931), was told in reply: 'I withdrew as they were left exposed don't know mate, I'm a sailor on a mission to halt by the inaction of the neighbouring myself.'37 Copeman, who had also formations.45 The fierce resistance of been a boxing champion, settled dis- the evils of the British at Jarama fortunately 'pre- agreements over discipline at Jarama vented the enemy discovering that in unorthodox fashion, 'by hitting fascism. the front was completely open on the out at his opponent.'38 Training did left, without Republican troops at undoubtedly improve, but as late as all.'46 As Alexander noted in his 1938 a British recruit was still com- derived from the Medieval epic of chapter on Jarama: plaining that 'he wasn't a trained sol- the Cid and the contemporary bull- 'The [British] Battalion was sur- dier' and that he learnt soldiering 'by fight; war was a sort of corrida which 39 rounded on three sides, open to actually doing it in action.' separated the machos from the cow- 42 heavy fire from rifles, machine-guns ards.' In 1898 Spain had been From the above it is hardly sur- and artillery, and to infiltration. rapidly defeated in the Spanish- prising that the British battalion was Then without orders Overton with- American War and consequently lost unsatisfactory when it came to imi- drew his company to the 'Sunken what little remained of her American tating a conventional army. There Road', leaving Fry's No. 2 Machine- and Pacific empire. The Spanish was the recurring problem of soldiers Gun Company without support or then tried to build another empire, not receiving and even ignoring flank protection.'47 orders. This made command and on a smaller scale, in northern control in battle erratic. Jim Brewer, Morocco, only to have the Rifians The confusion of battle was com- in the British anti-tank battery, was rout them in 1921 at the battle of pounded by language and translation present at an incident where they Annul. The war in Morocco high- difficulties. The diverse languages refused to withdraw their Soviet-sup- lighted all that was wrong with the used 'posed a serious problem, espe- plied 37mm anti-tank gun, arguing effete Spanish Army: corruption and cially when orders had to be translat- that they were not in any real danger. inefficiency dogged the army's ed several times during the thick of Malcolm Dunbar, the battery com- attempt to claw back the ground lost the fighting.'48 mander, sent Frank Proctor of the to the Rifians; only French interven- Three factors emerge from the battery headquarters to the recalci- tion in 1925 made possible the defeat battle of Jarama that explain the trant gun armed with a pistol. Proc- of Abd-el-Krim's Rifs and the Nationalists' defeat and throw light tor was forced to threaten the battery creation of a Spanish Morocco.43 on a changing Republican Army: crew: 'If you don't give your word The Moroccan War did, however, firstly, the high morale among the that you will withdraw at once, I am lead to the formation of the Spanish volunteers of the International commanded to shoot you. I was Foreign Legion which Franco com- Brigades; secondly, Nationalist trained in the Royal Artillery and I manded in the 1920s. Conquest in exhaustion and a general overestima- will bloody well carry out that order.' Morocco also allowed the recruit- tion of Franco's strength; finally, the As Brewer recalled: 'Frank was very ment of poverty-stricken tribesmen evolution of a modern army in the convincing and we gave in'.40 into the Spanish Army as Regulates. Republican zone. These Moroccans, along with the Legion, were Spain's most experi- Lessons from history missed ' enced troops and would form the Experiences from the front nucleus of Franco's force until he The resolve of the British unit At Jarama difficulties also arose 44 because of the disjointed structure of could equip and train a new army. allowed Brigaders to hold on in 62 MILITARY HISTORY trying circumstances. High morale Spain to fight the enemy, 'it was all Nationalist forces' capabilities and plus a modicum of military training political.'56 The volunteer status and strength were inflated. The presence saved