28 СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ АУЧНЫЙ РЕЗУЛЬ СЕРИЯ «Вопросы теоретической Н ТАТ и прикладной лингвистики»

УДК 811.111

Tamara V. Khvesko

UNIVERSAL AND ETHNIC FEATURES

OF INDO-EUROPEAN ONYMS

Abstract omous discipline, which observes the as- pects of cultural heritage of society, par- The author conducts a comparative ticularly manifested in the names. analysis of British, Russian and American The aim of the article is to show uni- onyms from the point of view of the theory versal and ethno-specific features of na- of language structuring levels concerning tive and borrowed onyms in Slovenic and concepts of linguistic cognitive speaker Germanic languages. Onyms response to creativity. The article covers trends in the the sociological changes is immediate so they can serve as chronological units. Due development of onyms system, the cor- to the onyms conservatism they save an- relation of onyms (place names, personal cient elements of the language being an names, nicknames) and appellatives, uni- informational source, interpretation of versal and ethnic features of Indo-Euro- which may be realized by linguistic meth- pean onyms. The toponyms demonstrate ods. All the variety of things, real or man- not only perception of reality and what- made, is the primary basis of appellatives you-see or what you-feel, but help the (summarising analogous facts) and on- speaker to create desired virtual names. yms (identifying definite objects among Specific features of onyms are considered the others ). Place names, their function- in complex with mental cognition and ing, meaning and origin, structure and cultural impact. the area of distribution, historical devel- Key words: onym, apellative, ethnic, opment and changes in diachrony are universal, culture, place names, nick- described in the works of J.M. Cassagne, names, Personal names. M. Korsak [1, 2]. The correlation of ap- pellative/onym (toponym, personal name INTRODUCTION and nickname) in various kinds of com- munication causes understanding that Onomastics is a science about any globalization is the basis of the univer- kinds of onyms: place names, personal sal names appearance. The traditions of names, nicknames etc., its features, func- names giving are specific for each culture, tions and development. Linguistic aspect e.g. the system of (sur)names in England of onomastics includes historical, geo- appeared in the XI century and is closely graphical, ethno-cultural and sociological connected with the history of the country: problems, which help to reveal universal personal names and nicknames, place of and specific features of onyms. It allows birth and living, lands owning, family re- to consider onomastics an applied auton- lations and labour [3]. Special attention is 29 АУЧНЫЙ АУЧНЫЙ РАЗДЕЛ I. МЕТОДОЛОГИЯ СИСТЕМНОГО ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ ЯЗЫКА НРЕЗУЛЬТАТ НРЕЗУЛЬТАТ Tamara V. Khvesko. UNIVERSAL AND ETHNIC FEATURES OF INDO-EUROPEAN ONYMS

paid to the process of creativeness of on- discourse (anonymity, distance, imme- yms forming, which causes not only the diate, minimum of charge for actions, image of nicknames but the expression of non-verbal means of communication) communicator self-realization as well [4]. cause the speaker create virtual language Artificial nomination (nicknames) is an names, different from real ones. important factor of intercultural commu- Intercorrelation of languages in the nication. Globalisation presents a unique conditions of ethnic contacts initiates ter- opportunity for the productive antrop- ritorial universal formations, which par- onymic system forming. Internet com- ticipate in onomastic word compositions. munication effects not only perception of Much attention is paid to singling out reality but helps to create desired virtu- the universal and dialect features of on- ality names. Individual creative features yms. Scientists try to reconstruct archaic of names giving is considered in complex forms of apellatives of Indo-European with mental cognition and cultural effect languages [10, 11, 12]. [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Specific features of network Table 1 Indo-European roots in modern British Place names Indo- Graphical № European British place names variants roots 1 Aber -ber -bar Aberford, Berwick, Barmouth -awn -own Awn, Owenweg, Aubwee, Almond 2 Abh -aub - alm -eva -ive 3 Avon Avonmore, Evan, Ive, Anne, Inney -anne - inney 4 All -aul -ell -lu Moyallan, Derraulin, Alan, Ellen, Lune Alltan, Garvald, Altaggart, Burn, Old Walter of 5 Ald -alt -allt Cluden 6 Ar -arw -air Aire, Arre, Arrow 7 Ard Auchter, Ardmore, Ardrossan -berg -bar Bengore, Bannagh, Ben Nevis, Berwyn, Barglass, 8 Beann -borough Ingleborough 9 Beh -belth -bedw Behagh, Kilbaha, Dalbeattie, Penbeddw 10 Bel -bell -ball Belfast, Belleek, Ballyshannon, Belcoo -bury -brough Conisbrough, Glastonbury, Kingsbury, 11 Borg -barrow Irthlingborough -bottle -battle 12 Boil Newbottle, Newbattle, Bootle -boot -bru -bry 13 Brugh Bruree, Bruce, Bryan, Bruff, Brough brough 30 СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ АУЧНЫЙ РЕЗУЛЬ СЕРИЯ «Вопросы теоретической Н ТАТ и прикладной лингвистики»

