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The Water Resourc~s of Peatlpnds: Summary of Two¥ear ~esults
THE WATER RESOORCES OF PEA'I'Ll-\NDS
SUMMARY OF 'I'VD-YEAR RESULTS
by John c. Clausen Kenneth N. Brooks David P. Guertin
Departmmt of Forest Resources College of Forestry University of Minnesota
Prepared for
!~esota Depart.nent of Natural :Resources Minnesota Peat Program
1981
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES. v
LIST OF TABLES .VII
EXECUTIVE SUMMA.RY. 1
INTRODUCTION • 5
STUDY AREAS. 7
METHODS. 21
A. 'WATER QUANTITY • 21
1. Precipitation • 21 2. Runoff. 22 3. Evapotranspiration. 24 4. Change in storage 27 5. Infiltration. 27 6. Groundwater flow. 29 7. Response factors. 29 8. Surrrnary • 30
B. WATER QUALITY. 31
1. Collection. 31 2. Preservation and storage. 31 3. Analysis. 33
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION • 37
A. WATER QUANTITY • 37
1. Water budgets 37 a. Precipitation. 37 b. Evapotranspiration • 47 c. Runoff • 49 d. Change in $torage. 50 e. Water budget srnnma.ry • 50
2. Storm.f lON • 51 3. Groundwater flow". 52 4. Water table fluctuation$. 52 5. Infiltration .. 58
iii TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd. )
B. WATER QUALITY. • • • • .. • • • .• . . • • .. . 61 1. Study Area Characteristics. • • • • . .. 61 a. pH, alkalinity, and acidity. • . • • • 61 b. Oxygen and temperature • . • " • 67 c. Conductivity, Ca, and Mg • " • • • • • • 69 d. Na, Al, K, Fe. • • 69 e. Mc, Zn, Cr • . . . • . • . 71 f. Cu, Ni, Pb, B .• • 73 g. Hg, As, Se •• • 73 h. Total phosphorus . . . 73 i. Color. • • • • . • • 77 j . Suspended sedin:ent • • • • . • 77 k. Nitrogen • • • • • • • 77
IV LIST OF FIGURES
Map of Minnesota showing location of peatland watershed study area.s·. • .. . • .- • • • • • • • • • • • .. • • . • • 8 Aerial photograph mozaic of the Toivola peatland • . . . . • 10 Map of the Toivola peatland. • • • • . . . . 11 .Map of the Tamarac River study area. • • . 13 Aerial photCXJraph of the Tamarac River gauging station • • • 14 Aerial photCXJraph of the Corona milled peat mining operation. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 14
Map of the Corona bog milled peat mining operation • 16
Aerial photograph of the Fens peatland reclamation area. 17 Map showing locations of reclamation studies at Wilderness Valley Fanns • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • . • 19
Photograph of the Toivola weather station. • 2 3 Photograph of the north pond outlet showing stilling well, recorder, and wier • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • 23
Photographs of vegetated and bare lysirreters at Fens • • 25
Photograph of the evaporation pan at Fens. • • • • • • • • • 26 Photographs of the recording well with heater at Fens. • • • 28
Photograph of double-ring infiltrorreter at Fens. • • 28 Monthly water budget for Toivola, 1978 • • • 37
Monthly water budget for Corona, 1978 ••• • 38 Monthly water budget for Tanarac River, 1979 • • • 39 Daily values of water balance carponents for the Toivola peatland, 1978 • .• • • • • • • ·• • • • • • . • • • • . . 43 Daily and monthly values of water balance canponents for the Corona peatland, 1978. . • . . ~ • • • • • • . • • • 44 Daily and rronthly values of water balance canponents for the Tamarac River peatland, 1979 • . • • • • • • • • • • 45
v LIST OF FIGURES· (Cont'd.) Figure 22. Comparison of rrean snO# wate:r: equivalent for the open and natural areas at Corona and Fens • . • . . • .. .. · • .. . 4 7 23. Response factor as a function of precipitation for Corona and Toivola. . . . • • • .. • • • • . • • • . • • • . • . . . 54 24. Direct runoff as a function of precipitation for Corona and Toivola • • • • • • • • . • . • • • • • • • • • . • 5 4 25. Peak discharge as a function of precipitation for Corona and Toivola • • • • • • • • • .. • . • • • • . • • 55 26. Equipotential lines for the Toivola east transect. • 56
27. Equipotential lines for the Toivola west transect. • • • 57
28. Water table profiles at Corona, 1978 • . 58
29. Water table levels at Corona, 1979 . • • 60
30. Infiltration rates at Fens and Corona. • 61
31. Monthly values of pH, acidity and alkalinity • • 68 32. Monthly values of dissolved oxygen, % saturation, and -terrE:>erature . . . . • ...... • . . . • ...... · . 6 g
33. .Monthly specific conductivities and concentrations of calcium and magnesium. • . . • • • • • . • • • • • • • . 71 34. Monthly values of sodium, aluminum, potassium, and iron ••• 73
35. Monthly values of manganese, zinc, and chromium. • • 75
36. . Monthly values of copper, nickel,· lead, and boron. • 76 37. Monthly values of rrercury, arsenic, selenium . • . • 77 38. Monthly values of total phosphorus, color, and suspended
sedi.Irent • • .. . • .. • • , . • • • . . ~ . . . . . • 78 39. Monthly va.lues of nitrogen species • 81 40. Water quality correla:tion matrix shO#ing significant relationships (a = • 05) for the four s'tudy areas • • ,. .. . • 9 3
VI LIST OF TABLES Table ··page
1. Surrma:ry of study area characteristics •• " • " •• , • 7 2. Period of record for water balance corrponents at each study' area • • • " .. • • • • • • • • ...... 31 3. Methods of water quality analysis •. • • . 33
4. Detection limits for water quality analysis. 35
5. ~thly water budget for 'Ib-ivola, 1978 40
6. M:>nthly water budget for Corona north, 1978 •• 41
7. Monthly water budget for the Tamarac River, 1979 42 8. Annual and nonnal precipitation for peatland study areas • • 46
9. Mean snow water equivalent for natural and open areas at Corona and Fens on ~'.larch 16-17, 1978 •••••••••••• 48 10. Mean snCM water equivalent at Toivola, Corona, and Fens for the winters 1978-79 and 1979-80. • • . . • • • • • • 48 11. Annual Thornthwaite potential evapotranspiration at Toivola and Corona for the years 1978 and 1979 • • • • • • • • • 49
12. Annual Thornthwaite PET, lysineter Er and E af Toivola, Corona, and Fens, 1979 • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • . 50 13. Water table fluctuations for the frost-free period for study watersheds • .. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 51
14. Stonnflow characteristics for the Toivola and Corona watersheds • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • " • • 52 15. Final infiltration rates for peat and mineral soils. 59 16. Toivola water quality sum:nary, 1978-79 •••• . . . 63 17. Tamarac River water quality summary, 1978-79 64 18. Corona water quali.ty sum.nary, 1978-79. • • • .. • • 65
19. Fens water quality surrma:ry, 1978-79 •••• • • fl " • 66 20. The percent volatile suspended sedirrent in runoff from
study' watersheds • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ft • • • 79
21. Summary of rrean water quality values, 1978-79. . • • • • 83
VII LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd.)
Table 22. :rvEan nutrient export (kg/ha/yr.) from study watersheds for select water quality pararreters •.••• ~ ~ • • . • • • 84
23. IvEan water quality of mined versus control at Corona, 1979 • 85
24. Mean water quality of ponds and control at Wilderness Valley Fanns, 1979 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • , • • • • 87
25. Mean soil solution concentrations for the control, fertilized, and unfertilized plots at Fens . • • • • . • • . • • . . . . 88 26. Mean ditch water quality of the· unfertilized and fertilized plots for the study period • . • • . • • • . . • . • • • 89 27. Water quality values along several points of Joula Creek downstream fran the Toivola peatland • • • • • • . • • • • . 90 28. Correlation coefficients (R) for significant relationships between discharge and various water quality pararreters at Corona and Fens • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • . • • • 91 29. Correlation coefficients (R) for significant relationships between air temperature and various water quality pararreters by study area. • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • . • • • . • • • 91 30. Correlation coefficients (R) for significant relationships between peat temperature and various water.quality para- rreters at Toivola and Corona • • • • • • • • • • • • . • .• • 92
VIII l
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
WATER QUANTITY RESULTS
Water Budgets - More snow accumulated on undisturbed natural areas and remained longer into spring than on cleared open areas. - Clearing live vegetation.on drained peatlands appears to reduce evapo transpiration.
- The change in seasonal water level appears to be less on the undrained area while daily fluctuations are greater on the drained mined area. - The effect of mining on annual runoff cannot be determined at this time.
Stor.mf low - Response factors were similar for Toivola and Corona but the mined area had a shorter lag ti.TIE to peak discharge.
Groundwater Flow - Groundwater was found to move horizontally through the Toivola peatland •
.... Sane change in vertical groundwater :rrovement occurred with more dCM11ward movemmt after wet periods and more upward rrovement after dry periods.
Water Table Fluctuations - Water levels fluctuated less at Toivola than at Corona. - The water table at Corona generally follows the surface contours of the peatland.
Infiltration - Final infiltration rates for a vegetated peat soil at Fens were greater than for bare peat. - The Corona mined area had a lower infiltration capacity than Fens. - Puddling of the peat surface caused by flooding with water reduces infiltration. 2
Study Area Characteristics
- Runoff from the fens was higher in mean pH, specific conductivity, calcium, magnesium, and alkalinity than bog runoff. - Disturbed peatland (i.e., cleared, drained and cultivated or mined) ditch waters were higher in color, suspended sediment, acidity, sodium, aluminum, potassium, iron, zinc, copper, boron, and total-, nitrate-, amrronia-, and organic nitrogen than undisturbed peatland runoff. Un disturbed peatland runoff was higher in dissolved oxygen and percent saturation. Acidity and nitrogen appeared to fluctuate rrore in the disturbed peatlands whereas pH fluctuated rrore at Corona. - Mbst of the nitrogen was in ·the reduced organic fonn and a large part of the remainder was ammonia. There was little nitrate-nitrogen. - Spring minimum values and winter under ice maximums were observed for: pH, acidity, alkalinity, specific conductivity, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, iron, manganese, and the various nitrogen forms. Color was at :rnaximt:un values under winter ice and in late surmer during low flow periods. Chromium was also greater under the ice. Winter minllnurns occurred for dissolved oxygen and percent saturation while suspended sed.im:m.t concentrations were highest during SllillrOOr rainstonns. - The Corona mined peatland runoff seemed to have unusually high values for specific conductivity, zinc and potassit:nn.
Nutrient Loading - The disturbed watersheds were annually exporting a greater mass of suspended sediment, aluminum, iron, sodium, and total- and arnrronia- nitrogen. The fens were exporting rrore calcium and magnesium than the lx>gs. Fens export was extremely high for sorce nutrients, while Corona was quite high for total-nitrogen.
Mining Effects - Runoff from Corona mined area was higher in color, suspended sediment, :potassium, aluminum, sodium, manganese, total phosphorus1 and total-, nitrate-, organic-, and a:rnrronia-nitrogen than control runoff. - These results are quite preliminary. Little or no difference in runoff concentrations between the mined and control areas was observed for zinc, copper, nickel, lead, chromium, cadmium, arsenic, or selenium. Higher mercury concentrations have so far been ll'easured at the control. 3
Reclamation Effects Ponds - The constructed ponds are :rrore like lake water than the control ditch water. The ponds are rrore basic and clear, contain rrore oxygen, and have less dissolved constituents and nutrients than the control ditch. More nitrate and organic nitrogen was found in the ponds and less total and ammonia nitrogen than in ditchwater.
- The pond with its bottom in mineral soil was higher in pH, specific conductivity, dissolved oxygen, calcium, magnesium, and zinc than the pond with its bottom in peat. The mineral pond was also lower in color, aluminum, and iron than the peat pond. Drainage and Forest Fertilization - Clearing and draining the Fens peatland appears to have lowered total and a.rmonia nitrogen, total phosphorus and orthophosphate, and iron in soil solution. Potassium, specific conductivity, calcium, and magnesium concentrations were higher in soil solution samples on drained plots. - Fertilization of the drained fen increased soil solution concentrations of total phosphorus and orthophosphate, potassium, nitrate, specific conductivity, calcium, and magnesium and decreased concentrations of aluminum and iron. - Ditchwater surrmmding the fertilized field was higher in potassium and specific conductivity than waters surrounding the unfertilized field.
Downstream Assimilation - Peatland runoff was found to increase in pH, dissolved oxygen, and specific conductivity after mixing with downstream upland waters.
Water Quality Relationships Discharge - Concentrations of potassium, scxlium, and total nitrogen at Corona and total and organic nitrogen at Fens were found to correlate positively with discharge except for sodium, which showed a negative correlation. Temperature - Air temperatures were found to be significantly correlated to concen trations of suspended sediment and total phosphorus at Toivola; sodium, total nitrogen and a:mrronia nitrogen at Corona; and calcium at Fens. Greater concentrations occurred at higher temperatures for all these constituents except amrronia nitrogen and calcium. 4
- Peat temperatures positively correlated with suspended sediment, calcium, aluminum, iron, total nitrogen, and organic nitrogen. Constituent Interrelationships - Most cation concentrations were interrelated. Phosphorus and nitrogen were also related to rrost cations. - Greater concentrations of one constituent are usually associated with greater concentrations of other constituents. -.Interrelationships airong constituents varied for each study area water shed. 5
INTRODUCTION
Recent increased denands for portions of Minnesota's three million hectares of peatlands for horticultural and energy uses have prompted the Minnesota
Department of Natural Resources to investigate the potential effects of peat developrrent on water resources. The College of Forestry began a field study of the water resources of peatlands.in 1977 because the potential water re sources impacts were largely unknown. The study as originally designed had several water quantity and water quality objectives:
Water Quantity Objectives:
1. To develop a nEthod of predicting the impacts of large peatland developrrents on water quantity. 2. To identify the critical ele:rrents and processes in peatlands that control water volurre and rate of iroverrent. 3. To evaluate the effects of alternative harvesting methods and alter native reclamation schenEs.
