Report on Development of North Eastern Region Contents Si

REPORT ON DEVELOPMENT OF

NORTH-EASTERN REGION

NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF BACKWARD AREAS

PLANNING COMMISSION GOVERNMENT OF INDIA NEW DELHI

November, 1981

REPORT ON DEVELOPMENT OF NORTH EASTERN REGION CONTENTS SI. No. Page Summary of Conclusions and Recommendations ...... iii 1 Introduction ...... 1 2 Characteristic Features of the Region ...... 3 3 Strategy of Development...... 11 4 Administrative Structure ...... 17 5 Jhum Cultivation ...... 20 6 Horticulture ...... 30 7 Plantations ...... 35 8 Forestry ...... 39 9 Animal Husbandry ...... 43 10 Handlooms and Sericulture ...... 48 11 Industry and Minerals ...... 60 12 Transport and Power ...... 64 ANNEXURES CHAPTER 2 ANNEXURE 2-1 Decadal variation in Population. 10 ANNEXURE 2-2 Mineral Resources in the North East ... 10 CHAPTER 6 ANNEXURE 6-1 Area and Production—Fruit-crops ...... 34 ANNEXURE 6-2 Area & Production—Vegetable Crops ...... 34 CHAPTER 9 ANNEXURE 9-1 Livestock and Poultry 45 ANNEXURE 9-2 Veterinary Health and Farms (as on 1977-78) ...... 47 ANNEXURE 9'3 Production of Livestock Products ...... 47 CHAPTER 10 ANNEXURE 10-1 A note on the Development of Oak Tasar Industry in Manipur 54 ANNEXURE 10-2 Contribution of Regional Tasar Research Station. Imphal in the Development of Oak Tasar in the North-Eastern Region (1972 to 1980-81) 54 ANNEXURE 10-3 Present Position of Oak Tasar Industry in the North Eastern States 59 CHAPTER 11 ANNEXURE 11-1 Medium and Large scale Industries in North-Eastern Region 63 ANNEXURE 11-2 Distribution of Small Scale Industries, 1971 63 CHAPTER 12 ANNEXURE 12-1 Total Motorable Road Length (as on 31 -3-1979) 67 SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS I. INTRODUCTION 6. Production for self-consumption and sub- 1- The North Eastern Region, comprising of sistence is the basis for economic activity and the States of Assam, Manipur Meghalaya, calculations on market values are seldom the Nagaland and Tripura and the Union basis for decisions on what and how to Territories of Arunachal Pradesh and produce. In this connection when the system is Mizoram, does not fall into a separate category opened to market forces the local tribals, even \of backwardness. Much of the region will be though they may be well educated, may not in covered under one or the other category of fact benefit [PARA 2.15] fundamental backwardness. Specifically three 7. The processes \of non-agricultural develop- types of fundamental backwardness are found ment generated in this area do not always in the region viz., areas of tribal concentration, benefit the tribals except in the limited area of hill areas and chronically flood affected areas. government employment. [PARA 2.16] [PARA 1.3] 8. There are some tribal groups which have 2. As far as industrial backwardness goes, the had long tradition of contact with the market whole of the north-east has been categorised as economy and they are in a better position to industrially backward as per the National cope with the opening up of their economies, Committee's Report on Industrial Dispersal. there are, however, many other groups which [PARA 1.3] have lived a more isolated existence who may well lose out if they are exposed to II. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF uncontrolled market forces. These variations in THE REGION the ability of different tribal communities to 3. The first and most marked characteristics cope with a new economy have to be taken into feature of this region is the low density of account in any development strategy. [PARA population in all areas other than Assam and 2.17] Tripura-The very low densities in many parts \of the region are attributable to the nature of 9. The high participation rates and the low the terrain. The second marked characteristic rates of unemployment mean that there is very of the population \of this region is its rapid rate little employment slack to be taken up in the of growth which has tended to be substantially hill States. Because of this it has not always higher than the national averages. The third been possible to find labour for construction important characteristic of the population of work in the region even at relatively high this area is the high proportions of scheduled wages. But it may be noted that this may also be, to some extent, due to lack of organisation tribes. [PARAS 2.8, 2.9, 2.11 AND 2.12] for mobilising labour. [PARA 2.23] 4. Considering the fact that, the total tribal population of the area is only 4.35 million, 10. Development plans in the hill areas of the there are a large number of relatively small north-east cannot be based on the assumption tribes. Many of the tribes cut across not merely of an employment slack and the alternative State boundaries, but also international employment generated by new developments in boundaries. Thus, there is a great deal of horticulture, plantations, animal husbandry heterogeneity of population within the area. etc., must offer fairly high wages or returns per [PARA 2.14} manday if they are to succeed. The possibility of shortage of candidates for technical and 5. The ability of the tribal community to benefit non-technical posts in development from the job opportunities generated through administration and in projects must also be development process is substantially greater in kept in mind. [PARA 2.25] the north-east than in the other tribal areas. There is a stock of educated youth who, if 11. The problems of development lie not in the trained, can take up positions in development, lack of natural resources but in the large investments required for infrastructure develop- administration, industrial projects etc-[PARA 2.14] ment, the inadequacy of labour and the necessary skill needing an extensive measures to control jhuming, improvements in programme of manpower development. [PARA co-op, husbandry in the flood prone valley, an 2.26] animal husbandry programme oriented to local 12. The hilly terrain of the north-eastern re- conditions, the tapping of the huge potential gion and the pattern of land availability has for horticulture, plantations ton forestry, the led to two distinct systems of agriculture : (i) promotion of sericulture and commercial settled agriculture in the plains, valleys and handlooms, the development of modern gentler slopes and (ii) jhum (slash and burn) industries in a manner that will maximise local impact and the improvement of cultivation elsewhere. [PARA 2.32] communications. [PARAS 3.3 to 3.47] 13. The general practice in Jhum areas is that each village has a well-defind range of 18. Most of 'the States and Union Territories in operation in which the jhum cycle as well as this region are too small to be able to sustain other activity like hunting and wood cutting are the full range of expenditure on education end confined. Within this area land is allotted to training which is the charge of State Govern- each household on the basis of its capacity or ments in the rest of the country. Hence the spe- its need, by a village level authority like village cial role played by the North Eastern Council council or a chief, guided by village elders. in this regard is crucial and should be strengthened. [PARA 3.50] [PARAS 2.36 AND 2.37] 14. The hilly terrain in of the north-eastern 19. Nation-wide leadership will be required to region offers ample scope for the development ensure that development is not hindered by of horticulture and plantations. Animal lack of necessary technical and managerial husbandry is an important part of the personnel and attitudes of parochialism. It is traditional agricultural system. However, the not easy to get top quality personnel from the pattern of animal husbandry in hill areas rest of the country without special incentives. shows a significant difference from the plains The North Eastern Council can give the and from the general all India pattern. In the leadership in starting a dialogue and laying traditional non-agricultural sectors of the down the necessary norms in manpower dominant activities are hand-loom weaving, recruitment and appointment for a possible sericulture and handicrafts. In the modern aggressive development policy. The States j sector the level of development is limited. Union Territories which are members of the North Eastern Council must honour the [PARAS 2.43, 2.44 AND 2.46] concensus reached in the North Eastern 15- From the point of view of infrastructure Council [PARA 3.51] development the principal problem in the region is the inadequacy of communication 20. A quickening of the pace of development in the hill areas of this region carried with it the facilities [PARA 2.48] risk of the tribal being exploited. Protective III. STRATEGY OF DEVELOPMENT and promotional measures to avoid this must 16. The north-eastern region is exceptionally be an integral part of the development strategy rich in natural resources. The primary for this region [PARA 3.52] objective of development strategy must be to 21. Promotional measures to encourage train utilise these optimally and in a manner that and assist trials, particularly the educated and maximises the benefits accruing to local urbanised ones, to utilise the opportunities for people. This will require not merely additional small industry, transport operations, trade and investments in infrastructure and production other services are equally important-. What is facilities but also a programme of manpower required is a supporting structure for credit de- development and measures to reorient the livery, marketing raw material supply and system of land tenure in the hill areas. [PARA technical assistance that can provide a well 3.2] thought out package. [PARA 3.53] 17. The main elements in the development 22. The traditional structures like Village programme for the north-east must be Councils can be used to secure the participation and involvements of people in the 27. Permanent rights over settled land are in- development effort. [PARA 3.54] creasingly being recognised and the movement from community to individual ownership has IV. ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE begun. However, the individual needs to be 23. The development strategy for this region given a legal right to the land. The District will require substantial new developments in Councils can play an important role in this agriculture, animal husbandry, horticulture, since the authority over land tenure is vested in plantations etc. These developments will them. State Governments cannot pursue require the establishment of facilities for programmes for jhum control without such research, new training institutions of nurseries, assistance from District Councils. [PARA 4.1.9] breeding farms etc. At the present stage the optimum size for many facilities would be 28. A large part of the forest area in the north- beyond the requirements of individual Spates. east is under the control of District Councils. In these cases the North Eastern Council can However, these Councils do not have the set up these facilities to serve several States technical staff to plan and manage these thereby allowing these States to benefit from forests. A Certain commonality of approach in silvicultural practices is necessary and, to economies of scale. [PARA 4.6] ensure this, silvicultural control over District 24. The new developments to be promoted in Council forests should be allowed to rest with different sectors will also require a close link the State Forest Departments. [PARA 4.20] up between basic research, adaptive research, field trials and extension effort. The North V. JHUM CULTIVATION Eastern Council can do this in the form of pilot 29. There are many areas where the /hum cycle projects which when proved successful, can be is much larger or much shorter than the emulated by the States. Thus, at the present average. Hence the strategy for jhum control stage of development, the NEC should have the cannot be based on the average figure for a responsibility and the corresponding capability large area, but must take into account the for high level technical supervision in fields condition in each area. [PARA 5.7] like crop production, horticulture, plantations, 30. There seems to be a discrepancy between animal husbandry etc [PARA 4.7] picture of land tenure that emerges from 25. Once the regional facilities are set up in the discriptions of the tribal society of the region region, the NEC Advisers must travel around and the data thrown up by the NSS survey. This in the region to see whether and how the facili- difference needs to be probed further. [PARA ties are being used, to build up local expertise 5.9] in the State Governments and advise State 31. The evaluation of the pilot project on jhum Governments as to how best they can use the control programmes in Meghalaya and Aru- regional facilities. [PARA 4.8] nachal Pradesh have brought out certain 26. The Planning Commission must try and important points which need to be taken into ensure that there is no overlap or duplication account in future programmes. The Committee in the NEC Plan and the plans of the individual would draw attention to certain aspects which States. They must also ensure that the develop- should also be taken into account in future pro- ment thrusts Initiated through the. NEC are grammes : — pursued by the States. In order to do this, the (i) Wish the exception of the pilot schemes of Planning Commission can use the expertise the NEC, the jhum control programmes in the available in the NEC to keep itself informed region do not seem to be based on the about local developments. The peripatetic watershed approach. advisers of the NEC can provide the Planning Commission with an effective feed back to (ii) Though most programmes offer some sup- monitor the plan. Coordination can be port in addition to the assistance for land improved if the Planning Commission shaping and other land conservation measures, nominates an officer to liaise with the NEC on none of the programmes seem to have a truly a full time basis. [PARA 4.9] comprehensive and integrated package of 33. Each State /Union Territory should exa- services for the jhumia ; mine the jhum cycle situation in each of its vil- (iii) The problem of weeds and pests may well lages and identify the three classes of villages be greater in settled cultivation than in jhum for necessary action. Having done this an cultivation. The package of practices annu-lised programme should be drawn up. recommended for jhum agriculture will have to The required finance may come from the take this into account ; provisions for jhum control, soil conservation, minor irrigation, IRD, etc. [PARA 5.31] (iv) The food needs of the jhumia may not be met by the crops which would be taken up in 34. Adaptative research on jhum cultivation in settled cultivation and some dependence on different areas as distinct from alternatives to outside sources for the same items will be jhuming in terms of settled agriculture is there. The answer does not lie in undertaking necessary. This particular aspect of settled cultivation with the same mix of crops agricultural research has not received as In jhuming but in a better public distribution sufficient attention so far and should be taken system. The cropping pattern will have to be up on a priority basis by the 1CAR research determined on the basis of productivity and complex. The ICAR research complex lake up economics. The Committee also notes that the such an operations research programme in orientation of the measures taken up is various sub-regions. [PARA 5.34] basically towards jhum control i.e., to the 35. In areas where settled cultivation is to he conversion of jhum to settled agriculture rather promoted, the principal criteria for the than to jhum improvements. The latter is selection of a model in any local area must be equally important but practically no work the extent to which it raises productivity per seems to have been done. [PARAS 5.28 AND unit of land and per manday of work. The 5.29] conversion of Jhum lands to settled 32. The strategy for jhum control must dis- cultivations, whatever be . 'fhe model chosen, tinguish between different areas on the basis of must also take account of the nature of the land the extent to which the jhum cycle has shorten- tenure system. The first problem that has to be ed and ecological problems have arisen. On tackled is that of giving the Jhumia permanent, the basis of field surveys jhum areas should be heritable and transferable title to some part of put into three categories :— the Jhum land. [PARAS 5.38 AND 5.39] (i) Areas where the cycle is still above say, 10 36. It is necessary to approach the problem on years and where ecological problems are not a community basis. The attempt should be to yet acute. In these areas the emphasis should persuade all house holds in a village to change be on improving the productivity of jhum over to settled cultivation. This can be done through better agronomic practices and through the good office of the village council improved varieties ; or the tribal chief. The authority controlling the distribution of land should give individual (ii) Areas where the cycle has fallen below say households permanent heritable and 5 years and where ecological problems are transferable rights over the land brought by already acute. These areas should be taken up them under settled cultivation. The balance of on a priority basis for conversion to settled the village lands, which will now no longer be cultivation within a period of 10 years. required for cultivation can be converted into (iii) Other areas : These areas will probably community forest under State Government face acute problems in the near future. Hence, ownership or, if that is not feasible, under the in this case, the immediate measures may be control of the village council. Such community for improving jhum but there should at the approach will minimise the problems involved same time be a programme for the gradual in moving from the existing system of land introduction of settled cultivation. This tenure to individual ownership. [PARA 5.40] programme may extend over a period of 20 37. It is necessary to provide the required years. [PARA 5.30] draught power through power tillers and through a suitable re-orientation o^ the animal for the held level staff of the State husbandry system. The farmers will also have Governments. [PARA 5,53] to be trained for ploughing operations by the VI. HORTICULTURE extension machinery which will have to be strengthened for this purpose. [PARA 5.41] 44. A more aggressive programme of horticultural development is required. This will involve 38. The planning of Jhum land conversion must not merely paying attention to existing take place on a watershed basis. Watershed orchards but new developments. Cultivars from management calls for scientific survey and other areas in India in similar conditions have investigation of each watershed by technical to be identified for different parts of the region. team, Since several hundred such Bare areas in forest may also be suitable for investigations will be necessary, it is essential intensive horticulture development. Besides that technical capabilities for this purpose are new fruits grown in similar conditions built up quickly. [PARA 5.42] elsewhere can also be promoted e.g., chickoo, 39. The implementation of Jhum control durain, mangousten . [PARA 6.13] schemes has to be taken up on a project basis 45. Horticultural research has to be aggressive so that all related investments comprising out- now is the extension of the ICAR's research lays on soil conservation, agriculture topographical and climatological conditions extension, input subsidies, infrastructure etc., indicate that a particular fruit can be grown. are covered in the plan. The responsibility for [PARA 6.14] implementation may rest with the project authority even though the technical control 46. With regard to citrus, what is required now may be exercised by the respective technical is the extension of the ICAR's research results hierarchies . [PARA 5.43] to 'the field. This will require an extension machinery which is effectively linked to the 40. Facilities for adaptive research under vary- research complex. This link at present stage of ing agro climatic conditions seem to be development may have to be provided by the lacking. The responsibility for localised NEC which should have a top level citrus adaptive research must be gradually passed on expert on its staff, whose job will be to carry to the State Governments. [PARA 5,50] over established technologies to the various 41. Continuous 1-echnical guidance to the states where citrus development is possible. farmers will be required. It is, therefore, The relevant horticultural wings of states will necessary that an effective extension system need strengthening. [PARA 6.15] with at least one village level worker per 47. It would be desirable if the economics of village, one extension officer per 8-10 VLWs alternative processing schemes for pineapple and suitable complement of subject matter are studied carefully by the NEC. [PARA 6.16] specialists at district and sub -divisional levels be established in all the hill areas of the 48. The extension of horticulture in some parts region. Area wise priorities for strengthening of the North East will meet with some of extension must be laid down on the basis of difficulties of transportation. In remote areas the proposed development programmes. The which are difficult of access, it may be possible Extension staff must be in position one year to pursue the cultivation of nut trees, since in earlier. The Group must be multi-disciplinary these the problem of deterioration of the fruit as required for the watershed approach, [PARA in transit dose not arise. [PARA 6.17] 5.52] 49. The foundation of effective horticulture 42. The NEC must have a cell for propagating development is the availability of suitable the watershed management approach. [PARA cultivars. It would be useful to undertake o 5.53] survey of the material that has been distributed to see that has worked. Along with the process 43. Them must be a smooth movement from of identification of suitable cultivars, nurseries pilot schemes, of the sort that have been taken should be expanded to meet local demand so as up so far, to demonstration projects and, based to reduce the need to rely on purchase of plant- on the demonstrations, a training programme ing material of doubtful quality from trade transport. This extension of area under potato sources. [PARA 6.18] needs to be pursued along with related 50. Given the required scale of operations the investments in cold storage and marketing. horticulture wing of the Agriculture This latter aspect of processing and marketing Department will require substantial can be taken up by the Regional Agricultural strengthening in all States. The extension effort Marketing Corporation. [PARA 6.25] will havw to cover not merely the provision of 56. Ginger production can be stepped up if planting material and subsidies but also export facilities for preservation and dehydration of advice on plant protection and the maintenance ginger are s\et up. [PARA 6.26] of orchards. Moreover, some arrangements for 57. Vegetable seed production for national adaptive research and data collection at state markets may be feasible even in the near level will be necessary to provide a link future. The National Seeds Corporation should between the regional facilities like ICAR investigate the possibility of seed production in Research Complex and the extension the area for the Indian market. [PARA 6.27] machinery. [PARA 6.19] 58. Large scale extension of vegetable produc- 51. The upgradation of horticulture in this tion will depend entirely on the establishment region will have to be accompanied by effective of effective processing and marketing marketing arrangements. What is required is arrangements. This should be pursued since an integrated structure of marketing and many of the hill vegetables can be produced in processing starting from some arrangements what is the off season in the plains. [PARA for primary collection (say through 6.28] cooperatives), processing, storage, and at the apex, an organisation that can undertake 59. So far we have not been able to utilise marketing outside the region in national and fabulous floral wealth for the benefit of the international markets. [PARA 6.21] total people. To do this there is a need for a floriculture development centre to undertake 52. All horticultural growers in the area can be extensive surveys to locate plant species of brought within cooperative fold and linked to high floriculture value and propagate the the processing unit. The possibility of introduc- selected species for commercial purposes. A ing the two or three tier pattern for joint unit of the Botanical Survey and the ICAR cooperativisation of growers and linking them Research Complex should be located in this with direct or regional level processing and region. [PARA 6.30] marketing facilities may be worth examining. This may be done by the NEC. [PARA 6.21] VII. PLANTATIONS 53. The processing and storage operations will 60. The development of plantation crops has have to be designed on the basis of the specific been given a special place in the development requirements of the region. The climate of the strategy for the north-eastern region, region can also be used to advantage by having particularly the hill areas. This is because this cool houses for cold storage in the higher area offers great promise for crops like tea, altitudes and solar driers for drying fruit. coffee and rubber and also because these tree [PARA 6.22] crops are an ecological sound alternative to jhum cultivation. [PARA 7.1] 54. The potato crop in this region comes earlier than from anywhere else in India. Thus 61. An important constraint on the expansion it has to compete with cold storage potatoes in of plantations is the labour intensive, nature of the early season and has a price advantage. the activity. Plantation development would However, this particular aspect of potato mar- require the diversion of workers from other keting needs to be studied in greater detail by agricultural activities. This would be the NEC or NERAMAC. [PARA 6.25] facilitated if plantation development is linked with jhum control. Such an approach is also 55. The Centre's Potato Research Institute necessary if local fears that plantations must have a station in north-east to develop development will lead to large scale early season potato for better storage and immigration are to be removed. [PARAS 7.16 & 1 district council. This approach of course 7.17] requires a substantial strengthening of forest 62. The plantation development programme in departments in the region and also an this region also can be based on the smaller appreciative response from village and district holder approach. Compact areas can be taken councils. [PARA 3.12] up for development by cooperation with each 67. The forests under village and district individual family being given the right to about councils control provide fuel and building 2 acres. The individual family would have the materials for the local population. Any right of usufruct but would not have the right to programme to bring these under the alienate, the land or convert it to some other silvicultural control of the forest department use. This will require the development of will have to be accompanied by a programme special patta. The processing facilities of Social Forestry to meet the essential required would be provided for one or more of requirements of the local population. In Jhum these compact areas. [PARA 7.19] conversion schemes, the area released from 63. The District Councils can play an impor- jhuming can be used for this purpose. In other tant role in plantation development by organis- areas the need of the local population will have ing the extension of plantation area on their to be taken into account by the Forest lands. They can form cooperatives and can Department in drawing up Working Plans. A give rights to individuals as has been suggested similar approach is necessary to meet the fuel wood requirements of urban areas. [PARA 8.13] in the case of corporations. [PARA 7.23] 1 64. Rapid development will require an effective 68. The density of population in some States , coordination machinery at State level and the Union Territories is very low. This sparseness responsibility for plantation development must of population reduces the size of the working be clearly assigned to a particular department. force and thus makes the exploitation of forest The approach to plantation development resources difficult. The NEC should study outlined earlier will also require the carefully the experience of the West Bengal establishment of a corporation in most cases. Forest Department in the Darjeeling area so as In many of the States, this has already been to draw useful lessons for resolving difficulties done. In order to support the States the NEC in because of, paucity of labour and transport its organisation should have a technical and difficulties. [PARAS 8.14 & 8.15] managerial group to assist the State 69. It may be desirable to consider the mecha- Departments responsible far plantations as nisation of forestry operations in the north well as the plantation corporations. Coffee, east. Such mechanisation will generate Tea and Rubber Boards should have extension employment opportunities for educated youth arrangements in the region. [PARA 7.25] and be economical at the relatively high wage rates prevalent in the region. [PARA 8.16] VIII. FORESTRY 65. The pre-investment survey should identify 70. The provision of roads for forestry deve- areas with low stock, medium stock and high lopment will have to be limited to definite stock both within and outside the reserved programmes for exploitation drawn up by, the forests. This is necessary if suitable priorities Forest Department, the Forestry Corporation are to be established on an area-wise basis for or Fortest based industrial units. [PARA 8.17] the planning of afforestation and exploitation. 