14 Bryn -birn -brain Brandon, Brinton, Birnwood -byr -here Aylesbere, Beer Alston, Beardon, Bearhaven, 15 By -bear Whitby, Duncansbay 16 Burn -bru -bro Bruton, Brockworth, Broxbourne, Kilburn Caernarvon, Carlile, Carstairs, Carn, Carnedd, 17 Caer -car -cath Carnlea, Carron, Cairntoul, Careg (cerrig), Carrigafoyle, Craigavad 18 Caol -kyle -killy Caolispot ,Killisport, Kyles of Bute Сannafahy, Kanturk, Kinsale, Kenbane, Kenmare, 19 Ceann -can -ken Kintyre, Kent, Kencot 20 Cluain -clon -clin Clinycracken, Clane, Cloncaird, Clunes, Clonmel -glan -glin 21 Glen Glenamaddy, Glandine, Glin -glean -com -cum 22 Col Colne, Lincoln, Cloncorick, Compton, Cummeen -clon 23 Craebh -creev -crev Derrycreevy, Crevagh, Auchencruive, Comcravie 24 Crols -croch -croes Crossby, Crouch End, Crossmaglen Daar, Derinish, Adare, Darrach, Edendarrock, -dar -der 25 Dair Deer, Londonderry, Dernagree, Dirrie More, -dern -dir Derry 26 Deas -ass -des -dis Ratass, Deskart, Diskir 27 Dol -dale -dal Deloraine, Kendal, Arundel -duf -dool Carrickduff, Doolough, Douglas, Deelish, 28 Dubh -dow -dul Clashnamonadee, Dulas, Dowlas, Diggles 29 Dun -don Shandon, Dundrum, London, Dunstable -adder -edder Craigadder, Edenagh, Dunadry, Eddrachillis 30 Eadar -mead -main Edderton, Meadhon, Inishmaan, Kilmaine -esk -usk Es Thames, Ash, Ouse, Wach, Ease -exe -axe 31 Doonass, Ballysadare, Askeaton, Feteresso, -ass -sa -as Eas Easdale -esso 32 Ey -ay -y Lambay, Dalkey, Ireland‘s Eye, Lundy, Walney 33 Field -fjeld -fell Dryfield, Scafell, Fallowfield, Huddersfield 34 Fiord –ford Wexford, Carlingford, Oxford -gart -gaard Garryowen, Ballingarry, Garran, Garranamahagh, 35 Garn -garry Ballygarrane Glaslough, Kilmaglush, Glashaboy, Douglas, 36 Glas(s) Glasnevin 37 Grian -green Grianan, Greenane, Clogrennan, Greenoge 31 АУЧНЫЙ АУЧНЫЙ РАЗДЕЛ I. МЕТОДОЛОГИЯ СИСТЕМНОГО ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ ЯЗЫКА НРЕЗУЛЬТАТ НРЕЗУЛЬТАТ Tamara V. Khvesko. UNIVERSAL AND ETHNIC FEATURES OF INDO-EUROPEAN ONYMS