Water Quality Objectives: 1. To predict the impacts of large peatland developrrents on the quality of water resources.
2. To detennine the important water quality pararreters that :rmy be affected by peatland developrrent. 3. To evaluate the effects of alternative harvesting ID2thods and alter native reclamation schenEs.
4. To evaluate the process by which acid bog waters becorre buffered by receivi_ng lakes and streams·. 6
To accomplish these objectives a literature review was perfo:i::-m::;d and field investigations were conducted. Field studies of water budgets and water quality rronitoring were conducted at several peatlands including an area presently being mined for horticultural peat, an agricultural area being used for reclama tion, and two natural areas. This report surnrrarizes the results obtained from the first two years of field studies. The literature review of the water resources of peatlands was previously submitted (Clausen and Brooks 1980). 7
S'IUDY AREAS
Four major study areas in northen1 Minnesota are being investigated (Figure 1) • Two of these peatlands are undisturbed natural areas; one is located in northwest Minnesota (Tamarac River) and one is in the northeast ('lbivola) • The other two peatlands have been drained. One area is presently being mined for horticultural peat m:>ss (Corona), while the other area has been
1 \ used for agriculture in the past and is currently the site of peatland reclama tion studies (Fens). More detailed study area descriptions are given below
and summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Smnrnary of ·study area characteristics.
undisturbed drained and mined cultivated Characteristic Toivola Tamarac R. Corona Fens Peatland type Transition Fen Bog Fen Watershed area ha 3758 14349 155(N} 93(N) ha 284(8) 36(8) Average slope m/km 1.3 0.6 1.0 0.9 Average peat depth m 3.7 2 4.6 1.6 - Range m 1.2 - 4.9 1.5 - 10. 7 0.6 - 3.4 Peat type f ibric % 11 15 heroic % 84 66 sapric % 5 19 Peat pH < 4.5 % 14 0 4.5 - 5.0 % 10 0 > 5.0 % 76 100 Vegetation open % 8 100 100 spruce and tamarack % 89 0 0 Brush % 3 0 0 8
FIGURE I= MAP OF MINNESOTA SHOWING THE LOCATION OF PEATLAND WATERSHED STUDY AREAS.
;r,...~~.....y;..- FENS ~~~~..-.-TOIVOLA
, . 9
Toivola
The Toivola peatland is a 3758 ha transition area that is undrained (Figure 2). Most of the peat is :rroderately decomposed heroic, although about ten percent of the watershed is raised bog (Olson et al. 1979). Peat depths range from 1.2 to 4.9 m and average 3. 7 m. About 90 percent of the watershed is forested in either black spruce (Piaea mariiana [Mill.] B.S.P.) or tamarack
(Larix lariaina [Du Roi] K. Koch). The two raised bogs in the northern part of the watershed are vegetated with black spruce up to 9 m=ters in height whereas the black spruce found elsewhere is stunted. A relatively pure stand of tamarack of 8 meter height is located in the west center of the watershed.
Eight percent of the watershed is open being vegetated with sedge (Carex spp.). The major open area lies just south of the ovoid-shaped raised bog, possibly as a watertrack. The remaining three percent is in brush, primarily alder (Alnus spp.) and willow (Salix spp.), rrost of which is located near the mineral islands in the center and bottom of the watershed. Sphagnum, leatherleaf
(Ledum grioenlandiaum [Oeder]) and Labrador tea (Chamaedaphne aalyaulata [L.] Moench) are found throughout the peatland. The Toivola peatland slopes toward the south at an average of 1.3 m/km and is underlain by sand and silt. The Toivola peatland has been instrumented for complete water budget and groundwater flow analysis (Figure 3). The weather station contains both a recording and nonrecording precipitation gauge, a recording air and peat thenro graph, and a nonweighing bottomless lysirneter. In addition, 10 precipitation gauges are located at every other station along the east and west transects. Run off from the watershed is recorded at the intersection of Joula Creek and County Road 133 in a stilling well at a box culvert. Along the east and west tran- sects are located 20 stations, each spaced at about 1.6 km and containing a 10
FIGURE 2. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH MOZAIC OF THE TOIVOLA PEATLAND. 11
/'"' "•,, I ', ,,-."-.. rI '~', ( ....J ... ,~ \ I...... '-.. I ...... 'l } 1''•, KILOMETERS 0 ' I I ' ...... _ A ','•, 1 I 1/2 I 112 I I "y ' I 1' I I I I I i'--..... '•, I \ J ' ' 0 1/4 1/2 -- I I '- '.._ MILES // Q 9 ':',...._ / I I ' ', I I ~ ''e. ..J I I '- ', / I I \ '._ ( ¢ ? ' I / : I I (; : I I I ¢ I I r : I I 9 ~ I I / 9 I I r ? ® weather sta. / A gauging sta. \ I I, } ¢ /' I I FIGURE 3 : MAP OF THE TOIVOLA PEATLAND. 12 water table well and three piezameters to detennine the change in storage and the direction of grormdvvater flow. The groundwater level is continuously recorded at the third station from the south on the east transect. Tamarac River The Tamarac River drains a large (approximately 14,350 ha) fen into Upper Re~ Lake at Waskish (Figure 4) • This peatland is composed mostly of heroic peat averaging 2 meters in thickness. There are several raised bogs and water tracks formd within the peatland. Vegetation consists primarily of sedges with areas of alder brush and strmted black spruce and tamarack. The raised bogs contain larger black spruce with an rmderstory of Sphagnum, Labrador tea, and leatherleaf. This peatland is relatively rmdisturbed although it contains 40 kin of old ditches constructed in the early 1900's. The Tamarac River peat land is relatively flat with an average slope of 0.6 m/km. This peatland has been instrummted for water budget analysis with the weather station and runoff gauging station located at the intersection of the Tamarac River and an old ditch bank road (Figure 5) . 'IWo additional precipita tion gauges are located out in the watershed. No grormdwater info:r:ma.tion is being collected. Corona The Corona area is a 290 ha Sphagnum bog that is currently being mined for horticultural peat rross using the milled-peat method (Figure 6) . The area has been mined since 1958 by using pneumatic harvesters. The upper three meters of the bog is fibric Sphagnum moss, which is rmderlain by heroic reed-sedge peat with a substrate of sand and clay. The peat deposit ranges in thickness from 1.5 to 10.7 meters and averages 4.6 meters (Soper 1919). The watershed at 13 <( w >- 0 => v a::: (/) f1') w w _J ~ C\I IJ... a::: 0 w _J <[ u (/) 0 w .:::r w a::: 14 ~ FIGURE 5: AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH OF THE TAMARAC RIVER GAUGING STATION. FIGURE 6: AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH OF THE CORONA MILLED PEAT MINING OPERATION. 15 present is almost entirely void of live vegetation, although prior to clearing there occurred spruce, tamarack, Sphagnum, leatherleaf, Labrador tea, sedge, and cotton grass (Eriophorum spp.) (Soper 1919). Ditches on the area are spaced at 60 to 100 meters and average 1.3 m deep. The surface slopes to the southwest at m/krn. The Corona area has been instrumented for water budget analysis (Figure 7) . The weather station includes a recording air and peat therrrograph and a recording and nonrecording precipitation gauge. TWo other nonrecording precip itation gauges are located within the watershed. Three separate runoff gauging stations have been used at the Corona bog of which two are in current use. The Corona north gauging statio~ dr~ins 155 ha of mined area a..~d Corona south drains 284 ha. The south station, located by the railroad tracks, drains the entire mined area but was abandoned because of water quality contamination from the old peat plant. 'Ihe Corona control gauging station (not shown on map), draining a 58 ha bog, is located on the north side of state highway 210. A precipitation gauge is also located at the control. To determine the change in water storage within the peat, 35 nonrecording wells and one recording well were installed in the watershed. TWo bottomless nonweighing lysimeters are located in the west central portion of the mined area, one on bare peat to measure evaporation from a mined surface and one in a vegetated unrnined area to determine evapotranspiration. TWo double-ring infiltrorneters were installed near the lysirreters, one on bare peat, the other on vegetated peat. During 1980 an evaporation pan will be added to the weather station at Corona. Additional infiltration data will be gathered with several infiltrorneters at Corona during 1980-81. s.H. 2\0 ' ~ Legend! \ /4 \/8 ~\\ome'er 0 ?;/4 -<--d\tch \/2. ~ gaug\ng s\a. nL------1- < \/4 O weather s\a. c.11J> undeve\oped • \'Js\rneter \_ O record·,ng we\\ <-.c. p preciP· gauge . • we\\ 17 Fens Although the Eens study area was originally ditched in 19-15, there has been extensive drainage and cultivation for only the past 25 }'ears (Clapp 191-6) (Figure 8) .._ Ditches are spaced at 5e and lETO rreters and average 2 rrete-:rn deep. This peatland is composed primarily of hemic reed-sedge-peat varying in thick ness from 0-.6 to 3.4 meters and averaqin~ 1.6 meters (Farnham and Grubich 19-70)-. The area; called Wilde:mes& Valley Fanas-, has been used for vegetable,_ soo.11 Figure 8. Aerial photograph of the Fens peatland reclamation area. 18 grain, and sod production in the past. The original vegetation consisted of · · alaer and t:arnarack ranging from 9 to 15 ~nBters tall with a diameter of 10 to 25 cm. The understo:r:y included grasses, ferns, heath plans, and Sphagnum (Clapp 1916-)-. Currently, Wilderness Valley Farms is the site of several peatland re clamation studies including agriculture, forestry,. sewage treatment, and waterfowl ponds .. (Figure 9) • Poth agriculture and forestry reclamation·. experi-' ments are being conducted on mined and unmined peat. Forest reclamation in cludes both fertilized and unfertilized treatrrents of several forest species. The three sewage treatn:en.t methods are the Finnish system, the peat-over sand filter, and sludge disposal. Two one-acre waterfowl ponds have been constructed, one with the bottom in peat, the other with the bottom in mineral soil. A control area is also being rronitored. Instrl:mentation at Wilderness Valley Fanns is extensive. One weather station is located at the fertilized forestry field (Fl) and includes a recording and nonrecording precipitation gauge; a recording air and peat therrro graph; evaporation pan; two bottomless lysirreters, one bare and the other vege tated; and two infiltrorneters, one bare and the other vegetated. Another recording precipitation gauge and a recording wind speed and direction meter are located at the Iron Range Resources and Rehabilitation Peard offices. Before reclamation studies commenced, runoff was rronitored at two locations, one draining the 93 ha north half, the other draining the 36 ha south half (Figure 9) • After reclamation studies began, these stations were abandoned because waters were coming from several different reclamation treatments. Currently, runoff is recorded using V-notched wiers and stilling wells at five locations: the two forestry unmined plots, the rn.iried area, and the two ponds. 19 v v v v v v v v v v SI 53 i"I S2 ..:1 .• v v v v v v v Legend: I Forestry Agriculture Sewage Fl = fertilized, unmined Al= mined SI= finnish F2 = unferti Ii zed, 11 A2=unmined S2= peat/sand filter F3 =fertilized, mined Pond S3=sludge F4 =unfertilized, 11 Pl =bottom in mineral soil C =Control ®Weather Station P2 =bottom in peat KILOMETERS A Gauging Station 1/4 1/2 3/4 0 1/8 1/4 1/2 MILES FIGURE 9: MAP SHOWING LOCATIONS OF RECLAMATION STUDIES AT WILDERNESS VALLEY FARMS. 20 To complete the water budget analyses, two recording wells 9Te installed, one in the unrnined forestry fertilized plot, the other in tfte ubmined agricultural field. In addition, 64 wells are located in the forestry mined and unrn.ined fields and the unrnined agricultural field. Soil suction lys.irreters have a.iso been in stalled in the unrn.ined forestry fields to monitor groundwater quality. 