WHERE ARE THE ELEPHANTS CORRIDORS AND OTHER WILDLIFE CROSSINGS IN NORTHERN

TANZANIA?

SUBMITTED TO: Tanzania Electric Supply Company Ltd

P. O. Box 9024 Dar es Salaam – Tanzania

Prepared by: Dr. Alfred Kikoti World Elephant Centre P. O.B ox 12020

Arusha – Tanzania

World Elephant Centre: Promoting Elephant Conservation through Research and Education Tel: +255 784 37083 / Email: [email protected] / Web: www.worldelephantcentre.org 1

AKNOWLEDGEMENT

We gratefully acknowledge the Tanzanian Electric Supply Company Ltd for facilitating the exercise. Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI), Commission of Science and Technology (COSTEC) for their permission to conduct this long term research program and invaluable logistical support. We especially thank the World Elephant Centre for providing funds to track elephants and identify corridors. Special thanks to Eng. Huduma Mansoor, the manager of the project and James Khalid Reuben, the co-coordinator of the Kenya-Tanzania Power interconnection Project. Lastly would like to thank Mr. Ande Mallango for his advice during this exercise.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

AKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... i TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... ii LIST OF FIGURES ...... iii

1.0 WHERE ARE THE ELEPHANTS CORRIDORS AND OTHER WILDLIFE ...... CROSSINGS IN NORTHERN TANZANIA? ...... 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 2.0 CORRIDOR DESCPTION ...... 2 2.1 TANGANYET OR (KIKOTI’S CROSSING) CORRIDOR ...... 2 3.0 MANYARA-TARANGIRE REGION ...... 9 3.1 MSWAKINI CHINI CORRIDOR (FORMERLY KWAKUCHINJA) ...... 9 4.0 JANGWANI CORRIDOR ...... 14 5.0 SWAGASWAGA – LAKE BARANG’IDA – LAKE GENDAWARI ...... 16 6.0 GENERAL RECOMMENDATION ...... 19 7.0 LITERATURE CITED ...... 20

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Telemetry expert Dr Alfred Kikoti of World Elephant Centre fitting a satellite collar to identify critical habitats and corridors for African elephant (Loxodonta africana)...... 3

Figure 2: Overall home range (95% FK), wet and dry season for adult female elephant in northern Tanzania, 2007 and 2008. A corridor identfied by using satellite tracking technology conducted from 2007 to 2008 by World Elephant Centre, Tanzania...... 5

Figure 3: an example of elephant killed by loose power line at Tanzania (picture by Figure 4: Girrafes are affected by power lines which are loose or lower than 12 meters...... 13

Figure 5: Part of corridor from Lake Barang’ida to Lake Gendawari, picture taken at Mogitu village, Hanang Mountain on the background ...... 17

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1.0 WHERE ARE THE ELEPHANTS CORRIDORS AND OTHER WILDLIFE CROSSINGS IN NORTHERN TANZANIA?

Key definitions: a corridor as “a swath of land intended to allow passage by a particular wildlife species between 2 or more wildland areas”, whereas linkage are

used “to denote connective land intended to promote movement of multiple focal

species or propagation of ecosystem processes”.

1.1 INTRODUCTION Thirty years ago, Soule et al. (1979) expressed concern about extinctions of large mammals in East African parks as human settlements increased around protected areas. Newmark (1996) attributed the loss of six diurnal mammals from four of the smallest parks in northern Tanzania to the isolation of these parks by human settlements, farms, and restriction of traditional migration routes. Establishing wildlife conservation corridors to link these protected areas was recommended to facilitate animal movements and to reduce wildlife-human conflicts (Borner 1985; Mwalyosi 1991; Newmark 1993, 1996; Kamenya 2000; Mpanduji et al 2002; Hofer et al. 2004 and Kikoti, 2010).