71. The problem of infrastructural development [PARA 8.5] in forestry can be tackled if the infrastructural 66. The pattern of ownership of village and scheme should be. drawn up in such a way that district councils forests may be left as at the cost of infrastructure, whether it be roads present but silvicultural control may b& or ropeways or skyline crane can be recovered transferred to the Forest Department. Working from the sale proceeds. If such commercially plans would be drawn up by the Department oriented schemes are prepared, they can be and at the time of harvest there would be a taken up by the financial institutions as bankable projects. Forestry exploitation plans sharing of proceeds with the concerned village can also be designed so as to take maximum 78. With regard to feed, the fodder, the local advantage of the strategic roads which are grasses and forage trees seem to have great being built in the remoter parts of the region. potential. The ICAR has done some work in [PARA 8.18] analysing these. This work should be used to 72. The approach to forestry development in devise appropriate feeding schedules for cattle, this region cannot be based merely on the using these nutritious grasses and leaves as conventional approach which focuses attention ingredients, [PARA 9.18] on products like timber, plywood, fuel wood 79. There is a large demand for pork in the and pulping material. There are certain other region and pigs are brought from outside into activities which need to be integrated with many of the hill States. At present, much of the forestry development plans. The more spread between the cost of production and important of these are oak tasar culture, the market price accrues to the trader who brings cultivation of fodder trees, horticulture, in pigs from outside. Piggery development will development and the collection of medicinal have to ensure that this income is realised by plants [PARA 8.19] local farmer. It will also benefit consumers by lowering prices. [PARA 9.21] IX. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 73. The starting point for the animal husbandry 80. The markets for processed pork must be programmes must be a clear assessment of studied and the required facilities should be local requirements of local milk, eggs and built into the main slaughter house. [PARA meat. This assessment of requirements should 9.23] be the basis for planning animal husbandry 81. The hill areas do not seem to be self- development. [PARA 9.7] sufficient and pigs are brought in from the 74. The availability of breedable bulls from the plains. One reason could be lack of effective regional farms is limited. With natural service arrangements for procurement of local the number of cows that could be cohered supplies from rural areas to service urban would be limited and the cross-breeding target markets. The shortage of park and its high of 4 lakh animals cannot probably be reached. price make piggery a particularly attractive Hence it is necessary that the frozen semen proposition. This will require 0 more rapid technology is extended as rapidly as is possible extension of exotic breeding and arrangements for processing and marketing. [PARA 9.24] [PARA 9.12] 75. The Indian Council of Agricultural 82. The principal problem in the case of Research and the Assam Agricultural poultry is the lack of effective arrangements for University must continue work on the, the marketing of eggs and broiler meat. utilisation of local forage crops and fodder Though this has been suggested several times trees. The programmes of social forestry and not much progress has been made. The local jhum control should include provision for requirement for eggs may be somewhat limited fodder trees and fodder crops respectively. because of the high levels of meat consumption. [PARA 9.13] Hence any expansion in the pace of poultry development will require more effective 76. The establishment of proper slaughter marketing arrangements than what obtain at houses is essential if the meat economy of the. present. The market for eggs and poultry meat region is to develop. Incidentally, a modern requires close study. This may be done by the slaughter house will also allow the utilisation NEC. [PARA 9.26] of by products like eases and blood meal. The latter in particular is very useful for animal 83. It is essential that the duckery centre in Tripura is developed and special attention is food. [PARA 9.16] paid to duckery in the plains. [PARA 9.28] 77. It is particularly important to pursue the programme of cross-breeding of beef cattle as 84. In this region the orientation of sheep soon as the bulls become available for the husbandry may have to be towards meat and wool may be subordinate. [PARA 9.28] proposed exotic beef cattle farms [PARA 9.17] 85. Goat development and goat breeding by 89. For the identification of group centres an crossing with exotics should also be pursued important factor to be borne in mind will be the since goat meat will help to relieve the availability of weavers who will be interested shortage of meat in the hill areas of the region. in getting themselves trained in the operation [PARA 9.28] of the newly introduced wider width in the 86. Despite the very favourable position with looms. [PARA 10.3] regard to livestock availability, the hill areas of 90. The replacement of the loin loom by wider the region are not importers of meat. There is width looms may be the basis for the commer- clearly some major organisational failure cialisation of the handloom industry. But this underlying this phenomena. The Committee has to be undertaken with a great deal of would suggest that one reason for this failure discretion and caution. Loin looms will could be the lack of effective processing and continue to be appropriated for serving local marketing arrangements. As far as milk is markets, and in spite of the handicap of the concerned, something is being done as part of narrow width of the cloth produced has design the Operation Flood Projects. The Committee advantages. Development Commissioner for would suggest that effective arrangements for Handlooms should take up special projects to procurement, processing and marketing of find means of commercial exploitation of the these products is as important as advances in loin loom tradition of this region. [PARAS 10.3 productivity. Hence it would recommend that AND 10.4] this matter be examined at a regional level by 91. Given the constraints of space in the exist- the NEC who may be asked to prepare a ing households, the common workshed processing and marketing plan for livestock approach is perhaps best suited for the produce. [PARA 9.30] introduction of these new types of looms. In the X. HANDLOOM AND SERICULTURE identified group centres over a period of five years about 50,000 new looms should be Handlooms introduced in such common worksheds. [PARA 87. The development of handlooms in the North 10.5] Eastern Region will have to concentrate on commercialisation of local skills and designs. 02. In all the identified group centres, training This would involve identification of a number facilities will have to be set up. The approach of products which would have market potential should be similar 'to the training of carpet within the region, in the rest of the country and weavers in different parts of the country successfully taken up from 1975-76. The also 'in the export markets. [PARA 10.2] emphasis of these centres will be on training a 88. The foundation of any effective programme sufficient number of master artisans, who in of handloom development in the region must turn train other weavers in the area. Initially necessarily lie in a suitable organisational set the production centres will primarily be up. In this report on Village & Cottage training centres where a master artisans would Industries, the Committee has suggested a impart training to selected local weavers in the Group Centre approach for servicing clusters cooperation of the new type of looms and the of artisans. The same approach is relevant for production of newly developed products. [PARA the development of the handloom sector in the 10.6] conditions prevailing in the North-East. It should be possible to identify at least 50 such 93. The production centres organised on the group centers in the different States and Union workshed basis in the group centres would be Territories. Once these, are identified, package attached to the already existing state level of measures comprising training, loom organisations for purposes of market support. modernisation, design and product This linkage has to be established from the development and market linkage should be inception so that these small production introduced to make each of the group centre centres are not begged down with uncleared production [PARA 10.7] viable and self-sustaining. [PARA 10.3] 94. It is necessary to forge links with the (exist- NEHHDC could extend this role to cover more ing marketing organisations in the handloom and more processing facilities in different sector for national level marketing of the areas according to demand for processing both production. The NEHHDC has already taken yarn and cloth. [PARA 10.10] steps to open show rooms in the different parts 99. As far as marketing is concerned, the State of the country besides warehouses. The Corporations could concentrate on marketing Committee would recommend that an in their own States while the NEHHDC would important role should be played by All India concentrate on the All India Market and for the Handloom Fabrics Marketing Cooperative States where such corporations have not been Society which has a series of well-appointed set up [PARA 10.10] show rooms all over the country. [PARA 10.7] 100. The NEHHDC in collaboration with the 95. Development Commissioner for Hand- Regional Institute for Handloom Technology looms has already located weavers service could associate itself with the technical centers with design sections at Gauhati, training for weavers and management training Imphal, and Agartala. These will have to be for executives at different levels. Other strengthened particularly with reference to activities of the Corporation would include designing and training facilities [PARA 10.8] facilities for warehousing supply of credit and 96. The Government have already decided to acting as an apex organisation in the region. set up an exclusive institute of handloom [PARA 10.10] technology for the North-East which is most Sericulture likely to be located at Gauhati. This Institute will have to play a very important role and 101. In order to exploit the rich potential that carry out continuous research and exists for sericulture, it is necessary to chalk development work. Both in regard to training out the following programmes of action : and design development this institute will have (i) Organised castor plantation in specific to coordinate with the organisations areas by identifying farmers who are willing to implementing the aforesaid project. [PARA undertake are plantation and silk worm 10.8] rearing. 97. The distance involved and the, difficult (ii) Development of infrastructural facilities by nature of the terrain push up the cost of yarn way of getting up grainages for supply of eri for the North-Eastern weavers. The Committee silk worm eggs to the \eri rears, organising recommends that the present transport subsidy spinning activities on decentralised basis and scheme should be operated on a much more helping in the marketing of eri yarn. basis as regards yarn. The various handloom corporations and apex societies already set up (iii) Upgrading the existing research institution in the States together with the NEHHDC will of Central Silk Board for undertaking applied have to play a more active role in the distribu- research on eri culture in collaboration with tion of the year. [PARA 10.9] State level Agricultural Institutions. 98. The NEHHDC should act as an overall The above programme of action is urgently coordinating agency for the development of the called for as this sector remains untapped and handlooms and handicrafts sector in the North- has to be fully exploited for creation of employ- East. One of the problems of the handloom ment and also for utilising the eri silk yarn for industry in the North-Eastern Region is the clothing needs in this area. [PARA 10.13] supply of yarn to the handloom weavers. The 102. In order to step up production of Muga Corporation could supply the yarn upto the silk a number of important measures are called district level in the .District Industries Centers. for:— From these, the State's agencies can take out the responsibility for ensuring that yarn (i) Area under muga plantation should be reaches the handloom weavers. A process substantially increased to make available the house at Gauhati has been sanctioned, host plant for rearing activities. (ii) Muga plantation which is undertaken in the grainages for production of commercial forest areas should be developed on economic layings. scale of plantation as has been done in the case (v) As far as possible even from the beginning of tropical arjun plantation so that rearing the improved techniques of the rearing of activities are facilitated. mulberry worm successfully adopted in (iii) A package of incentives should be provid- Karanataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu ed to the muga rearers and a scheme on the should be introduced in this Region also. lines of the Inter-State Tasar Project for (vi) Arrangements for marketing of cocoons increasing muga silk production should be reeling of cocoons and supply of raw silk to the implemented by Central Silk Board under the weaving centers should be undertaken [PARAS Centrally Sponsored Schemes. 10.17&10.18] (iv) Activities for the raw material bank for 104. With regard to oak tasar, the Committee muga raw silk opened recently by Central Silk recommends that oak plantation should form Board should be stepped up and arrangement part of the forestry programme in this region should be made to ensure that the procurement and extension facilities should be provided to of cocoons is. Directly from the rearers increase the area under oak plantation. [PARA themselves and not from the middleman 10.22.1 dealers. Further muga cocoons should be treated as minorforest produce and fair price 105. In Oak tasar culture, production of seed should be assumed to the rearers. Since muga cocoons is inadequate due to low effective rate rearers are part of the tribal community in the of rearing and high sex-ratio for preparation of area, tribal development plan programmes commercial layings Most cocoons produced should include specific projects for rnuga are used for laying preparation. For prepara- development. [PARA 10.16] tion of layings, seed cocoons are subjected to a period of artificial hibernation i.e., 103. The crucial elements in the strategy for preservation in cool environment. A more the development of mulberry culture therefore precise and efficient method i.e. preservation of have to be the rearing of high silk yielding the seed co? coons in cold storage should be variety of silk worm race and improvement of adopted. The problem of irregular emergence leaf yields by extension of high yielding can be solved to a large extent by finding out varieties and appropriate agronomic practices. the required temperature for seed preservation. The Committee suggests the following : — Supply of seed cocoons can be increased (0 It should be examined that as to what are considerably when optimum conditions for the varieties of mulberry which will grow their preservation are established. [PARA profitably in this area and help in the process 10.23] of increasing mulberry silk industry in this 106. Oak tasar worm shows a tendency of region. continuous degeneration affecting the vigour of (ii) Detailed trials of several varieties of silk the worm as well as fertility. Pure parent worm, mono, bi and multivoltine should be stocks of A. pernyi and A. reylei need to be tested out to find a suitable economic mix of maintained in large numbers, so that fresh varieties which can give three or four raisings hybrids can be obtained every year. The a year. rearing of parent stocks can be intensified at (iii) In order to popularise mulberry the Parent Stock stations of Meghalaya and sericulture 10 pilot extension centers should be Manipur. Stocks of hybrids can be reared in set up by Central Silk Board in this region, controlled rearing houses to prevent degeneration. [PARA 10.24] (iv) Nucleus grainages of Central Silk Board should be established for production of seed 107. Standardisation of reeling and boiling cocoons and supply of commercial eggs to the processes is essential in order to achieve a pro- rearers. As a subsequent measure the State duction of uniform and quality reeled yarn. Governments should be helped to set up [PARA 10.26] XI INDUSTRY AND MINERALS reports which should try and establish the 108. From the point of view of medium and feasibility and viability of the proposals and large industry the most promising resources provide the basis for a bankable proposition. are the forest wealth of the region and the The feasibility reports may be commissioned by substantial deposits of oil, coal and limestone. the promotional agencies of the State The development of horticulture and Governments like the Department of Industries plantations can assist in the growth of small and the Industrial Development Corporation. and medium agro-based industries. The growth [PARA 11.11] of sericulture and the demand for yarn in the 112. In its Report on Industrial Dispersal and handloom sector provide a base for the on Industrial Organisation, the Committee has development of textile industries. These along recommended a three-tier structure for with a variety of small units for serving local entrepreneurial development, the first tier consumption demands can provide the basis being provided by DIG, the second by the State for a more rapid industrialisation of the area level promotional agencies and the third by a [PARA 11.4] regional centre to be set up by the IDBI. In the 109. Given the difficulty in attracting man- north-east the dependence on the third tier may power from outside and the lack of a sufficient be quite substantial. Hence, the Committee number of adequately trained local persons, it would recommend that the IDBI should set up may take decades to survey the resources of the a regional entrepreneurship development area fully. It may be desirable to follow a centre in the north-east. Apart from actual slightly different approach in which, in the first training, this centre should also provide instance, a large part of the region is covered guidance to other 'PDF' programmes by by first approximation surveys. Thereafter undertaking periodic evaluation of these promising areas could be identified and programmes. The NEC can also play an priorities set for the more detailed ground important role in this task in several ways. based surveys. Detailed investigations can be Firstly, it can strengthen the expertise taken up when the prospect for the exploitation available within the region by organising training programmes for the staff of the State of a surveyed deposit seems sufficiently. [PARA 11.9] and District level industrial promotion organisations. Secondly, it can help the States 110. There are possibilities, for developing in getting expertise from outside whenever it is industries based essentially on local markets. required. Thirdly, it can assist the States in The identification \of these would have to be arranging for suitable exposure to working based on a careful survey of the present level enterprises both within and .outside the north- of demand for manufactured consumer goods east region for the entrepreneurial trainees. and intermediate goods in the region. The [PARA 11.14] Committee is not aware of any such systematic study in this area. It would recommend that the 113. The development of entrepreneurship as NEC undertake such a study of the local well as the need for technical support during demand for manufactured goods, the manner in the construction and operation stage will which this is being met, the extent to which the require an effective institutional system. One local demand can be met by local units, the possible approach would be to exchange types of units, that can be set up for this personnel between the institutions in the north- purpose, the optimum scale and investment for east and their successful counterparts elsewhere in the country. The expert from such units etc. [PARA 11.10] elsewhere in the country would work in the 111. Action plans have been prepared by north-east while the officer from the north-east several DICs. These Action Plans also identify works in the counterpart institution to gain the a certain number of industries for which there necessary experience. After a fixed period of, is, on the face of it, a potential for say two years, the expert on deputation can development. These reports can provide a revert back and the officer from the north-east starting point for more detailed feasibility can return. Such an arrangement could help in building up the talent in local personnel The oriented horticulture can be developed fast in NEC and the DC (SSI) would have to accept areas clearly served by roads. Forest based in- responsibility for such a programme. [PARA dustries can be located in forest areas which 11.15] can be readily opened for exploitation. The re- 114. In the north-east the need for exploiting source available for road works may be local demand fully for purposes of industrial stretch-ed further if the standards of road development is very great. Hence the DC (SSI) construction are re-examined, in the light of would have to pay particular regard to imple- area needs so as to identify economics in ment its responsibilities for ancilliarisation in construction costs. [PARA 12.14] an effective manner in this region. It must also 118. There will be areas where new opportu- take the lead in ensuring that the demands nities have been identified and can be arising from Central Government promoted if road transport is provided. The Organisations in the region are also met to the roads required for such purposes should be greatest extent possible by local industry. given priority in the general road development [PARA 11.16] programme of the States, NEC and the Centre. 115. The uncertainties in the supply of raw [PARA 12.13} materials from outside the region would have 119. There is a programme for the construction to be reduced firstly by the extension of the of strategic roads and roads required for national distribution network of major administrative purposes. The compulsions with suppliers like STC and SAIL in the region and regard to routes and alignments differ in these secondly by a more vigorous policy of raw cases from development roads. However, there material support by State Governments. will be many cases where such administrative [PARA 11.18] and strategic roads will help to exploit potential for development. [PARA 12.15] XII. TRANSPORT AND POWER 116. With regard to rail development the most 120. One possibility for extending the road important gap seems to be the limited capacity network is to include road development as part available to service the areas south of the of a productive scheme. A commercial forestry Mikir Hills. A linkage with the rest of the scheme can include the required road develop- country via the Brahmaputra Valley is ment within the forest area- These roads can essential. This would require that the entire be used for other purposes. A similar approach section from Gauhati to Lumding and may be possible in other sectors e.g. Southward would have to be upgraded and its plantation. capacity increased. Already its capacity is [PARA 12.15] below requirements and will be even more so 121. The developments in horticulture plan- once the new lines into Manipur, Tripura and tations and other sectors would be difficult un- Mizoram become operational. The Committee less trucking services are available even in the would suggest that the proposals in this regard interior. Special measures to promote road and other proposals for rail development in the transport operations may be taken. This could region may be examined sympathetically take the form of concessional loans for freight keeping in mind the relaxation of investment transport operations or the extension of freight criteria suggested by the National Transport services, [PARA 12.16] Policy Committee. [PARA 12.8] 122. The possibility of taking up water trans- 117. With regard to road development at port in some of the tributaries of the Brahma- present stage further development in the north putra has been identified and areas of potential eastern region would have to be based on the have been identified. Further development of specific needs of each project and programme. IWT in this region would relieve the pressure Moreover, given the large gap in requirements, on the rail and road system and needs to be every attempt must be made to locate projects pursued. [PARA 12.17] and programmes in manner that minimise the need for additional infrastructure- Thus market 123. The NEC has identified several areas 126. The extension of electricity to rural areas where ropeways schemes could be taken up- can play an important role in lift irrigation and These alternative modes of transport can help in decentralised agro-processing. Hence the to meet requirements for large industrial or pace of rural electrification needs to be mining projects and would have to be stepped up from the point of view of local considered mainly in the context of such development. REC's lendings in the north- developments. [PARA 12.18] eastern region should be placed in the lowest 124. A comprehensive and integrated area category i.e. the category with the easiest terms transport plan should be prepared for the lending. [PARA 12.24] region by the Planning Commission and the 127. It is essential that the micro hydel poten- NEC. The progress of implementation of the tial in the remote hill areas of the north-east is area transport plan should be monitored by the investigated and if found to be feasible and Planning Commission [PARA 12.19] economical, a shelf of such schemes is 125. With regard to the immense hydel poten- prepared. Schemes should be taken up on a tial of the region, what is required at this stage priority basis where there are possibilities of is detailed investigations and project prepara- agro-ptocessing and primary processing of tions which, given the size of the projects, will forest produce. The REC should support such naturally be a Central responsibility. [PARA viable micro hydel schemes. [PARA 12.25] 12.23] 1. INTRODUCTION