21 METHODS A. WATER QUANTITY To evaluate the potential effects of peat develop:rrent on water quantity, the following corrponents of the water balance equation were monitored: precip- itation, runoff, evapotranspiration, and change in storage. Infiltration and groundwater flow were also measured. To evaluate the effects of peat develop- ment on-peak discharge, response factor analysis was perforrred. The methods used to measure each component of the water balance equation and each process are discussed in greater detail. 1. Precipitation All four of the study areas were instrumented with weighing bucket Belfort universal recording rain gauges with battery clocks and Altar windshields.1 Clocks were weekly except at the Tamarac River, where a rronthly clock was used. To determine basin precipitation and adjust recording precipitation, standard 8-inch Belfort nonrecording rain gauges were used in the watersheds: 'Ibivola (11), Tamarac R. (3), Corona (3), and Fens (2). Rain gauges were run year- round with an antifreeze mixture of ethylene glycol, methyl alcohol, and lOW motor oil (Figure 10) • Basin precipitation was determined by averaging the gauge readings for the watershed. Winter snow water equivalent was determined from snow courses by using the .Mt. Rose snow tube as described by Haertel (1978) • 1 Names and products are given for the convenience of the reader and do not indicate endorsement by the College of Forestry. Similar types can be obtained from other suppliers. · 22 2. Runoff Runoff was rronitored using stilling wells and various types of control sections: wiers (Fens ponds and forestry plots) , a box culvert (Toivola) , circular culverts (Corona south and control), and a natural channel (Tamarac R.}. At Corona north, both the natural channel and a box flume have been used. Stage of the ditch or stream was recorded in stilling wells constructed of 12" dia:rreter PVC by using Belfort FW-1 portable water level recorders with battery clocks (Figure 11). Recorder clocks were weekly except at the Tamarac River, where they were monthly. Discharge stations were shut down during the winter of 1977-78 but were kept running during the winter of 1979-80 by using propane pilot light heaters. Discharge was determined from stage data by using rating equations developed from numerous discharge measurements obtained with a Gurley pygmy current rreter and revolution counter. Law· flaws at Corona on several occasions required using the salt-dilution technique for discharge: where Q = discharge (cfs) , q = constant rate of added salt concentration (cfs = gpm x 0.00223), c0 = background specific conductivity (µmhos/cm), c1 = specific conductivity of salt solution, and c2 = specific conductivity of ditch after mixing (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1967). 23 Figure 10. Photogxapl1 of the Toivo-la weather station. Figure 11. Photograph of the north pond outlet showing stilling well, recorder, and wier. 24 3. _Evapotr~piration . . . ·Monthly pot.ential evapotranspiratl.on (PET) was determined for all study areas by using the method. of Thornthwaite and Mather (19 57) ·. This method uses mean monthly te:rrperature and station latitude in the relationships~ PET == l. 6 (l~T) A 514 and I == .l:i >wlier~'. .i == (T /5) l. M ' 7 3 5 2 and A== 6. 75 x 10- (I) - 7. 71 x 10- (,I) + l.792~x,1Q- 2 (I) + 0.49239 where PET ~-:;;;: ~eritlal evapotranspiration (cm) , T = mean monthly temperature 0 ( c) , TM == normal mean monthly temperature (°c) , and i == monthly heat index. Monthly values of.PET are adjusted for day'lehgth-using correction factors based ·on station latitude. Mean monthly temperature was obtained from a recording Belfort thenrograph with battery clock in a standard instrument shelter (Figure 10). Initially, all charts except at the Tamarac River were weekly, but since only daily maximum and minimum temperatures were needed, clocks were ma.de monthly. Vegetated bottomless lysimeters were used to estimate evapotranspiration at all areas except at the .Tamarac River. . Lysimeters at Fens were constructed of 10 ga·. _galvanized corregated cUiverts .. 1.2 m in diameter by L8 m deep and installed by.gradual lowering and pressing as outside peat layers were removed by using apost hold digger (Figure 12) .. TQ.e remaining lysimeters were con structed of 16 ga. galvanized sheet metal 1.2 m deep by 0.9 m in diarreter. These smooth wall lysimeters were much easier to press into the peat. All lysirneters were sunk to the mineral substrate underlying the peat. Aluminum water talbe wells were installed inside and outside the lysimeters to IIEasure 25 FIGURE 12. PHOTOGRAPHS OF VEGETATED AND BARE LYSIMETERS AT FENS. . ·' 26 water levels. Evapotranspiration was dete:rmi.ned from changes in lysiroeter water levels by using water yield coefficients (see Change in Storage section). Additional lysimeters without any surface vegetation were installed at Fens and Corona to dete:rmi.ne evaporation from an exposed (mined) peat surface. Generally, weekly lys.inEter readings were taken during the frost-free period. A standard U.S. Weather Bureau evaporation pan was also used at Fens during 1979 to estimate evapotranspiration (Figure 13). The water balance method was also used to estimate ET on all areas by using the equation: ET = P - RO ± llS where ET = evapotranspiration, P = precipitation, RO = runoff, and ti.S = change in -storage. · The llS .term was not used for. the Tamarac River watershed. Figure 13. Photograph of the evaporation pan at Fens. 27 4. Change in Storage The change in storage was detennined from recording and nonrecording water table wells. Recording wells, located on all areas except the Tamarac River, were constructed of 15 cm diameter PVC pipe that was perforated and pressed into a hole made with a post hole digger. Water table levels were rroni tored by using a Belfort water level recorder. Recording wells were shut down during the winter of 1977-78, but the Corona well and the Fens forestry well were kept running during the winter of 1979-80 by using propane pilot light heaters (Figure 14) • Nonrecording water table wells were constructed of 3.8 cm O.D. aluminum tubing that was perforated and pinched at one end and pounded into the peat. Levels were nm each year on well top elevations. Biweekly readings were taken with a bubbler tube. Water yield coefficients, used to convert the change in water level to the change in storage, were detennined by correlating precipitation arrount to the rise in water level over a short time span by using the methods described by Heikurainen (1963). 5. Infiltration Several infiltration curves were nm for bare and vegetated sites at Fens and Corona with double ring infiltrorneters by using the methods described by Black et al. (1965) except that a shorter time period of 90 minutes and a constant head of 9 cm were used (Figure 15) • 28 Figure 14. Photograph of the recording well with heater at Fens. Figure 15. Photograph of double-ring infiltrometer at Fens. 29 6. Groundwater Flow Sixty piezarneters in clusters of three at 1.6 km spacings were located throughout the Toivola peatland along two transects (Figure 3). Piezometers were constructed of 3.8 cm 0.D. aluminum tubing that was pinched and perforated at one end. At each of 20 stations, a cluster of piezometers was installed at three depths: at the bottom of the peat or 3. 66 m whichever was less, at 0. 6 to 1 .. 0 m below the surface, and at an interrrediate depth between the forrrer two. Piezometers were placed in a line aJ::xmt 3 m apart with the cluster being at least 15 m from the access trail. Piezorreter runs were made :rronthly by using a Muskeg Carrier bombadier. Elevations of piezometers and the peat surface were detennined from benchmarks made of galvanized pipe augered through the peat into the mineral substrate. 7. Response Factors The hydrologic response factor is the ratio of stormflow to precipitation where stormflow equals total flow minus baseflow (Hewlett and Hibbert 1967; Hewlett and Moore 1976). Precipitation events greater than 3.8 nm were used for the analysis of response factors at Toivola and Corona. A variable base flow separation line was detennined for each hydrograph beginning at the hydro graph rise and ending at the inflection point of the recession. Basin lag times were calculated as the time from the centroid of the total precipitation event to the peak discharge. 30 8. Surrmary The pericxl of record for each coinponent of the water balance equation for each area studied is given in Table 2- from installation to May 31, 19 80-. More winter data was collected during the second year of the project. 31 BLE 2 . co PON EN COMPONENT/AREA 1978 19 0 PBECIPITATIQN Toivola Tamarac River Corona Fens I RUNOFF - Toivola Tamarac River Corona - North 11 - South · - Control Fens-North - South - 1111111111 11111 -North Pond - -South Pond - -N. Forestry ..- - S. Forestry - -Mined -- EVAPOTRANSPIRATIQN Thornthwaite Toivola Tamarac River - -- Corona Fens - Lysimeter - Toivola II 11111 111 1111111 Corona{2) llltlilUlllll-111111 1111111 Fens{2) II II 111111111 1111 1111111 6. STORAGE Toivola Corona - Fens- N. Forestry S. Forestry -· I 1111111 I I Agricu I tu re Mined I I I - G.W, Flow -Toivola I 1111 I I I I ( 1) -Indicates instantaneous measurement. 32 B. WA'IER QUALITY Water quality samples were collected from both surface and ground water. Samples were collected weekly from study area outlets during 1978 and rronthly in 1979. Samples were not taken during smnmer when flow ceased or during winter when the stream froze to the bottom. The methods used for determining water quality values are separated into collection, preservation and storage, and analysis. 1. Collection Samples were collected in polyethylene bottles that had been washed with no-phosphate detergent and rinsed in acid and distilled water. Samples were taken just below the water surface with care given to prevent disturbing the bottom. In-situ measurements were made of temperature, dissolved oxygen, and specific conductivity by using the appropriate instrum:mts (Table 3) • pH was measured immediately from one of the collected sarnples. Sediment samples were collected in prewashed glass bottles by using a DH-48 depth integrated sampler except in shallow water when a grab sample was taken to prevent bottom stirring of sediment. 2. Preservation and Storage All sarnples rerroved from the site for later analysis were kept in cold storage at 4°c in a 12V/110 refrigerator/freezer. Refrigeration inhibits bacterial action and retards chemical reaction rates (U.S .. Environmental Protection Agency 1976). No additional preservative was used for color, alkalinity, acidity, or suspended sediment, which were analyzed within 24 hours. Nitrogen and phosphorus forms were preserved at the site with HgC1 , a bacterial 2 inhibitor, to give a concentration of 40 rrg/l. A 5 ml sample for metals and a 33 Table 3. Methods of water quality analysis. Constituent Method Terrperature YSI Model 33 S-C-T Metera Specific conductivity YSI Model 33 S-C-T Metera Dissolved oxygen YSI Model 57 Oxygen Metera % saturation Rawson's Norr:ograrn pH Radiorceter PiiM 29 pH Meterb Color Hellige Aqua Testerc Acidity Titration to pH 8.3d Alkalinity Titration to pH 4.6d Suspended sedim:mt Fitration - .45 glass fiber filter K, Ca, Mg, Al, Fe, Na Inductively Coupled Emmission Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Pb, Ni, Cr, Cd Spectroscopy (Plasrna)e Hg AA cold water vapor technique£ As AA Gaseous hydride Se AA Gaseous hydride Total phosphorus Technicon Auto Analyzer II - digestedg Total kjeldahl nitrogen Technicon Auto Analyzer II - digestedh N0 + N0 -N Technicon Auto Analyzer IIi 3 2 NH -N Technicon Auto Analyzer 4 I~ Organic-N TKN - (NH4-N) ainstruction Manual, Yellow Springs Instrurrent Co., Yellow Springs, Ohio 45387. binstruction Manual, Radiorreter, Copenhagen. cHellige Inc. Tech. Info. No. 611-9. dStandard Methods for the examination of water and waste water. 14th ed. 1976. APHA. eSpectrochiroica Acta. Vol. 32B. Pp. 327-345. Pergarron Press. 1977. England. £Environmental Protection Agency. 19 72. Provisional Method. gTechnicon Industrial Method AAII. no. 100-71W, Nov .. 1971. ~echnicon Industrial Method AAII. no. 325-7 4W, Sept. 19 7 4. iTechnicon Industrial Method AAIL no. 100-70W, Jan. 1971. 