Journal of Insect Biotechnology and Sericology 84, 17-28 (2015): Technical Report

Cultural Attributes and Traditional Knowledge in Connection with the Rearing of Muga ( assama = assamensis) in the of , North-East India

Jharna Chakravorty1, Mallika Gogoi1 and V. Benno Meyer-Rochow2, 3,＊

1 Biochemical Nutrition Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh-791112, India 2 Department of Biology, Oulu University, Oulu FIN 90140, Finland 3 Research Institute of Luminous Organisms, Hachijo Island, 2872 Nakanogo, Hachijojima, Tokyo 100-1623, Japan (Received February 20, 2015; Accepted March 26, 2015)

Assam is well known for the production of golden-coloured from muga (Antheraea assama = assamensis) silkworm. Muga culture has a long tradition amongst the rural community of North-East India and the people of the district of Dhemaji in Assam are no exception in this regard. The process of culturing muga involves three successive phases, which are distinguished as pre-rearing, rearing and post rearing. The traditional rearers fol- low a variety of indigenous practices that were passed on from generation to generation by word of mouth. In re- cent years, however, these age-old, religiously followed and highly respected practices involving every step and stage of muga culture are often no longer adhered to by the younger generation of culturists. This disregard and/ or ignorance of the traditional ways can compromise the quality of the product. The present study has been undertaken to record and publicize the traditions associated with muga rearing still being followed by the rural inhabitants of the Dhemaji district of Assam. Key words: Silk, silkworm culture, age-old practices, rearing methods, sericigenous insects, (Lepi- doptera)

alanine and proline, yet far less glycine than mulberry INTRODUCTION silk, but that also amongst the three types of Despite the fact that in India goes back based fabrics considerable differences exist (Table 7.2: thousands of years, possibly even preceding that of China Babu, 2012). Lowest tenacities given as g/denier, for ex- (Cloudsley-Thompson, 1976), surprisingly little informa- ample, are 2.3 for eri, 3.2 for muga and 3.74 for tasar silk tion is available on traditional sericultural practices in In- fibres, while highest tryptophan and lowest serine contents dia. Passed down within a society, a tradition is a belief of all silk types analysed and compared by Babu (2012) with special significance and origins in the past. The rear- appear to be special characteristics of muga silk. ing of sericigenous insects (for review, cf. Yokoyama, Assam is a uniquely suitable place for muga culture 1963), is an age-old tradition especially for the people of due to its favourable climatic conditions and is renowned North-East India, with Assam being the only state in India for its golden-coloured muga silk yarn (Unni et al., 2009; that uses all four of the silk-producing species. According , 2012). Our survey revealed the many uses that this to Unni et al. (2009) the species are known locally as pat type of silk has: cloths made out of muga silk are UV- (), muga (Antheraea assama = assamensis), protective, colour stable (everlasting) and comfortable to tasar (also known us tussah) (Antheraea mylitta, A. pernyi wear in both the summer and winter seasons. The threads and A. paphia) and eri (Philosomia ricini). Remarkably of silk are used in surgical sutures as well as in regular muga and eri silkworms are found almost entirely in the clothing and muga yarns are incorporated into aircraft of Assam (Borthakur, 2003), parts of tyres, bulletproof jackets and parachute ropes (Nath, 2013). Nagaland (Meyer-Rochow and Changkija, 1997) and at Muga silk is therefore of considerable socio-economic the foot hills of Meghalaya (Chakravorty et al., 2010). value as it contributes significantly to the economy of the Physical and chemical differences between the fibres of country. Although the name of this moth, i.e., Antheraea muga, tasar and eri have been reviewed by Babu assama = assamensis indicates the insect’s origin is As- (2012), who has shown that the three wild types of silk sam, the precise origins of muga culture in Assam are still not only differ considerably from the domesticated mul- a mystery. However, according to Cloudsley-Thompson berry-based Bombyx mori silk in terms of optical proper- (1976) “...references in literature suggest that a ties like lower birefringence and possessing much more silk industry may have existed in India at about 1,000  BC, or possibly even as early as 4,000 BC”. It is certain *To whom correspondence should be addressed. that muga sericulture was important during the era of the Fax: +81-4996-7-7028. Tel: +81-70-2610-2876. Ahom kings (1228-1828 A.D.), who took a special inter- Email: [email protected] est in it, but that it later fell into decline during the Brit- 18 Chakravorty et al. ish period due to a lack of proper support (Mahan, 2012). Dhemaji district in the North-Eastern region of Assam, i.e. The muga insect (Antheraea assama = assamensis) is a Gohain gaon, Bakal gaon, Jamuguri, Nahoroni, Khojua, semi-domesticated variety of polyphagous silkworm moth Saru ajuha, Kolakota, Bormer, Puwa saikia, Ghuguha, Bo- that does not, however, feed on mulberry as a larva. Its rajan, Deogharia and Pukia. The surveys were based on principal host plants are: som (Persea = Machilus bomby- interviews. A total number of 15 villagers between 45-75 cina) and the sualu trees (Litsea monopetela, L. polyan- years of age (10 male and 5 female) from each of the vil- tha). Secondary host plants are mejankori (Litsea cubeba), lages surveyed were interviewed to reveal information and dighlati (Litsea salicifolia). Traditional rearers usually about their muga silkworm rearing techniques. preferred the som tree for the production of good quality silk yarn, but the sualu tree was favoured for seed cocoon Area of study production due to the resultant variation in colour and The Dhemaji District lies between 94°12′18″E and compactness of silk yarn. However, when produced by us- 95°41′32″E longitude and 27°05′27″N and 27°57′16″ N ing the host plant som, the cocoon is brighter and shinier latitudes. The district covers an area of 3237 km2 and basi- than that of the sualu plant. cally represents an extensive plain with diverse bio-ecolo- The colour of the silk yarn furthermore varies with re- gy of tropical to temperate characteristics at an altitude of gard to the seasonal variation. Muga culture is an outdoor 104 m above the MSL. Temperature extremes are 5.9°C in practice, which is strongly affected by climatic and other winter and 39.9°C in summer, while relative humidity an- environmental conditions. The larvae are prone to