With recent estimates in excess of 70,000 elephants and a large and growing rural human population (45,487,000; National Bureau of Statistics Tanzania 2012), increasing habitat loss, fragmentation, human-elephant conflicts and development projects such as Kenya – Tanzania Power Interconnection Project might threaten Tanzania’s elephant populations as well as other wildlife if environmental impact issues are not thoroughly factored in. Elephant conservation is serious concern outside of protected areas where 63% of the elephant range occurs (Blanc et al. 2007). Protection of movement corridors was recommended for linking protected areas and reducing human-elephant conflicts in Zimbabwe (Osborn & Parker, 2003), Kenya (Douglas-Hamilton et al., 2005) and Tanzania (Mwalyosi, 1991; Hofer et al., 2004 and Kikoti 2009, Kikoti et al 2010, Kikoti 2013), and as a potential option for reducing elephant densities in over-abundant elephant

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populations (Balfour et al., 2007; van Aarde and Jackson, 2007). Yet, to date (2013) only one truly conservation corridor has been established in Tanzania, the Kitendeni Corridor linking Kilimanjaro National Park (NP) in northern Tanzania with the Amboseli Plains south of Amboseli NP in southern Kenya. Thus, the purpose of report to use the movements of elephants with satellite GPS collars to identify the corridors they used to move within and between two main regions and describe two more corridors which have been identified through direct observation. Additionally, we provide information on the, status of these corridors target species, frequency of use and conservation measures required to by proposed project to minimize threats or eliminate threats.

2.0 CORRIDOR DESCPTION 2.1 Tanganyet or (Kikoti’s Crossing) Corridor Description and Use – Stretching for nearly 20 km, the Tanganyet Corridor links the Natron and West Kili regions extending from the Ngasurai Plains in the east to the base of the Kiserian-Mriatata Ridge in the west. In West Kili, the corridor begins as many elephant pathways in a broad 10 km-wide swath extending west out of the Oltupai Thicket in West Kili. Within 1 km of the Arusha- Road, the corridor narrows to 3 km wide and the multiple paths coalesce into a single trail crossing the road. Its within this 3kms where elephants use regularly to cross the road. The corridor gradually expands in width west of the roadway to about 6 km at Telecom Hill. At this hill, one pathway leads northwest towards Oldonyo-Ndabashi hill and another continues westward to the Kiserian-Mriatata Ridge. The northward path is typically used during the dry season, providing access to artificial water sources used for livestock, with the elephants continuing onto the Kiserian Plateau. During the wet season, this pathway is avoided due to human settlements, and elephants continue westward to the ridge and access the plateau from the south. The Kiserian-Mriatata Ridge and Kiserian Plateau provide extensive Acacia spp. woodlands, scrublands and grasslands and there is minimal human activity in these areas.

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Figure 1: Telemetry expert Dr Alfred Kikoti of World Elephant Centre fitting a satellite collar to identify critical habitats and corridors for African elephant (Loxodonta africana).

From here, he began his dispersal to Natron via the West Kilimanjaro Ranch, crossed the road, and continued to the foothills of Ketumbeine Mountain in the Natron region, representing the longest dispersal distance (131 km) of our 21 collared elephants

Conservation Potential – Currently, there no permanent settlements or shacks within the primary corridor; however, there are small settlements along the pathway that leads along the base of the ridge northwest from the Telcom Hill. Yet, there is little conflict from the Maasai in these small settlements. Thus, there is little resistance to elephant movements through this corridor at present except where it crosses the Arusha-Nairobi Road. However, the Town of World Elephant Centre: Promoting Elephant Conservation through Research and Education Tel: +255 784 37083 / Email: [email protected] / Web: www.worldelephantcentre.org 3

Longido, 13 km north of the corridor crossing, is expanding rapidly and the road is being widened along its entire length. Apart from Kenya-Tanzania Power Interconnection project there are also plans to bring electric transmission lines to the town along the road from Arusha.

This utility access will encourage much development along the road and their associated negative impact to the wildlife corridor. Thus, it is critical that this area be secured for conservation before human settlements expand into the corridor.