34 250-ml sa:rrple for mercury, arsenic and selenium were preser,ted at the site with concentrated HCL at a ratio of 1: 5 to ·give a pH < 2. 0. Acidification prevents metal precipitation (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1976). 3. Analysis Water quality samples were analyzed at three different locations: at the site, the Cloquet Forestry Center Laboratory, and the Research .Analytical Laboratory in St. Paul. In-situ measurements were made of temperature, specific conductivity, and dissolved oxygen by using the appropriate field instrument (Table 3) . Specific conductivity was corr~cted to 25°c (American Public Health Association 1976). The percent oxygen saturation was obtained from Rawson's nornogram by using tenperature and oxygen concentrations. pH was determined imrediately at the site by using a field meteL Measurements of color, acidity, alkalinity, and suspended sediment were performed at the Cloquet Forestry Center Laboratory within 24 hours after sample collection. Apparent color (unfiltered) was determined with the Hellige Agua Tester and color discs. Based on the A.P.H.S. - Hazen Platinum - Cobalt Scale, one color ill1it is equivalent to the color of water containing 1 mg/l of plati num. Dilutions were used for colors beyond 70 lll1its. Acidity was determined by titration of a 200-ml sample with O.OJ.N NaOH to pH 8.3. Alkalinity titra tions were to pH 4.6 with O.OlN HCT.i. Suspended sediment samples were analyzed by filtration through a 0~45 µ glass fiber filter. A bank of six samples was rill1 simultaneously with millipore filter flasks and a vacuum ptmp. The remaining samples were analyzed at the Research .Analytical Laboratory in St. Paul. The 14 cations were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy. Mercury was determined by the atomic-absorption (M) 35 cold vapor technique. Both arsenic and selenium were analyzed by the AA i gaseous hydride method. Concentrations of total phosphorus and total Kjeldahl nitrogen were determined by digesting with fuming sulphric acid, with mercuric oxide as a catalyst and then analyzed on a three-channel Technicon Autoanalyzer II. This :rrethod for total Kjeldahl nitrogen includes amronia and most organic nitrogen corrpounds but does not include nitrate or nitrite-nitrogen. Nitrate and nitrite, and amronia concentrations were also determined on the Auto- analyzer II (Table 3). Organic-nitrogen was detennined as the difference between total Kjeldahl nitrogen and arrmonia-nitrogen. The Detection limits for analysis perfonred at the Research Analytical Laboratory are given in Table 4. Table 4. Detection limits for water quality analysis. Detection Detection Constituent limit (mg/l) Constituent limit (rng/l) K <.75 Total P <.01 Pb . <.13 Total KN <.l <.12 Na N03 + N02-N <.l Ni <.04 NO -N <.01 2 Zn <.03 NH -N 37 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. WA'IER QUANTITY Water quantity results for the first two years of the study include water budgets, storrnflCM, water table fluctuations, groundwater flow, and infiltration rates. 1. Water Budgets Monthly water budgets for the Toivola, Corona, and Tamarac River peat lands are given in Figures 16, 17, and 18 and Tables 5, 6, 7, respectively. Monthly water budgets were determined from the water balance equation: P = PET + RO ± R where P = precipitation, PET = potential evapotranspiration, RO = runoff, and R = residual. A change in storage tenn (~S) was included in the Corona water budget. The year 1979 rather than 1978 was used for the Tamarac River because a longer period of record existed. Daily values for water balance components, except evapotranspiration, are shCMn in Figures 19, 20, and 21 for Toivola, Corona, and the Tamarac River, respectively. Water budgets are discussed with respect to each component. a. Precipitation Annual precipitation arrounts for Toivola and Corona indicate above nonnal precipitation at Toivola in 1978 and 1979 and belav normal precipitation at Corona for the two years (Table 8) • Generally, annual precipitation was greater in 1979 than in 1978 for the areas studied. 38 8 200 TOIVOLA-1978 WATER BUDGET D Pre-cipitaHon :c t F!':a Potential ET z :c t- 6 I Runoff 150~ z a:: 0 w :?! a.. a:: Cf) ~4 100 a:: w Cf) t w w :c u ~ z ...J 2 50 ...J ~ OJ F MAM J J N D O 8 200 Precipitation :c t- 2 ~ 6 I z 150 ~ 0 0: :?! w a.. 0::: ~4 Potential 100 ~ Evapotranspiration ~ CJ) / w / / w :c ( :? u I I ...J z 2 . . I / \/ 50 ...J . / ... I ...... :? I -...... Runoff I I ,,,,..""' OJ F M,,,,. A M J· J A S 0 N ·o 0 MONTH-1978 FIGURE16: MONTHLY WATER BUDGET FOR TOIVOLA-- 1978. 3-9 8 CORONA-1978 0 Precipitation 200 I 7 WATER BUDGET ~Potential ET 1- I Runoff z J: 6 I- II Storage 150~ z 0::: 05 w ::E a_ 0: 4 100 en w 0::: . a.. 3 w U) 1- ~ 2 50 ~ u z ....J - I ....J :?! 0 -, J 8 200 Precipitation I 7 ...... z J: 6 150° I- :?! 0::: 55 w ::E a.. Potential 0: 4 100 CJ) w Eva pot ra nspirat ion ...... 0::: a.. 3 ·, w U) 1- w / / Runoff°"'\'· J: 2 50 u I \ . ~ zl //:::,.Storage~·~" ...... ~\ ...... J ...... / ,(..··· \ ,...... J .. -:·::::'-.1"·· ...... ··;/' \\ \._:···· ...... ·o 1--~~...... ,,___~~--~--~~~--~~~~-----tO ', / \ _, '/ ~~---- -1 " - -25 J F M A M J J A S 0 N D MONTH-1978 FIGURE 17: MONTHLY WATER BUDGET FOR CORONA., 1978. 40 6------150 TAMARAC RIVER-1979 D Precipitation ± WATER BUDGET ~ Potential ET ...... I z ...... I Runoff 0 z ~ 100 a:: ~4 w a:: 0.. w 0.. Cf) 0::: (/) w f- ~2 50 w u ~ z _J _J ~ 0 J F M A M 6 150 I ...... I z ...... 0 z ~ ~4 100 0::: w a:: 0.. w 0.. Cf) 0::: (/) w w I2 50 ~ u z ~ ...... ~Runoff _J ...... ··· ... _J ··························· ... ~ 0 0 J FM AM J J AS 0 ND MONTH-1979 FIGURE 18: MONTHLY WATER BUDGET FOR TAMARAC RIVER - 1979. 41 Table 5. Monthly water budget for Toivola, 1978. Potential Month Precipitation Evapotranspiration Runoff Residuala ------centirreters ------January 1.02 0.00 1.02 February 1.35 0.00 1.35 March 1.65 0.00 .18 1.47 April 4.98 1.22 5.79 2.03 May 8.66 6.96 2.62 .91 June 8.69 9.32 3.56 4.19 July 14.50 10.87 3.76 0.13 August 20.65 9.93 6.07 4.65 September 6.07 6.65 4.83 5.41 October 2 .. 34 2.44 1.63 1. 73 November 3.40 0.00 .76 2.64 December 2.69 0.00 2.69 Total 76.00 47.40 29.18 -0.58 % of precipitation 100 62.4 38.4 -0.01 a R = P - PET - RO 11 42 Table 6. Monthly water budget for Co~ona north, 1978. Potential Month Precipitation Evapotranspiration Runoff 6 Storage Residuala ------centineters ------January 0.53 0.00 .53 February 0.99 0.00 .99 March 2.06 0.00 .13 1.93 April 6.38 0.71 2.11 -1.07 4.62 May 6.81 5. 77 0.36 - .13 .81 June 7.34 7.59 0.58 -2.06 1.30 July 11.15 9.52 1.02 .71 - .10 August 19.56 8.43 2.62 3.66 4.85 September 5.92 5.28 3.61 -2.39 - .58 October 2.13 0.64 2.11 -1.32 .71 November 3.02 0.00 1.47 -1.63 3.18 December 2.51 0 .. 00 0.00 - .74 3.25 Total 68.40 37.95 13.92 -4.83 21.49 % of 100 55.5 precipitation 20.3 -7.2 31.4 a R = P - PET - RO ± 6S 43 Table 7. Monthly water budget for the Tamarac River, 1979 Potential Month Precipitation Evapotranspiration Runoff Residuala ------centimeters ------Start of record June 1, 1980 ------June 12 .. 29 8 .. 79 2.08 1..40 July 12 .. 09 12 .. 40 2.87 -3 .. 18 August 6 .. 76 9 .. 52 .76 -3.53 September 5.41 6 .. 83 1..30 -2 .. 72 October 9.60 2 .. 29 .30 6.86 November 0.74 o.. oo 2.34 -1.60 December 4.01 0 .. 00 .56 3.45 Total 50.90 39.83 10 .. 24 0.84 % of 100 78 20 precipitation 2 a R = P - PET - RO 44 TOIVOLA --~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--60 en 2 PRECIPITATION ~ 40 E ~I 20 E 0.3------RUNOFF Cl) 6 w 0.2 I 4E u E z 0.1 2 0'------~------~..16----~~------=;;.-~Q J F M D MONTHLY 4 POTENTIAL ET 100 80 Cl) 3 w I 60 E ~2 E - 40 20 0 OJ F M A M J J A s 0 N D 2 I- · GROUND 5 tj .I WATER LEVEL LL Olf\ OE ± -.I Peat Surface ~/ u a..I- -2. - 5 ~ -.3 -10 JFMAMJJASOND MONTH-1978 FIGURE19: DAILY VALUES OF WATER BALANCE COMPONENTS FOR THE TOIVOLA PEATLAND-1978. 45 CORONA 4 100 PRECIPITATION 80 3 (/) w 60 E Iu 2 E z- 40 20 0 0 J F M A M J J A s 0 N 0 6 (/) 0.2 RUNOFF w I 4E ~ 0.1 2 E 0 0 J F M A M J J A s 0 N 0 l 4 MONTHLY lOO POTENTIAL ET 80 cn3 w I 60 E E u2z 40 20 0 0 J F M A M J J A s 0 N 0 t- 10 E ~o 0 u LL I I GROUND 20 I :r: I WATER t- t- 0.. LEVEL 40~ ~2 60° J F M A M J J A s 0 N D MONTH-19 FIGURE D ILY AND MON HLY VALUES ER BALANCE PONENTS CORONA P 46 TAMARAC RIVER DAILY (/) PRECIPITATION 400::: w (/) J w w II ~ u 2Q_J z _J ~ MONTHLY POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION 4 100 (/) a::: w (/)w 3 J I w u ~ Z2 so::l :?; 0 0 J F M A M J J A s 0 N D .08 .0 DAILY RUNOFF (/) .06 I. 5 a::: (/) w w J- I w u .04 1.0 ~ z _J _J .02 0.5~ 0 0 J F M A M J J A MONTH-1979 FIGURE 21: DAILY AND MONTHLY VALUES OF WATER BALANCE COMPONENTS FOR THE TAMARAC RIVER PEATLAND, 1979. 47 Table 8.. Annual and normal precipitation for peatland .study .areas. Precipitation (cm) National Weather Area Normal 1978 1979 Service Station Toivola 71.20 76.00 80.85b Meadowlands •ramarac R. 66.95 38.05a 50~90 Big Falls Corona 76.89 68.90 73.99 ClCXillet Fens 70.97 40.51 5-4.94c Virginia a June--October b June-December c April-December In northern Minnesota, about 20 percent of the annual precipitation occurs in the fonn of snow, anounting to about 12.7 cm CS inches) of water each year (Weitzman and Bay 1959). &ince the spring snowrrelt period usually produces the highest peak discharges, snow accumulation and- timing of melt. are important aspects of snowpack water yield that may be- altered by peatland development. Snowpack accumulation is generally influenceo by wind and the presence of obstacles, such as vegetation, which affects air rroveREnt (Kuz 'min 1973). Snowrnelt is strongly influenced by vegetative shading (Solomon et al. 1975) . Based upon snow surveys conducted at Corona and Fens in 1978, more snow accumulated in natural undisturbed areas than in cleared open are-as (Haertel 1978). The natural areas accumulated about 1.7 to 1.8 t~s as much snow as the open areas (Table 9). It is likely that snow blows off the open areas. Sno-w also remained longer in the natural areas than in the open (Figure 22) • The snow water equivalent in natural areas was about ten times more variable than in the cleared open areas. 48 11 FENS ~ 10 u I 9 ~ 8 w _J 7 Table 9. . Mean snow water equivalent for natural and open areas at Corona and Fens on March 16-17, 1978. Mean sncw water ~qui valent {cm} 2 Location Natural Open df s t Corona 7.23 4.34 49 6.277 4.06** Fens· 9.78 5.34 42 11.053 4.20** ** significant at 0 .1%·,. level. For both the 1978-79 and 1979-80 winters, the Toivola area had more snow water equivalent than either Corona or Fens (Table 10). Table 10 . . .Mean snow water equivalent at Toivola, Corona, and Fens for the winters 19.78-79 and l979-80 ~ · · :Mean snow· water equivalent (Cm) Location 1978-79 1979-80 Toivola 8.70 6.24 Corona 4 .. 34 4.47 Fens- -S.34 -s.11 .. · -::; Tbq;nthwaite potent~al evapq~anspiration JPET) was theprifnacy method. fqr init~ally ~s-t::~ting, :ET from ~e ptudy areas .. Since partial data mtl.st for t;h?. Tamarac ID. ve~ and Fa:is ,wa ters17.eds ~ .only T9ivola: and _Corona are dis-:- .. cussed_ (Tab~e. l_l) .. As ~xpecte?-, PET was sirnilp.r f:rorn both a,reas because the method ,used i$ based_..primarily on ternperature;-~hich did not differ grea:tly. Because lc:Meri:q.g tt:ie_.water table has been reported to reduce evapotranspira- tion, several_o1:11er.meth()ds of estimating evapotranspiration.were used in- eluding: water balance, evaporation pan, and lysimeters (Romanov 1961, Heikurainen and Laine 1968, Boelter, 1972, and Paivanen 1976). 50 Table 11. Annual Thornthwaite potential evapotranspiration at Toivola and Corona for the years lg78.and 1979. PET (cm) % 0-f p Location 1978 1979 1978 1979 Toivola 47.40 4-2. 