The terms of reference of the National Com- reports. The Planning Commission desired that mittee on the Development of Backward Areas the National Committee should give a separate require it to examine the validity of the various report on the north east since this area concepts of backwardness underlying the defi- represents a complex of conditions and nitions in use for present policy purposes, to re- problems which have to be examined in a commend the criteria by which backward areas unified way. Many of the recommendations should be identified and to suggest appropriate made in this report echo the recommendations strategies for effectively tackling the problems made in other reports of the National of backward areas. 1.2 The National Committee, however, in this report they are Committee's approach to backwardness is presented as they arise from the developmental based on the concept of 'fundamental problems of the north east as a region. 1.4 backwardness' in which areas are categorised Whilst accepting this task the National as backward on the basis of the prevalence of Committee was aware of the many difficulties some fundamental inhibiting factor which can in giving an authoritative overview. The Na- be countered only by making special efforts for tional Committee has as its members people development and often by making significant with deep administrative knowledge and exten- departures from national strategy. The sive experience at the field level, however, as Committee has identified six types of far as the North-East is concerned the Com- fundamentally backward areas viz : (i) Area of mittee members have a very limited knowledge tribal concentration (ii) Hill areas (iii) Drought of local conditions with regard to prone areas (iv) Hot and cold deserts (v) administration and development problems. 1.5 Chronically flood affected areas (vi) Coastal At an early stage in its work the Committee areas affected by salinity. Besides this the decided to investigate at the fie id level the Committee has dealt with the problem of problems posed before it at field level to gain industrial dispersal for which purpose it has detailed understanding. This was for updating defined industrially backward areas as those their knowledge and also to understand the that He beyond certain specified out off several problems which have arisen in the distances from existing industrial centers. 1.3 process of development. Hence the Committee The North Eastern region, comprising of the members visited selected villages and blocks in States of Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Naga- different types of areas and had discussions land, and Tripura and the Union Territories of with the development administration at all Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram, does not, fall levels. The Committee also held discussion into a separate category of backwardness. with several State Governments- In order to Much of the region will be covered under one provide some depth to its analysis the or the other category of fundamental backward- Committee arranged for a series of seminars on ness. Specifically three types of fundamental different types of backward areas. It was only backwardness are found in the region viz. areas after this elaborate study that the Committee of tribal concentration, hill areas and chroni- ventured to make certain suggestions. cally flood affected areas. As far as industrial However, in the case of North-East the backwardness goes, the whole of the north-east Committee has not been able to do this because has been categorised as industrially backward of the disturbed conditions in the area. Field by the National Committee as presented in the level investigation by the Committee members Report on Industrial Dispersal. Since the Com- was not possible. The seminar on development mittee has dealt with the appropriate strategy of problems of the North East was scheduled but development for each type of fundamental could not be held, once again, because of backwardness in separate reports and with the disturbed conditions in the area. However, the problem of industrially backwardness in the papers prepared for the seminar have been used Report on Industrial Dispersal, the problems of by the Committee to gain some understanding. the north east have been covered in these 1.6 Thus the Committee suffers from great and skills available in the area and the present disabilities in giving recommendations on the state of administration. These broad development problems of the North-East. It has recommendations will have to be refined. This relied largely on readily available published limitation must be understood in firming up material and the material available with the plans and programme for different areas in the Planning Commission and the North Eastern North-East region. Council. Hence the report of the Committee is tentative and further detailed studies will be 1.7 The report begins with a brief description required to firm up the recommendations. of the special features of the north eastern region and outlines its development problems- The terms of reference of the Committee This is followed by a chapter on administrative required us to examine ongoing programmes. arrangements and the constitutional provisions For the North-East recommendations are after which there is a series of chapter dealing broadbased taking a broad view of resources with problems in specific sector.

2. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE REGION

Physical Features Geologically this region is an extension of the Indian Peninsular shield. The North Eastern Region comprising the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, 2.3 The north-eastern region does not have any Nagaland and Tripura and the Union common physical characteristic and all types of Territories of Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram physical formations from alluvial plains to have an areas of 2.55 lakh sq. kms. which table lands, mountain and valleys, low hills and constitute about 7.7 per cent of the total land high mountains can be found here. The one area, of the country. This large region situated common consequence of the physical features at one corner of the country is linked to the rest is the difficulty in establishing communication of the country through a narrow belt of Bengal. links 3 between different parts of the region It is a sensitive border area surrounded by which are cut off from each other by mountains China on the north, Burma on the east, and and rivers. Bangladesh on the south (of Assam and Meghalaya) and west (of Tripura and Climate Mizoram). 2.2 Physically the region consists of four distinct geographical areas : — 2.4 There are distinct climate variations in the North Eastern region. The Assam Valley has an (i) The Brahmputra Valley. — This valley opening to the West and is surrounded on other which lies entirely in Assam vanes in width sides by mountains and plateaus. The lofty from 80-100 Km. in Upper Assam to about 55 ranges in the north protect the valley from the Kms. in the middle, near the Mikir Hills. On cold air mass of the Tibetan region and pro- the North bank of the river terai or semi-terai vides conditions for concentration of rain as conditions prevail because of the innumerable they obstruct the warm south west monsoon. tributaries. The tributaries on the south side are The mountainous zones enjoy a typical much larger. A significant physical monsoonal climate with variations from the characteristic of the Birahmputra is that the tropical to temperate. The rapid changes in river due to its low gradient is highly braided topography result in climatic changes within and there are innumerable riverine islands. short distances.

(ii) Eastern Himalaya. — These are the 2.5 The amount of total annual rainfall hi the eastern most part of the Himalayas and lie region varies from a minimum of 800 mm to a within Arunachal Pradesh and are distinct from maximum of over 3,000 mm. The north the other mountainous areas in the region. western part of the Mizo Hills along with the adjoining areas of Cachar and Manipur receive (iii) Eastern Mountain Region. — This less than 1500 mm. Tripura, rest of the Mizo region covers parts of Arunachal Pradesh (on Hills, Cachar and the western half of Manipur Tirap and Lohit districts), Assam and all of Hills receive between 1500-2000 mm. There is Nagaland, Tripura, Manipur and Mizoram. The a great deal of local variation depending on whole of region is dissected by numerous topographical features. For example, the hill rivers and their tributaries. These rivers are slopes facing southwest always receive more typical mountain streams flowing between high rainfall than the enclosed valleys. These rocky mountains with the channel confined to localised variations in rainfall have to be taken narrow valley. Most of the inhabited areas lie into account in agricultural planning. 2.6 either in these valleys or valley slopes. The Winter temperatures in the region vary a great important low-lying areas in this region are the deal. In the Assam Valley winter temperatures Tripura-Cachar Plain and the Imphal Valley. remain about 12-13 °C. In the Himalayan zones, winters are cold and damp and mini- (iv) The Meghalaya Mikir Tableland. — mum temperatures are between 0-2 °C in the This covers the outlying Mikir hills and Garo south coming down to below freezing point in Khasi and Jaintia hills in Meghalaya. the north. Winter rains are also regular features in the area. In the eastern mountains zone, 2.9 The very low densities in many parts of the winter temperatures fall steeply but not as region are attributable to the nature of the much as in the Himalayan zone. However, terrain. A comparison with arable land' is diffi- winter is generally a dry period in this area. cult as reliable data are not available. The forest area is vast and the precise nature of the Population areas classified as barren and uncultivable is not very clear. A rough comparison with 2.7 According to the 1971 Census the north- available data suggests that population eastern region had a population of 19.06 mil- densities would remain substantially below the lions of which 14.6 millions was in Assam and national average even if a comparison with the balance 5 million in the remaining six arable land is1 made in Arunachal Pradesh, constituent units. The 1981 Census has not Meghalaya and Mizoram. It may be noted that been conducted in Assam as of date. Hence the densities are low despite extensive only figures that are available at present for immigration. that state are hi the nature of projections. On this the population of the region as of March, 2.10 The low density of population is also 1981 was 26.6 million of which the projected reflected in the low population per village in share of Assam was 19.9 million and of the the hill areas, the average ranging from 151 per other constituent units 6.7 million. The figures village in Arunachal Pradesh to 481 per village for the individual units other than Assam are as in Nagaland as against the national average of follows : 762 per village in 1971. The average for Mizoram is higher but this may be on account Population 1981 (000) of the difficulty in defining the concept of a Arunachal Pradesh 628 village in that region. In many parts of the Manipur 1434 north-east, villages are administrative creations Meghalaya 1328 and do not reflect the scattered settlement Mizoram 488 Nagaland 773 pattern. growth. The relevant figures are in Tripura 2069 Annexure 2.1. The figures for 1961-71 and 1971-81 are as follows : —

Since complete data for 1981 are not available Table 2.2 Population Growth much of the analysis that follows is based on States/Union Population Growth Territory the 1971 Census data. (Percentage) 1961—71 1971— 81 2.8 The first and most marked characteristic of Arunachal Pradesh 38.91 34.34 his region is the low density of population in Assam. 34.95 36.09 all areas other than Assam and Tripura. Figures Manipur 37.53 33.65 for the different constituent units being as Meghalaya 31.50 31.25 Mizoram 24.93 47.75 follows : Nagaland 39.88 49.73 Tripura 36.28 32.37 Table 2. 1 Population Densities All India 24.80 24.75 State/Union Territory Density Parsons/Sq. Km. of land *Projected. area 1971 1981 Arunachal Pradesh 6 7 It will be seen that the growth in population in Assam. 186 254 this region has tended to be substantially higher Manipur 48 64 than the national average. The data on birth and Meghalaya 45 59 death rates available for the seventies does not Mizoram 16 23 show any significantly higher rate of natural Nagaland 31 47 Tripura 149 196 increase. If this is true for the earlier period All India 177 221 also then the rapidity of the increase must be *Projected. due to extensive immigration. The major population movements in recent times in the region have been the following*: — — movement of the peasantry of East Bengal high percentage of tribals in the total into Tripura and Brahmaputra Valley (18th population has been referred to earlier. The Gentry onwards) number of Scheduled Tribes identified (excluding sub-groups) in the different states is — movement of the tribal population of North also very large, the relevant figures being as Bengal and South Bihar into the lea plantation follows of Upper Assam (Largely late 19th and 20th centuries). Arunchal Pradesh 10 Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram — movement of Nepali and lately, Bihari cowherds in Assam and Meghalaya. (a) in the autonomous districts 14 (b) in tribal areas other than — movement of tribals from other countries autonomous districts. 11 particularly in border States. (c) in the Slate of Assam excluding tribal areas . 9 2.12 The third important characteristic of the Manipur 15 population of this area is the high proportions Nagaland 39 of Scheduled Tribes, the relevant figures being Tripura 19 as follows : Considering the fact that the total tribal popula- States/Union Territory Percentage of Scheduled Tribes to total population tion of the area is only 4.35 million it is clear in 1971 that there are a large number of relatively small tribes. Many of the tribes cut across not merely Arunachal Pradesh 79.8 state boundaries, but also international bounda- Assam. 11.0 ries. Thus, there is a great deal of heterogeneity Manipur 31.1 of population within the area. The tribal areas Meghalaya 80.4 do not of course face the multi-caste problems Mizoram 94.3 Nagaland 88.8 which may be found in other parts of India Tripura 29.0 since there is a great deal of equality within the All India 6.9 tribals. But even here, the distinction between 7.5** the ruling families and the others as well as the *Based on "Gee-ecological background to existence, in the past, of slavery in some cases developmental activities in the North-East” by has to be noted. Nevertheless, on balance group Dr. G. S. Aurora : Paper prepared for Seminar conflicts within communities may not be a on Deveilcpmenkl Problems of the North-East major problem. What is probably more im- in Historical Perspective. portant is the- possibility of conflict between tribals with respect to land rights etc. which **After revision as per Constitution SC/St may be more prevalent because of the very (Amendment Act) 1976 large number of tribes in the areas. As these figures show four out of the seven 2.14 The tribals communities of the N. E. differ constituent units are essentially tribal in chara- in significant way from the tribal communities cter. In two of them, Manipur and Tripura, the in the rest of India. They are educationally percentage of tribal population is about four more advanced. For example, the literacy rate times the national average and even in Assam it of scheduled tribes in the North East relative to is more than one and-a-half times the national the position in India is as follows : average. Table 2. 1 Population Densities Socio-Cultural Features State/Union Territory Males Females Arunachal Pradesh 34.62 17.16 2.13 The North Eastern Region has certain. Assam. 8.72 1.70 special socio-cultural features which need to be Manipur 38.64 18.87 taken into account in development plans. The Meghalaya 30.11 22.79 Mizoram Included in Assam Nagaland 30.17 17.68 always benefit the tribal except in the limited Tripura 23.60 6.04 area of government employment. All India 17.63 4.85

2.17 The growth of the market economy in As this table shows the rates of literacy these areas has progressed very much and amongst the tribal population in this region are1 many communities who lived by barter have higher than the all-India average for tribals been exposed to the cash nexus. Since the except in Arunachal Pradesh. The ability of the trading intermediaries in this market economy tribal community to benefit from the job are often non-tribals, there is a social gulf opportunities generated through development between the trader and the customer which process is substantially greater hi the- north- opens up possibilities of exploitation. In many east than in the other tribal areas. There is a ways the impact of the opening up of the stock of educated youth who, if trained, can economy to market forces is very similar to take-up positions in development, what was observed in other parts of the country (administration, industrial projects etc. in the nineteen century. Traditional crafts are under pressure as the cost of factory made 2.15 The tribal societies of the N. E, have lived articles is less. Indebtedness to money-lenders in relative isolation for a very long period of increases as the cash requirements of the time and many of the traditional attitudes of household rise with the decline in traditional tribal communities are still prevalent there. An crafts and a shift away from subsistence important instance of this could be the non- cultivation. The situation of course, varies competitiveness of the tribal society where greatly from one tribal groups to another. There each person has a certain way of living and a are some tribal groups which have had long standard of life which he cannot change at the tradition of contact with the market economy expense of other members in the group. and they are in a better position to cope with Production for self-consumption and the opening up of their economies. There are, subsistence is the basis for economic activity however, many other groups which have lived and calculations based on market values are a more isolated existence who may well lose seldom the basis for decisions on what and how out if they are exposed to uncontrolled market to produce. In this situation when the system is forces. These variations in the ability of opened to market forces the local tribals, even different tribal communities to cope with a new though they may be well educated, may not in economy have to be taken into account in any fact benefit. development strategy.