the day. The battalion's esprit political motivation of the British of German and Italian troops with de corps was a product of its members' volunteers went a long way to over- the Nationalists rather exaggerates conviction that what they were coming other shortcomings. There is the readiness and efficiency of Fran- doing was right. This sense of having no reason to suppose that the British co's forces. In fact, Franco's conscript a real purpose explains how the battalion was unique: larger contin- army was invariably run-down and Brigaders could resist Franco's gents from countries such as France not much better equipped than its Moroccan veterans. The correspon- and Germany were also in Spain opponents. • German units like the dence of the British Brigaders con- with a purpose. Later in the war the Condor Legion were the exception. veys how the volunteers felt that influx of young Spanish Republican The reality of life in the Nationalist they were on a mission to halt the conscripts 'meant a very noticeable lines is described by George Orwell evils of fascism. William Gilmour, in a section of Homage to Catalonia. out in Spain with the International High morale in the Orwell had been part of an attack Brigade, appears to be an unassuming that had captured a Nationalist volunteer to judge by his photo- International strong point and describing the graph.49 His letters home, however, Nationalist positions Orwell summed belie his pacific appearance and pro- Brigades, plus a up the suffering and reality of the vide a good example of the deter- conflict for both sides: 'It was impos- mined mood of the volunteers: 'We more realistic sible not to be struck by the bare mis- have by now learned to grin and bear ery of the Fascist dug-outs. The litter our disapointments [sic], with the assessment of of spare clothes, books, food, petty assistance of our hatred for Fascism, Nationalist personal belongings that you saw in it is not hard to do.'50 Gilmour's mis- our own dug-outs was completely sives have the tone of propaganda capabilities, goes absent; these poor unpaid conscripts pamphlets: 'I have grown to hate war seemed to own nothing except blan- in all its gruesome ghastliness but some way to kets and a • few soggy hunks of that hatred of war is much super- bread.'61 Attacking in the summer of seded by my hatred of fascism.'51 explaining the 1938 at the Ebro, one British vol- When Gilmour is granted three days' unteer approaching the town of leave in Madrid his ardour does not success of the Gandesa came across abandoned wane: 'It has been a great tonic to my Republican forces Nationalist camps, and his memory anti-fascism and by the time I of the plight of the Nationalist troops returned to the trenches my hatred during the war. supports Orwell's view: 'I was very for Fascism has grown a hundred forcibly struck by the similarity of the times greater.'52 While it is true that field conditions of the two opposing soldiers on leave in Madrid did go in decline in enthusiasm and morale forces. Franco's soldiers too had been for more prosaic pursuits, Gilmour generally.'57 camping out, obviously for a consid- captures something of the spirit of The British battalion was also erable period, without any proper Spain. fortunate in that within its ranks shelter ... the prisoners we saw were Gilmour was not an isolated exceptional leaders emerged. This probably more uniformly attired than we were, but looked just as ragged example. Another Brigader wrote leadership was to prove vital. Cope- 62 home: 'Well? I ask you! Can we let all man, the ex-sailor, rallied what and lousy.' Thomas, serving in this go to Franco and his backers in remained of the British battalion at Franco's Foreign Legion, received lit- order that it be used to beat down the Jarama, and Albrighton noted in his tle training and the Tercio was Fran- working classes of all Europe ... The diary that under a 'less able man' the co's best unit. Thomas joined the 6th Bandera after 'undergoing rapid and Spanish people say NO! Only over Moroccans would have broken 63 their dead bodies'.53 The political through their lines. Copeman made