disease nual precipitation range from 73-90% and 2600-3200 mm, caused by seasonally varying kinds of pathogens and the respectively. The soil type is alluvial and laterite (i.e., rich larvae are at risk of attack by numerous pest insects, pred- in iron oxides) with abundant humus and pH-values local- atory animals and parasites. Yet, Muga culture remains an ly varying between 4.9 and 7.95. Physiographically the activity in the rural landscape, because traditional meth- region is swathed by mountains and dominated by the ods developed by local culturists have been capable to plains of the Brahmaputra. The Dhemaji District, which hold back the losses of Muga silkworms at low stage. has a population of close to 700,000 is one of the border These methods, passed down from generation to genera- districts of Assam to Arunachal Pradesh. tion only by word of mouth, may or may not have a scien- tific background, but they represent indigenous knowledge RESULTS AND DISCUSSION that may be crucial for muga sericulture and thus has to be worth recording. 1. Traditional muga culture Traditional rearers believe that muga silkworms are Muga culture traditionally distinguishes pre-rearing, holy and that the rearing depends on the blessings of the rearing and post rearing phases. Each of these phases is gods. With regard to sericulture in Upper Assam, a num- connected with different traditional methods that come ber of proverbs exist, of which this may serve as an ex- into use at successive steps. The numbering of the subsec- ample: “Ahu kheti ahu kal muga kheti kopal val hali kheti tions is designed to make navigating through the paper korilei pai”. In English this means that ‘cultivation of rice easier. depends on the season, but the rearing of muga depends on the fate of the rearer”. Therefore, even today, muga rearers 1.1. Pre-rearing procedures (Figure 2 a-q) in the rural areas implement traditional knowledge at each Before initiating the rearing of muga silkworm the local and every step of the entire rearing and spinning process- people take great care in first choosing the most suitable es. Although some aspects of the indigenous practices re- site to grow the silkworm’s host plants, principally Persea lated to muga culture have been recorded (Borthakur, bombycina. The criteria for choosing a place that can be 2003; Phukan and Chowdhury, 2006; Unni et al., 2009; turned into a muga rearing farm, locally termed somoni, Chakravorty et al., 2010; Sarmah et al., 2010; Nath, are primarily based on the health of the plants growing 2013) the available information is fragmentary and incom- there. Young plants with heights of around 2 m and an plete. The present study was undertaken to remedy this abundance of fresh leaves, away from the roadside in ar- situation and to provide a record of the traditional wisdom eas where the plants are exposed to direct sunlight are before it may be eliminated from the society. preferred to older plants closer to the road.

1.1.1. Rules to be followed for maintaining the MATERIALS AND METHODS farm Collection of data The traditional rearers strictly obey the following rules: For the collection of primary data extensive field sur- 1. To protect the farm from intruders, the rearers prepare veys were conducted in thirteen different villages of the a bamboo fence around the somoni. 2. Dry and damaged Traditional muga silk culture in Northeast Assam 19

Fig. 1. The map shows the northern-most tip of Assam with the study area of Dhemaji indicated by the rectangle. The inset depicts India as whole and the state of Assam in the Northeast of the country. branches, unwanted trees, shrubs, weeds, grasses and sweetest ones are indicative of a superior quality, i.e. may herbs, which could harbour pests and spread disease-caus- represent leaves that are neither too young nor too old ing microorganisms, are burned in the somoni. 3. To re- and can thus be easily digested by the muga larvae. Older move ants from the plant, rearers may place a dead fish, leaves are believed to be more fibrous and more difficult frog or a lizard of the genus Australolacerta, locally to handle by the larvae. known as naipia, near the base of the tree to first attract the ants in large number and then to burn them off. 4. To 1.2. Selection of seed cocoon, known as sanch drive the cattle away from grazing the host plants, clumps 1.2.1. Variety of muga silkworm breed of cowdung are deposited around the base of the trees. 5. The rearers select the seeds or sanch according to the To control diseases (e.g., grey blight) affecting the host sizes of the larvae and the cocoons. Larvae and cocoons plant’s leaves, the rearers regularly plough the soil of the of larger sizes are believed to indicate a greater propensi- somoni. 6. To treat stem borer attacks, the rearer applies ty for adaptiveness than smaller ones do. The rearers term mud on the trunk of the affected trees or closes the holes the smaller larvae kukurbahi and the larger ones as kami- made by stem borers with mud. ni. The cocoons formed by male larvae are smaller and smoother than those made by female larvae. It is notewor- 1.1.2. Selection of ideal host plant thy that the superior seed cocoons produce a more audible The rearers know that the success of rearing muga de- sound than inferior ones when they are kept in chokori pends mainly on the quality of the host plant som (i.e., pera (a kind of bamboo cage) (Figure 2 c, d) after collec- Persea bombycina). Rearers classify individual som plants tion. The sound indicates that a pupa is getting ready to according to the shapes of their leaves. For example, they enclose and turn into an adult moth, which then has to be are called aampotia if their leaves resemble those of man- collected by the rearer for further processing. go trees (Mangifera indica); jampotia if they resemble those of blackberry shrubs (Syzygium cumini); belpotia if 1.2.2. Strategy for seed collection they look like those of the wood-apple tree (Aegle marme- In addition to the most suitable food tree (see above), los) and nahorpotia if they are similar to those of the In- the success of muga culture also depends on the quality dian iron wood (Mesua ferrea). Given the variety of leaf of the seed cocoons. There is a proverb regarding the se- shapes, som plants classified as nahorpotia are the most lection and collection of seeds: “Namonir sanch ujanir preferred. However, not only leaf shapes, but also the goch” which means in English that seeds (= cocoons of taste of the leaves is important. Nahorpotia leaves are Antheraea assama = assamensis) collected from high alti- said to possess either bitter or sweetish tastes and that the tude regions of Assam ensure a superior harvest to when 20 Chakravorty et al.