2.16. A substantial proportion of the non-agri- 2.18 Some of the tribal groups in this region cultural enterprises in hill and tribal areas, have a matriarchal system of inheritance. There particularly in the towns, are controlled by non- are many versions of this. But broadly tribals. The nominal ownership may well rest speaking, they involve the passing of all with a tribal, if nothing else because of the property through the female branch. However, exemption from income-tax that this would the effective management of these properties entail. But the bulk of the profits would accrue does not always rest with the women, though to the real owner. This situation obtains not the high participation rates of women in the merely in industry but also in trade, transport work force are high. In such cases it is possible operations and other services. One reason for that the men who work the property may not this is the inability of tribal entrepreneur to have a sufficient incentive to undertake cope with the superior business acumen and improvements and innovations. This is not a enterprise of the non-tribal. The educated matter on which one can give any firm opinion. tribal, who could perhaps enter these areas of It is only a hypothesis which needs to be tested. self-employment at present to prefer the more secure avenues of salaried employment open to 2.19 In sum the two key socio-cultural features him. Thus, the processes of non-agricultural that need to be taken into account in any deve- development generated in this area do not lopment strategy are the fragmentation of tribals into a large number of small groups and the inability of some of these groups to been possible to find labour for construction complete on equal terms in the market work in the region even at relatively high economy. Besides this the land tenure system wages. But it may be noted that this may also in the area has certain special features which be due to some extent to lack of organisation are dealt with later in this chapter in paras 2.35 for mobilising labour. to 2.42. 2.24 The position with regard to the educated unemployed cannot be assessed with any firm Labour Force data. However, in order to indicate a broad 2.20 The labour situation in the north-eastern picture we present below some date on the ratio region is substantially different from what it is of job seekers on the live register of in most other parts of India. According to the employment exchanges to the enrolment in the Sixth Five Year Plan the daily status employ- relevant stage of education. Job-seekers above ment rates in the north-east in 1977-78 were as matriculate but below graduate level are follows : compared with enrolment in secondary schools and job-seekers who are graduates and above Employment rate by daily status with enrolment in colleges/ universities. The State/Union Territory relevant figures are as follows : Arunachal Pradesh 0.35 Table 2.5 Educated Unemployment, 1977 Assam. 1.81 Manipur 2.00 Job Seekers as % of enrolment in relevant stage Meghalaya 0.41 Matriculates Graduates Mizoram N.A Nagaland 1.03 Arunachal n.a n.a. Tripura 5.04 Pradesh All India 8.18 Assam. 39.2 14.2 Manipur 104.5 34.1 Meghalaya 16,0 9.5 Mizoram 11.9 7.1 As this shows the problem of under Nagaland 3.7 3.6 employment and un-employment is not of any Tripura 111.3 65.2 great significance except perhaps in Tripura. All India 45.5 29.1 The data in this table suggest that the situation 2.21 The second distinctive characteristic of with regard to the incidence of unemployment the labour force in the region is the high amongst the educated is distinctly better than participation rates of women in the labour force the national average in Meghalaya, Mizoram in the hill states. The relevant figures for the and Nagaland. Though relevant data for Aruna- 1971 Census are as follows: — chal Pradesh are not available, the situation there may be similar. In Assam the position Table 2.4 Participation Rates, 1971 appears to be somewhat better than the national Workers as corresponding Population average but not to as great an extent as in the percentage of predominantly tribal hill states. However, the States Males Females data suggests that in Manipur and Tripura the Arunachal 63.1 51.3 problem of educated unemployment may be Pradesh Assam. 34.95 36.09 distinctly worse than the national average. Manipur 37.53 33.65 Meghalaya 31.50 31.25 2.25 The description of the labour force and the Mizoram 24.93 47.75 employment situation brings out one important Nagaland 39.88 49.73 Tripura 36.28 32.37 point. Development plans in the hill areas of All India 24.80 24.75 the north-east cannot be based on the assumption of an employment slack and the alternative employment generated by new developments 2.23 The high participation rates and the low in horticulture, plantations, animal husbandry, rates of unemployment mean that there is very etc. must offer fairly high wages or returns per little employment slack to be taken up in the manday if they are to succeed. The possibility hill states. Because of this it has not always of shortage of candidates for technical and non- technical posts in development administration stone, much of it in close proximity to the coal and in projects must also be kept in mind. reserves. Apart from these there are substantial reserves of clay and glass sand, Natural Resources 2.26 The north-eastern region has a rich natural 2.30 Thus, in terms of natural reserves the resources base for agricultural and industrial region is exceptionally well-endowed and in development. The problems of development lie most items the availability in relation to not in the lack of natural resources but in the population is well in excess of what can be large investments required for infrastructure found in other parts of the country. development, the inadequacy of labour and the Agriculture necessary skill needing an extensive pro- 2.31 The north-east is basically an agricultural gramme of manpower development. society. At the all India level the percentage of 2.27 The land area of the region is vast in workers in agriculture and allied sectors was relation to the population. However, much of around 72 per cent in the 1971 Census. In the this land is not usable for cultivation. Precise north-east the percentage is high in all States/ figures on the availability of cultivable land are UTs other than Manipur, the average for the not available for the entire region but as indi- region being 77 per cent cated earlier, rough comparison suggest that it 2.32 The hilly terrain of the north-eastern is much above the national average at least in region and the pattern of land availability has Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Mizoram. led to two distinct systems of agricultures (i) Much of the land available for cultivation is in settled agriculture in the plains, valleys and hill areas, where substantial investments would gentler slopes and (ii) jhum (slash and burn) be required, if cultivation practices are to be cultivation elsewhere. In jhum cultivation a modernised. plot of ground is cleared for cultivation, used 2.28 With regard to forest resources the region for one year and then left fallow. In the is well endowed. The total area under forests in following year another plot of ground is tilled the region is around 1.25 lakh sq. km. as indi- and so on till after a number of years the cated by the NEC, which is nearly half the cultivation cycle returns to the first plot. geographical area. This is roughly 17 per cent Typically jhum cultivation is practised by hill of the forest area of the country. The forest tribals. types in the mountains range from tropical 2.33 The problem of jhum cultivation is found evergreen in the foothills, to temperate in many hill and tribal areas of the country. evergreen in the middle ranges to conferous in However, the severity of the problem is much higher elevations. There are also vast tropical greater in the north-eastern region. It has been and deciduous forest areas in the plains. In estimated that around 27 lakh hectares are sub- terms of varieties, the region is rich in Sal, ject to jhuming in the north-eastern region of Teak, Bamboos and many trees of high which around 4.5 lakh hectares is sown at any economic value. one point of time. This may be compared with 2.29 Some data on the mineral resources of the the total not sown area of around 33 lakh region are given in Annexure 2.2. The most hectares. The problem is even worse if we important mineral resource lies in the oil exclude areas of settled cultivation like Assam reserves. Nearly one-quarter of the recoverable and Tripura. If this is done the area subject to reserves of crude oil and natural gas in the jhuming is around 19.8 lakh hectare, the area country lie in Assam. There are also promising sown at one point of time 3.6 lakh hectares and finds in other parts of the region. The region is the corresponding net area sown around 6.2 also well endowed with coal in the Upper lakh hectares. Thus outside Assam and Tripura Assam region and adjacent areas in Nagaland more than half the net area sown may consist and Arunachal Pradesh and in the Meghalaya of jhum plots. plateau. The hydel potential of the region is 2.34 Jhum cultivation is generally conducted vast and amounts to around a quarter of the without the use of a plough and with the use of national total. There are large reserves of lime the primitive implements. Since the system is subsistance oriented, mixed cropping is 2.38 The village council's generally involve all common and irrigation is naturally non- household heads on an equal footing. However, existent. Such a system, may have been viable there is often a distinction between the village at the time when population was stable but with elders and the other household heads. The growing population the jhum cycle shortens powers of privileges of the chief or the and natural processes of regeneration are cut headman vary from case to case. short. This leads to a loss of soil and erosion 2.39 Since the areas within which the village and declining fertility. carries on the jhum cycle has to be defined and Land Tenure and Cultivation inter-village territorial disputes resolved there 2.35 The system of land tenure and local is often an arrangement for a supra-village government in North-East has certain special authority institutionalised in the form of a features which arise to a large extent from pre- kingship or a council. Thus many of the tribal vailing agricultural practices. There are many areas have a traditional political institution at variations amongst the different communities areas level. and the description that follows is based upon 2.40 The close connection between jhum culti- papers prepared for the proposed seminar on vation and communal control over 'and and the Development problems of the North-East. ownership is attested to by the fact that at least These papers covered the following tribal com- for the tribal groups like the Dimasa, Cacharis munities : Dijnasa Cacharis, Adio, Mizos, such communal ownership does not apply to Karbis, Apa Tanis, Ao Nagas, Nodes, Caros settled lands under wet or dry cultivation even and Wanchos. in jhum villages. These are generally held 2.36 In most of the hilly regions of the north- under east the prevailing method of cultivation of individual ownership. The point is further jhuming i.e. slash and burn cultivation. In this corroborated by the case of the Apa Tanis of system a certain area of jungle is cleared, the Arunachal Pradesh who have settled valley debris burnt and the crops grown for one agricultural with individual ownership. season on the cleared soil. In the next season 2.41 Apart from village lands and lands under and for some years there after jhumed area is individual ownership in certain cases there are left and another area is cleared and used for clan lands used for the land tenure system in cultivation. In due course, after say 10-15 years jhum area characterised by communal the jhumias return to the first post and one ownership but operational management is done jhum cycle is complete and the second one separately by households. Jhum cultivation, starts. With this method cultivator shifts from particularly in the land cleaning stage requires area to area and does not till one plot of land a great deal of labour. At the same time the continuously. Hence individual rights to a predominent household farm seems to be piece of land cannot get established. nuclear and arrangements akin to the joint 2.37 The general practice in jhum areas is that family system seem to be rare. The main each village has a well-defined range of ope- reason for this is that laws of decent and ration in which the jhum cycle as well as other inheritence seem to inhibit the formation of activity like hunting and wood cutting are con- household. For example, in the case of fined. Within this area land is allotted to each parmogentive is common and therefore household on the basis of its capacity or its children not in the line descent from separate need, by a village level authority like a village household. However, with assistance from the council or a chief, guided by village elders. parent household if necessary these separate However, thereafter the land so allotted is not households also become cultivators in their cultivated jointly but separately by each own right. Thus the dominant pattern is that of household, though in some cases, operations smaller households with a one or two able like land cleaning are undertaken jointly. The bodied adult males. This system when location of the settlement itself may change combined with the general absence of joint over the jhum cycle. cultivation leads to some difficulties in number of pigs par 100 population ranges from organising jhum cultivation on individual plots. 11 in Mizoram to as much as 40 in Nagaland. 2.42 The pattern of land tenure and modalities The corresponding all India average is around of land allotment pose several problems when one. In the case of poultry, the range in these it comes to replacing jhuming by settled five States/ UTs is from 89 per 100 population cultivation. The development of settled in Meghalaya to 272 per 100 population in agriculture will require substantial investments Mizoram. The all-India average in this case is in terracing, land shaping, irrigation, etc. The around 25. These high levels are not observed individual cultivator who is to do this must in the case of cattle where the number per 100 have some assurance that the fruits of his population are broadly comparable to the all- labour will continue to accrue to him and his India figure except in Mizoram and Nagaland dependents. This assurance can only be where they are much lower. provided if he is given a permanent title to this 2.45 The animal holding pattern seen in these land. Since it appears that the principle of hill areas reflects the prevalence of jhum individual ownership is generally accepted for agriculture which does not involve ploughing land under settled cultivation there may not be and therefore requires less by way of animal much difficulty in this if the distinct and village draught power. In some areas there are social councils can be persuaded to adopt a progres- inhibitions against milk consumption which in sive policy. A cultivator who gives up jhuming any case is of less importance from a dietary and fakes to settle agriculture may lose his point of view because of the high level of meat rights in village lands (other than what he is consumption. However, there are signs of using). He may well be reluctant to do this. change. The pressure of urban demand has led This suggests that the transformation of jhum to some growth of milk production and many into settled agriculture has to take up for the of the inhibitions about milk consumption are whole village simultaneously. This will also disappearing. The main orientation of the help to solve the problem of the land in jhum system, however, is towards meat production. cycle that is no longer required for crop Here too the dependence is on pigs and poultry husbandry. These lands could be converted to which can live on waste materials and crop village forests, plantation, orchards or pastures. residues so that intensive cultivation of feed /fodder or animal care is not required. Sector allied to agriculture However, despite the high levels of pigs and 2.43 The hilly terrain of the north-eastern poultry relative to population, there are region offers ample scope for the development substantial imports of animals for meat from of horticulture and plantations. Fruit production the plains. is fairly widespread in the region and at present the area under major fruit crops is about 71 Non-agricultural sectors and an thousand hectares which is a little over 2 per infrastructure cent of the net sown area. In the case of planta- 2.46 In the traditional non-agricultural sectors tions, tea is of course well established in the dominant activities are handloom weaving, Assam. However, other plantation crops like sericulture and handicrafts. The region has coffee and rubber are not very extensive, the around 13.6 lakh handloom, most of them area under coffee being 1,984 hectares and being looms used mainly for household use under rubber 1,250 hectares at present. rather than for the market. In the field of 2.44 Animal husbandry is an important part of sericulture, the region has all the four varieties the traditional agricultural system. However, of silk, Mulberry, Muga, Eri and Oak Tasar. the pattern of animal husbandry in hill areas Handicrafts based on locally available shows a significant difference from the plains materials like cane and bamboo, wood, conch and from the general all India pattern. In these shells, etc., are also fairly well spread. areas the number of pigs and poultry in relation 2.47 In the modern sector the level of deve- to population is far higher than the all India lopment is limited. There are only about 62 norm. Thus, excluding Assam and Tripura, the medium and large industrial units in this region of which 48 are in Assam. The total number of nominal railway kilometrage in Nagaland and small scale units in the region was only 2653 in Tripura, but the other constituent units have no 1971. The low level of industrial development rail lines whatever. However, projects to in the region is a consequence of a variety of convert the existing meter-gauge line to broad- factors. The problem does not lie in any lack of gauge up to Gauhati and to extend the rail natural resources. As pointed out earlier, the network into all the constituent units are region is exceptionally rich in these. The underway. difficulties rise from the isolation of the region 2.50 With regard to roads the kilometrage of from national markets which alone can provide motorable roads per km. of area is below the the scale of demand required for the optimum national average in all the units except Assam exploitation of the material and forest resources and Tripura and substantially so in the case of of the region. In addition there are further Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Mizoram. difficulties posed by the lack of entrepreneurship, the shortage of technical 2.51. There is also a further problem of the personnel and a traditional social structure that inadequacy of links between the north and cannot find a place for the competitiveness and south banks of the Brahmaputra which is being risk taking required in industry. corrected to some extent through new bridges across the Brahmaputra near Tezpur and Infrastructure Togighopa. 2.48 From the point of view of infrastructure 2.52 As far as power supply is concerned the development the principal problem in this hydel resources of the region are very large region is the inadequacy of communication relative to requirements. The principal problem facilities. arises from the nature of the terrain which 2.49 As far as railway facilities are concerned makes it difficult to deliver power to all points the Brahmaputra Valley is linked to the rest of in the region. the country via a meter-gauge line. There is ANNEXURE 2.1 Decadal variation in population 1901 to 1911 to 1921 to 1931 to 1941 to 1951 to 1961 to 1971 to 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 Arunachal Pradesh 38.91 34.34 Assam* 16.99 20.47 19.93 20.37 19.87 33.06 34.95 36.09*** Manipur 21 .71 10 .92 16 .04 14 .92 12 .80 35 .04 37 .53 33.65