There is much potential for working with the local Maasai communities to establish a land use plans of which the corridor for elephant, other wildlife migration and cattle use will be identified and to be gazzeted by the government. There is also strong political support for the corridor in the . Further, there is also a growing concern at the western end of the corridor on the Kiserian-Mriatata Ridge where increasingly woodlands are cut for charcoal production.

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Figure 2: Overall home range (95% FK), wet and dry season for adult female elephant in northern Tanzania, 2007 and 2008. A corridor identfied by using satellite tracking technology conducted from 2007 to 2008 by World Elephant Centre, Tanzania.

Specific information about the above corridor: The width is 10km for assemblage of the species; its 1km before Tanzganyet valley or nicknamed by Kikoti’s Crossing to the bridge of Olkeju Olmurwak seasonal river 10km stretch, but majority of elephants uses the first3km, this is where the main elephants trails are concentrated. The average length is 20kms from west Kilimanjaro’s Enduimet Wildlife Management Area to Lake Natron Game Controlled Area

Target species Our focal species for the corridor is elephants (Loxodonta africana) which is in appendix 1 (Vulnerable) according to IUCN categorization. Other species commonly utilize the pathway are giraffes, zebras, Wildebeests, lesser Kudus, grant gazelles, striped hyenas and cheetahs.

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Figure 3: Elephant concentration areas within 3kms and corridor along Arusha – Namanga Road.

Table 1: Estimated wildlife numbers crossing the Arusha – Namanga Road in both Wet and dry season. Data based on direct and indirect observation of respective species Species Wet Dry IUCN RED LIST Elephants 400 200 Vulnerable Giraffes 1000 1200 n/a Zebras 1500 1000 n/a Wildebeest* 2,000 - n/a * we have never recorded wildebeest crossing the road in dry season

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Figure 3: an example of elephant killed by loose power line at Monduli Juu Tanzania (picture by Dr Alfred Kikoti)

Elephants use it in both wet and dry seasons, in wet season elephants from Amboseli National Park in southern Kenya, Kilimanjaro National Park and West Kililimanjaro’s Enduimet Wildlife Management Area migrate to Lake Natron Game Controlled area and move back in dry season (Kikoti, 2009). Some families from Lake Natron move to west Kilimanjaro at the end of the dry season to utilize the Ngarenanyukie perennial River (Kikoti 2009) (see figure 2). However bull elephants seem to move any direction depending on the sexual status and age of the individual

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Potential Impact of proposed Power line Project  Towers on corridor could scare the target species given the fragility of the habitats itself. In northern Tanzania, there is only one remaining corridor for elephants and other wildlife, if this is blocked, that will be an ecological disaster  Sag of the power lines could kill elephants and giraffes, as we have already witnessed that any power line with sag below 15m is most likely to kill elephants or giraffes (see Fig 3 and Fig 4.)  Impact from clearing to prepare the aggregates and to install towers  Impact of color of the towers to target species  Poaching might occur during construction  Periodic noise from power lines  Habitat fragmentations  Inbreeding - where animals can’t mix with neighboring subpopulations the results will negative genetically and will be disaster in a long term.  Escalate human wildlife Conflict

Mitigations Measures

 Ensure all elephants trails within the corridor are free from towers  Clear no vegetation  Avoid the forested patch where possible  Higher towers , (elephant shoulder height max 3M, stretched trunk max 3M, if a bull stand with hind legs add 2 m, buffer 2 m, Total 10 meters for an elephant and giraffe, from the above information, the minimum sag is 12 to ensure there no unnecessary dearth of elephants and his associates  Minimize tower intervals to minimize power lines sag especially on these corridors and crossings of elephants and other wildlife  Paint towers to blend with environment  Import all aggregate material to minimize human activity foot prints at the base of the each tower within the corridor

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 Continued monitoring of elephants countrywide to pinpoint corridors and crossings in order to properly advice developers to reduce negative impact to our biodiversity  Establish/construct an elephant centre to oversee the monitoring of elephants as focal species and other wildlife movement in the regional and continental level and establish a database for the same  Obtain legal protection of the all scientifically identified corridors in order to protect and sustain them  Establish a corridor usage monitoring program for all corridors to determine species usage, frequency and threats with time