52 62.4 52.6 Corona 37.95 42.88 55.5 ss.a Annual water balance ET was- dete.rmined witJi the eqiaation: ET = P - RO - 6S where ET = evapotranspiration, P = precipitation, RO = runoff, and 68 = change in storage. Water balance ET was 96 and 157 percent of Thomthwaite PET at To-i vola and Corona, respectively. Such a high water balance ET at Corona is not expected and since there was a large residual in the water balance there may be a large groundwater input 'Table 6) • Additional years will substantiate these results. Pan evap'.)ration at Fens during 1979 was 118 percent ef- Thornthwaite PET which yields a pan coefficient. of e.85-. During--1980 evaporat.ion pans will. be maintained at both Fens and Corona. bysirreter ET (vegetated) waR detennined at Toivola-, Corona,__ and Fens during 1979 and lysimeter E (bare)- was neasured at Corona- and Fens (Table 12}. Unexpectedly, 1ysirneter ET exceeded PET at all stations, but leakage is suspected. Additional years of record will clarify this- preliminary result.. Lysime1:er evaporation f ram the unvegetated peat surface at Corona and Fens was less than evapotranspiration from vegetated lysiroeters. Evaporation was 68 percent of ET at Corona and 4 7 percent of ET at Fens in 1979. Clearing peatlands of live vegetation on drained sites appears to reduce evapotranspiration. 51 Table 12. Annual Thornthwaite PET, lysimeter ET and E at Toivola, Cbrona; and Fens, 1979. Thornthwaite Lxsirreter PET Evapotranspiration Evaporation g,. I.Dea tion cm cm a of PET an 9--a of PET Toivola 48.77 60.12 138 corona 42.88 44.86 105 30.43 71 Fens 45.34 58.45 129 27.38 60 Correlations of rronthly evapotransp~ration determined by different methods indicate that Th.omthwaite PET was significantly correlated to lys.iireter E and ET but not t? pan ev~poration at the 5% level. The following regression equations were also detenni..ned: Lysirreter ET = 1.24 (Thornthwai ~ PET) - 0.81 R2 = 0.949* Lysirreter ET = 1.31 (pan evaporation) - 0.93 R2 = 0.808* --2. ··- . . Lys.imater_E . = 1..19 (Thornthwaite .. PE'.r) -. 0. 64 R ::: 0.978* where_._ ET., E, .and PET. are in .. inches. These .. re1ationships __ are quite different from those reported by Bay (19 66) • c. Runoff Annual area runoff from Corona was ~alf the runoff frcm Toivola and accounted for 20.3 percent_o,f precipitation as compared to 36.6 perc;:ent at -~ .. ···- ..... Toivola (Tables 5, 6). Better comparisons will be made with Corona control in the future.. Annual runoff has usually increased after draii-iage of for- ested·peatlands (Heiktirainen 1964, Hliikari' 1968, Seuna 1974, Mustonen and Seuna l975) and after drainage· and cultivation (Bulavko and Drozd 1975,.- Mikulski and Lesniak 1975, Burke 1975). The effects of drainage and peat mihing · on annual runoff have not been reported in the literature. Discharge from both Toivola and Corena ceased during the winter when the outlets froze 52 solid to the bottom of the channel. These results crre considered quite pre- lim:inary and will be furt.h.er substantiated over the next two years._ d. Change in storage Monthly change in storage was determined from continuous water table measurements (Figures 19, 20) • The change in water level over thfr period was converted to cllange in storage by using the water yield coefficients of 14 and 12 percent for Corona and Fe.ns, respectively. No satisfactory water yield co- efficient was determined for Toivola and additional methods will be used during the next two years. I-t is evident from Su:rtll.'fer water table fluctuations that the change in storage at Toivola was much less than at Co-rona~ or Fens (Table 13r. Such results are expeeted sinee Toivola is undrained.- Table 13. Water table fluctuations for the frost-free period for study watersheds. /j water level (cm} location 1918 1979_ Toivola -1.52 -5.79 Corona -46 .·9-4 -68-58 Fens Forestry -40.54 -107.76 Fens Agriculture -llQ.64 e ..-- Water budget surrn:nary Based upon prelimina:r:y water boogets developed for the- study areas it would appear that draining and clearing peatlands result in reduced evapoEran- spiration and increased storage. Annual runoff was unexpectedly less from the mined Corona area in corrparison to the natural areas but no conclusion can be made as to the effect of mining on annual runoff at this time. The seasonal 53 change in water level was less at Toivola while daily water level fluctuations appear to be greater on the drained and mined area (Figures 19, 20). 2. Stonnflow Questions have been raised about the effect of peat mining on peak flow and the timing of flow. Response factors were quite similar for Toivola and Corona, but the mined area had a shorter basin lag time to peak discharge (Table 14). However, the nmoff efficiency was lower at Corona than Toivola, resulting in lower stonnflow volumes. The 1978 peak discharge on an area basis was greater at Corona than Toivola while the mean daily area discharge for Toivola was about twice as great as Corona in 1978. Table 14. Stonnflow characteristics for the Toivola and Corona watersheds.a Characteristic Toivola Corona b 9-,. Mean response factor 0 2.9 2.0 9-,. Std. dev. 0 0.0264 0.0178 Mean base line slope cfs/hr .0181 .00183 a Mean lag time hrs 12.30 8.36 Std .. dev. hrs 5.232 3.296 9-:o Runoff efficiencyc 0 37 20 1978 max. discharge CSM 8.0 10.9 3 1978 mean discharge CSM 2.0 x 10 -3 0.9 x·10- a .Storms: Toivola (n = 14) , Corona (n = 6) .. b Response factor = stonn:Elow + precipitation c Runoff efficiency = annual RO + annual P. 54 Significant correlations between the response factor and precipitation, peak discharg·e,, and direct runoff occurred at both Toivola and Corona (Figure 23)., The response factor, direct. runoff, and peak discharge were also found to vary with precipitation (Figures 23, 24, 25). Lag time did not correlate well with other parameterso Although some corrparisons have been made between the Toivola and Corona mined watersheds, the effects of mining on stormflow cannot be determined until enough data. exists to corrpare Corona control against Corona mined. 3. Groundwater Flow 2 Generally, groundwater was found to move horizontally through the 37.8 km Toivola watershed (Figures 26 1 27)., Flow lines are perpendicular to equipotential lines. The flow direction is from high potential to low. FlQV.7 patterns during a wet period (July 5, 1979) changed during a dry period (August 16, 1979). More downward movement occurred during- the wet period and more up ward movement during the dry period. This change in flow direction is especially evident for the west transect (Figure 27) .. Along the transects from the top of the watershed to the bottom there were no consistent regions of recharge (dovm. ward movement) or discharge (upward movement). 4,, Water Table Fluctuations Daily water table levels at Toivola and Corona are sho~m in Figures 19 and 20 v for one site within each peatland@ During most of the year, water levels fluctuated within 10 cm of the surface at Toivola and from 20 to 60 cm a.t Corona" Water table profiles at Corona in 1978 sho/17 that the local effect of (::>.xtended a.bout rn into the field (Figure 28) Water table pro= the Corona 1979 showed 55 o CORONA z 0.10 ...... !::. TOIVOLA TOIVOLA : RF = 0.0772 PPT- 0.0107 z 2 R =0.57** I er 0 I- ~ 0.05 LL w u z !::. CORONA: RF =0.0612 PPT- o.or31 0 !::. R =0.92** a.. en w er 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 PRECIPITATION - INCHES FIGURE 2.3: RESPONSE FACTOR AS A FUNCTION OF PRECIPITATION FOR CORONA AND TOIVOLA. o CORONA fi3 0.10 !::. TOIVOLA I u z I LL TOIVOLA : ORO = 0.0909 PPT- 0.027 LL 2 0 R =o.sa** so.05 er 1- u w er R 2 = 0.94** 0 0-.--'---d-----~------~-----_...---....JL----...... _~~~...... __ 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 PRECIPITATION - iNCHES FIGURE 24: DIRECT RUNOFF AS A FUNCTION OF PRECIPITATION FOR CORONA AND TOIVOLA. 5& o CORONA f),. 50 ~ TOIVOLA (/) '+- TOIVOLA: PQ = 28.886 PPT + 4.467 u 40 R2 = 0.34* I w (.!) a:: 30 ~ 10 w a_ 0----~--~--~--~--~--~--~--~--~--0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 PRECIPITATION - INCHES 0 1.0 (/) '+- u t 0.8 w 0 (.!) ~0.6 I CORONA: PQ = 1.616 PPT- 0.326 u R2 0.00** CJ) 0.4 = 0 0 0 ~0.2 w a_ 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 PRECIPITATION- INCHES FIGURE 25: PEAK DISCHARGE AS A FUNCTION OF PRECIPITATION FOR CORONA AND TOIVOLA. 57 0 1600 2400 3200 .4000 4800 5600 6400 r2oo(m) 1288 SOUTH _J 5 Was> EAST TRANSECT 26 ~84 7-5-1979 25 <{ 82 w (/) 80 82.50 24 ~7 •85.74 • 0 82.44 • 81.06 al76 84.25 79.45• 23 <{ 78.35• I- 74 • 84,27. 82.49 81.03 • 22 W72w 79.46 LL 82.53• 78.11• r 70 79.36• z 21 Q 68 I- <{ 66 20 > W64 _J W62 19 1260 0 3 6 9 12 I~ 18 21 24 DI ST AN CE - FEET tx I 0 0 0) 800 1600 2400 3200 4000 4800 5600 6400 12oo{m) 1288 _J SOUTH - Was 5 > EAST TRANSECT 26 ~84 s-16-1979 <{ 82 25 w (/) 80 water w tcrble 24 > 78. 87.91 0 CD 76 <{ 23 ..... 74 77.86 wW72 • 22 lL. I 70 z 21 Q 68 I <{ 66 > 20 W64 _J w 62 19 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 DI STAN-CE - FEET (XIOOO) FIGURE 26: EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES FOR THE TOIVOLA EAST TRANSECT (numbers indicate hydraulic head at that point). 58- o-:-;.~:__~~~~~~~=...:.~~~:=;:.~~_.:..;:;;::.;:::_~-=-=r-=-~__;:..=r:..=.-~--=-~:-:----::::-~~~--=-.;;.r-;~ (m) 800 1soo 2400 3200 4000 4000 5600 6400 1200 eooo NORTH SOUTH E WEST TRANSECT -26 7-5-1979 25 24 peat surface 23 table 22 21 20 19 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 DISTANCE- FEET ( x 1000) o (m) 800 1soo 2400 3200 4000 4800 5600 6400 7200 8000 SOUTH E WEST TRANSECT -26 8-16-1979 25 24 table 23 22 21 20 19 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 DISTANCE-FEET (x 1000) FIGURE 27 EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES FOR THE TOIVOLA WEST TRANSECT (numbers indicate hydraulic head at that point). METERS 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 METERS 3.5 11 50 100 150 ______...... :..r~S_o_il Surface -i . 2 0 10 mI> I r,r--.-.~~::: ... -:-.::-=..-::::.::::.-:.:-.::..., =..,-..,.~ I ~ NORTH I I Ii,8 '·<:----...... I I ~ ~j:: 5 I 1?,...... -·--·--:-::::.:::::.:-:::-., ·--·::..r...... -., .. ,.~:-:...... '·,.'\I'~ I 1. s :ew 1Ir 9~ ~ I i . ·.. ""'!;--'t::l 11 2.5 U1 iil 4 WEST EAST LJ 11 \...0 en 150 300 450 A 11 0:: DISTANCE-FEET ,..-1 1- UJ . I t t- / II 11 2.0w _,./ / ~ ::e ·-·-·-·-·-·- ..,. ,/,.. //.:1~ 11 ,, ···.. ·- '<:·-,/, / ...... ~~11 ...... ··········· ...:::::.:::-.:::: :::::::::. ::-:. .-::: .'.::::.,,,, ---·--.,,,,., .....-::- ... .-:::-.:-::: =.::.::::: ...... 11 '·--~~ ~ ::::::.::::>.. \\\ 1.5 Date: fi~ I -----~~~T ~ ...... ,..... 6/22 CORONA-1978 1.0 -·-;-·-·· 7113 --·--· 8/16 2 0 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 DISTANCE-FEET FIGURE26; WATER TABLE PROFILES AT CORONA-1978. 60 table follows the surface contours of the peatland (Figure 29). Correlations between recording and nonrecording water levels will be made so that only recording values are needed to determine change in storage. 5. Infiltration The infiltration capacity' on the vegetated plot was greater than on the nonvegetated site at Fens (Table 15). The Corona mined area had the lowest infiltration capacities. Flooding of the base peat surfaces at Fens and Corona during tests appeared to cause puddling which reduced infiltration rates during subsequent infiltration tests (Figure 30). Milling of the peat surface may interrupt puddling. Reduced infiltration capacities for extended periods could result in rrore overland flow and quicker storm.flow response. Table 15. Final infiltration rates for peat and mineral soils. Final infiltration rate (cm/hr) IDcation First run Mean Std. Dev. Fens vegetated 39.9 32.8 5.3 Fens bare 39.6 22.2 13.0 Corona bare 9.9 3.9 3.1 a IDamy fine sand 3LO Silt loamb 4.6 a Rhodes et al. (1964). b Linnartz et al. (1~66). METERS 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 WEST EAST r·O ~ i6 Date~ ~ 15 -----5/30 4.5 I 14 -·-·-·-7/12 CJ) ··················· 11 /9 z 4.0 0: (J'I 0 13 ,.~~ w I-' / "'-···-··=- ...... "'· ...... ~- 12 ~/,r..~··· ...... ~ ~,· ...... 80 er 30 ::r: 70 '~ 25 w 60 ~ er er ::r: 20 50 z ::1:' 0 817 u ~ 15 40 er 8/24 I- _J 9/18 30 LL. 9/19 ~ 20 10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 TIME - MINUTES 200.J'.i J:510 35 FENS - BARE SOIL 90 er 80 ::r: 30 ~' 70 25 w 60 ~ er er 20 50 ~ z ::1: 0 u ~ 200 J.:510 80 er CORONA - BARE SOIL ::r: 30 70 '~ 25 w 60 I- 8/7 10 8/17 ,..-Biii 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 Tl ME - MINUTE FIGURE 30= INFILTRATION RATES AT FENS AND CORONA. 63 B. WATER QUALITY Water quality results for the first two years of the study include a characterization of each study area, nutrient loading, mining effects, reclama tion effects, downstream assimilation studies, and water quality relationships. 