rudimentary training.' In Eoin element to life in the lines was pro- his men hold their fire until the last O'Duffy's Irish volunteer unit with nounced: 'The atmosphere was very moment and the 'result was devastat- Franco, rifles were also of a poor political, even without all the letters ing, the Moors fell by their hundreds quality until, as with the Interna- tional Brigades, decent rifles arrived, and discussions the lads were all and the remainder broke ranks and 64 political.'54 John Peet, who had fled.'58 A disillusioned Brigader who in this case from Germany. Seamus served in the Grenadier Guards supplied an account of his experi- Mackee, also with O'Duffy's before Spain, and who later edited a ences for a pro-Franco pamphlet still Blueshirt unit, was kitted out in a pro-East German journal in the praised Nathan's leadership in shabby uniform when he went to GDR, wrote to his mother about his battle.59 Brewer, of the anti-tank bat- Spain to fight for Franco: 'A more ill- equipped, slovenly gang it would be decision to go to Spain with the tery, was struck by this process of nat- 65 lines: 'I am not returning to Prague, ural selection: Copeman and Nathan hard to imagine.' The food supply but going to Spain, to do what I were 'outstanding . . . These chaps in the Nationalist zone was poor and, think is the right thing. I know you were born leaders', Dunbar was like the International Brigade, rifles and father do not agree with me on 'superb ... by any standards an were outdated and live firing practice this, but I regard the fight in Spain as exceptional soldier', while Sam Wild rare. The experience of Irishmen out vital for the whole future of civilisa- was a 'born commander'.60 in Spain fighting for Franco echoed tion.'55 For Edwin Greening, out in It was also the case that the that of the Brigaders: 'I saw men 63 MILITARY HISTORY trained for five days and given guns. battle of Guadalajara north-east of successes. A relatively primitive mili- They didn't even know which end of the capital. At Guadalajara Italian tary structure and exiguous materiel the rifle was which'.66 troops with the Nationalists spear- in the Republican zone obviated headed an attack that had some ini- against deep pushes into the Nation- Prolonging the war tial success. The offensive, however, alist zone. was blunted and turned back, again High morale in the International the Republic emerged victorious in a Improvement in the Brigades, plus a more realistic assess- defensive engagement. The British ment of Nationalist capabilities, goes battalion did not take part in this Republican troops some way to explaining the success of action, but the improved quality of There were undoubtedly im- the Republican forces during the war. the Republican forces was evident, provements in the Republican forces. Soviet involvement, and the conse- Peet, for example, who had served in quent development of a convention- The problem for the the British Army, commented on the al army, completes the picture. As improved discipline after Brunete: Hugh Thomas noted, this Soviet Republic was that 'The contrast between this army and commitment, even in the early bat- the British Army is astonishing. The tles like Jarama, was crucial: while they officers are real comrades of the men and although discipline ... is not as 'It is easy to dwell on the exploits of developed good as it should be, people who the members of the International have been out here a long time say Brigades in this and other battles something of a that things have improved collosally since their achievements are amply [sic] in that respect.'70 Again, with chronicled, since many men were modern army Soviet advisers war planning was also courageous and since the fact of their enhanced, but the execution of presence was so unusual. But militari- capable of taking battles was still a haphazard business. ly more important at the Jarama were In April 1937, a British Brigader the Russian aircraft and tanks, which the offensive, as it wrote in his diary an extract that held the ground and controlled the would do at summarised the difference between air. Russian direction of the republi- expectation and reality when it came can artillery was also important.'67 Brunete, Teruel and to battle in the Spanish Civil Wan A Swiss volunteer remembered Ebro, their army that Soviet involvement permeated 'This was the theory—i.e. that the through the Republican forces: 'A was unable to momentum of the attack should pass chaque brigade et a chaque division a ete from the left flank right along the adjoint un Russe avec le grade de con- turn local line. It could have been effective if seiller miUtaire . . . 