they are collected from lower altitude sites. Therefore the sudden jerks, vibrations or agitations and also from rain, rearers collect the seeds from various hilly areas of As- which can damage the cocoons. One of the precautions sam, Arunachal Pradesh, and Meghalaya etc. It is com- that traditional rearers usually follow in order to prevent monly believed that the wild silkworms present in the the cocoons from being exposed to sunlight is to carry the hilly areas are healthier and more productive than silk- seed cocoons at night. Rearers can identify male and fe- worms from the plains. However, collecting seed from the male cocoons by examining them by eye as male and fe- same altitude at which the farm is located is not uncom- male larvae usually form smooth/small and rough/large mon when need arises, but rearers believe this compro- cocoons respectively (Figure 2 a). mises the quality of muga. The rearers also believe that the seed cocoons should 1.2.3. Additional Criteria for Seed Collection be transported along the river and not by road and there- Selection of seed cocoons, apart from their places of fore they usually use the Brahmaputra waterway in As- origin, also depends on the physical examination of the sam. Along with this the rearers also believe that the seed silkworms and this includes the following aspects: cocoons should be protected from strong sunlight, from Traditional muga silk culture in Northeast Assam 21

Fig. 2. The stages of culturing muga silk from muga (Antheraea assama = assamensis) silkworm adopting traditional knowledge followed in the Dhemaji district, Assam, (NE India). Pre-rearing stages (a-d); Rearing stages (e-q); Post- rearing stages (r-z): a- Female and male cocoons; b: Excreta of muga silkworm; c: Muga seed cage or chokori pera hanging above the kitchen with muga seeds; d: Evenly distributed muga seed cocoons in chokori pera; e: Kharika with Mating moths; f: Set of Kharikas with adult male and female hanged on a rope; g: Female moth with eggs on the kharika; h: Kharikas with eggs hanged on chak; i- Rearer performing a ritual in the farm or somoni during khorika logua; j: Kharikas hanging on the host plant; k: A girdle or jori bandh of thatch grass on the trunk of host plant; l: Gir- dle or jori bandh of fresh pseudostem of banana tree; m: Muga silkworms on the chaloni; n: Rearer driving away the predators using a bow or dhenu and batolu guti; o: Rearer making muddy pallets or Batolu guti in the somoni or farm; p: Khurung or cage for keeping the muddy pallets or batolu guti; q: Kuki or cage for keeping the ripe muga larvae; r: Cocooning in jalies; s: Muga cocoons; t: Drying of muga cocoons above the kitchen fire; u: Boiling of muga cocoons; v: Preparation of alkali from rice straw or dhankhar; w: Plant resources (1. Grewia hirsuta, 2. Dilenia indica, 3. Hibiscus rosa chinensis) used in reeling of muga yarn; x: Spinning of muga yarn in Bhanguri y: Muga yarn on the Bhanguri mari or reeler after reeling; z: Drying of final muga yarn

(1) Farm visit silkworm is bright green, a colour referred to as “muga Prior to the seed collection, the rearer usually visits the green”. The bright green colour is thought to be indicative somoni to examine the health of the larvae reared there. of the best quality silkworm larvae for rearing. But some- Only when the rearer is convinced of the high quality of times other colours appear in silkworms, e.g., “kachupo- the larvae that he sees on a particular farm, he may tia” (dull green), which resembles the colour of Alocasia choose that farm (out of several farms in the same locali- indica leaves; “krishnaboronia” (light bluish black), remi- ty) for collecting his seed cocoons. niscent of the body colour of lord Krishna and “kuhiapo- tia” (dark green), a colour similar to that of Saccharum (2) Larval coloration officinarum leaves. Silkworms with these colourations are (2a) Body colour: The Body colour of a healthy muga believed to be of lower quality and are rejected. 22 Chakravorty et al.