1. Study Area Characterizations Means, ranges, and standard deviations for 32 water quality parameters for each of the four major study areas are given in Tables 16-19. Monthly values for 30 of these pararreters are graphed in Figures 31-39 to show sea sonal patterns. a. pH, alkalinity, and acidity The pH of runoff from the minerotrophic fens, Tamarac River and Fens, was higher than the pH of runoff from the transition peatland (Toivola) or the bog (Corona). The lowest water pH ever observed was 4.0 at Corona whereas a maximum pH of 7. 4 was measured in the Tamarac River near Upper Red Lake. The pH of Corona runoff fluctuated :rrore than all other areas. All areas exhibited a lower pH during the spring during both 1978 and 1979 (Figure 31) . This depression is characteristic of streamflow where snowrrel t is acidic. Fens are expected to have higher pH's than bogs (Verry 1975). Increases in pH after drainage and mining have been observed in the USSR (Largin 1976) • Drainage alone has also resulted in increased pH in runoff from forested peatlands in Czechloslovakia and Finland CFerda and Novak 1976; Heikurainen et al. 1978). Alkalinity was also higher in fen runoff water and, like pH, displayed a spring minimum (Figure 31). The Corona mined peatland, which had the lowest pH, also had the lowest alkalinity whereas the Tamarac River had the highest. 64 Table 16. Toivola water qJality sumna:ry, 1978-79 .. PARAMETER Jv'.IEANa RANGE STD. DEV. Terrperature oc 9 0- 23 7.547 pH 6.1 5.3 - 6.7 0.299 Specific conductivityb µrnhos/cm 51 9 -198 36.937 Dissolved oxygen mg/l 6.2 1.0 - 11.3 3.241 % saturation % 49 7 -104 22.624 Color Pl./Co. units 266 65 -600 123.288 Acidity mg/l 21.0 7.9 - 55.7 9.871 Alkalinity " 24.7 6.0 -116.9 29.325 Suspended sedinent " 3.9 0.0 - 15.3 3.640 K " 1.29 <.75- 7.09 1.290 ca " 10.26 2. 40- 31. 26 7.543 Mg " 2.96 0.80- 10.18 2.497 Al II 0.26 <.01- 1.17 0.243 Fe " 2.98 0.34- 20.18 3.849 Na " 1.18 < .12- 4. 90 1.128 Mn " 1.00 .02- 5.50 1.680 Zn " .04 <. 03- o. 32 0.050 Cu " <.01 <.01- .03 0.007 B " .01 <. 01- • 04 0.011 Pb " <.13 < .13- • 23 0.037 Ni II <.04 <.04- .06 0.006 Cr II .01 <. 01- • 07 0.016 Cd II <.01 <.01- .02 0.004 Hg µg/l 2.6 <1.3 - 4.0 1.018 As II 3 a Means of 47 samples. b At 25°C. 65 Tab-le 17. Tamarac River water quality smnnary, 1978-79 .. PARAMETER MEAN a RANGE SID. DEV.c Temperature oC 15 0-- 22 7.453 pH 7.0 6.5 - 7.4 0.229 Specific conductivi tyb µmhos/cm 105 77 -131 16.882 Dissolved oxygen mg/l 7.2 2.4 - 10.8 2.437 % saturation 72 27 -105 23. 3:r4 Color Pl./Co. units 129 50 -300 58.309 Acidity mg/l 12.6 5.1 - 29.9 7.003 Alkalinity II 56.1 37. 6 - 71. 0 10.-014 Suspended sedirrent n 2.4 .5 - 5.9 1.887 K It <.75 <. 75- 1. 76- 0.436 ca II 17.-14 13. 89- 20 ..52 2.335 Mg II 6.23 4 .. 72- 7. 8-1 0.-967 Al n .08 <.01- .27 0.072 Fe " .-40 .07- .77 G.-227 Na " 1.59 • 76- 2.57 0.519 Mn " .11 <.01 .50 0.317 Zn " .04 <.03- .11 0.032 Cu If <.01 <.01- • (}4 0.010 B " .01 <.01- .05 0.-013 Pb " <.13 <.-04- .16 0.028 Ni " <.04 <.04- .15 0.036 Cr " <.01 <. 01-- .02 0.004 Cd " <.01 <.01- 0 Hg µg/l 2.4 <1.3 - 6.0 1.852 As " 2 a ~ans of 13 samples. b At 25°c. 66 Table 18. Corona water quality sumnary, 1978-79~ PARAMETER MEAN a RANGE STD. DEV. Temperature oc 11 0 - 26 8.661 pH S.2 4.0 - 6.0 0.43S Specific conductivityb µrnhos/crn 66 14 -107 lS.010 Dissolved oxygen mg/l 4.4 o. 8 - 11.6 3.340 % saturation 40 s -126 31. 909 Color Pl./Co. units 372 12S -7SO 138.462 Acidity mg/l 4S.7 16.3 -111.3 23.76S Alkalinity II 10.7 0 - 38.0 9.676 Suspended sedirrent " lS.8 0.1 -18S.O 29.S99 K II 1.89 <.7S- 8.17 1.477 ca II 4.26 1.17- 11.87 1. 7S4 Mg " 1. 73 O.S2- 3.73 0.603 Al II .73 0.22- 2.3S 0.429 Fe II 4.04 0.69- 12.82 2.32S Na 3.30 0.76- S.86 l.02S Mn O.lS .OS- .4S 0.066 Zn 0.06 <.03- .72 0.130 Cu 0.01 <.01- .09 O.OlS B 0.02 <.01- .06 0.016 Pb <.13 <.13- .49 0~083 Ni <.04 <.04- .13 0.019 Cr .02 <.01- .OS O.OlS Cd <.01 <.01- .12 0.020 Hg µg/l 2.9 <1.3 - 6.0 l.8S7 As II 3 a IYleans of 46 sanples. b 0 At 2S c. .67 Table 19. Fens.water quality summary, 1978-79. PARAMETER MEAN.a RANSE STD. DEV. Temperature oc 18 2 - 32- 7.064 pH 6.5 6.1 - 6.7 0.206 Specific conductivityb llmhos/cm 202 155 -235 22.238 Dissolved oxygen mg/l 2.8 .. 4 - 7--. 7 2.209 % saturation 30 4 - 85 25.230 Color Pl./Co. units 529 215 -88-7 175.584 Acidity mg/l 51.5 27.0 - 80.5 17.874 Alkalinity II 74.5 34.5 -110.0 21.310 Suspended sediment It 16.7 0.6 - 92.3 26.128 K II 1. 77 <. 75- 3.99 1.177 Ca " 34.95 30.58- 42.50 3. 5-55 Mg " 9.76 9.76- 12.15 1.262 Al II .38 .15- .60 0.137 Fe " 8.16 3. 53- 21. 78 5.220 Na II 2.97 1.48- 3.82 o. 733 Mn " 1.14 .07- 2.83 0.6&7 Zn II .06 <.03- .30 o.oas Cu 11- .01 <.01- .04 0.012 B " .04 <.01- .08 0.026 n- Pb <.13 < .. 13- .18 0.039 Ni II <.04 < .. 04- 0 Cr II <.01 <.01- ."02 0.005 Cd n- <.01 <.01- .02 0.005 Hg µg/l 3.7 <1.3 - 8.0 3.315 As " Acidity concentrations were greatest in runoff from the disturbed Corona and Fens peatlands. Verry (1975) has previously reported higher acidity values for bog runoff. Acidity for the disturbed peatlands also fluctuated rnore than for the natural peatlands. Seasonally, minimum acidity concentra tions occurred in the spring and fall while higher values occurred under the ice and during the s~r (Figure 31) . b. Oxygen and temperature The mean dissolved oxygen concentration was less in ditches in the dis turbed peatlands than in streams draining undisturbed peatlands. Concentra tions as law as 0. 4 mg/l occurred at Fens and a minimum of 0. 8 mg/l was mea sured at Corona. Concentrations below 5 :rrq/l were measured under the ice and ~uring the fall in runoff from all four study areas. Such law concentrations persisted 57 percent of the time at Corona, but only 40 percent at Toivola (Figure 32) • Dissolved oxygen concentrations of 5 mg/l or rrore are satisfactory for most life stages and activities of freshwater fish (McKim et al. 1975) • It:JW dissolved oxygen concentrations also enhance the effects of toxic substances on fish (McKee and Wolf 1963) • The mean percent saturation was also somewhat lower in ditches in the disturbed peatlands than in streams draining undisturbed areas. The Tamarac River maintained the highest mean percent saturation. Seasonal variations followed dissolved oxygen concentrations, being lowest under the ice and in the fall (Figure 32) • Water temperatures followed the expected curve of summer maximum and winter minimum. Temperature differences between watersheds cannot be evaluated at this time. 69 ICE ...... __ ...... PH 7 6 __ , ::r: ' \ ,.. .,,,,.,,,, " 0. ' 1' ...... __ ../ \ ' I \ ' ' ,..-- 5 __ ,,, ,,.-... .,., I ',I ' ' I ' ' ' 'vI 4 o, 3 5 7 9 11 3 5 7 9 II ALKALINITY i'· 80 I . ' ·, I ··········- i !\ i 60 ...... ' • I·. l \ : ...... '· I/\ i \ / CJ) ,. ! \/ \/ E 40 ····· .. :· 20 Ot 3 5 7 9 H 3 s 1 9 n 100 ACIDITY '\ .'\ I \ --TOIVOLA I \ /' I 80 \ . \ ----- CORONA \ I ...... TAMARAC . \ "· I '\ -·-·- FENS i '· I \ I \ i '1 60 \ I ...... I \ j I Cl . I I ,,,, -- ...... I r-, E I ' I 40 " ' . / ' , ...... 1- ', \ , I/ \ ...... •/ / --- ...... _,,,,, ...... J 20 ·-·-· QI 3 5 7 9 II 3 5 7 9 II MONTH-1978 MONTH-1979 FIGURE 31: MONTHLY VALUES OF PH, ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY 70 ICE rcE- 12 01ssoLvEo OXYGEN 9 ci, 6 E 3 01 3 5 7 9 II 3 5 7 9 II IOQ--~~--~~~0~~--S-A~T-U_R_A~T~IO-N~------.,, I \ 80 60 0~ 40 20 01 3 5 7 9 II 3 5 7 9 II 40--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- TEMPERATURE -- TOIVOLA 30 ----CORONA ...... _..... TAMARAC u 20 -·-·-FENS 0 10 OI 3 5 7 9 II 3 5 7 9 II MONTH-1978 MONTH-1979 FIGURE 32: MONTHLY VALUES OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN, 0/o SATURATION AND TEMPERATURE. 71 c. Conductivity, ca, and Mg Specific conductivities of runoff from the fens averaged higher than those of runoff from the bogs. Although bogs are expected to have the lowest con ductivity, the runoff conductivity at the mined bog (Corona) was higher than for the transition Toivola peatland. Conductivities were lowest in spring and highest during the winter under ice (Figure 33) • The Fens area, which had the highest conductivity, has been ditched and cultivated during the past 25 years. Specific conductivity in runoff water was found to increase 90 percent after cultivation and fertilization of an Ontario peatland (Nicholls and MacCrirorron 1974) • Drainage of a forested sedge bog in Finland resulted in an increase in conductivity but the opposite effect was observed in Czechoslovakia (Heikurainen et al. 1978; Ferda and Novak 1976)." Both calcium and magnesium concentrations were higher in fen runoff than in bog waters. Like specific conductivity, calcium and magnesium concentra tions were lowest in the spring and highest under the ice (Figure 33) • Forest drainage of Czechoslovakian peatlands has resulted in slight increases in calcium concentrations in runoff (Ferda and Novak 1976) • Drainage and rnini11.g of }?eat lands in the USSR resulted in increased calcium and magnesium concentrations in runoff from bogs but only increased magnesium concentrations in runoff from 1 fens (Largin 1976). d. Na, Al, K, Fe Runoff from the disturbed peatlands averaged higher in sodium concentra tions than runoff from the undisturbed areas. Forest drainage has previously been reported to increase sodium concentrations (Ferda and Novak 1976). The mined bog (Corona) waters had the highest sodium values; normally bog waters 7Z r---_...... _ICE ______,__ - __ lCE -1..- ______,__ rcE 250 Specific Conductivity 200 I "· ' I 5 150 -·-·/ (/) '0 e 100 ...... /·····.,.// \ ...\._ .. ::l 50 OI 3 5 7 9 11 3 5 7 9 II CALCIUM 40 --TOIVOLA /-·-. -----CORONA 30 / ················TAMARAC I -·-·-·FENS i ... / -·- 1. 'E'20 .. ···#\.···· .•.••...... •· ·... ··-...... ·· .· ... ·.. . . •...... ·· ..... ·· ·· ... 10 ..,, ,______.,,,. ,,,.._ ..... / .... '--...... __ _ ' ,"',,,,_..-...... _ ... ---- OI 3 5 7 9 II 3 5 7 9 II '· ·""· MAGNESIUM 10 ....,,, '\·, ...... ___ ,/ '·, 7.5 ... / ...... -· ,...1...... -····""······ . . ., ...... 5 ...... \•' ...... Cl ...... E 2.5 QI 3 5 7 9 II 3 5 7 9 II MONTH-1978 MONTH-1979 FIGURE 33: MONTHLY SPECIFIC CONDUCTlVITIES AND CONCENTRATIONS OF CALCIUM AND MAGNESlUM. 73 are lower in sodium than fens (Verry 1975; Walmsley and Lavkulich 1975). Sea- sonal patterns in sodium concentrations are inconsistent a:rrong study areas (Figure 34) • Aluminum concentrations in runoff from the disturbed areas were also higher as compared to the undisturbed areas runoff. The Corona·mined area had concentrations as high as 2. 35 mg/l. The Tamarac River aluminum concentrations were quite loo and averaged 0.08 mg/l. Although Verry (1975) reported lower aluminum concentrations in spring, such· trends were not evident during the first two years of rronitoring. Higher concentrations of aluminum under the ice did occur (Figure, 34). Mean potassiurii.,,'d0ncentXations. 'ii'{ Mof.£~ f~ont the disttirbed ~eatlands were higher than concentrations in runoff" fJ:~()ffi '. tli-e ·undisturbed peatlands. Corona .• • ~. ,.'.,'.... ~~ :;. i. • .. ·~-· ·- . waters h§.d the highest! concentration...~£ ~~i~~· ./raroarac River tpe lowest. Although Walrnsley:and Lavkuli~h· (197,5) ·found Canadifui fens to have'.I\LOre potassium than . , ' . . bogs, such differences w~re not observed in this study .. ·. Seasonally, higher concentrations ·were.observed unde:r;: t4~ ice and lowe;r- values ·occurred in spring and during the.surnrrer (Figure 34). Iron concentrations were also higher on the disturbed peatlands. Iron was lowest in spring and highest under the ice (Figure 34). The Fens peatland had the highest iron concentration and the Tamarac River the lowest. e. Mn, Zn, Cr Manganese concentrations showed no definite trends between bogs and fens or disturbed and natural peatlands. Concentrations were lowest in spring and greatest under the ice (J?igure 35) • Toivola had quite high manganese concen- trations under the ice. 74 lCE 6 I I I I I 5 I I \ I 4 ,.\ : ,' '\ I I I ·'-- I . I \ \ I .I 'a, 3 I . \ 1/ I \ }' E I . \ .1 1 I \ . I'l ,1 ,' \ / r .... I 'v'. / I .. ._.. _...... ,/ o, 7 9- II 2 ALUMINUM \ ...... , .... \ / --- ..... O'l .... --" E ,,------...... ,,_.