Meghalaya 15 .71 7 .21 13 .83 15 .59 8 .97 27 .03 31 .50 31.25

M izoram 10 .64 7 .90 26 .42 22 .81 28 .42 35 .61 24. 93 46.75 Nagaland** 46.75 6.55 12.62 6.04 8.66 14.07 39.88 49.74 Tripura 32 .48 32 .59 25 .63 34 .14 24 .56 78 .71 36.28 32.37 All India 5.73 0.30 11.00 14.23 13.31 21.52 24.80 24.75

*Population figures par Karbi Anglong are not available for 1901,1911,1921,1931. **Tuensang district excluded in decadal variations upto 1961. ***Projection.

ANNEXURE 2.2 Mineral Resources in the North-East Resource Category Amount

1. Coal (a) Proved 99 million tonnes

(b) Indicates inferred 829 million tonnes Total 928 million tonnes 2. Crude Oil Proved indicated as of 1978 78.5 million tonnes 3. Natural Gas Proved and indicated as of 197 63.6 billion cu metres. 4. Limestone Cement, Chemical and flux grade 3000 million tonnes

5. Iron ore . Average metal content above 40% 17-6 million tonnes

6. Fire clay not specific 2.1 million tonnes 7. Kablin not specific 6.4 million tonnes

8. Lithomerge not specific 71.5 million tonnes 9. Fullers Earth . not specific 17.0 million tonnes

10. Feldopar not specific 40 thousand tonnes 11. Silliniamate not specific 10 thousand tonnes Data Source : 2 and 3 from Petroleum and Chemical Statistic 1978-79, Ministry of Petroleum others from Bani Statistics of North-Eastern Region, 1980 North Eastern Council.