3.0 MANYARA-TARANGIRE REGION 3.1 Mswakini Chini Corridor (formerly Kwakuchinja) Description and Use – For over 20 years, the linkage of Tarangire and Lake Manyara national parks has been a concern for conservationists. From 1987 to 2000, the proportion of cultivated land in the corridor doubled from 8 to 16% of the land area (Kidegesho, 2000). Although the purchase of the Manyara Ranch (2001) and its management for conservation by the Tanzania Land Trust contributed greatly to the implementation of this linkage, two significant gaps still occur. The Mswakini Chini Corridor, typically referred to as the Kwakuchinja Corridor, is a 4 km-long, 2.5 km-wide corridor between Manyara Ranch and the northern tip of Tarangire NP. This corridor is highly impacted by humans. There are many bomas and crop fields both within and adjacent to the corridor. Only a few scattered large Acacia trees occur within the corridor which confined on Mswakini seasonal river. A paved road between the villages of Minjingu and Mswakini Chini to crosses the northern end of the corridor adjacent to Manyara Ranch.

Although our satellite fitted elephants only moved between Manyara Ranch and Tarangire NP on several occasions, there is frequent movement of elephants between the two areas in both the wet and dry seasons (Kikoti, 2009). They always move through the corridor quickly and at night, using darkness and the few scattered trees to conceal them

World Elephant Centre: Promoting Elephant Conservation through Research and Education Tel: +255 784 37083 / Email: [email protected] / Web: www.worldelephantcentre.org 9 as they move along narrow pathways between the bomas. Considering the number of bomas within the corridor, there is much human-elephant conflict from crop-raiding and injuries/deaths to people. Several people have been killed by elephants, and some elephants were killed as problem animals by the Wildlife Department. Wildebeest and zebras also frequently use the corridor to move between the two areas, and there are increasing human-lion conflicts and retaliatory killings.

Figure X: Area with elephant concentration (Tarangire National Park and Manyara Ranch Conservation Area) and critical corridor to link the two habitats.

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Table 2: Estimated wildlife numbers crossing the Makuyuni – Minjingu Road in both Wet and dry season. Data based on direct and indirect observation of respective species from 2010 to 2012. Species Wet Dry IUCN RED LIST Elephants 600 400 Vulnerable Giraffes 600 200 n/a Zebras 1500 1000 n/a Wildebeest 2500 1000 n/a

Table 3: Name of the Corridor/ Crossing, target species, geo locations and season the corridor used by respective species Name corridor Width Length Target Locations Season species Tanganyet (Kikoti 10km 25k m Elephants Lat 2°46'48.70"S Throughout Long .36°42'39.62 the year Crossing) (3km for Giraffes Corridor elephants) Zebras Lat 2°51'48.57"S Long 36°42'11.46"E Wildebeest Mswakini 2.5 5 km Elephants Throughout 3°39'44.44"S 35°58'3.99"E the year Corridor Giraffes 3°40'18.82"S Zebras 35°56'51.49"E Wildebeest Jangwani 3.5 20 to Elephants Wet season 3°24'31.66"S Corridor 25 km Giraffes 35°55'4.91"E

Zebras 3°25'25.27"S 35°55'54.04"E Wildebeest Swaga Swaga – 5 to 10 km 72km Elephants 4°41'4.92"S Dry season 35°12'37.30"E

Barang’ida - 4°31'35.20"S 35°16'46.78"E Gendawari *

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Conservation Potential – The viability of this corridor critically depends on relocating the people and their bomas out of the corridor. Now that our collared elephants have identified the boundaries of the functional corridor, attention should be focused on negotiating compensation with the individual households that need to be relocated out of the corridor, and working with the communities to restrict future settlements within the corridor. These negotiations will require people with technical skills in resolving conflicts and negotiating equitable compensation. Without significant and timely progress in securing this corridor, expanding human settlements, continuing loss of trees and construction of fences in the corridor will further restrict elephant and wildlife dispersal and increase human-elephant conflicts in this area. Further, the future status of wildlife populations in Manyara National Park and Manyara Ranch is at risk. Without this corridor, the ranch is too small (82 km2) and too isolated by human settlements to sustain viable populations without regular dispersal of animals from Tarangire National Park, Ngorongoro and Lake Natron Game Controlled Areas.

