Article — Artikel

Diseases of indigenous chickens in village, Kgatleng district,

E Z Mushia*, M G Bintab, R G Chaboa and K Itebenga

trachea, oesophagus, crop, proventri- ABSTRACT culus, gizzard, and small and large intes- This study examined flock size and management, level of internal and external parasite tines. burden and seroprevalence of antibodies to poultry pathogens in indigenous chickens in The contents of each part of the visceral Bokaa village, Kgatleng district, Botswana. The mean flock size was 22.6 ± 6.85 with a range organs were emptied into separate Petri of 11–34. The mean body weights of cocks and hens were 2.28 ± 0.56 kg and 1.70 ± 0.38 kg, dishes and the mucosa washed thor- respectively. Housing and commercial poultry feed were not provided. Ascaridia galli, Heterakis gallinarum and Syngamus trachea were found in some birds. Although the chickens oughly with water and later scraped clean were not vaccinated against any poultry diseases, serum antibodies to Newcastle disease, with the blunt edge of a scalpel blade. The infectious bursal disease and infectious bronchitis were detected. gut and tracheal washings were exam- ined under a microscope for helmiths. Key words: antibodies, Botswana, indigenous chickens, helminths. The visible parasites were collected and Mushi E Z, Binta M G, Chabo R G, Itebeng K Diseases of indigenous chickens in Bokaa preserved in 5 % formalin, and later iden- village, Kgatleng district, Botswana. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association (2006) tified and counted21. 77(3): 131–133 (En.). Botswana College of Agriculture, Private Bag 0027, , Serum samples were tested for antibodies Botswana. to the following poultry pathogens: Mycoplasma gallisepticum, M. synoviae, Newcastle disease (ND), infectious bron- INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS chitis (IB) and infectious bursal disease According to some authors, African The study was undertaken from August (IBD). Commercially available ELISA kits poultry stems from ancient traditional 2003 to February 2004 in Bokaa village in (Flock check; IDEXX, Westbrook, Maine) 6 practices . Indigenous chickens, other- the Kgatleng district, Botswana. Bokaa is were used. The assays were carried out in wise known as traditional or backyard located 20 km north of Gaborone. Four- duplicate serum samples according to the chickens, are local breeds of chickens teen randomly selected households were manufacturer’s instructions. (Gallus gallus domesticus) reared in rural used in the study. A questionnaire was The sample:positive ratios (S/P) were 19 areas of most parts of the world . In these presented to the farmers after they were calculated as follows: areas they are kept mostly for meat, a briefed about its objectives. The question- 6 Sample mean – source of protein . Usually there is very naire sought information about the man- negative control mean S/P = little nutritional supplementation and agement of the chickens, supplementary Positive control mean – no proper housing is provided for the feeding, reasons for rearing chickens, negative control mean chickens. They range freely, scavenging water supply, treatment, vaccinations, 20 The cut-off points for the different for food and water . While in some Afri- flock size, causes of mortalities, supple- pathogens were as follows >0.2 for ND, can countries flock sizes of 20 chickens mentary sources of income, and gender of IB, IBD; >0.5 for M. gallisepticum and M. are not uncommon, in Botswana average the poultry keeper. 2 synoviae. Any sera with an S/P ratio above flock size has not been established . During farm visits, hens and cocks were the cut-off point was considered positive. Although indigenous chickens are counted, weighed and inspected for signs Those below were negative. generally of low body weight, they can be of anaemia and the presence of ectopara- a valuable source of tasty meat and eggs. sites. Chicks were those birds which were Graph Pad Prism statistical software There is scanty information on the health 3–4 months old and accompanied by a was used to generate means and standard status and productivity of indigenous hen. The chickens were gently restrained deviations. chickens. In Botswana, few are vaccinated to expose the brachial vein, the preferred against common poultry diseases3. site for venipuncture in birds. The site RESULTS The main objectives of this study were was cleaned with ‘Savlon’ followed by In total, 317 chickens were found in 14 to determine flock size and management, 70 % ethanol. Blood was collected into households, giving a mean flock size of levels of internal and external parasites sterile vacutainer tubes without anticoag- 22.6 ± 6.85 with a range of 11–34 chickens burdens and seroprevalence of antibod- ulant and the serum thus separated was per household. The mean number of hens ies to poultry pathogens in indigenous stored at –20°C in 1 m aliquots. and cocks was 8.5 ± 2.4 and 3.0 ± 1.41, chickens in Bokaa village, Kgatleng dis- Ten adult indigenous chickens were respectively. There were 137 chicks, 131 trict, Botswana. bought from 10 different households in hens and 49 cocks. The ratio of chicks to Bokaa during the wet summer months, hens was 1:1.05. The mean body weights aBotswana College of Agriculture, Private Bag 0027, January to February 2004.The birds were of cocks and hens were 2.28 ± 0.56 kg and Gaborone, Botswana. starved for a day before post mortem 1.70 ± 0.38 kg, respectively. bNational Veterinary Laboratory, Private Bag 0035, Gaborone, Botswana. examination was performed. The respira- The results of the questionnaire indi- *Author for correspondence. E-mail: [email protected] tory and digestive tracts were systemati- cated that all the farmers rearing poultry Received: June 2005. Accepted: August 2006. cally examined after being separated into in Bokaa village were females. Fifty per