(2b) Colour of the mouth of larvae: Rearers believe that mandibular action when cutting the leaves (pat kota) can the silkworm’s mouth can be of three different colours, be heard, are examined to see if they cut mainly the e.g., distinguishable as “mukhkula” or black in colour; leaves’ lower stem without eating properly. Leaf cutting “mohrukhia” or cupric brown and “pabharukhia” or white behaviour, i.e. food uptake, is critically observed only in in colour. Of these three different colorations “mohrukhia” second stage larvae and it is said that the best breeds of is the preferred one in collecting seed cocoons. muga silkworm show medium rates of “pat kota” and that those exhibiting very low or very high rates are rejected. (2c) Colour of the tubercules and spines of larvae: The Besides, larvae which start feeding on leaves from the top rearers distinguish two different colours of the tubercules of the tree and then systematically move down the tree in muga silkworm, namely reddish and yellowish. Only are preferred over those which feed in the opposite direc- the reddish coloured tubercular silkworm larvae are used tion or cut leaves in a patchy manner. as seed cocoons. 1.3. Traditional knowledge regarding rearing (2d) Colour of the legs of larvae: The legs of muga silk- equipment (Figure 2 c-q) worms can be of two colours. They can be cupric red or During the entire process of muga culture various tradi- blackish. Only the silkworms with cupric red legs are tional implements are used. All of the equipment is made considered as seed cocoons; others are rejected. of bamboo and carefully cleaned by the muga rearer prior to it being used. The equipment includes the following: (3) Behaviour and physiology of the larvae In their assessment of the quality of the seed, the tradi- Chokori pera: A box made up of bamboo to keep the seed tional rearers also observe the behaviour and physiology cocoons (Figure 2 c, d). of the larvae. The most significant traits the rearers focus on involve. Kharika: A bundle of thatch grass of about 30 cm in length and 1 cm in diameter across, bent to resemble a (3a) Sensitivity of the larvae: The rearers test the sensitiv- hook in shape, and used to transfer larvae from hatching ity of the larvae by touching the larvae with their fingers. site to host plant (Figure 2 e-h). Sensitive larvae show a good, i.e. immediate response. The rearers, moreover, believe that the larvae should be Chak: A round device of bamboo for hanging kharika fast moving, which is an indicator of a strong breed. Lar- (Figure 2 h). vae that behave in this way are believed to be suitable for further use as seed and are included for the final seed col- Chaloni: A triangular shaped apparatus made of strips of lection. bamboo, which is used to transfer muga larvae from one plant to another (Figure 2 m). (3b) Presence of excreta in the larval hind gut (= hartho- ka): The traditional rearers know how to detect the pres- Batolu guti: Hard mud balls about 1.5-2 cm in diameter, ence of excreta in the larval hind gut by gently touching used with a bow instead of an arrow to drive away birds the larva’s rear end. Larvae in which at that position two and other predators that feeds on larvae (Figure 2 n, o). or three faecal pellets can be felt are preferred to larvae devoid of the same. Larvae in which no faecal pellets can Dhenu (bow): Bow, made of bamboo, and required to be felt are discarded. protect the silkworms in the somoni against predatory Even the shape of the excreta matters for the rearers in birds and other animals (Figure 2 o). selecting the most suitable seed. Usually the pellets of the larval excreta are barrel-shaped with distinct 4-6 ridges Khurung: A basket made of strips of bamboo and to carry (Figure 2 b). The colour of the excreta should be reddish Batolu guti (Figure 2 p). brown and the texture should be somewhat moist. Expert rearers usually test the degree of moisture by crushing an Kuki: A round basket made of strips of bamboo and used excretory pellet between two fingers and if this results in for carrying mature muga around in the somoni (= muga a moist and muddy kind of spot the larva is chosen. Indi- farm). It is also known as khora in some parts of Assam. vidual excretory pellets should be large in size and pos- (Figure 2 q). sess visible ridges; small sized excreta with indistinct ridges indicate poor quality of the seed. After each cycle of rearing, the equipment is thorough- ly washed to remove diseased silkworms or their saliva (3c) Feeding habits: Larvae that are fast eaters and whose and the dry skins as well as the excretory material of Traditional muga silk culture in Northeast Assam 23 healthy silkworms. The equipment is then dried over the moths from their cocoons and is a precaution against mi- kitchen fire. This is done to destroy any contamination of crobial contamination. Traditional rearers usually spread the equipment with micro-organisms and fungal spores (= tulsi or holy basil (Oscimum sanctum) and kochu (Alocasia pebbrine), as described by Jolly (1986). indica) twigs over the cocoons to prevent infections (Fig- ure 2 d). The use of Alocasia indica is mandatory in this 2. Rearing Techniques process to avoid “the evil eye”, which could cause the de- Successful rearing involves many phases. Starting with mise of the cocoon through illness. The rearers also spray the selection of the breeds and giving them optimal con- the watery extract of Oscimum sanctum leaves on the ditions for metamorphosis, pairing and oviposition, the floor of the room where the cage with the seed cocoons is sericulturist then has to monitor the hatching process and kept. look after the larval requirements until cocooning ends the cycle. Traditions and rituals accompany every step in 2.3. Hatching and copulation of the moths (“aar- these various tasks. joa”) After it has hatched, the female moth is tied with cot- 2.1. Selection of breeds for rearing ton threads onto a kharika. The kharikas, as mentioned Following the selection of the seed (at the pre-rearing earlier, consist of thatch grass of about 30 cm in length stage) the rearers use a variety of indigenous practices for and 1 cm in diameter, bent into the shape of a hook at rearing muga. The muga species under debate is multi- one end. The rearers hang the kharikas on a jori (i.e., a voltine, which means it breeds 5-6 breeds per year. Rear- long rope made from strips of bamboo) inside a separate ers usually will not harvest silk that often in one year and room of the house and allow the female to mate with a choose instead only two times per year, i.e., “jethua” male. Copulation or aar-joa is permitted for about one (May-June) and “kotia” (October- November) for the rear- day, after which the moths normally decouple, which is ing. This is believed to yield a larger quantity of quality known as Aar-bhonga. Thereafter the rearer uses smoke silk for commercial purposes when compared with the out of burning rice straw, a process known as jumuthi, in other times of the year, i.e. “jarua” (December-January), the house for providing a mild heat to the decoupled fe- ”sotua” (March- April), “aherua” (June-July), and “vodia” male moth. The traditional rearers believe that due to this (August-September). If high quality silk production is the heating all the female moths excrete excess urine at the main aim, this favours May-June and October-November same time and thereafter lay eggs collectively. A healthy harvests, i.e. jethua and kotia breeds, but if the production female usually lays about 100-200 eggs over a period of of seed cocoons for the rearing of muga silkworms is the 4-5 days (Figure 2 g). According to the rearers’ informa- priority, then the other four breeds (aherua, vodia, jarua tion, eggs laid up to the second day result in the best off- and sotua) can also be used. spring. Surprisingly, moths of the “jarua” breed copulate Of these latter four breeds to obtain seed cocoons from, for more than one day, but to decouple them, rearers use the “jarua” and “aherua” are considered to represent the the same procedure (i.e., smoking by burning rice straw) lowest quality while the other two breeds “sotua” and as with the other breeds. “vodia” are treated as medium quality seed. The breeds Females which could not copulate due to lack of a male also differ with regard to the length of time they require moth or some other reason are hung on a rope outside the to complete their development and since development de- house at dusk. To invite stray males the rearers sing a pends to a very large extent on the environmental temper- song, clapping their hands to the rhythm of the song. The ature it is not surprising that jarua take 50-55 days, sotua song goes like this: “Chokori aais chokora aais chokori 40-45 days, jethua 24-30 days, aherua 24-28 days, vodia aase mura melai chokora aahe ga ghelai” and translates 24-30 days and kotia 26-30 days. into “the female moths are waiting for you (male moths) and you are to come”. Another invitation song would be: 2.2. Seeds in the “chokori pera” “Chokori aais chokora aais chokori aase hune rupe cho- After having collected seed cocoons from different kora aahe bari chuke”, which translates into “the female places, the rearers generally keep the seed cocoons in the moths are wearing their ornaments and you (male moths) chokori pera (a box made of bamboo), spreading out the are to come to see them”. The rearer would sing this song cocoons in it evenly for easy emergence of moths from only when some other people are known to also rear the cocoons. The box with the seed cocoons is kept in the muga silkworm nearby. In cases of a shortage of male kitchen close to the wood fire at a certain height so that moths, rearers even used to keep water in a dug out hole the cocoons can receive optimal heat for their metamor- in the ground, believing that a male moth after copulation phosis. An even distribution of seed cocoons in the bam- will go to the source of the water for bathing and then be boo box is necessary as it facilitates emergence of the ready to copulate a new with another female. 24 Chakravorty et al.