-. '·'"""--. 7 I~ POTASS1UM TO~VOLA ,,~' f t ----- CORON A:- t- '-- 6 I l ·-...... _1"AMARAC I t ...... -·-·-FENS t ~ o> I t I t-- E L ~ t ' ,, 2 ,· \ L' ~ r ...... \,F ..>\. 01 3 5 7 9 n 3 5 7 9 I l 20 J. IRON /\ I \ 15 I \ I \ i \ ...... ," ' o> 10 I ', I \ ...... _ I E ' ,I ' ' i \ \ I ' ) 5 ' /. //' ...... \ --/"...... --/ --- 01 3 5 7 9 11 3 5 7 9 11 MONTH-1978 MONTH-1979 FIGURE 34: MONTHLY VALUES OF SODIUM, ALUMINUM, POTASSLUM, AND IRON. 75 Zinc concentratrons were similar for all watersheds studied, although the .,,. . - . ' disfur~ -peatlands .were . slightiy'_ ;higber. 'Jlle.- Corona mined peatland had the highest zinc concentrations. Chromium concentrations,' quite low in runoff from all watersheds, were near the detection limit of <0~·01 tng/l. Minimum values occurred during the summer and rnaximi.:nn .concentrations occurred under the ice (Figure 35) • f. cu I Ni I Pb I B All study areas were low: in copper, nickel, lead, and boron. The dis- turbe~ peatlands averaged slightly highe_r ·~ copper and boron. All areas averaged below the detection limit of: 0. 04 n.:g/l for nicJcel and 0 .13 mg/l for lead. Seasonal patterns for these constituents were not evident (Figure 36) • g. Hg, As, Se Corona and Toivola peatland runoff was higher in mercury.than Fens or Tamarac River runoff, but concentrations averaged just above the detection limit of 1. 3 mg/l. Arsenic concentrations were also higher at Corona and Toivola, and variability was quite high in 1979 (Figure 37) • Selenii.:nn concen- trations were low, near the detection limit of 1 mg/l. h. Total phosphorus Average total phosphorus concentrations were highest in runoff from Fens and lowest from the Tamarac River. Runoff phosphorus concentrations from Toivola were usually less than from Corona except under the ice during the 1978_;79: winter (Figure 38). These unusually high values carinot be explained at this time •. Drainage and cultivation of peat in Florida and Ontario has been repOi_-ted to increase orthophosphate concentrations in runoff (Hortenstine and Forbes 1972; Nicholls and MacCrirnrron 1974). Peatlands drained for forest 76 rcE tCt: tCE MANGANESE 5 ----- TOIVOLA ~--- f:ORONA 4 -·--··-.. ·-····- TAM AR AC -·-·~~ENS 3 I /\. . \ I . I \ i \_ l \ \ 0. 3 .....--Z-IN-C------~------ 0.2 'Cl E 0.1 1"'-....._ I -- OI 3 5 7 9 II 3 5 7 9 ll O.l 5 ---CH_R_O_M-IU_M______ 0.10 'Ol E 0.05 --, Detection ' lfmit ...... ~ ...... ' ;; Ol 3 5 7 9 ti 3 5 7 9 II MONTH-1978 MONTH-i979 FIGURE 35: MONTHLY VALUES OF MANGANESE, ZINC AND CHRO-M~UM. 77 0.15--....__ICE ______LCE __...... ,. tCE COPPER OJO ...... O'I .. E; •, .. 0.05 , · D etecticm--1 i rtfit OI 3 '5. 7 9· II 5 :O.l ~·:;,~NICKEL··. ' ...... ' . ... .. ··~ ...... T.OIVOIA .; .-fr·· . 0.10 I \ ----- CORONA I \ ...... I \ O'I , .. ..,, ...... ,..... ,..... TAMARAC.· I . \-· E 0.05 1------""------_.,,.....--t-·-·-FENS I \ 01 3 5 7 9 II · 1 3· 5 7 9 11 0.60 . LEAD ,.. I' I ', 0.40 I I ' ...... ' \ O'I I \ E I \ 0.20 I . \ Detection limit 01 3 5 7 9 11 I 3 5 7 ·9 11 0.15 BORON 0.10 ...... O'I \ \ \. ,,.. ...,.."\ E 0.05...... ,,.._ / ...... \ / ...... --"' \ ...... ,,.. \ \ 0 I 3 5 7 9 11 3 .· 5 7· 9 II MONTH-1978 MONTH-1979 FIGURE 36: MONTHLY VALUES OF COPPER, NICKEL, LEAD AND BORON. 78 tCE ~C-E ICE MERCURY 4 .0 - .C Q. a. 2 ol-- 3 5 7 9 t-1 i 3 5 7 9 u ARSENIC 10 8 -- TOIVOLA ----- CORO~A (C) ~ \ ...... _TAMARAC ,, \ .0 6 I \ . a. -·-·-FENS I \ - \. a. I \ \ f- l \ I ;, 4 I n \ ti \ \ Ii: \\ I 2 - t - ~ .... _,.. ... / \ OI 3 5 7 9 II 3 5 7 9 II SELENIUM r- .c ; .0 2 / a. ..······· a. Detection limit OI 3 5 7 9 II 3 5 7 9 II MONTH-1978 MONTH-1979 FIGURE 37: MONTHLY VALUES OF MERCURY, ARSENIC, SELENIUM. 79 ICE ICE l~E ··· ·2·0·-. __r ...... o...... r A---L--P--. -. ______.. _ __,....,..;,_...... ---.....------ 1.6 1.2 ...... 0\. E l\ 0.8 ./' \ .. / \ I . . \ I . 0.4 . \ / . \ . ~ .~ ... .3. ~- 7 ... _9. II 1.. 3. -,5 7 .. 9 ..11 APPARENT COLOR ,,.,-·\ 600 I \ I \ ,.~ I:. \ '\-, I. \ 8400 • , __ J \ \ ..:.J .. ., 'a.. \ 200 \ l. 01 3 5 7 9 11 I· .3 5 ·7 9·. II 100------~~~-- SUSP EN DE D SEDIMENT \ 80. \' \ TOIVOLA \ · _. ...,._,,. _ _,_. CORONA • /\ 60 . . .. \ ... ~~~;.... ~1..·;..·•· TAM AH AC f\ · - \ · . -~"-·- FENS · / \ \~. \• I/\ \, . "I \\ ~ \ I \ / ·, \ 20 . . \ \..I \ I . \ . ,., \ / '· \ ,.. ... __ ,__ .../ ., \... ,,."' / '· \ . ····· ...... , / .. "-'· O I, - 3 5 .. j". 9·- -j I . 3 5 7 .... 9 II MONTH~l978 ... MONTH-1979 fl~UR_E 38 :_MONTHLY. VALUES Of :_TOTAL PHOSPHORUS, .. COLOR, A~D suspEND~D SED~M~NT. ao production had higher runoff phosphorus concentrations in Finland but !10t in Czechloslovakia (Heikurainen et- al. 191-S:, Ferd.a and Novak 1976). i. Color Apparent color averaged greater in disturbed ·peatland runoff. Normally, bog runoff in Minnesota is darker than runoff from fens \Verry 1975). Color· appears- to have two seasonal peaks, one under the- ice in winter and the-other in late sumrrer during- low flehV pericx1&- -(Figure 3.8) • j . Suspendea sedirrent Ctmcentratiofls of suspended sed:i:mmE a.ve:ragerl substant.iall:¥ higher -ln runoff fran the disturbed watersheds. A high proportion of the suspended matter is organic matter as evidenced by its volatility (Table 20). Higher suspended sedirrent concentrations occurred during sumner rainstonns (Figure 38) . Increased concentrations of suspended sedirrent have been observed after forest drainag@ in Finland and after drainage and mining in the USSR (Heikurainen et al. 1978; Largin 1976.). Table 20. The percent volatile suspended sediment in runoff from study watersheds ._ Sl;ls:eended sed.inent % volatile IDcation Mean Range- n Toivola 71 37-10:0 6 Corona 75 3t>- go 7 Fens 72 64-10.0::- 6 k. Nitrogen Average concentrations of total-, nitrate-, arm:ronia-, and org_anio-nitrogen were higher in---nmoff from the dist.urbed peat.1ands o Drained forested peat- lands in Finland and drained and mined peatlands in the USSR also had higher 81 concentrations of various nitrogen species in runoff (Heikurainen et aZ. 1978; Largin J,.976}. Nitrogen variability was also greater in the C).isturbed peat lands. ·' Minimum nitrogen concentrations were observed during spring runoff, and maximum values were measured during winter under the ice (Figure 39). About 8_0 to 92 percent of the nitrogen was present in the organ_ic fonn except at Corona, where 4 7 percent was organic. Most of the remaining nitrogen was in the arnrronia form and only a small -~u!it ·( Ellis 197li Duxbury and Peverly 1978) . 82 ICE lCE FCE TOTAL-N 12 /, I-+ I \ I- I \ 10 I ' I \ /\- \ I . f' i . \ 8 I \_ ·\ I .t \ I· I \ I ...... \ t- \ \ i \ O'> I t 6 I \ E \ I \- I I \_ t \ I \ I 4 _,,.,.~ .... '\ ~ ...... \ I ..,._ l ,-- ...... "' \ ' I / \ I ~ \ \ I ·',/ L _ _, / , _ _j 2 'i ··..•• Os.------__._ ~ 3 5 7 9- IL ______~ 5 7 9 tr __ NH4-N /' --TC»WLA / ~ 6 -----CORO~ I \ ...... TAMARAC I \ ,___ \ ' -·-·- FENS I \ -\ "ti, 4 ,, I \ I . E \ ' \ I \~ \ I "- . \ 2 \ I ', I-- \ \------"" t ' ,.... \__ ~ \.._ ...... -----,,,,,,, ' t '----I ...... ·~._,..,,.~ .. ·· ··· .... o, 3 5 7 9 n 3 5 7 9 II /\_ ORGANJC-N 6 i \ r--·-·----· . \_ f, I I . I \ ...... 4 \ I \ O'> I E \-;_ ,' \ I ·:', I \ I' '\ 2 \~...... "" \.. ~ ,...,,/ ~ - ...... , / _..;'············· __ .· 0 ~ t S' 5 7 9 ll 3 5 7 9 I L 2------~------~~---- ,,-""'< ~ ' I N03-N / ', / O'> /· / ' / E o k"'~' v •>c,,1 I V1 I I '·C'1·....J v· L-1 l l 3 5 7 9 n ~ 3 5 7 9- H MONTH- ~978 MONTH-1979 FIGURE 39: MONTHLY VALUES OF N~TROG-EN SPECLES. 83 Summary The fen runoff had higher values of pH, specific conductivity, calcium, magnesium, and alkalinity than did bog runoff. Disturbed peatland (cleared, drained hnd cultivated or mined) ditch waters were higher in color, suspended sediment, acidity, sodium, alu:ninum, potassium, iron~ zinc, copper, boron, and total-, nitrate-, am:ronia-, and organic-nitrogen, whereas undisturbed peat lands' runoff was higher in dissolved oxygen and percent saturation (Table 21). Acidity and nitrogen appeared to fluctuate more in the ·disturbed peatJ.. ands while pH fluctuated more at Corona. Seasonal variations were evident in the concentrations of several water quality parameters. Spring minimum values and winter under ice maximums were observed for pH, acidity, alkalinity, specific conductivity, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, iron, manganese, and the various nitrqgen·. species. In addition, chronium and color values were high under the ice in winter, and color was also high in late summer during low flow periods. Winter minimums occurred for dissolved oxygen. and percent saturation while suspended sedim2nt concentration were highest during summer rainstonns. The Corona peatland runoff seemed to have unusually high values for specific con ductivity, zinc, and potassium. At this time, it cannot be stated conclusively that the disturbances of clearing, draining, and cultivating or mining actually caused the water quality differences observed arrong study areas. Additional information, now being collected, will assis~ in developing more definite con clusions. 2. Nutrient Loading To eliminate the variables of watershed area and the effect of discharge on same water quality constituents, concentrations can be converted to annual export (kg/ha/yr) by knowing the discharge and the watershed area. ~able 21. S"llllll1lB..ry of rreanwater quality values, l978-79a Drained and Undisturbed Mined Cultivated PARAMETER Toivola Tamarac R. Corona Fen Peatland type transition fen bog fen Terrperature oc 9 15 11 18 pH 6.1 7.0 5.2 -6 .. 5 Specific conductivity1 µmhos/cm 51 105 66 202 -Dissolved oxygen mg/l 6.2 7 .. 2 4.4 2 .. 8 % saturation % 49 72 40 30 Color Pl.Co. --- '- ,.. units 266 129 372 529 Acidity as -caco mg/l 21.0 12 .. 6 45.7 51.5 3 Alkalinity as caco ,," 24.7 56.1 10 .. 7 74 .. 5 Suspended sediment3 3.9 2.4 15.8 16.7 K -n 1.29 <.75 L89 L77 Ca " 10.26 17.14 4.26 34 .. 95 Mg -u 2.96 6.23 1. 73 9.76 Al " 0.26 .08 .73 .38 Fe If 2.98 -.40 4.04 8 .. 16 Na- " 1.18 1.59 3.30 2.97 Mn II 1.00 .11 .15 1.14 Zn II _.04 • 0-4 .06 .06 Cu " <.Ol <.01 .01 .. 01 B " .01 .01 .02 .04 Pb " <.13 <.13 <.13 <.13 Ni " < .. 84 <.04 < .. 04 <.04 Cr II .. 01 <.01 .02 <.01 - Cd II .Ol <.01 <.01 <.Ol Hg µg/l 1.5 <1.3 1. 7 1 0 At 2s c. 85 The disturbed watersheds annually exported a greater mass of suspended sed.irrent, aluminum, iron, sodium, and total- and amnonia-nitrogen (Table 22) . The fens exported irore calcium and magnesium than the bogs. Fens export was extremely high for some nutrients, while Corona was quite high for total- nitrogen. Table 22. Mean nutrient export (kg/ha/yr) from study watersheds for select water quality para:rreters. Drained and Undisturbed Mined Cultivated Para:rreter Toivola Tamarac R. Corona Fens Suspended sed.irrent 17.2 8.9 49.1 194.3 K 8.4 2.8 6.6 33.7 Ca 47.3 58.0· 16.9 213.3 Mg 12.8. 21.4 6.9 ·70.7 Al 1.4 0.3 3.1 1.9 Fe 11.l 1. 7 16.3 42.3 Na 5.0 5.8 14.1 ·. 34. 7 Mn 2.3 0.6 0.6 4.2 Total - p LO 0.1 0.4 5.9 Total - N 8.2 5.0 117.3 36.5 1.9 0.2 6.0 8.0 NH 4 - N Organic -N 6.9 4.7 6.7 28.5 n 38 p 26 9 3. Mining Effects Table 23 summarizes the means of 10 water quality sanples from both the Corona mined and control areas. Because the Corona control outlet is a ditch passing through mineral soil such parameters as pH, specific conductivity, acidity, alkalinity, calcium, and magnesium carmot be compared. The Corona mined runoff was higher in values of color, suspended sediment, potassium, aluminum, soidun, manganese, total phosphorus, and total-, nitrate-, organic-, and amnonia-nitrogen than runoff from the control.. Little or no difference was observed for zinc, copper, nickel, lead, chromium, cadmium, arsenic, and selenium. 86 Table 23. Mean water qualitt of mined ve~sus control at Co:rona, 1979. PARAMETER MINED CONTROL Temperature oc 9- 8 pH 5.3 5.9 Specific oonductivi ty 1 µmhos/cm 65 75 Dissolved oxygen rng/l 4.7 3-. 7 % saturation % 41 32 Color Pl./Co. units 372 272 Acidity as eaco mg/l 41.3 39.4 Alkalinity as CaCO 3 7.5 25.2 Suspended sedinent 3 17.0 6.6 K 2.90 1.07 Ca 4.54 11.29 Mg 1. 74 3.94 Al .68 0.22 Fe 3.29 3.10 Na 3.03 1.9-7 Mn .20 .07 Zn H <.03 <. 