-am -ym 38 Ham Hampstead, Hampton -ome 39 Kil - kirk Kildare, kilmeny, St. Kilda

40 Lann - lion -lam Lampeter, Lamlash

41 Mark -merk -mar Marbury, Merkbury, March, Marchmont

-mur -mor Connemara, Kenmare, Murree, Glamorgan, 42 Muir -mare -more Morecambe, Murvagh, Murrey, Kulmurvey

Universals are observed in Germanic guistic analysis: morphonological, lexical, languages: place/palace, poll/pool, scoll semantic and structural. Here we try to /school, strath/street, tri/three, thorpe/ show the morphological processes which trop. The most popular components are take place in the original and borrowed still used in modern languages [13]. Their Russian and British topographical onyms analysis allows to find out adstrate for- in diachrony [16, 17]. mants, close in meaning to modern En- The following morphological process- glish elements; substrate formants, es take place in British place-names: hy- which have no correlation in modern En- bridization, e.g.: Silverstone ← Sewulf's glish, but are widely used in Germanic + ton; Yelverton ← Ella's+ ford + ton; languages; superstrate formants, an- Glamorgan ← glan + more + geni; God- cient borrowings, having correlations in manchester ← Lat.Godmund+cestre; re- Indo-European languages saved in old duction: Fotheringhay ← forth + here Slovenic languages [14, 15]. + ing + eg; Grantchester ← Grant + set; So the study of onomastics of any re- GlenAffric←glen+а+the+break; gion includes ethno-geographical, his- doublication: Torpenhow Hill ← tor + torical and cultural, as well as linguistic pen + how + Hill; adaptation: Conis- aspects. Toponymic universals studies brough; Glastonbury; Gold’s + pie (E) ← have become important in recent years by (ON ). Such modifications as stone concerning cognitive approach to the re- → ton, borough → burg, chester → set search of the linguistic units, which al- cause the loss of primary meaning and lows to show the speaker’s individuality appearance of naive folk interpretation manifested in the morphological process of the new form, e.g. Brownsea Island → of hybridization in the Russian language. Brunkeseye, where the final component METHODS E eye ← OE ieg. Folk interpretation of Brownsee is considered: brown + sea. Place-name is a universal phenome- The following morphological process- non in Indo-European languages. Lin- es take place in Russian place names: re- guistic creativeness as a manifestation duction: Semivragi, Prechistenka, Suk- of the speaker’s individuality is observed hodol, Sivtsev Vrajek, Kholmogory, Ki- in hybrid formings. Creative features of tai-gorod, Spas-zaulki, Zamoskvorechie, toponyms appear at definite levels of lin- Novgorod; adaptation: Pinega, Onega, 32 СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ АУЧНЫЙ РЕЗУЛЬ СЕРИЯ «Вопросы теоретической Н ТАТ и прикладной лингвистики»