11 y avail en outre carried out. Actually, artillery started des Russes dans routes les armes spe- breakthroughs into on time: planes half hour late: two tiales, Vaviation, les tanks, les armes de attacking battalions on left flank not defense anti-tanks etc.'68 strategic success. even in their own trenches till 8.30- The problem for the Republic 9.00. Tanks late. Did not go over top was that while they developed some- till 9.30 . . . Ammo supplies sent up thing of a modern army capable of and other International Brigade strayed to wrong part of the sector taking the offensive, as it would do at units were involved in defeating the . . . Absolutely no momentum or Brunete, Teruel and Ebro, their army Italians: support now . . . there was none of was unable to turn local break- that scientific accuracy and organisa- 'Officers and men of four brigades, 71 throughs into strategic success. The tion.' three Spanish, one International, war became a guerre d'usure which involved in the capture of Brihuega The improved capabilities and Franco, with his superior supply train [at Guadalajara] had obeyed orders, professionalism of the Republican from the Axis powers, would eventu- operated coherently, and shown pro- side were evident by early 1938 but ally win assuming Britain and France fessional knowledge of tactics down only in comparison to the chaos of remained uncommitted. The attri- to platoon and section level. They 1936. Soldiers were now being tional nature of the Spanish war, were an army and not autonomously taught the basic drills necessary to coupled to the poor state of the minded collections of anarchist, fight a modern war. Nat Abramson, a armies involved, made a rapid and communist or socialist militia.'69 British Brigader, commented on the decisive outcome unlikely. Each side training instilled in the International had sufficient strength to prevent a But when the first real Republi- Brigades on the eve of the Ebro breakthrough, yet each side was not can offensive of the war began at offensive: strong enough to deal the knockout Brunete in July 1937 the attack was blow. As a consequence the war contained by the Nationalists. The 'AVION has just come over. I am dragged on for three years. battle of Brunete ground to a halt, as writing these lines lying very still After Jarama the attritional had the previous Nationalist offen- with my head covered by my ... coat. nature of the Spanish war became sives, and only a small penetration It blends very well with the surround- apparent. In March 1937 Franco was realised. Like the Western Front ings. None of us are allowed to look resumed his attempt to take Madrid during the Great War, both sides in up when they appear, nor must there by encirclement. This resulted in the Spain had trouble exploiting local be any movements; in fact, when

64 MILITARY HISTORY SE2 sitting around or resting we are well Defeated by internal strife Notes spread out and cover as much ground 1. For militia system, see George as to make any bombing not too dan- On a visit to Spain in the 1970s 72 Orwell, 'Notes on the Spanish Militia' in gerous or effective.' after Franco died, a British doctor, Collected Essays, Journalism & Essays, This care taken to disperse and who as a medical student had gone to (Penguin, 1971), vol. 1. conceal troops can be favourably Spain to tend the Republican 2. Hugh Thomas, The Daily Telegraph, compared to the militias' inability to wounded, recalled the fractious 29 September 1995 and Bill Alexander, carry through such measures. Prepar- nature of life behind the lines in the The Morning Star, 7 October 1995. ing to cross the Ebro, John Peet, in 1930s that was still apparent in the 3. Paul Preston, 'Viva la revolutíon', 1970s: 'The one depressing feature of New Statesman and Society, 16 February Spain since 1937, recalled how 1996, p. 21. 