2.4. Hatching of eggs ral disease of muga and other silkworms, e.g. Bombyx About one hour after copulation the female moth may mori (Yokoyama, 1973). 2. Women, not even those be- start to lay her eggs. The rearers will take only the eggs longing to the rearer’s family, are allowed near the culture which are laid on between one to two days after copula- during their menstrual periods. 3. People who are taking tion, believing that these eggs are best for rearing. There- care of the rearing process in the farm are not allowed to after the kharikas, bearing the eggs, are very carefully use any cosmetics (body oil, hair shampoo, soap, powder hung on the chak or chaloni (i.e., equipment made out of or scented substances), trim their hair, shave their beards bamboo) (Figure 2 h) together with Alocasia indica twigs or cut their nails during the rearing period. to protect the eggs from “evil eyes” (i.e., mukhloga).Tra- To protect the larvae from predatory birds and other an- ditional rearers dip the egg-bearing kharikas in a dilute imals in the somoni the rearers stay in the somoni for the extract of Oscimum sanctum leaves to stimulate fast and entire rearing period. They construct a temporary hut or uniform hatching of the eggs. shelter with bamboo and thatch grass and call it somoni ghar (= farm house). In it they keep essential tools and 2.5. Transfer of newly hatched larvae to host equipment and also prepare the “batolu guti” by drying plant (= kharika logua) them over a fire or keeping in strong sunshine. They keep On the first day of hatching the muga rearers transfer the jalies (= cocoon forming cages) in the house, where the kharikas from their home to the host plant on the they also cook their food and from where they control ev- farm, the somoni. They do this with the utmost care and ery step of the rearing process. decide how many larvae should be put on each host plant at a time. Our enquiry revealed that the rearer’s decision 2.7. Rituals as part of the rearing process usually depends on the quantity of younger leaves present Muga culturists initiate rearing of the muga silkworm and the height of the chosen host tree. To avoid an early by performing certain religious rituals designed to assure death of the newly hatched larvae the rearer hangs the the fruitful completion of the rearing process. Towards khorikas on those branches of a healthy som tree that are this end they put a burning lantern/lamp at the base of the not exposed to strong sunlight. This process is known as som tree on which the very first kharikas with newly “khorika logua” (= putting the khorikas on the tree) (Fig- hatched larvae (locally known as chai muga/ ek ulua) are ure 2 i, j). The khorikas are kept on the host plant for a to be placed kharika logua (= placing the newly hatched week so that all the larvae can creep onto the host plant larvae on the som tree) and offer tamul pan (= betel nut and start feeding on its leaves more or less simultaneously. and betel leaves) together with some money (a coin) and After stripping a tree bare due to their feeding activity, khir (= a sweet dish of rice, milk and sugar) and then the larvae crawl down the trunk of this tree, but to pre- worship god under that tree. (Figure 2 i). Even at the vent them from crawling down onto the soil and thereaf- stage of maiky ulua (= emergence of fourth instar larvae) ter be difficult to locate, rearers surround the trunk at banana and/or coconut is offered“as prasad” (offerings) about 1.0-1.2 m above ground with a girdle or jori bandh, to god. Finally the pre-cocooning stage is welcomed with which the larvae will not crawl over. The girdles are made either rice wine or other local wine varieties (alcoholic or of either thatched grass (Imperata cylindrica) (Figure 2 k) non-alcoholic). This worshipping is supposed to make the or a variety of dry leaves and fresh pseudo-stems of ba- gods happy, because the rearers believe that in the somoni nana plants (e.g., Musa balbisiana, Colla sp. (Figure 2 l), there is a super natural power, on whom the success and or sometimes with fresh leaves of kapau dhekia (Microso- prosperity of the rearer depends. rium punctatum) and tora (Alpinia allughas).The muga larvae never cross or even touch the girdle, which may be 2.8. Larval stages due to the presence of the chemicals in the plant material Muga silkworms, like other insects, go through five lar- used in the girdle. Thereafter the rearers can pick up the val polu (= stages) in their life cycle. The second larval larvae by hand and place them on the chaloni, the trian- stage is called dui ulua, with dui meaning second. The gular bamboo support, and put them on another tree that third larval stage is called tini ulua, with tini meaning still carries green leaves. third, and the fourth larval stage is known as maiky ulua. This stage is very crucial in the life cycle of a silkworm, 2.6. Rules to be followed during rearing process after this stage the silkworm larva turns into the fifth and During the rearing process rearers abide by the follow- last larval instar prior to pupation. The mature or ripe lar- ing customs: 1. In order to avoid mukhloga disease (the vae can be identified by behavioural changes like ceasing “evil eye”), other than the rearer no outsider is allowed to to feed, becoming sluggish and unwilling to crawl (a be- be near the culture. Recently, Sarmah et al. (2010) de- haviour locally known as jholom dhora) and starting to scribed “mukhloga” disease as flacherie, a bacterial or vi- release copious amounts of excreta. At night they crawl Traditional muga silk culture in Northeast Assam 25 down the tree and this mass exodus of larvae crawling This procedure not only dries the cocoon, but also kills down the tree is known as bhor pok. The bhor pok varies the pupa inside it without damaging the cocoon. The rear- with the season and, for example, during the summer lasts ers believe that drying by smoke is the best process. Dry- 5-6 days, but in winter 8-9 days. At night the rearers col- ing continues until the pupae inside the cocoons are all lect the mature, ripe muga larvae by hand and put them dried up. The sounds that the cocoons make when they into the khurung (= a basket made of bamboo). are being touched and felt