Potential Impact of proposed Power line Project  Towers on corridor could scare the target species given the fragility of the habitats itself. The ecological linkage between Tarangire National Park and Manyara then to Ngorongoro and Natron is Mswakini Corridor, that’s means there is no any other option to this corridor; we should ensure it remains open and available to elephants and other species for their survival.  Sag of the power lines could kill elephants and giraffes, as we have already witnessed that any power line with sag below 15m is most likely to kill elephants or giraffes (see Fig 3 and Fig 4.)  Impact of color of the towers to target species  Periodic noise from power lines  Inbreeding – where animals can’t mix with neighboring subpopulations the results will negative genetically and will be disaster in a long term.  Escalate human wildlife Conflict, if animals fails to use proper pathway they will move through farms

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Mitigation Measures  Construct higher tower far above the tree lines  Leave the riparian trees line intact where possible  Avoid to install tower on the riparian vegetation where possible  Camouflage all towers within the corridor stretch of 2.5 kilometers  Compensate and relocate the households within the corridor  Rehabilitate the corridor by re-planting indigenous trees to improve cover and encourage more migratory species to use it  Properly document and gazette all corridors in Tarangire - Manyara Ecosystem  Monitoring program for the rate of use by species, seasonality, threats within the corridors and adjacent matrix

Figure 4: Giraffes are affected by power lines which are loose or lower than 12 meters.

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4.0 JANGWANI CORRIDOR Description and Use – This corridor extends from the northeast corner of Lake Manyara

NP southeast for 10 km to Eslalei Village continuing for 15 km to Manyara Ranch.

Corridor width ranges from 3.5 to 6 km. Dense yellow fever acacia’s forests occur in the

first 5 km of the corridor along the northern border of the park, switching to scrublands

further east until the corridor turns south to Manyara Ranch. Scattered huts and open

woodlands occur within the southern segment of the corridor extending to Manyara

Ranch. The first 8 km section of the corridor extending east out of Lake Manyara NP

was demarcated with beacons in 1996 by Tanzania National Parks, the regional authority

and the Village. A cattle grazing occurs throughout the corridor, but there

are no crop fields. The corridor has a branch which heads northwards towards Lake

Natron Game Controlled about 100kms. Before village the corridor branch of to

Ngorongoro through Upper Kitete corridor.

Two of our satellite fitted elephants (ID T19, T20) used the Jangwani Corridor to move

from Manyara Ranch to north shore of Lake Manyara as far as the Simba River. The

dense Acacia forests provide cover for the elephants during the day and they disperse out

at night. A variety of other wildlife (zebras, buffaloes, wildebeests) also use the corridor

to disperse out of the park. From the Eslalei Village, elephants and other wildlife also

disperse eastward to the foothills of the Losinguri Mountains

Conservation Potential – Although the Jangwani Corridor is relatively intact, there are

several bomas within the corridor as it nears Manyara Ranch; these bomas need to be

relocated in the near future. There is also a lodge on the northern border of the corridor

near the Jangwani Village where there is the potential for disturbance if not properly

World Elephant Centre: Promoting Elephant Conservation through Research and Education Tel: +255 784 37083 / Email: [email protected] / Web: www.worldelephantcentre.org 14 managed. Poaching and tree cutting are under control in the corridor due to the regular patrols by community scouts. There is strong local support for the corridor from the three communities because it is used for cattle grazing. There is also strong support from the

District Council to conserve this corridor. The critical need now for the corridor is to provide assistance and support to the local communities to gazette the corridor as a conservation corridor for wildlife and cattle grazing.