Ladoga, Vetluga, Sviyaga, Volga, Vi- Castle; Gidea Park; Chidwell; historical chegda, Vologda, Nerekhta; rotation: occasions: Brentwood (burnt wood ); Fo- final component ga/da (means water) is theringhay (forth + here + ing + hay); observed in the North while in the centre Barnstaple, Dunstaple (staple); Brittas of Russia va/ma: Neva, Sosva, Narva, Bay (briotas); Beaconsfield, Dunkery Proshva, Kama, Chukhloma, Kostroma, Beacon, Brecon Beacons. Bogulma, Yakhloma; hybridization: The names for rivers and streams, Belozero, Churozero, Ustozero, Oren- springs and lakes, fords and roads, burg, Omsk, Tomsk. marshes and moots, hills and valleys, The typological investigations of the woods and clearings, and various other languages show that morphological and landscape features are also the names of lexical dynamics is characteristic for Rus- inhabited places: Sherborne, Fulbrook, sian onyms while structural changes pre- Bakewell, Tranmere, Oxford, Brea- vail in English onyms. Semantic transfor- more, Stodmarsh, Swindon, Goodwood, mations (conversions) are observed in the Bromsgrove, Bexley, and Hatfield – all system of onyms as well, where secondary have second elements that denote topo- nomination units are the products of cog- graphical features. nitive dynamics. The glossaries provide a selection of Universal features meanings found for some of these topo- of British place names graphical elements and give an idea of the Though the systematic description of great range and variety of this vocabulary. place names in Germanic written sources From the structural point of view, most appeared 600 years earlier than in Slo- English place-names are compounds, venic, there are common features in both that is they consist of two elements, the languages [18]. Comparative analysis of first of which usually qualifies the second. Indo-European roots shows that changes The first element in such compounds may in toponymic units are mainly caused by be a noun, an adjective, a river-name, a the morphological dynamics. Many old personal name, or a tribal name. Typi- place names have undergone some de- cal examples of compound place-names gree of reduction in the long period since formed during the Old English period they were first coined. Place-names form are: Daventry, Coventry, Oswestry (Da- very large and diverse groups of onyms, fa's tree, Cofa's tree), dar/der: Derwent, representing description of some topo- Daren’t, Dart, Darly, Darvel (celtic: der- graphical objects either natural or man- uenta → dar/der); beith (Gaelic: beither made, which were later transferred to the → E birch): Dalbeattie; ash: Knotty Ash, settlement, probably at a very early date, Bramhall, Bramton, Bromley, Broms- e.g. Bourton-in-the-Water; Bourton-up- grove, Bromyard; Juniper Green, Crey- on-Trent; Bourton-in-the-Hill; Black don, Beeston, Farnham, Glastonbury. Bourton; Burton Constable; Clayton-le However some place names consist Moors; Clayton-le-Dale; Clayton-le- of one element only, at least to begin with: Wools; object quality: Bradwell-on-Sea, examples include names like Combe (’the Belcoo; Cromarty; Hugh Town; Kyle of valley’), Hale, Lea, Stoke, Stowe, Thorpe, Lochalsh; Langholm; Huntington; Leeds Worth, and Wyke. Less common are the 33 АУЧНЫЙ АУЧНЫЙ РАЗДЕЛ I. МЕТОДОЛОГИЯ СИСТЕМНОГО ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ ЯЗЫКА НРЕЗУЛЬТАТ НРЕЗУЛЬТАТ Tamara V. Khvesko. UNIVERSAL AND ETHNIC FEATURES OF INDO-EUROPEAN ONYMS

names consisting of three elements such perceived by the nose and the tongue. as Claverton (burdock ford farmstead), Maybe the well water tasted like diluted Redmarley, Woodmansterne, and Woth- candy (Sweetwater). Maybe something erton; in most of these the third element in the air smelled like rotten eggs (White has probably been added later to an al- Suphur Springs) [20]. ready existing compound. It is interesting to note that Americans Ethno-cultural features of have named many towns after tastes they American and British Place names prefer in their diets. Americans are obvi- The sociological function of onym as ously inspired by sugar and salt, but have a cognitive presentation of reality is ob- little regard for spiciness. There is only served in place names which reveal some one Spiceland in Indiana. Salt tops sug- general classes: those embodying person- ar in popularity, especially if you count al names, chiefly the surnames of pioneers towns named Saline or Salineville (six of or national heroes; those transferred from them) or Salinas (just one in California.) other and older places, either in the east- Cities that were named after people also ern states or in Europe; Indian, Dutch, tend to be unimaginatively named. There Spanish, French, German and Scandi- should have been a limit on the num- navian names; Biblical and mythological ber Smithfields and Smithlands allowed. names; names descriptive of localities; There are numerous cities with names and names suggested by the local flora, that advertise their supposed wealth in fauna or geology [19]. The names of the coal, lumber, wheat, corn, raisins and first class are perhaps the most numerous. prunes, e.g. towns named Enterprise and Some consist of surnames standing alone, the much rarer towns named Success. as Washington, Cleveland, Bismarck, There are plenty of place names that seem Lafayette, Taylor and Randolph; others eager to flaunt wealth and status. are contrived of given names, either alone The comparative analysis of place or in combination, as Louisville, St. Paul, names in the UK and USA shows the fea- Elizabeth, Johnstown, Charlotte, Wil- tures of linguistic creativeness of its forms. liamsburg and Marysville. The number of In the UK there are kinds of place names towns in the United States bearing wom- composition, one of the most frequent be- en’s given names is enormous. Most of ing the use of the medial connective par- these places are small, but there is an Eliz- ticle -ing in Paddington, probably best abeth with 75,000 population, an Elmira explained as estate associated with a man with 40,000, and an Augusta with nearly called Padda [5]. Some compound place- 45,000. Some place names are very mat- names in the western parts of England ter-of-fact about natural surroundings: (especially in Cornwall, Wales, and Cum- Twin Lakes (in six states), Three Lakes bria) have a different formation. They are (in two states) and even Mosquito Lake so-called name-phrases in which the usu- (just in Alaska). Dinosaur, Colorado also al order of elements is reversed following falls into this what-you-see-is-what-you- Celtic practice: Aspatria (’Patricks ash- get category. Sometimes American place tree’), Bewaldeth, Brigsteer, Landulph, names draw on natural features that are and Tremaine. The names with this char- not merely seen with the eyes, but are also acteristic Celtic word-order are also pre- 34 СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ АУЧНЫЙ РЕЗУЛЬ СЕРИЯ «Вопросы теоретической Н ТАТ и прикладной лингвистики»