by the rearer’s fingers indicate to the rearer the degree of dehydration. Apparently smoke- 2.9. Cocooning in jalies dried cocoons give a better shine to the muga yarn than For further cocoon formation the rearers keep the ma- sun-dried ones do. Properly dried cocoons can be kept for ture muga in jalies, (leaf mesh) which are bundles of dry longer times when kept in a bamboo basket near to the leaves of various plant species like, for instance, nahor fire in the kitchen to prevent absorption of moisture until (Mesua ferrea sp.), hingori (Castanopsis sp.), azar (La- reeling commence. gerstroemia speciosa), bhomlati (Celastrus monospermus), Prior to the reeling process, the rearers gather together and mango (Mangifera indica) (Figure 2 r). Among these cocoons of identical sizes for easy reeling and good quali- leaves, hingori (Castanopsis sp.) leaves are the most fa- ty thread. Cocoons of widely diverse size and mass create vored one. Before the leaves and twigs are used, they are problems in the reeling process. properly dried in the sunlight and ants and other harmful invertebrates are carefully taken out. However, in winter 3.2. Boiling or cooking of cocoons before preparing jalies the dry leaves are kept above the Before reeling can commence the cocoons are cleaned fire at certain height on a bamboo plate for a whilefor by removing their outer most cover, known as floss, worming it up. They test the temperature of the jali by which is loosely bonded to muga yarns and cannot be putting in the hand in the jalies and due to this warming reeled off. Once the cleaning has been done, the cocoons the larvae at once enters into the jalies for cocooning. are boiled (Figure 2 u). During boiling various traditional While in summer the fresh leaves are likewise employed degumming and other facilitatory reeling reagents are for setting up jalies. The moisture in the fresh leaves be- used. These include the kolakhar and dhankhar (Figure 2 v), lieved to let down the temperature of jalies in summer and—for easy reeling of the thread—slippery substances thereby leads to easy cocooning. During our field study it like owtenga, simalu, joba pat, Kukurhuta leaves depend- was also been recorded that during the period of continu- ing upon their availability (Figure 2 w1,w2,w3). However, ous rain the traditional rearers use fresh bamboo leaves of dhankhar is considered to be superior to kolakhar as alka- the bamboo (Bambusa balcooa) locally known as bhaluka li agent and simalu, as slippery agent during reeling pro- bamboo as jalies instead of sun dried leaves. Bamboo cess is used rarely due to the difficulty with which it can leaves do not cleave to water and are not moist, thereby be extracted. the cocoon quality never damages, but in such case, the Kolakhar: The dried banana peel or pseudostem of cocoons should be collected within 3-4 days to avoid the Musa balbisiana (Musaceae) is charred and steaped over- damage from moisture of the leaves. night in water. The aqueous extract is used as khar (= al- kali) for easy boiling and degumming of the cocoon. 3. Post-rearing techniques There are no specific instructions as to the proportion of The post rearing techniques include drying of the co- alkali extract to be added to the boiling cocoon, but we coons, boiling or cooking of the cocoons and reeling off found that the muga breeder determines the quantity of al- silk yarn from the cocoons. kali extract needed to be added by tasting a little water from the boiling vessel. If the water has a bitter taste then 3.1. Drying of cocoons either more water needs to be added or additional cocoons The muga rearers collect the cocoons of the silkworms are required. from the jalies one week after cocoon forming has oc- Dhankhar: This term describes ‘alkali’ derived from an curred, but damaged cocoons (infected with flies like extract of rice straw ashes. Ashes obtained by burning the Mascicera grandis, Tricolyga bombycis and Sturmia seri- rice straw are kept in a vessel and a certain amount of wa- cariae) are sorted out within 4-5 days to avoid further in- ter is poured through it slowly and clear filtrate is collect- fections. Thorough drying for further processing precedes ed carefully or sometimes the ashes are loosely wrapped in reeling (Figure 2 x). Out of the population of suitable co- cotton cloth and held back in a certain amount of water coons, the rearers select the very best, keeping them aside for one daytime. The filtered aqueous extract is then used as seed for their next breed. The remaining cocoons are while boiling the cocoons and the method to determine the dried under strong sunshine or by keeping them above the amount of filtrate to be used involves tasting of the water fire at certain height on a bamboo plate for 3 to 4days. and is identical to the process described for kolakhar. At 26 Chakravorty et al. this point, it is believed that any remaining of the as this can damage the threads. 4. The reelers draw a dhankhar after their use should not be discarded before small mark on the bhir or bhanguri with calcium carbon- completion of reeling as it helps in easy reeling process. ate (= chun) before the reeling commences to avoid any Owtenga: The slippery core of the owtenga plant (Dile- “evil eye” by envious people. nia indica Linn.) is in use as a degumming agent by mix- ing it with filtered water and then adding it to the boiling CONCLUSION cocoon. Simalu: This is the bark of the simalu tree (Bombax Given that the traditional ways of muga culture are be- malabaricum) and after grinding it up, it is used in the ing increasingly ignored in modern, non-traditional seri- same way as the core of the owtenga. Throughout the culture enterprises, we have to ask ourselves whether it procedure the cocoons are covered by a cotton cloth. Joba makes sense to discard practices, which for centuries have pat describes the leaf of the China rose (Hibiscus rosa- been accepted as common knowledge and are based on shinensis) and is regarded a good lubricating substance. the collective experience of many individuals (Erren et Fresh leaves are plucked and washed properly with water al., 2013). Towards this end we shall now summarize the and then chopped into small pieces and used in the reel- disadvantages