'Training tightened up considerably the visit was evidence that the divi- sion among the political left which 4. International Brigade Memorial from the early weeks of July 1938 in Archive (hereafter IBA), Marx Memori- preparation for the difficult opera- was so fatal during the civil war, had al Library London, Box 50/A1/12, tion of crossing the Ebro River.'73 continued. One man excused himself Albrighton papers, diary, 15 October from arranging an introduction 1936. because of political differences (pre- 5. Oral recording, Imperial War Muse- Improvements not enough sumably socialist-communist).'75 um (hereafter IWM), Jaime Mas Horns, The International Brigades were The differences, conspicuous many 10627/5. heavily involved in the battle of the years after the Spanish Civil War, 6. IBA/50/Alexander papers, Alexan- Ebro, and the inherent possibilities had damned the Republic. The der to sister, 19 September 1937. after the initial push into the International Brigades failed because 7. Bernard Knox, 'Remembering their efforts were consumed in an Madrid', New York Review of Books, 6 Nationalist lines were obvious to November 1980, p. 35. British Brigaders: 'we had this vast environment of recrimination. If, 8. IBA/5/4, 'The Naval Side of the stretch of country all to ourselves and however, the Popular Front had been War', W V Emanuel (n.d.). Also in Blod- if we had sufficient transport we united in its aim to assert its mandate gett collection, W857, Queen Mary could have gone on to Saragossa and (with help from the democracies of Westfield College, London (hereafter really caused consternation ... if Europe) the presence of the Interna- QMW). we'd had mobility ... we could have tional Brigades could have been deci- 9. Blodgett collection, QMW, LEO exploited it.'74 A breakthrough was sive. The Republican side spent too Charlton, 'The Military Situation in achieved at the Ebro in July 1938 fol- much time fighting internal enemies. Spain', p. 9. lowing an impressive river crossing The International Brigades improved 10. Tom Wintringham, English Captain, immensely during the war, as did the (London, Faber & Faber, 1939) p. 132. by the Republicans, but there was a 11. Bolloten, The Grand Camouflage: failure of exploitation. Herein lies Popular Army, but the problems for the Communist Conspiracy in the Spanish the problem. By the Ebro offensive, the Republic were more profound. Civil War, (London, Hollis & Carter, the Republic was losing the war of The Republic was disunited and 1961). Revised in 1980 as The Spanish attrition: support from abroad was unable to pull together even when Revolution: The Left and the Struggle for flagging; the International Brigades there was an obvious common Power During the Civil WOT. were filling up with young Spanish enemy. In Spain the development of 12. For an Englishman who fought in conscripts; the Republic's stock of a conventional army was crucial as a Franco's Terrio see Peter Pemp, Mine war equipment was diminishing; the first step to winning the war. It was, Were of Trouble, (London, Cassell, 1957). Republic was losing the psychologi- however, not enough, and a lack of Kemp's oral record held at the IWM (9769/3). cal war. The problems for the Repub- unity was to seal the fate of the Republic. 13. Hence the title of Verle Johnston's, lic could not be solved at this late Legions of Babel: The International Brigades stage by improved training and plan- In this context the idea that the in the Spanish Civil War, (Pennsylvania ning for battle. War weariness had POUM could have had their popular University Press, 1967). set in and in the austere Nationalist revolution with the Nationalist 14. Stanley Payne, The Spanish Revolu- zone Franco had prepared his side for enemy so close must appeal to doctri- tion, (London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, a long struggle. naire ideologues. The advance of 1970), pp. 