dominant throughout Ireland, Wales and of the country: personal names and nick- much of Scotland [21]. names, place of birth and living, lands The meanings of topographical terms owning, family relations and labour. Cog- can vary a good deal from name to name, nitive mechanisms determine the form of for some elements used over a long period the names. The process of creativeness of in the formation of English place-names onyms forming causes not only the image underwent considerable changes of mean- of the name but expresses the communi- ing during medieval times: Old English cator self-realization as well. feld originally ’open land’ developed a lat- The comparative analysis of British, er sense ’enclosed plot’, Old English wald Russian and American onyms made with ’forest’ came to mean ’open upland’, and the help of the theory of language structur- Old English leah ’wood’ became ’woodland ing levels concerning concepts of linguistic clearing’ and then ’meadow’, Godmaer’s → cognitive speech creativity is important. Gomers, Grimesthorpe, Grimston [13]. Onyms (names, place names, nicknames) The choice of the most likely meaning play an important role in the process of for one of these elements in an individual communication. Globalisation presents name is therefore a matter of judgement, a unique opportunity for universal fea- tures of onyms appearance. Currently new based among other things on locality, the trends of onyms system development are nature of the compound, and assumptions observed with the expansion of the Inter- about the age of the name. Moreover recent net communication. The names show not research has increasingly shown that what only perception of reality and what-you- seem to be similar terms for hills or val- see or what-you-feel, but help to create leys, woodland or marshland, or agricultur- desired virtual names. Comparative analy- al land had fine distinctions of meaning in sis of Russian and British onyms from the early times. Different Old English terms for structural point of view shows linguistic ’hill’ like dun, hyll, hrycg, hoh, heafod, and creativeness of speech patterns. Specific ofer are far from being synonymous, seem features of onyms are considered in com- to have had their own specialized meanings. plex with mental cognition and cultural In addition these and other common topo- effect. Ethno-cultural features of onyms graphical elements like eg (island), hamm are manifested in such morphological pro- (enclosure), and halh (nook) were each ca- cesses as reduction, duplication, hybrid- pable of a wide range of extended meanings ization and adaptation. according to date, region, and the character of the landscape itself [21]. References: CONCLUSION 1. Cassagne J., Korsak Le noms de lieux du Tarn. Editions sud Quest. M., The correlation of place names, per- 2008. pp. 300-319. sonal names and nicknames is observed 2. Cresswell J. Dictionary of First in various kinds of communication. The Names. Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap tradition of names giving is specific for Publishers. 2009. pp. 418-468. each culture. The system of (sur)names 3. Mencken H.L. The American Lan- in England appeared in the XI century guage. Bibliography. Surnames and Giv- and is closely connected with the history en Names. N. Y., 1921. pp. 1156-1180. 35 АУЧНЫЙ АУЧНЫЙ РАЗДЕЛ I. МЕТОДОЛОГИЯ СИСТЕМНОГО ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ ЯЗЫКА НРЕЗУЛЬТАТ НРЕЗУЛЬТАТ Tamara V. Khvesko. UNIVERSAL AND ETHNIC FEATURES OF INDO-EUROPEAN ONYMS