and advantages of the traditional sericultur- ing water after casing the cocoons with a cloth. Kukurhu- al practices in Northern Assam. ta leaves (Grewia hirsuta) may also be used as slippery agents in the reeling process. Disadvantages of the traditional method To prevent that remnants of the added substances can Muga culture is an age-old customary activity of the stick to the cocoons and interfere with the quality of the (Phukan, 2012). Although the entire pro- silk, these additional substances are introduced only after cess of culturing muga silkworm relies heavily on the in- the cocoons, wrapped in cloth, have already been placed digenous knowledge and expertise of local culturists, into the boiling water. hanging on to traditions can be a hindrance when it comes to accepting new ideas and modifying established meth- 3.3. Reeling of silk yarn from muga cocoons ods. Modernization, changing attitudes and life styles of After they have been boiled, the cocoons are kept in the younger generation as well as the aim to get quicker water devoid of the alkali additions and reeled onto bhan- returns from muga yarn production has led to a situation, guri, bhowri or bhir (= spinners) made of wood. Two per- in which traditional indigenous practices are now no lon- sons are required for this process, one for spinning out the ger followed by the majority of Assamese sericulturists. thread from the boiled cocoons and the other for reeling it The only areas in which the traditions still persist are re- on the bhanguri (Figure 2 x). Several cocoons may be mote country areas. However, even there they are in dan- taken together depending on the width of the thread to be ger of being abandoned. reeled. Inner filaments are pulled one by one and at least Instead of collecting the seed from higher altitudes and 4-5 filaments from the cocoons are put together to form a transporting them at night via the river route, modern cul- final thread which is called hir diya or (= compiling of turists can contact a muga egg retailer or rearer and ob- yarns) and reeled onto the bhanguri and subsequently tain the seed cocoons from host plants in that person’s yarns are rolled out from spinner and dried in sun to give home garden. The traditional river transport of the seed at a final Muga thread (Figure 2 y, z). It is said that about night is seen by modern sericulturists as unnecessarily 1000 kotia cocoons of the October-November breed can cumbersome and dangerous and they therefore prefer to give about 200-270 g of yarn and that the same amount of take the seed during the day by car or motor cycle. Visit- jethua cocoons of the May-June breed may yield 200-250 g ing the muga egg retailer is faster and less strenuous than of yarn.In comparing to these two breeds similar numbers searching for seed, having to decide on its presumed qual- of cocoons of the other muga breeds (jarua, sotua, ahrua ity and needing to observe certain religious rituals, dictat- and vodia) usually give around 150-190 g of silk thread. ed by tradition but apparently not scientific necessity. Assessing a plant’s quality and position for a particular 3.4. Precautions of reeling strain of silkworm in relation to the farm’s location re- Adherence to certain precautions is considered essential quires years of experience. Relying on the commercial for successful reeling. 1. It is necessary to provide filtered rearer in these matters, the modern sericulturist no longer water to the threads on the bhanguri to clean the threads. has to be an expert on all aspects of silkworm biology 2. The water in which the cocoons are kept for reeling is and can, instead, focus on marketing and other business as to be changed from time to time to keep the threads clean. well as family matters. Thus, responsibility for the success 3. Under no circumstances are even traces of table salt al- or failure of the sericulture outcome is shared between lowed to contaminate the water during the reeling process muga egg vendor and the sericulturist; which makes life a Traditional muga silk culture in Northeast Assam 27 great deal easier for the latter and allows him to branch himself without the need to involve other experts. out and, for instance, to develop skills in advertising his When it comes to value for money, the traditional seri- product, establishing business connections, attending meet- culturists may ultimately be the ones “who laugh last”, ings etc. for it has happened in other industries that as more and For final cocoon processing and yarn collection, mod- more commercially available products depress the market ern culturists have started using chemicals like caustic price of a product, the genuine (or what is considered soda instead of using conventional alkali obtained, for in- ‘genuine’) product, in this case “wild silk”, may well be- stance, from extracts of kal khar, dhan khar or Hibiscus gin to fetch a higher price as it becomes an increasingly rosa-sinensis leaves to render the boiled cocoons slippery. rare item. This is a further reason, why the few remaining Modern culturists can rely on the vendor’s recommenda- traditional sericulturists should be encouraged to continue tion of the most suitable products and need not them- the age-old practices and, in marketing their products, selves possess knowledge of the properties of local plant should stress that the latter have been obtained with silk- extracts. They also no longer follow the rules or specific worms from the wild, reared and processed by genuine rituals practised by the traditional rural rearers (described traditional methods free of artificial chemicals; methods in this paper), because such practices are time-consuming that stood the test of time. and seen by the more affluent silk traders as outdated, in- As a by-product, muga rearers also obtain nutritious effective and primitive. Their slogan “time is money” fell pupae, rich in fats, protein and vitamins; these can be sold on fertile grounds with the young people and as they no- or used to augment the farmer’s own food supply (Meyer- ticed they could (at least for now) achieve bigger returns Rochow, 2005). In fact, according to Suzuki (cited in for less labour, they began to discard the traditional ways. Nunome, 