The conservation challenges for the Jangwani-Upper Kitete Corridor are more complex, especially near the Mto wa Mbu-Makuyuni Road that intersects the corridor. This paved road in combination with electric transmission lines and water promote development along this roadway. A water tower was constructed near the Village of Kigongoni within

500 m of the corridor that attracts more settlements and crop fields within the corridor.

The absence of land use regulations in the area is a major challenge for protecting the corridor, and there is a critical need to prevent human settlements from expanding into the corridor. The propose Kenya – Tanzania Power Interconnection project should work in collaboration with District Council to develop a land use plan with the local communities to set the corridor aside for wildlife and cattle grazing. It is important that the conservation planning for the Jangwani and Jangwani-Upper Kitete corridors be coordinated to facilitate the protection of both corridors at the same time.

Potential Impact of proposed Power line Project  Towers on corridor could scare the target species given the fragility of the habitats itself. The ecological linkage between Manyara National Park and Manyara Ranch to Ngorongoro and Natron is Jangwani Corridor; we should ensure it remains open and available to elephants and other species for their survival.

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 Sag of the power lines could kill elephants and giraffes, as we have already witnessed that any power line with sag below 15m is most likely to kill elephants or giraffes (see Fig 3 and Fig 4.)  Impact of color of the towers to target species  Periodic noise from power lines  Inbreeding – where animals can’t mix with neighboring subpopulations the results will negative genetically and will be disaster in a long term.  Escalate human wildlife Conflict, if animals fails to use proper pathway they will move through farms  Poaching might occur during the construction

Mitigation Measures  Construct higher towers the minimum should be 12m  Camouflage all towers within the corridor stretch of 5 kilometers  Compensate and relocate the households and schools within the corridor  Rehabilitate the corridor by re-planting indigenous trees to improve cover and encourage more migratory species to use it  Properly document and gazette Jangwani Corridor and all other corridors in Tarangire - Manyara Ecosystem  Monitoring program for the rate of use by species, seasonality, threats within the corridors and adjacent matrix during and after construction  Attach a ranger or Game Scout to each corridor or animal crossings during the construction

5.0 SWAGASWAGA – LAKE BARANG’IDA – LAKE GENDAWARI

During the beginning of the dry season (May and June) elephants move from Swagaswaga to Lake Barang’ida Lalu to Lake Gendabi and back to Swagaswaga Game Controlled area. The reason for these seasonal movements is speculated to be the search of salt which is plenty at Lake Gendabi located on western slopes of Hanang’ mountain.

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There are three corridors which still allow elephant movement and probably other species:

1) Lake Barang’ida lalu through Hewariri- gidaganwod-basonyeg to Lake Gidawari 2) Lake Barang’ida lalu to Qaredan tank through Mgitu village to Lake Gidawari 3) Lake Barang’ida lalu to Lake Gidawari through Mgitu tank

Figure 5: Part of corridor from Lake Barang’ida to Lake Gendawari, picture taken at Mogitu village, Hanang Mountain on the background

The corridor configuration is simple, it’s mainly follows the valley from Lake Barang’ida lalu to Lake Gidawari, though it seems different families utilizes different pathways for various reasons. Also its seems majority of the families prefers to pass through water sources for a drink

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Target species  Elephants – use the pathways only in dry season Potential Impact from proposed project  Towers on corridor could scare the target species given the fragility of the habitats itself  Sag of the power lines could kill elephants and giraffes  Impact from clearing to prepare the aggregates and to install towers  Impact of color of the towers to target species  Periodic noise from power lines  Elephant Poaching by personnel during construction

Mitigation measures  Higher towers on the entire valley (minimum sag 12m)  Reduce tower intervals to minimize power lines sag to reduce risks to wildlife  Leave all vegetation and trees intact where possible  Import all building materials to avoid human activity foot prints at the base of the tower  Camouflage all towers within the corridor stretch or crossings  Monitor and map the existing corridors and obtain legal protection of these corridors and sustain them  Monitor the elephant sub-population, source and other habitat linkages within the ecosystem for sustainable conservation of the elephants and other focal species and their associated habitats.  Establish monitoring program to establish the extend human - elephant and other wildlife interactions within the ecosystem  Fit 30 elephants with satellite units to monitor their movement and corridor use and establish the main factors for seasonal movement and its implications if the corridors are blocked.  Attach a ranger or District Game Officer during construction phase to avoid poaching activities by personnel.