327-8. The British battalion performed Franco from Spanish Morocco need- 15. M W Jackson, The Army of prodigious feats of bravery and the ed to be countered before radical Strangers: The International Brigades in the social change could be counte- Spanish Civil War, p. 105 in IBA/19/D/27. International Brigades as a whole 16. Raymond Carr, The Spanish were a great help to the Republic. nanced. The battles upon which the Tragedy: The Civil War in Perspective, However, these exertions came to Spanish Civil War were decided were (London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, nothing because the Republic was fought by the International Brigades 1993), p. 144. Hugh Thomas' seminal, disjointed. No amount of improved and the regular Republican Army. At The Spanish Civil War, (London, Penguin, training was going to alter the fact Jarama, Guadalajara, Brunete, Teruel 1986) p. 982 gives 18 000 for total. that Franco had a focused aim and and the Ebro these units battled it 17. Payne, Spanish Revolution, pp. 327- used his army to achieve his objec- out with Franco's Nationalist forces. 31; Ken Bradley & Mike Chappell, Inter- tive. The British stood and fought at While Rome burnt, the militias in national Brigades in Spain, 1936-39, Jarama, and then took the war to the Catalonia, upon which Loach's Land (London, Osprey, 1994), p. 6. and Freedom indulgently focused, 18. Carr, Spanish Tragedy, p. 144. enemy at Brunete, Teruel and Ebro, 19. Jill Edwards, The British Government but the creation of a tough, conven- were deciding the war in their own and the Spanish Civil War 1936-39, (Lon- tional army could not mask the more fashion, by talking, holding meetings don, Macmillan, 1979), pp. 175-80. profound flaws within the Republi- and encouraging the peasants to 20. See Brian R Sullivan, 'The Italian can camp. have a revolution. • Soldier in Combat, June 1940-September 65 MILITARY HISTORY 1943: Myths, Realities and Explanation' teers', History Today, Vol. 45(3), March lion, (London, OUP, 1969). in Paul Eddison & Angus Calder (eds), 1995, pp. 40-47. 44. IWM(14736/1), George Joffé, Time to Kill: The Soldier's Experience of 30. Kemp, IWM, 9769/3. 'Moroccan Participation in the Spanish War in the West, (London, Pimlico, 31. Rob Stradling, Cardiff and the Span' Civil War'. 1997). ish Civil War, (Cardiff, Butetown Arts 45. IBA/50/O'Riordan papers, 'Ireland 21. Quote oral recording IWM, lecture, Centre, 1996), p. 97. and the anti-fascist struggle' n.d., p. 12. Alisdair Hennessy on Spain, 13160/3. 32. Quote IBA/50/Levine papers, 46. Alexander, Volunteers, p. 97. For statistics Colin Williams et al, Memo- 'Cheetham to Cordova', p. 33; Ibid, p. 34 47. Alexander, Volunteers, p. 98. rials of the Spanish Civil War, (Stroud, Sut- & IBA/50/Thompson papers, 'Sojourn in 48. Johnston, Babel, p. 60. ton 1996) p. x (also Thomas, Civil War, Spain' [1985], p. 4 for live firing. 49. Plate, IBA BoxA-2: fileA/38. p. 983). 33. IBA/50/Levine papers, 'Cheetham', 50. IBA/50/Gilmour papers, letter to 22. IBA/50/Gilmour papers, Gilmour p. 40; also Bill Alexander, British Volun- comrade, 5 May 1937. to 'comrade' in Britain, 5 April 1937. teers for Liberty: Spain, 1936-39, (Lon- 51. Ibid. 23. In Blodgett collection, QMW, don, Lawrence & Wisehart 1986), pp. 52. Ibid, 14 May 1937. W734, 'My Impressions of Spain', 76-77. 53. IBA/A-12/Abramson papers, Abram- Duchess of Atholl, April/May 1937. 34. Thomas, Civil War, p. 592. son to Harry and Minnie, 27 March 24- IBA/50/Guest papers, 'Reasons for 35. South Wales Miners' Library, Uni- 1938, p. 2. my decision: A note found among versity of Swansea (hereafter SWML), 54. IBA/A-12/Kerr papers, interview Guest's papers, 1938. AUD/3: O'Donoghue. [1988], p. 2. 25. IBA/50/Johnstone papers, 'What is 36. IBA/A-12/Henderson papers, inter- 55. IBA/A-12/Peet papers, Peet to the International Brigade' n.d., p.2. view, 1988, p. 4. mother, 'somewhere in France' n.d. 26. IBA/50/Bennett papers, letter, Ben- 37. IBA/50/Horne papers, autobiog- 56. SWML, AUD/15: Greening. nett to J Fyrth, 12 December 1985. raphy, p. 43. 