1988) silkworm domestication and the use of silk by humans may be rooted in entomophagy, i.e., the con- Advantages of the traditional method sumption of silkworm pupae as food. Although silkworm Despite the obvious advantages in time saving, greater production as food is not restricted to traditional methods, output and productivity of the modern ways, the tradition- it is certainly more important to traditional than modern al ways have their own advantages. The aspect of conti- sericulturists, given that nutritional shortcomings often ex- nuity, of a connection with the past is something that is of ist in exactly those remote areas, where traditional meth- considerable value in an ethnic group that wishes to main- ods still persist. This aspect of an additional benefit of the tain an identity; that possesses a certain pride and likes to traditional ways of rearing muga silkworm is considered be distinguished from others. However, on a more practi- worth mentioning. cal basis, traditions that foster close relationships of a people with their environment, plants and fauna, serve as In summary a protective element for the people against habitat disrup- yarn has been world famous for its lustrous tion. The traditionalist is keenly aware of the importance beauty and has been used in the garment industry world- of the various plant species, the soils, the location of the wide. However, muga silk has numerous additional uses hills, streams and the impact of the weather in the local and therefore muga culture has to be seen as being of ecosystem. Traditionalists see themselves as a part of the considerable socio-economic importance. Tradtional rear- greater whole. This is reflected in their rituals and reli- ers are not only the guardians of age-old practices, they gious practices. Silkworms and their product, the silk, are are also responsible for keeping local populations of silk- then more than just a commercial item. They are an ex- worm strains alive that are specifically adapted to particu- pression of Nature; a gift of Nature that needs to be nur- lar regions. One ought therefore to expect an interest in tured and appreciated. safe-guarding the traditional methods of silk production in By not relying on the seed and food plant recommenda- Assam. Yet, the traditional ways are nowadays persisting tions of the traders, but trusting their forefathers’ experi- only in remote rural communities, where, nevertheless, ences and selecting seed from the wild, traditionalists are they continue to fulfil a need. more likely to protect rare and only locally available pop- The changes that were adopted by modern sericultur- ulations of silkworm strains that are of no or little interest ists, albeit at the expense of traditional practices, have un- to the commercial rearers, who focus on the fastest grow- doubtedly led to a greater efficiency in silk production ing, easiest to keep and least specific strains. Traditional and consequently the quantity of silk reaching the market methods therefore almost certainly help maintaining silk- is likely to increase. However, as the supply increases, re- worm genetic diversity to a far greater extent than modern turns in monetary terms are likely to fall. More important- enterprises do and they also give the traditional vis-à-vis ly, by focusing on only a few silkworm strains the yarns modern sericulturist greater independence, since the for- available will be less diverse and the reputation of Assa- mer is self-reliant and controls every step of the process mese silk, famous for catering to many specific uses and 28 Chakravorty et al. tastes on account of its wide spectrum in texture, fibre cal research cannot afford to ignore. Journal of Ethnobiology strength, colour etc., could deteriorate. Keeping traditional and Etnomedicine, 9, 1-12. methods alive would be one way to forestall such a devel- Jolly, M.S. (1986) Pebrine and its control, In Bulletin No.5, pp.1-34. Central Sericultural Rresearch and Training Insti- opment and at the same time protect the biodiversity of tute, Mysore. different silkworm populations. Mahan, B. (2012) Silk industry among the Tai-Ahom of As- sam, India as an attraction of tourist. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 12, 1-4. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Meyer-Rochow, V.B. (2005) Traditional food insects and spi- ders in several ethnic groups of , Papua New The authors are thankful to the Department of Science Guinea, Australia and New Zealand. In Ecological implica- and Technology (DST) New Delhi, India for the financial tions of mini-livestock: rodents, frogs, snails, and insects for support through a research grant to Dr. J. Chakravorty. sustainable development (Paoletti, M.G. ed.), pp.385-409. Thanks are also extended to Rajiv Gandhi University, Science Publ., Inc., Enfield. Arunachal Pradesh, India, and Jacobs University, Bremen, Meyer-Rochow, V.B. and Changkija, S. (1997) Uses of insects as human food in Papua New Guinea, Australia, and North- Germany, for providing facilities to complete this study. East India: Cross-cultural considerations and cautious con- The Robert Bosch Foundation is acknowledged for the fi- clusions. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 36, 159-185. nancial support extended to Prof. Dr. V. B. Meyer- Nath, P. (2013) Muga culture endemic practice of Assam. Rochow’s recent visit to North East India. Thanks are also http://www.slideshare.net/PremanandaNath/muga-culture- due to village informers in general and the muga rearer endemic-practice-of-assam (accessed 19.01.2015) Nunome, J. (1988) Archaeology of silk and cloth. 1ed., Yuzan- Mukut Phukan and Bhuban Buragohain at Dhemaji Dis- kaku Publishers, Tokyo. trict, Assam, India, for sharing their valuable knowledge Phukan, R. (2012) Muga silk industry of Assam in historical with us. Dr. Sampat Ghosh (currently Andong University, perspective. Global Journal of Human Social Science Histo- South Korea) provided valuable hints regarding relevant ry and Anthropology, 12, 5-8. and recent literature. Phukan, R., and S.N. Chowdhury (2006) Traditional knowl- edge and practices involved in muga . Indi- an Journal of Traditional Knowledge 5, 450-453. 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