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Figure 6: Lake Gidawari and Lake Barang’ida Lelu respectively, elephants move between the two lakes

6.0 GENERAL RECOMMENDATION ENVIROMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLANS

 Continue to fit more satellite collars to focal species such as an elephants, we propose 60 satellite units for northern Tanzania in order to improve the sample size and hence results  The project to facilitate land use plans to all communities/villages where corridors already identified and obtain legal protection of these corridor  The proposed project to facilitate compensation and relocate all households which reside in wildlife corridors  The proposed project specifically fund the Elephant/Wildlife monitoring program between Namanga and Singida and monitor the movement of the elephant of Swaga Swaga Game Reserve as soon as possible to identify corridors before they disappear during the constructions ,  The Project to facilitate or contribute to construct the regional elephant Centre to continue monitoring elephants as an umbrella species as well as other wildlife to ensure that their movements are not hindered by human development in the broadest sense,

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7.0 LITERATURE CITED

Balfour, D., Dublin, H.T., Fennessy, J., Gibson, D., Niskanen L. & Whyte, I.J. (eds.) (2007) Review of options for managing the impacts of locally overabundant African elephants. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 80pp.

Blanc, J.J., Barnes, R.F.W., Craig, G.C., Dublin, H.T., Thouless, C.R., Douglas-Hamilton, I. & Hart, J.A. (2007) African elephant status report 2007: an update from the African Elephant Database. Occasional paper series of the IUCN Species Survival Commission, no. 33. IUCN/SSC African Elephant Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Vi. + 276pp.

Beier, P., Majka, D.R. & Spencer, W.D. (2008). Forks in the road: choices and procedures for designing wildland linkages. Conservation Biology 22(4): 836-851.

Borner, M. (1985) The increasing isolation of the Tarangire National Park. Oryx 19, 91-96.

Douglas-Hamilton, I., Krink, T. & Volrath, F. (2005) Movement and corridors of African elephants in relation to protected areas. Naturwissenschaften 92, 158-163

Galanti, V, Preatoni, D, Martinoli, A. Wauters, L.A., & Tosi, G. (2006). Space and habitat use of the African elephant in the Tarangire – Manyara ecosystem, Tanzania: Implications for conservation. Mammalian Biology 71(2):99-114.

Grimshaw, J.M. & Foley, C.A.H. (1990) Kilimanjaro elephant project 1990: Final report. Friends of Conservation, Nairobi, Kenya.

Hofer, H., Hildebrandt, T.B., Gortz, F., East, M.L., Mpanduji, D.G., Hahn, R., Siege, L. & Baldus, R.D. (2004) Distribution and movements of elephants and other wildlife in the Selous-Niassa Wildlife Corridor, Tanzania. Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH. Postfach 5180, D-65726 Eschborn, Germany.

World Elephant Centre: Promoting Elephant Conservation through Research and Education Tel: +255 784 37083 / Email: [email protected] / Web: www.worldelephantcentre.org 20

Kamenya, S.M. (2000) Disappearance of wildlife corridors and their impacts to the protected areas: lessons and conservation changes from Gombe National Park. African wildlife in the new millennium. Proceedings of a conference held at the College of African Wildlife Management, 13-15 December 2000, Mweka, Moshi, Tanzania.

Kidegesho, J.R.(2000). Participatory land use planning for Kwakuchinja wildlife corridor. Kakakuona October-December: 8-14.

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