4. Delahunty A. Oxford Dictionary Institute of Geography. Moscow: Nauka, of Nicknames. Oxford University Press. 1995. pp. 32-47. 2006. pp. 223-229. 17. Oforidaev N. Linguistic Research 5. Dorward D. Scotland’s Place-Names. of Oikonyms of Gorniy Badakhshan: ab- Glasgow: Bell and Bain Ltd., 2001. pp. 127- stract of PhD thesis. Dushanbe, 2002. 160. pp. 11-27. 6. Iriskhanova О. К. Lingvocreative 18. Khvesko T.V. Common Features Basis of Theoretic Nominalization: PhD of Russian and British Place Names. In- thesis. Moscow, 2004. pp. 270-277. ternational Journal of Experimental Edu- 7. Vvedenskaya L. А., Kolesnikov N. cation, issue 12, 2013. pp. 76-77. P. Etymology: Work-book. Saint Peters- 19. Khvesko T.V. Socionym as a Cog- burg: Peter, 2004. pp. 94-103. nitive Presentation of Reality. European 8. Kubryakova E.S. About the Cogni- Academy of Natural History Journal, is- tive Science Basis and Actual Problems of sue 5, 2012. pp. 66-67. Cognitive Linguistics. Izvestiya. Acade- 20. Lakoff G. Embodied Mind, Em- my of Sciences. Literature and Language. bodied Philosophy. University of Glasgo, V. 63/3, 2004. pp. 3-12. 2001. pp. 12-17. 9. Fauconnier G. Methods and Gener- 21. Hanks P., Hodges F., Mills A.D., alizations // Cognitive Linguistics, Foun- Room A. The Oxford Names Companion: dations, Scope and Methodology. Berlin The Definite Guide to Surnames, Names - N.Y., 1999. pp. 95-124. and Place Names of the British Isles. Ox- 10. Frolov N.K. Ethnic Names Avtoch- ford University Press. 2002. pp. 898-904. tons of Tyumen Oblast Area in Language Cognition. Literature and Culture in Re- СВЕДЕНИЯ cent Human Knowledge. Tyumen: Tyu- ОБ АВТОРАХ: men State University, 2005. pp. 243-270. 11. Pospelov Е. M. Russian Place ХВЕСЬКО Names. Мoscow: Astrel, 2008. pp. 140- Тамара Владимировна 303. доктор филологических наук, профессор 12. Mills D. Dictionary of London Тюменский Государственный Place Names. Oxford University Press, Университет 2004. pp. 17-54. 625003 Россия, Тюмень, 13. Mills D. Oxford Dictionary of ул. Ленина, 16, Россия British Place Names. Oxford University E-mail: [email protected] Press, 2003. pp. 427-513. 14. Golomidova M.V. Artificial Nom- DATA ABOUT ination in Toponyms: abstract of PhD THE AUTHORS: Thesis. Sverdlovsk, 1987. pp. 7-20. 15. Mullonen I.I. Toponyms of Pris- virya (The Problems of Ethno-linguisti- Tamara V. Khvesko cal Contacts): PhD Thesis. Petrozavodsk, PhD in Philology, Professor 2000. pp. 8-17. Tyumen State University 16. Murzaev E.M. Toponyms and Ge- 10 Lenin St., Tyumen, 625003, Russia ography. Russian Academy of Sciences, E-mail: [email protected]