57. IBA/A-12/Peet papers, File Pe/3, 27. For Ryan see IBA/28/G/3, 'State- 38. IBA/50/Levine papers, 'Cheetham', Notes on Spain entitled 'Nuts and Bolts ment made re Frank Ryan, International p. 41. of Spanish War'. Brigade by American comrade, prisoner 39. SWML, AUD/1: Greening; also 58. IBA/50/A1/12, Albrighton papers, with Ryan in Spain'; S Cronin, Frank Greening in AUD/15. diary, 20 February 1937. Ryan: The Search for the Republic, (Dublin 40. IBA/A-12/Brewer papers, letter, 59. Blodgett collection, QMW, W958, 1980). Brewer to Alexander, 3 December 1979. 'In Spain with the International 28. See Richard Bennett, New States' 41. IBA/50/Al/Albrighton papers, diary, Brigades. A Personal Narrative', pp. 44- man, 24 March 1961, (also 31 March and 6 November 1936. 45. 7 April). 42. Knox, 'Remembering Madrid', p. 40. 60. SWML, AUD/2: Brewer; also 29. For Irish volunteers with Franco see 43. For Rifs see David Woolman, Rebels AUD/3: O'Donoghue on Copeman. Robert Stradling, 'Franco's Irish Volun- in the Rif: Abd-el-Krim and the Rif Rebel- Continued on page 74

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66 MILITARY HISTORY 42nd, 44th, 50th and 51st Divisions, and 19. Interview with ex-Pte Norman future plans be based on the assumption travelled with them to France to com- Fowler, 15/5/95. that there would be no major war within mand III Corps. 48th Division trained 20. Interviews with ex-Capt. Ron ten years, and that no expeditionary separately, moving to France under com- Jones, 27/1/95; ex-Cpl Colin Hughes, forces would be needed. In the aftermath mand of I Corps. 9/8/94; ex-Ptes Jack Hall and Wilf of a terrible war, with the German Army 14. Army Council meeting, 29 March Troughton & ex-Sgt. John Joyce, 6/9/94; defeated and dismembered, and the 1940. Quoted in Drewienkiewicz, op tit, ex-Pte Bill Buckingham, 12/4/97; Maj Imperial Navy scuppered at Scapa Row, p. 43. Dennis Dodd, 24/8/95. this was not an unreasonable supposition 15. Caddick-Adams, By God They 21. For example, Rustyforce, Polforce, to make. The ten-year rule was later Can Fight!, 143rd Brigade, 1995, pp. 163- Petreforce, Macforce or Frankforce. See extended on a daily basis, from 1928. 177. Chapter 2, by Brian Bond on Lord Gort, That it remained Government policy 16. Drewienkiewicz, op tit, p. 48. in John Keegan (ed), Churchill's Generals, until 1932, long after the war clouds had 17. War Diary of 48th (South Midland) (Weidenfeld StNicholson, 1991). started to gather, implies a lack of realism Division (GS), for December 1939, PRO 22. Bartholomew Report, conclusions, that crept in along the way. Ref. WO 166/578. July 1940, PRO Ref WO 106/1741. 24. Bond, 'The Territorial Army in 18. War Diary of 48th (South Midland) 23. In August 1919, Lloyd George's Peace and War', article in History Today, Division (GS), for March 1940, PRO Cabinet imposed stringent limits on op tit, p. 164. Ref. WO 167/244. defence expenditure, and laid down that

Continued from page 66 66. Blodgett collection, QMW, mother, 29 September 1937. W1223, 'Deserter from Irish battalion [in 71. IBA/D-4/Crook papers, diary, April 61. Orwell, Homage to Catalonia, (Lon- Franco's army] tells of exploits as rebel 1937, p. 53. don, Penguin 1968), p. 92. deserter' n.d. 72. IBA/A-12/Abramson papers, 62. IBA/A-12/Peet papers, File Pe/3, 67. Thomas, Civil War, p. 593. Abramson to Harry and Minnie, 27 'Nuts and Bolts of Spanish War'. 68. IBA/A- I/B/4, 'Revelation, par Ernest March 1938, p. 5. 63. Stradling, Cardiff, p. 95. Zund, Membre d la Brigade intemaaonale 73. IBA/A-12/Peet papers, 'Nuts and 64. See Geraghty, IWM, 14893/3 for "Dimitrof" n.d.' Zund's account is dis- Bolts of Spanish War'. poor rifles. O'Duffy's support for Franco is cussed in 'The International Brigade' by 74. SWML, AUD/2, Brewer. described in his Crusade in Spain, (Lon- 'Wayfarer' c.1939-40, Blodgett collec- 75. A L Cochrane, 'FortyYears Back: A don, 1938). tion, QMW. Retrospective Survey', British Medical 65. Blodgett collection, QMW, 69. George Hills, The Battle for Madrid, Journal, 22-29 December 1979, p. 1663. W1011, Mackee, I Was a Franco Soldier, (London, Vantage, 1976) p. 134. p. 17. 70. IBA/A-12/Peet papers, Peet to

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