0038-2809 Jl S.Afr.vet.Ass. (2006) 77(3): 131–133 131 cent of the chickens were kept for domes- Table 1: Response of farmers to questions relating to poultry management in Bokaa village, tic consumption and 50 % were for both Botswana. sale and consumption (Table 1). The egg- Parameter Possible response Number Percentage laying pattern of the chickens could not response be established. The chickens brooded the eggs either in the kitchen or in some crude Gender of poultry keeper Male 0 0 shelter. Female 14 100 Only 14.3 % of the chickens were pro- Reasons for keeping poultry Consumption 7 50 vided with housing, while the rest For sale 0 0 (85.7 %) had no shelters. Most chickens Both 7 50 (71.4 %) were scavengers. Occasionally Housing Provided 2 14.3 they were given food scraps. Commercial Not provided 12 85.7 feed preparations were given to only Feeding Scavenging and food scraps 10 71.4 28.6 % of the chickens (Table 1). Commercial 0 0 Deaths among chickens, caused by Both 4 28.6 disease and predation, accounted for Water supply Supplied 14 100 78.6 % and 21.4 % respectively. Prior to Not supplied 0 0 death, the chickens showed signs of Cause of death Predators 3 21.4 diarrhoea, respiratory distress and ner- Diseases 11 78.6 vousness. External parasites such as lice, Both 0 0 mites and ticks were not seen on physical Action taken when chickens Animal Health Department 1 7 examination of the birds. were sick Water was given to the chicks ad libitum. Buy drugs 2 14 It was also learnt that 7 % of the farmers Traditional drugs 11 79 sought therapeutic intervention at the Vaccinations Yes 0 0 Animal Health Department, 14 % pur- No 14 100 chased drugs to treat the chickens and 79 % used traditional decoctions such as Aloe marlothii. None of the farmers ever chickens are traditionally reserved for exacerbated by mycoplasmosis subse- vaccinated their chickens against common children and it is taboo for women to eat quent to intercurrent IBD. The presence poultry diseases such as ND. eggs. Chicken eggs are traditionally re- of antibodies to ND among unvaccinated Faecal analysis and post mortem exami- served for young males for fear of preco- indigenous chickens has previously been nation of apparently healthy indigenous cious puberty if given to young girls. The established15. Since these chickens were chickens indicated the presence of 3 questionnaire also showed that chickens over 6 months of age, when maternal an- helminth parasites, namely Syngamus tra- were not vaccinated against ND, M. galli- tibodies have waned, they could only chea, Ascaridia galli and Heterakis galli- septicum, M. synoviae, IBD or IB. have been acquired from a natural infec- narum. A. galli was found in the small Most households cited a disease with tion. intestine, and H. gallinarum in the clinical signs of diarrhoea, dyspnoea and Workers in other African countries have caecum. Syngamus trachea was only recov- nervous signs as the most common cause also found antibodies to IBD virus16,18. ered from the trachea. Only 1 species of of mortality among chickens. It can only There is strong supporting evidence for the Cestode genus Raillietina was found be speculated that mortality may have the susceptibility of indigenous chickens in the large intestine and caecum. No been caused by ND based on clinical to the virus11. While the seroprevalence helminth parasites were recovered from symptomatology. This, however, did not of M. synoviae and IB were 40.99 % and the oesophagus or crop. exclude the possibility of infection due to 34.8 %, respectively, these figures were The seroprevalence rates of ND, M. IBD, IB and mycoplasmosis, characterised lower than those obtained for vil- gallisepticum, M. synoviae, IB and IBD by respiratory distress9. These findings lage, Botswana13, and Benin4. They were were 12.40, 13.04, 40.99, 34.78 and 65.22 %, corroborate those from Zimbabwe10. comparable to those reported for Chitung- respectively. In this study, serum from adult indige- wiza, Zimbabwe10. Antibodies to IB virus nous chickens had demonstrable anti- have been demonstrated in the sera of DISCUSSION bodies to ND, IBD and IB. The sero- local chickens in Sudan, although no The mean flock size of indigenous prevalence of IBD in Bokaa was 65.22 %, clinical disease has been reported from chickens in the present study was higher much lower than that reported for Zimba- Sudan1. than that reported for rural South Africa5. bwe10, but higher than that reported for The other health constraint encountered It was lower than that recorded in Oodi.13 Antibodies to IBD have previously was internal parasitism. The nematode Chitungwiza, Harare, Zimbabwe10.It been demonstrated in the serum of un- parasite A. galli, known to cause heavy was, however, comparable with that vaccinated chickens on farms around infestation in wet and warm environ- reported for Oodi village, Kgatleng dis- Gaborone11. In Botswana, IBD has been ments, was one of the most commonly trict15. The results of the questionnaire shown to be endemic and to predispose found parasites in this study, although reflect the persistent pastoral attitude chickens to other pathogens such as Botswana is a relatively dry country21. towards chickens. The study in Bokaa also Mycoplasma spp. and ND virus3. Other Heavy infection with A. galli, resulting in indicated a gender bias, in that all back- reports on the presence of agglutinating partial occlusion of the intestinal lumen, yard chickens were reared by women. At antibodies to M. gallisepticum and M. galli- has been reported in local chickens in least 50 % of the chickens were sold while narum in the sera of indigenous chickens Uganda22. In contrast to these 2 reports, the rest were kept for domestic consump- have been cited12. It is therefore possible low infection rates were reported for tion. Of interest is that chicken markets that the high mortalities in chickens re- indigenous chickens in Zimbabwe8,10. are a rarity in Botswana. Eggs from the portedly caused by ND could have been Free-ranging predisposes fowls to