03- Cu II <.01 <.01 B II .03 .02 Pb II .15 <.13 Ni " .04 <.04 Cr " .02 .01 Cd H .02 .04 Hg µg/l 3 6 As II 4 4 Se " 1 l 'IOTAL - p rng/l .09 .06 'lOTAL - N 11 4.1 2.2 N03 + N02 - N II .1 <.l NO - N II .01 .01 2 ORGANIC - N II 2.2 1.0 NH - N II 1.9 1.2 4 1 At 25°c. 87 Higher mercury concentrations have so far been measured in control nmoff but the reasons for this or its significance are unknown. These results are quite preliminary and based on a small nuniber of samples. Additional testing will be conducted in 1980 and 1981. 4. Reclamation Effects a. Ponds Table 24 summarizes the means of eight samples from two waterfowl ponds at Wilderness Valley Farms and from the control. The results shaw that the waters in the ponds are nore like lake waters than ditch water. The ponds are rrore basic, clearer, contain rrore oxygen, and generally have less dissolved consti tuents and nutrients than the control ditch waters. More nitrate and organic hitrogen and less total- and a:mrronia-nitrogen are found in the ponds. The pond with the bottom in mineral soil is nore basic, has higher specific conductivity, dissolved oxygen, calcium, magnesium, and zinc than the pond with its bottom in peat. The:mineral pond is also lower in color, aluminum, and iron than the peat pond. b. Drall1age and forest fertilization Soil solution samples from 50 and 100-an depths and ditch waters were tested for three plots at Fens, a natural undrained wooded plot and two cleared, drained, and reforested plots, one of which was fertilized (Martin 1979). The fertilizer used was NPK applied at a rate of 115-77-135 kg per hectare. Clearing and draining this fen peatland appears to have lowered total- and ammonia-nitrogen, total- and orthophosphate, and iron in soil solution. Potassium, specific conductivity, calcium, and magnesium increased in soil solution after drainage ('rable 25). Nitrate-nitrogen concentrations were law and did not appear affected by clearing and drainage. pH also did not change. 88 Table 24. ~an water quality of ponds and control at Wilderness Valley Fa:rrns 1979. Pond with Bottom in PARAME'IER MINERAL PEAT CONTROL Temperature oc 12 12 18 pH 7.4 7.0 6.5 Specific conductivity 1 µrnhos/cm 111 74 202 Dissolved oxygen n:g/l 10.0 9.0 2.8 % saturation 9-: 94 84 30 Color Pl./Co. units 85 100 529 Acidity as Caco n:g/l 4.0 3.6 51.5 3 II Alkalinity as caco3 41.2 22.0 74.5 Suspended sedinent: II 16.7 K II 1.27 1.67 1. 77 ca II 15.26 8.36 34.95 Mg " 5.54 2.98 9.76 Al II .05 .19 .38 Fe II .05 .11 8.16 Na " 3.62 2.54 2.97 Mn " .01 .01 1.14 Zn II .14 .04 .06 Cu ti < ._01 <.01 .01 B II <.01 <.01 .04 Pb " <.13 <.13 <.13 Ni " <.04 <.04 <.04 Cr II <.01 .02 <.01 Cd " <.01 <.01 <.01 Hg µg/l 3 <1.3 <1.3 As " 3 3 1 At 25°c'. 89 Table 25. Mean soil solution concentrrtions for the control, fertilized, and unfertilized plots at Fens. Undrained. Drained wooded unfertilized fertilized Pararreter 50cm lOOcm 50cm ·1oocm 50an lOOcm pH 6.0 6._0 6.0 6.1 5.9 6.1 specific conductivity µmhos/cm 167 161 195 245- 225 352 ca mg/l 20.9 19.0 25.6 31.4 27.8 34.3 Mg " 8.2 7.2 9.2 10.8 10.2 11.3 Al " 0.6 0.4 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.3 Fe " 3.4 4.0 0.8 5.1 0.6 4.1 Total - N " 5.3* 5.0* 4.3 4.4 3.8 4.3 2.6* 3.0* NH4 - N " 1.0 1. 7 0.7 1.6 n <.l NO 3 - N <.l <.l <.l 0.3* <.l Total - P II 0.11* 0.17* 0.05 0.10* 0.07 0.23* Ortho - P " 0.10* 0.15* 0.03* 0.07* 0.06* 0.23* K " 1.0* 1.1* 2.0* 2.0* 20.0* 18.0* 1 Means of 30 samples, from Martin (1979). * Means significantly different at the 5% level from other values at the sarre depth. Fertilization of the drained fen increased soil solution concentrations of total and ortho-phosphate at the 100-an depth, potassium and nitrate-nitrogen at 50-cm depth, and specific conductivity, calcium and magnesium. Total- and a:mrronia-nitrogen were not affected by fertiljzarion. Pertilization also appeared to decrease asluminum and iron in soil solution. Water samples from ditches surrounding the plots indicate that only potassium and specific conductivity were consistently higher in the fertilized ditch water (Table 26). During the period of this study in 1978, the water table fluctuated near the 50".':"cm a~pth. 5. DoWnstream As.siroilation To evaluate the effect of peatland runoff on downstream water quality, samples were taken at several points along Joula Creek, from its origin in the Toivola peatland, 7.4 km downstream to its confluence with the Floodwood River. 90 Table 26. Mean ditch water quality of the unfertilized and fertilized plots for the study period. Unfertilized Fertilized Water Quality Parameter Ditch Water Ditch Water Total N mg/l 4.8 5.1 NH4 - N " 0.1 0.3 N0 - N " 1 Mean of five samples, from Martin (l979). * Denotes consistently significantly higher concentrations over time at the 5% level. · Joula Creek, which largely flows through mineral soil after it _leaves the Toivola peatland, was found to increase the pH, dissolved oxygen, and specific conductivity of the peatland runoff (Table 27). The Floodwood Riser (Sta. 6) , after receiving Joula Creek water (Sta. 5), was reduced in pH by 0.2 units, in temperature by o.s0 c, and in specific conductivity by 20 percent or 23 µmhos/crn. Color increased in the Floodwood River by 12 percent or 30 units, and dissolved oxygen increased by alnost 30 percent. Table 27. Water quality values along several points of Joula Creek downstream from the Toivola peatland. 1 · Specific Downstream T~. Color Dissolved conductivity Station Distance (km) pH oc Pl.CO. Oxygen· {mg/l) µ:mhos/cm 1 0 5.1 14.0 270 5.2 26 2 2.6 6.1 15.5 320 4.7 58 3 6.0 6.4 15.0 370 7.2 47 4 7.4 6.5 15.5 300 7.4 51 5 6 .. 8 17.0 260 5.7 94 6 .7. 0 17.5 230 4.5 117 1 Conducted July 11, 1978. 6. Water Quality Relationships The relationships between water quality constituents and both discharge and temperature were investigated. Also, the interrelationships a:rrong consti- tuents were evaluated. a. Discharge Significant correlations (a. = 0.05) were found between discharge and con- centrations (mg/l) or loadings (kg/ha/yr) of potassium, sodium, and total- nitrogen at Corona (Table 28) . Discharge also correlated with total-nitrogen and organic-nitrogen at Fens. All correlations were positive except for sodium. No significant correlations between diBcharge and constituents were obtained at Toivola or· the Tamarac River. 92 Table 28. Correlation coefficients (R) for significant relationships between discharge and variol1s water· quality parameters at Corona and Fens. Corona Fens Par~ter (n=26) (ri=9)' K .476* Na -.557** Total - P '!394* Total .... N .462* .697* Organic - N .683* * a = 0.05 ** a = 0.01 b. Air Terrperature Air temperature was found to be significantly correlated to concentrations of suspended sedircent and total phosphorus at Toivola; sodium, total-nitrogen, and ariuronia-nitrogen at Corona; and calcium at Fens (Table 29). Correlations were positive except for amronia-nitrogen and calcium. No significant correla- tions between air temperature and constituents were obtained at Fens. Table 29. Correlation coefficients (R) for significant relationships between air terrperature and various water quality pararreters by study area. Pararreter R IDcation Suspended sedilrent .355* Toivola Total - p .738** Toivola Na .. 541** Corona Total - N .431* Corona NH - N ..... 565** Corona Ca4 -.752* Fens * a= .05 ** a = .01 93 c. Peat Terrperature The peat temperature at 30 cm was found to correlate with more water I I \ I quality constituents than air temperature (Table 30). All correlations were ( I positive. Peat te.mperature correlated with all the parameters that air ( I temperature correlated with, as well as with aluminum, iron, and organic- 1 ( nitrogen but not with total phosphorus or amrronia-nitrogen. No correlation ! I between peat temperature and water quality constituent were obtained at Fens. Table 30. Correlation coefficients (R} for significant relationships between peat temperature and various water quality parameters at Toivola and Corona. Toivola Corona Para.m3ter (n=38) (n::::;26) Suspended sedim:mt .417** I l Ca .431** Al .343* .500** Fe .446** Total - N .495** .634** Organic - N .457** .• 536** * a = 0.05 ** a = 0.01 11 d. Constituent Interrelationship I Correlations exist anong many water quality constituents (Figure 40). All correlations were positive except Mg and Ca at Corona. Calcium, magnesium., I sodium, and iron were highly related to other cations. Phosphorus and nitrogen ' l were also related to certain cations. The large number of ,interrelationships I may exist because when some constituents are high, other values are also likely to be high. Study watersheds differ in their correlations. Toivola has the greatest number of relationships and Corona the second greatest. The fens 9-6 3. Fertilizing a fen for reforestation reclamation appeared to increase potassium and specific conductivity in runoff. 4.- pH in runoff from the Toivola peatland appeared to be increased davn. stream after mixing with waters in contact with mineral soil. 97 RECo.MMENDATIONS Based upon the results obtained to date, a nunber of recornrrendations are given. 1. Studies of the effects of disturbing peatlands by clearing, draining, and cultivating or mining should continue for at least an additional two years. 2. The effects of hydraulic mining and dewatering on water quantity and especially water quality should be evaluated before use of this technology. 3. Sedimentation basins should be used at the outlet of drained and cultivated or mined peatlands to reduce suspended sediment exports, and the effect of sedimentation on other water quality constituents, especially nutrients, should be evaluated. 4. Means should be explored for using peat as a filter to rerrove nutrients from the runoff from disturbed peatlands. 99 LITERATURE CITED Arrerican Public Healtl~ Association. 1976. Standard methods for the exarnina- tion of water and wastewater. 14th ed. Bay, R. R. 1966. Evaluation of an evapotranspirarreter for peat bogs. Water Resources Res. 2:437-441. Black, C. A. (ed .. ) , D. D. Evans, J. L.. 'White, L. E. Ensminger, and F. E. Clark (assoc. eds. ) . 1965 . Methods of soil analysis . Amer. Soc. of Agrona:l¥ Monograph No. 9. Boelter, D. H. 1972. Preliminary results of water level control on small plots ·in a peat bog. Proc. Fourth Int' 1. Peat Congr.. otaniemi, Finland. p. 347-354. Bulavko, A. c. and V. V. Drozd. 1975. Bog reclamation and its effect on the water balance of river basins. · In: Hydrology of .Marsh-Ridden Areas, Proc. of the Minsk Syrrp. 1972. Paris: Unesco Press. p. 461-467. Burke, W. 1975. Aspects of the hydrology of blanket peat in Ireland. In: Hydrology of Marsh-Ridden Areas, P·roc. of the Minsk Syrop. 1972. Paris: Unesco Press. p. 171-182. Clapp, F. C. 1916. Productivity of certain peat soil as related to their chemical corrposition. Master of Science Thesis. University of Minnesota, St. Paul. Clausen, J. C. and K. N. Brooks. 1980. The water resources of peatlands: a literature review. College of Forestry, Univ. of Minnesota. pp. 141. Duxbm.y, J. M. and J. H. Peverly. 1978. Nitrogen and phosphorus losses from organic soils. J. Environm. Qual. 7(4):566-570. Erickson, A. E. and B. C. Ellis. 1971. The nutrient content of drainage water frcm agricultural land. Mich. State Univ. Res. Bull. No. 31. Farnham, R. S. and D. N. Grubich. 1970. Peat resources of Minnesota: potentiality report, fens bog area, St. Louis County, Minnesota. Iron Range Resources and Rehabilitation. Pp. 40. Ferda, J. and M. Novak. 1976. The effect of arreliorative measures on the changes of the quality of surface and ground waters in peat soils. Proc., Fifth Int'l. Peat Congr. Poznan, Poland. 1:118-127. Haertel, J. E. 1978. Snow accumulation and ablation on select Minnesota peatlands. M. S. Plan B Paper. College of Forestry, University of Minnesota, St. Paul. 100 Heikurainen, L. 1963. On using groundwater table fluctuations for measuring evapotranspiration. Acta Forestalia ;Fennica. 76 (5) : 5-16. 1964. Improvexrent of forest gravth on poorly drained soils. Int' 1. Review of Forest Research. New York: Academic Press. 1: 39-78. Heikurainen, L., K. Kenttamies, and J. Laine. 1978. 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