132 0038-2809 Tydskr.S.Afr.vet.Ver. (2006) 77(3): 131–133 cestodes through ingestion of their be carried out and, if possible, financial 12. Mushi E Z, Binta M G, Chabo R G, Ndebele arthropod intermediate hosts. The only support to pay for vaccines should be pro- R T 1999 Detection of Mycoplasma galli- cestode species identified in the faecal vided. Annual vaccination against ND septicum and Mycoplasma synoviae in the sera of indigenous chickens by rapid serum ag- samples of chickens from Bokaa village and IBD would go a long way towards glutination test at Mmopane, Gaborone, was Raillietina sp. at a prevalence rate reducing the incidence of these major Botswana. Onderstepoort Journal of Veteri- lower than that reported for Oodi village. diseases of indigenous chickens. nary Research 66: 333–334 The rates were lower than those reported 13. Mushi E Z, Binta M G, Chabo R G, Ndebele for Nigerian chickens17 and also in south- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT R T, Ramathodi T 2000 Diseases and ern Ethiopia24. This paper was financially supported by management of indigenous chickens in Oodi, Kgatleng, Botswana. World’s Poultry Syngamus trachea, known to thrive in the Research and Publications Committee Science Journal 56: 153–157 humid environments, was found in low of the Botswana College of Agriculture. 14. Mushi E Z, Binta M G, Chabo R G, Ndebele numbers in the trachea of some chickens R T, Thibanyane T 2000 Helminth parasites for the first time in Botswana compared REFERENCES of indigenous chickens in Oodi, Kgatleng with H. gallinarum10. Previous reports 1. Abd El RahimBEE,EisaM,KheirSAM district, Botswana. Journal of the South from other villages did not mention re- 1996 Infectious bronchitis virus associated African Veterinary Association 71: 247–248 with disease outbreaks in Khartoum. covery of the parasite from the trachea14. 15. 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