3. STRATEGY OF DEVELOPMENT The previous chapter has dealt with some of deterioration in the quality of forest cover in the characteristic features of the north-eastern the hills. Apart from this the low productivity region which have to be taken into account in of jhum agriculture is leading to a growing the design of any development strategy. To a imbalance between food demand and certain extent the approach that is required is availability. The promotion of a shift to settled dealt with in the National Committee's reports cultivation in jhum areas must be a central on Hill Area Development, Tribal Area Deve- element in the development strategy in this lopment and on the Development of region. Chronically Flood Affected Areas. 3.5 Jhum cultivation was the response of the Nevertheless a fuller treatment which takes tribal community to a situation of abundant account of the special features of the region is forest land, limited labour and the lack of flat necessary. lands suitable for food and fibre crops. The 3.2 The north-eastern region is exceptionally logic of jhum cultivation also led to a system in rich in natural resources. The primary objective which the control of land was not vested with of development strategy must be to utilise these the individual but with a village council or optimally and in a manner that maximises the chief. benefits accruing to local people. This will 3.6 There have been several schemes to control require not merely additional investments in in- and transfer jhum cultivation. They have frastructure and production facilities but also a emphasised a shift to plantatiou or horticulture programme of manpower development and or terraced cultivation. It has been estimated measure to reorient the system of land tenure in that at the end of the Fifth Plan about 60 thou- the hill areas. sand hectares of jhum land and about 25 thou- Agriculture sand families have been changed to settled cul- 3.3 In the field of agriculture the problems tivation under the various jhum control pro- faced are different and hence the strategy gramme taken up through the NEC or under the required will differ for hill areas and the plains. State Plans. This amounts to barely 2 per cent The foundation for any programme of of the area liable to jhuming and 6 per cent of agricultural development will be on an the jhumia families. Hence the programme of effective base for basic research and adaptive jhum control has barely begun. research and field trials. At present the research 3.7 The problem of jhum cultivation is so support is provided by the Assam Agricultural widespread that all the households involved in University and the ICAR Research Complex jhum cultivation cannot shift to settled cultiva- for the North-Eastern Region. However, tion even in a 5-10 year framework. Hence the facilities for localised adaptive research are strategy for jhum control must distinguish bet- limited. Technology has to be developed on an ween different areas on the basis of the extent area specific basis and facilities for adaptive to which the jhum cycle has become short and research will have to be put up by the States. ecological problems created thereby. On the The Committee would lay the utmost stress on basis of surveys, jhum areas should be put into this aspect and suggest that the State Govern- three categories : — ments take on greater responsibilities for adap- (i) Areas where the cycle is still above tive research. say, 10 years and where ecological problems Jhum Cultivation are not yet acute. In these areas at present the 3.4 In the hill areas the dominant problem is emphasis should be on improving the the widespread prevalence of jhum cultivation. productivity of jhum through better agronomic As pointed out earlier it is estimated that as practices, land conservation measures and much as 27 lakh hectares are subject to improved varieties ; jhuming in the hill areas of the north-east. With (ii) Areas where the cycle has fallen below the growth in population the jhum cycle is say 5 years and where ecological problems are becoming shorter leading to a gradual already acute : These areas should be taken up on a priority basis for conservation to settled roughly 130-135 thousand hectares under cultivation ; and autumn and winter paddy and Manipur which (iii) Other areas: These areas will probably has about 35 thousand hectares under autumn face acute problems in the near future. Hence, paddy and 140 thousand hectares under winter in this case, the immediate measures may be paddy. In these areas, unlike the Assam, the for improving jhum but there should also be a difference in yield between the two seasons is programme for the gradual introduction of less marked. In Tripura the yield figures for settled cultivation. autumn and winter paddy being 1050 kg. of rice /ha. and in Manipur they are of the order of 3.8 A variety of models of settled cultivation 1600 kg. of rice /ha. for both seasons. The relevant for jhum areas are available : — primary problems of paddy cultivation in this (i) Conservation to plantations. — This region is of adjustment to the flood regime in is the earliest of the proposed strategies, and in- the flood plains in the Brahmaputra basin. volves a total shift to a plantation, crop like tea Paddy once it is established, can survive or rubber. submergence upto 7 days or so. The real problem is to design a strategy for those areas (ii) Terraced cultivation. — This is being where the period of submergence can be actively pursued in State Sector schemes and is expected to exceed this. In such areas the Com- being implemented with and without irrigation. mittee has suggested two approaches: (iii) Conversion to grassland. — This is (i) The paddy varieties sown in the happening in certain areas where animal hus- monsoon season must have a long duration so bandry and dairying has developed. that they mature after the last flood ; (vi) ICAR's three-tier systems. — This (ii) Cropping patterns should be adjusted involves crop husbandry with bench terracing to avoid the flood season and use the surface in the lowest third of the slope, horticultural moisture, supplemented by irrigation for rabi crops with half moon terracing in the mid- and summer crops. In this connection, the portion and forestry in the top third. programme to promote rabi wheat in rice 3.9 The problems of jhum cultivation is dealt growing areas is relevant. Both these strategies with in greater detail in Chapter-5. are applicable in the flocd affected areas of the Brahmaputra basin. Valley Agriculture 3.11 The extent of irrigation in this region is 3.10 In the case of the chronically flood limited. Whatever irrigation is available is used affected plains the strategy must be to reorient for paddy. In 1976-77, 23 per cent of the paddy the cropping pattern and crop varieties to suit area in Assam, 7 per cent in Tripura and 42 per the flood regime. The problems of these areas cent in Manipur was under irrigation. In all will be dealt with in greater detail in the Com- these states the potential for surface and ground mittee's Report on Chronically Flood Affected water irrigation is quite substantial. The Areas. The dominant crop in these areas is development of this potential is vital if the stra- paddy. The bulk of these areas are in Assam tegy of avoiding the flood season is to be when 500-600 thousand hectares are planted implemented. One important irrigation under autumn paddy (sown in early June and possibility in the area close to the river is the harvested in August-September) and 1500- low cost shallow tube well. In the case of small 1600 thousand hectares under winter paddy farmers the utility of this option has been (sown in June-July and harvested in December- questioned on the ground that their holdings January). It may be noted that while yields are highly fragmented. In such cases water can from autumn paddy are of the order of 700kg be lifted from the river, brought to a contour of rice /ha. the yields from winter paddy are channel at some height and released to the around 1100 kg. of rice/ ha. However, in berth fields below. Such a system would, of course, cases yields have not shown any growth trend have to be in the public sector. during the post Fifth Plan period. The other major paddy growing area is Tripura which has 3.12 The low level of crop production tech- corporations for agricultural marketing. These nology in this region is reflected in the very cooperatives will have to be linked to low levels of fertiliser consumption which is of processing facilities. It may also be necessary the order of 2-3 kg/ha, in Assam and Tripura, in the first instance to concentrate in areas though it is somewhat higher in Manipur where which are connected by road so that it is around 12 kg/ ha. The modernisation of communication problems are minimised. agriculture in these valley lands will clearly re- 3.16 The development of horticulture is dealt quire a massive increase in the use of with in greater detail in Chapter-6. fertilisers. Fertiliser consumption can only increase if leaching can be avoided. Hence the Plantations strategy of avoiding the .flood season is 3.17 The three principal plantation crops of important Blue-green algae systems and bio- relevance for the north-eastern region are tea, fertiliser can provide a suitable source of coffee and rubber. Of these the first two are nitrogen in water logged areas. relevant principally for hill areas and the last Horticulture one for the plains. 3.13 The spread of horticulture in the northeast 3.18 The extension of plantations in hill areas has been mentioned earlier. The region is can only be done slowly as the rural population suitable for both tropical and temperate fruits is weaned away from low productivity jhum and horticulture can provide a very lucrative al- farming. A more rapid pace of development ternative to jhuming. However, the present pat- will lead to shortages of labour for working in tern of agronomic practices will need to be plantations. In migration of plantation labour changed. from outside of the sort which took place when Assam tea plantations were developed is, 3.14 The development of horticulture will re- today, not acceptable to the people of the quire a major extension effort to improve region. In fact, because of this possibility of agronomic practices and place them on a more immigration, State Governments appear to be scientific and commercial basis. The success is reluctant to pursue this particular option. extending new fruit crops like apples in Arunachal Pradesh suggests that such an effort 3.19 The plantation development programme can be mounted. The extension effort will have has to be based on the small holder approach. to be backed up by the provision of nurseries to Compact areas can be taken up for supply suitable planting material and research development by a corporation with each to identify promising cultivator. The ICAR re- individual family being given the right to about search complex and many nurseries that have 2 acres. In the first stage the compact area been set up provide a part of the institutional would be developed by the corporation, with infrastructure. However, there is a wide gap on the individual being employed as labourers. the field effort. There is hardly any follow up Once the plants reach the bearing stage, the after the plants are distributed resulting in management would rest with the individual heavy mortality and low productivity. This gap family who would have access to common in the extension effort will have to be covered facilities and technical advice from the if horticulture development is to prosper. In corporation which would also take on the res- order to do this major programme of technical ponsibility for marketing. The individual personnel will also be needed. family would have the right of usufruct but would not have the right to alienate the land or 3.15 The second major gap in the field is the convert it to some other use. Such an approach lack of effective marketing support. In many will help to ensure that plantation development cases marketing problems arise from the lack takes place in an economically viable manner of communication facilities. Hence the and that the benefits accrue to local people. horticulture programme must include the formation of growers cooperatives which 3.20. The development of plantation is dealt would be supported by the proposed regional with in greater detail in Chapter-7. Forestry altitudes in this region can allow high levels of 3.21 Even though the North-Eastern Region exotic blood. In the case of cattle the has abundant forest resources, these are not be- upgradation programme will have to rely on ing exploited except in small pockets. Limited frozen semen based artificial insemination. In or restricted control of the State Government/ the case of pigs besides pure bred exotics, cross U.T. Administration on the forest areas, lack of bred boards may have to be used for infusion population, lack of trained manpower, commu- of 25% exotic blood so as to ensure wider nication bottlenecks, absence of processing in- coverage. Poultry development in the form of dustries etc., are the factors standing in the way intensive poultry farms or upgradation of of efficient exploitation of the forest resources. backyard poultry will also have to be based on cross breeding. The facilities required for 3.22 The rich forest resources of the northeast producing the breeding animals are now in cannot be exploited unless the pre-investment position in the form of regional breeding survey identifies areas of low, medium and stations. Frozen semen is available at high stock so that priorities for afforestation Khanapara. Hence the problem now is that of and exploitation can be worked out for delivery. different areas. 3.28 With regard to feed requirements, pigs 3.23 It will also be necessary to extend the and poultry rely to a large extent on wastes, silvicultural control of the Forest Department crop residue and local vegetation. However, to forests outside the reserved /protected cate- prepared poultry feed for the interior poultry gory. The problem of roads will have to be farms will be necessary for which purpose taken care of by building in the required provi- suitable feed factories will be required. In the sion in commercial forestry schemes. Forest case of cattle, range type farming based on policy in this region will also have to take into grass lands and forage trees many of which account other activities like tasar culture and have a high nutritive value may be the answer. horticulture in drawing up plans for development. 3.29 The upgradation of meat and milk productivity will not be achieved unless a suitable 3.24 The development of forestry is dealt with marketing system is established. In the case of in greater detail in Chapter- 8. milk the system of growers cooperatives linked Animal Husbandry to urban milk supply scheme provides a frame work. However, in the case of meat and eggs 3.25 It has been pointed out earlier that the no such framework exists. Since the role of animal husbandry system in the hill areas of the meat and eggs production is very substantial in north-east is oriented towards the meat produc- the animal husbandry system of the north-east, tion. Hence the emphasis should be on pigs and marketing supply in this area is vital. The pro- poultry. However, in the plains and near urban posed regional exploitation for agricultural areas in the hills milk-oriented developments marketing can provide this support at the apex are taking place. of the marketing system. What is required is a 3.26 In many ways the north-east is well-suited village level organisation akin to the milk co- for animal husbandry. The high and well operatives. Unless this is done the bulk of the distributed rainfall provides excellent animal husbandry system may remain subsis- conditions for the development of grass lands tence oriented and there may be little incentive which can remain green throughout the year. to raise productivity through crossbreeding or The region is full of nature forage consisting of better feed management. perennial and annual plants. Meat consumption 3.30 The development of animal husbandry is in the region is high. Despite this the hill areas dealt with in greater detail in Chapter-9. of the region import substantial quantities of meat from outside. Sericulture and Handloom 3.27 The foundation of the animal husbandry 3.31 Sericulture is a traditional activity in the programme is the upgradation of animal north-eastern region and comprises ericulture, productivity through crossbreeding. The high mugaculture, oak tassar culture and mulberry culture. The problem and the measures requir- it is necessary to pursue these productivity ed differ for each of these varieties. improvement measures. 3.32 Ericulture based on castor plantations is a 3.36 A general problem affecting all area of low return activity and is conducted to a large sericulture is the low productivity at the reeling extent for self consumption. The main problem stage and the exploitation by middlemen. lies in the fact that worm is reared on castor Hence the extension of improved spinning leaves. New plantations have to be created devices as well as the provision of raw material every year which involves considerable and marketing support is necessary. In this recurring expenditure. It is, therefore, respect the Group Centre approach described in necessary to extend the use of substitute plants the National Committee's Report on Village & like Alitanthus glan-dulosa or excelsa which is Cottage Industries along with the district level quick growing perennial species along with this supply and marketing society recommended in improved spinning devices are necessary to that same report can provide a suitable raise productivity and earning per unit of time. organisational framework. 3.33 Mugaculture is also indigenous to' the Handloom region. Muga seeds are procured from hill 3.37 The most widespread industrial activity in tracts though the worms are reared in the the region is handloom weaving. Traditionally plains. Because muga worms deteriorate in the this activity was based on cotton from jhum plains the whole operation has to be started a plots which was spun into yarn and woven new every year. Muga plants take five years to generally on loin looms in to cloth for grow and a vast area of high land is required to household use. Very limited quantities were cultivate them. The returns to the family from sold or bartered. The situation has changed muga rearing are not very high because of low now and purchased yarn has replaced loom productivity at all stages from the plantation to spun yarn. With the saving in the time taken the laying to the reeling. Any improvement in previously for spinning, the output per mugaculture must depend on the measures to handloom can go up. raise productivity like intensive rearing of quality seed sources, preservation in cold 3.38 The handlooms in this region are not storage of seed worms, avoidance of the generally commercially oriented. The width of hazardous rearing period etc. the looms is such that the type of fabric that they can manufacture is restricted to certain 3.34 Mulberry culture is also traditional to the items in the traditional costumes of this region. region. However, because the culture is age The usefulness of these looms and the old, there is no standard breed of silkworm in traditional designs for wider commercial the region, and the worms produced are of in- application needs to be studied. What is ferior quality. Moreover, the plantation are required is an integrated effort at design, often of mixed varieties of mulberry which can development and market promotion. affect yarn quality adversely. Therefore, the crucial elements in the strategy have to be the 3.39 The development of sericulture and rearing the high silk yielding variety of silk handlooms is dealt with in greater detail in worm race and improvement of leaf yields by Chapter- 10. extension of high yielding varieties and appro- Industry and Minerals priate agronomic practices. 3.40 The limited development of the modern 3.35 Oak tassar culture is a more recent in- industrial sector has been noted earlier. This is troduction. However, so far it has caught only reflected in the fact that in the in Manipur. If the labour used is essentially un- recommendations of the National Committee employed or under-employed the return from on the Development of Backward Areas oak tassar culture are fairly attractive. With im- presented in the Report on Industrial Dispersal provements in yield rates and sex ratio the re- the whole of the north-east is included in the turns can be raised further. Since oak tassar areas that should be eligible for incentives for offers an important avenue for settling jhum as industrial dispersal. 3.41 The types of industries that can be pro- lack of transport facilities. Hence investments moted in the north-eastern region fall broadly in this sector are, to a large extent a pre- within the following categories: — condition for effectively implementing not (i) Major raw material based industries, merely industrial development programmes but which in the north-east would be mainly paper, also market oriented programmes in cement and petro -chemicals. horticulture, plantation development and village industries. (ii) Industries to supply local demands, where the scale of local requirements is large 3.45 The theoretical transport requirements of enough to sustain an economically viable unit. the region for optimum development are so vast that they cannot be met for a long time. At (iii) A variety of small industries falling in the present stage of development transport category (ii) above or based on agro-processing development in the north-eastern region would e.g., fruit canning, meat processing, timber have to be based on the specific needs of each processing etc. project and programme. Moreover, given the The essential task for planning at this stage is large gap in requirements, every attempt must to identify the potential for development, as has be made to locate projects and programmes in been done for cement and paper, and to pro- manner that minimise the need for additional mote these industries in a manner which will infrastructure. Thus market oriented maximise local impact. At the present stage of horticulture can be developed fast in areas development of entrepreneurship and technical already served by roads. Forest based skills the impact of small industries based on industries can be located in forest areas which local markets or on agro-processing may be can be readily opened for exploitation. Despite greater. Hence industrial promotion must be this further major investments in transport will directed to these types of industries rather than be required and should be included in the plans to large capital intensive projects. of the States, the NEC and the Centre. The resources available for transport development 3.42 It is essential that industrial development can be stretched further if standard of in this region should involve local people, to construction are recommended in the light of the maximum possible extent. In the case of likely traffic to identify possible economies. large industry dependence on entrepreneurs from outside the region or on the public may be 3.46 The different components in the Transport unavoidable in the immediate future. However, system viz., railways, roads, inland water in the field of small and medium industries, transport, air transport have to be developed as local entrepreneurs should be promoted an integrated system. Piecemeal improvements vigorously. This will require an effective or extension of network may not serve much programme of entrepreneurial development and purpose if they do not fit in with the total a support system for small industry. This capabilities of the system at all points. Committee has dealt with this aspect in some 3.47 Transport development is dealt with in detail in its Report on Industrial Dispersal and greater detail in Chapter- 12. Report on Industrial Organisation. The measures outlined there need to be Manpower Development implemented with particular vigour in the 3.48 The development programmes taken up in north-east as industrial development without the north eastern region will run aground for enough of a local impact could generate many lack of technical personnel if suitable program- tensions in the region. mes of manpower development are not taken 3.43 The development of industry in the north- up. Such programmes are also necessary to east is dealt with in greater detail in Chapter- ensure that a development of the area is 11. accompanied by development of the people. 3.49 The North Eastern Council has been Transport Development making efforts for the development of man- 3.44 Many development opportunities in the power, both technical and non-technical in four north-east cannot be exploited because of the ways viz., (a) sponsoring of personnel from this region, for graduate and post-graduate north-east, because of the system of land tenure training, (b) short duration training courses, (c) prevalent there, have not faced this problem. setting up of new institutions in the region and However, this is due to the fact that the bulk of (d) expansion or strengthening of institutions the area in the region is only suitable for already existing in the region. subsistence agriculture. With the development 3.50 Most of the industrial States and Union of industrial ownership and commercially Territories in this region are too' small to be oriented agriculture, particularly in the form of able to sustain the full range of expenditure on horticulture and plantations, the possibilities of education and training; which is the charge of land alienation and exploitation may arise, State Governments in the rest of the country. whatever be the legal position. In the modern Hence the special role played by the North sector, the near monopolisation of even petty Eastern Council in this regard is crucial and opportunities by non-tribals has been should be strengthened. mentioned earlier. Clearly, a quickening of the pace of development in the hill areas of this 3.51 It is generally noticed that in many sec- region carries with it the risk of the tribal being tors of development there is a paucity of skilled exploited. Protective and promotional measures and managerial manpower. Attempts have been to avoid this must be an integral part of the made to get the necessary manpower from the development strategy for this region. rest of the country on a short term basis. At the same time parochialism also steps in ques- 3.53 Protective measures can take a variety of tioning such introductions. The pace of deve- forms like restrictions on land transfers, lopment of the potential of the north-east at restrictions on the entry of outsiders for present can certainly be considered very slow. purposes of trade (as in Arunachal Pradesh), The Committee has given a birds eye view of etc. However, protective measures are seldom the tremendous potential available in this area enough and are readily evaded by benami which can be developed in the interests of the transactions. Hence promotional measures to region, its people and also the nation-wide encourage, train and assist tribals, particularly leadership will be required to ensure that the educated and urbanised ones, to utilise the development is not hindered by lack of opportunities for small industry, transport necessary technical and managerial personnel operations, trade and other services are equally and attitudes of parochialism. It is not easy to important. What is required is a supporting get top quality personnel from the rest of the structure for credit delivery, marketing raw country without special incentives. The North material supply and technical assistance that Eastern Council can give the leadership in can provide a well thought out package. In starting a dialogue and laying down the tribal areas in other parts of the country, Large necessary norms in manpower recruitment and sized Multi-purpose Societies (LAMPS) have appointment for a possible aggressive been established for this purpose. Regional development policy. The States /UTs which are Rural Banks have also undertaken programmes of wide-ranging support. Measures of this members of the NEC must honour the consensus reached in the NEC. nature will have to be introduced in this region to assist the tribal in meeting the challenge of Local Participation the modern economy. 3.52 There are many commodities in the north- 3.54 The traditional structures like Village east which are being exposed to a marker Councils can be used to secure the participation economy for the first time. The problems of and involvements of people in the development exploitation that arise because of this have effort. These Councils can provide a point of been indicated in an earlier chapter. In this contact between the State and the people. The situation measures to protect the tribal from ascent has to be on what people can do to im- exploitation are very necessary. As far as land prove their prospects with some help from the holdings are concerned, the hill areas of the state.

4. ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE Political and administrative arrangements in stages in which the regional plan may be the north-eastern region differ from implemented; and arrangements in other parts of the country in (c) regarding the location of the projects and two respects: (a) the existence of a regional schemes included in the regional plan to the body viz., the North Eastern Council and (b) Central Government for its consideration. the fact that extensive powers are vested in the district councils in some of the tribal areas in (3) The Council shall: (a) review, from time to the region. time, the implementation of the projects and schemes included in the regional plan and The North Eastern Council recommend measures for effecting 4.2 The North-Eastern Council has been set up coordination among the Governments of the under an Act of Parliament and has its mem- States concerned in. the matter of bers the Governors /Lt. Governors and Chief implementation of such projects and schemes ; Ministers of the States and Union Territories. (b) Where a project or scheme is intended to According to the Act one of the members of benefit two or more States, recommend the the Council is nominated as Chairman by the manner in which: President of India. Until recently the Chairman was the common Governor for Assam, (i) such project or scheme may be executed or Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura. implemented and managed or maintained, or 4.3 The functions of the Council, as indicated (ii) the benefits there from may be shared ; or in the Act, are as follows: (iii) the expenditure thereon may be incurred. (1) The Council shall be an advisory body and (c) on a review of progress of the expenditure, may discuss any matter in which some or all of recommend to the Central Government the the states represented in that Council, or the quantum of financial assistance to be given Union and one or more of the States from time to time to the State or States represented in that Council, have a common entrusted with the execution or implementation interest and advise the Central Government and of any project or scheme included in the the Government of each State concerned as to regional plan ; the action to be taken on any such matter and in particular, may discuss and make (d) recommend to the Government of the State recommendations with regard to: — concerned or to the Central Government the undertaking of necessary surveys and (i) any matter of common interest in the field investigation of projects in any State of economic and social planning; represented in the Council to facilitate (ii) any matter concerning inter-State transport consideration of the feasibility of including and communications ; (iii) any matter relating new projects in the regional plan. to power or flood control projects of common (4) The Council shall review from time to time interest. the measures taken by the States represented in (2) For securing the balanced development of the Council for the maintenance of security and the north-eastern area, the Council shall public order therein and recommend to the forward proposals: (a) Formulating the States Government of the States concerned further represented in the Council a unified and measures necessary in this regard. coordinated regional plan (which will be in 4.4 The support provided through the NEC is a addition to the State Plan) in regard to matters very significant component of the total deve- of importance to that area; lopment effort in this area. An examination of (b) Regarding the priorities of the project and the Plan schemes of the NEC shows the schemes included in the regional plan and the following types of schemes: (i) Large generation and transmission schemes. sonnel who may not be available in all the (ii) Major inter-state roads and bridges, (iii) States. Because of this factor and the fact that Mini cement plants. most of the existing research facilities in the area are of regional character, the NEC has to (iv) Regional Seed Farms, Orchards-cum- accept responsibility for the first stages of new Nurseries, animal breeding farms, fish seed technological thrusts. The NEC can do this in farm etc. the form of pilot projects which when proved (v) Surveys and projects investigations. successful, can be emulated by the States. Thus, at the present stage of development, the (vi) Pilot or demonstration projects for jhum NEC should have the responsibility and the control, fruit and vegetable processing, corresponding capability for high level plantation development, sericulture etc. technical supervision in fields like crop (vii) Regional facilities for medical and tech- production, horticulture, plantations, animal nical education. husbandry etc. (viii) Manpower training programmes, 4.8 The regional facilities and the technical supervision provided by the NEC must be used (ix) Regional marketing organisation. effectively by the States. In order to ensure this 4.5 In general the NEC takes up schemes a careful assessment of requirements must pre- which are required for developing the region cede any investment in new facilities or but which are beyond the resources of any acquisition of technical expertise by the NEC. individual State. However, there are some Once the facilities are set up in the region the schemes like the pilot projects on jhum control NEC advisers must travel around in the region which are innovative and need central to see whether and how the facilities are being guidance. used, to build up local expertise in the State Governments and advise State Governments as 4.6 The development strategy for this region to how best they can use the regional facilities. will require substantial new developments in agriculture, animal husbandry, horticulture, 4.9 Ideally the plans of NEC and the individual plantations, etc. These developments will States should be fully coordinated so that in require the establishment of facilities for every sector there is a clear understanding research, new training institutions, nurseries, about who is to do what. The responsibility for breeding farms, etc. Many of these facilities this coordination lies at present with the Plan- have a certain optimum scale of operation. ning Commission which discusses plan outlays Below this scale they are too costly and with each State and with the NEC. Hence the wasteful of technical expertise. At the present Planning Commission must try and ensure that stage the optimum size for many facilities there is no overlap or duplication in the NEC would be beyond the requirements of plan and the plans of the1 individual states. individual States. In these cases the North- They must also ensure that the development Eastern, Council can set up these facilities to thrusts initiated through the NEC are pursued serve several states thereby allowing these by the States. However, the Planning states to benefit from economies of scale. As Commission is very remote from the field and needs grow changes will be required and states therefore not fully in the picture. In order to may well be in a position to set up optimum correct this, the Planning Commission can use scale units for themselves. However, till that the expertise available in the NEC keep itself time the NEC will have to play an important informed about local developments. The role in the provision of basic facilities for peripatetic advisers of the NEC can provide the research, training, input supply, marketing, etc. Planning Commission with an effective feed back to monitor the plans Coordination can be 4.7 The new developments to be promoted in improved if the Planning Commission different sectors will also require a close linkup nominates an officer to liase with the NEC on a between basic research, adaptive research, field full-time basis. trials and extension effort. This link-up will require supervision by high level technical per- District Councils 4.10 The special features of tribal policy in the (b) the management of any forest not being a North-Eastern region have been reflected in the reserve forest ; provisions contained in the Sixth Schedule to (c) the use of any canal or water-course for the the Constitution. This schedule applies to the purpose of agriculture ; States of Assam, Meghalaya and the Union Territory of Mizoram but not to the other States (d) the regulation of the practice of jhum or and Union Territories in North East. other forms of shifting cultivation ; 4.11 The Sixth Schedule provides for the for- (e) the establishment of village or town com- mation of autonomous districts and within mittees or councils and their powers ; these autonomous regions in the tribal areas of (f) any other matter relating to village or town the following districts: administration, including villages or town ASSAM police and public health and sanitation ; 1. The North Cachar Hills District. (g) the appointment or succession of Chiefs or 2. The Mikir Hills District. Headmen ; MEGHALAYA (h) the inheritance of property ; (i) marriage and divorce ; (j) social customs. 1. Khasi Hills District. 2. Jaintia Hills District. 4.13 The councils also have extensive powers 3. The Garo Hills District. at taxation. Specifically the district councils have the power to assess and collect land MIZORAM revenue from all lands under their jurisdiction 1. The Chakma District. and to levy and collect taxes on lands and 2. The Lakher District. buildings and tolls on persons resident within 3. The Powi District. such areas. In addition, the District Councils 4.12 In terms of geographical coverage, the have the right to levy and collect taxes: applicability of the Sixth Schedule has been (a) taxes on professions, trades, callings and considerably modified, since the initial employments ; enactment. The principal changes arose with (b) taxes on animals, vehicles and boats ; the reorganisation of the North-Eastern region. In Manipur, Tripura there is a provision under (c) taxes on the entry of goods into a market for the State Acts for the constitution of district sale therein and tolls on passengers and goods Councils in tribal areas. In Nagaland, under carried in ferries, and State Act statutory recognition has been given (d) taxes for the maintenance of schools, dis- to village and area Councils. Each autonomous pensaries or roads. district or region set up under the Sixth Schedule has a Council which has the power to 4.14 District Councils also have a right to share make laws with respect to: in the royalties accruing from licences or leases for prospecting or extracting minerals granted (a) the allotment, occupation or use, or the by the State Government. There is a provision setting apart, of land, other than any land which for a District Fund into which all moneys is a reserved forest, for the purposes of received by the Council can be. credited. agriculture or grazing or for residential or other non-agricultural purposes or for any other 4.15 District Councils have the right to estab- purpose likely to promote the interests of the lish, construct or manage, primary schools, dis- inhabitants of any village or town, (Provided pensaries, markets, cattle, ponds, ferries, that nothing in such laws shall prevent the fisheries, roads, road transport and waterways compulsory acquisition of any land, whether in the district. There is a general enabling occupied or unoccupied, for public purposes by provision which allows the Governor to entrust the Government of the State concerned in to a District Council, with its consent, accordance with the law for the time being in functions in relation to agriculture, animal force authorising such acquisition) ; husbandry, community projects, cooperative societies, social welfare, village planning or local bodies elsewhere. However, in certain any other matter to which the executive power respects like land rights and control over of the State extends. The Schedule also grants forests they have more extensive powers. In certain judicial powers to the regional and these cases the authority vested in the District district councils and certain rule making rights Council can limit the ability of the State relating to for example, regulation of money Government to operate in these fields. lending and trading by non-tribals. 4.19 From the point of view of development 4.16 The justification for the special provision there are two important changes which are re- for tribal areas is elaborated at some length in quired. The widespread nature of community the Report of the North-East Frontier (Assam) rights in land have led to difficulties in indivi- Tribal and Excluded Areas Sub-Committee set dual development. The incentive to undertake up by the Constituent Assembly. At the com- improvements and increase productivity has mencement of the Constitution many of the been blunted as the individual does not know Hill/ Tribal areas of the North East were a part how long the land will be in his possession. of Assam State. After reviewing the pattern of Permanent rights over settled land are administration in the pre-independence period, increasingly being recognised and the the Sub-Committee drew attention to certain movement from community to individual special features of the tribal areas and ownership has begun. However, the individual recommended constitutional provisions and needs to be given a legal right to the land. The safeguards to allay the suspicions and fears of District Councils can play an important role in the hill people. this since the authority over land tenure is 4.17 The description of the provisions of the vested in them. State Governments cannot Sixth Schedule and the background which led pursue programmes for jhum control without to them makes it clear that many of the powers such assistance from District Councils. of the District /Regional Councils arise from a 4.20 The second area in which certain changes situation in which these areas were under a may be necessary is in the management of State Government dominated by plains people. forests. A large part of the forests area in the With the reorganisation of the north-eastern. north-east is under the control of District States the position has changed substantially Councils. However, these Councils do not have and except for the areas in Assam, the other the technical staff to plan and manage these autonomous districts recognised in the Sixth forests. A certain commonality of approach in Schedule are in political units dominated by silvicultural practices is necessary and, to hill tribals. ensure this, silvicultural control over District 4.18 Many of the powers given to district Council forests should be allowed to rest with councils are similar to the powers given to the State Forest Departments. 5. JHUM CULTIVATION Jhum cultivation is a widely prevalent tradi- plot, while other crops are grown in a separate tional form of cultivation of land on hill slopes plot. in the hill areas of the North-East. It involves The present position cutting of trees, bushes, etc. on the hill slops upto stump level in winter, drying it and finally 5.2 There is a certain paucity of reliable in- burning the debris to clear the land for cultiva- formation on the extent and value of jhum tion of different crops before the on set of cultivation in the north-eastern region. rains. After one crop season or two the area is However, estimates prepared by the States abandoned in favour of a new site within a /UT's in the region in 1974, based on the total definite area, while the hutments of the village area owned by different villages practicing generally remain permanent. The method of jhuming is given in Table 5.1 below to give allotment of a site of individual families of a rough idea of the extent of jhuming. village varies from tribe to tribe. In most of the 5.3 The National Sample Survey undertook a cases, it is decided by the village council (Mizo survey of jhum cultivation in 1976-77. The Hills) or by village elders through lottery areas covered were the entire rural areas of system (Manipur and Mikir Hills). ‘Jhum Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Tripura, paddy' is the dominant crop of these lands. two hill districts of Assam (Karbi Anglong and Other crops grown are, maize, millets, beans, North Cachar) and five hill districts of Manipur tapioca, yam, sweet potato, turmeric, ginger, (East, West, North, South and Tengnoupal). cotton, tobacco, chillies, sesa-mum and leafy Nagaland Mizoram were not covered in this vegetables. In some plots papaya is grown and survey The Central Sample whose results are the green fruits are boiled for feeding to the reported below covered 520 villages and about pigs. All these crops are grown under as 43 thousand households. rainfed conditions and the harvesting starts sometime from August onwards. The paddy 5.4 The NSS survey cannot provide estimates grown in Jhum field matures comparatively of the actual areas under jhuming. However earlier and, therefore, become available for data on the percentage of households practising family consumption much earlier than that jhuming and permanent cultivation in the hill from the valley lands. In certain areas, pure areas covered are available and are reported crops of paddy, maize, ginger, etc. are taken in below in Table 5.2.

Table 5.1 State/Union Territory Area available for Area sown at one Col(3) as percentage Tribal families Area cultivated per tribal shifting cultivation. point of time of Col(2) involved(000) family (hectares) (000 hectares) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Arunachal Pradesh 248.58 92.0 37.0 81 1.13 Assam 498.30 69.60 13.0 58 1.20 Manipur 100.00 60.00 60.00 50 1.20 Meghalaya 416.00 76.00 18.2 68 1.12 Mizoram 604.03 61.61 10.2 45 1.37 Nagaland 608.00 73.54 12.1 80 0.92 Tripura 220.79 22.30 10.1 43 0.51 NE Region 2,695.70 455.05 16.8 425 1.07 The above figures for the areas sown at one point of time may include some areas under settled cultivation. to permanent cultivation is not entirely correct. TABLE 5.2 Prevalence of Jhum Cultivation State Percentage of tribal household by types of 5.6 The NSS survey contains some data on the cultivation length of the jhum cycle in the selected villages Jhum Jhum and Permanent Not do which is given in Table 5.3 below: Cultivati Permanen Cultivation any on t cultiva Cultivatio tion 5.7 The figures in this table differ significantly n from the implicit jhum cycle indicated in Table Arunach 33.5 24.2 29.6 12.7 5.1. .The NSS' data suggests that the Jhum al Pradesh cycle in Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya is Assam. 18.6 24.0 49.5 7.9 significantly longer arid in Assam and Tripura Manipur significantly shorter than what is indicated in a)Tribal 46.1 34.5 15.4 4.1 b)Others 50.4 40.6 8.3 0.7 the data collected by the States/ U.Ts. in 1974 Meghala 15.4 38.2 31.6 14.8 which is reported in Table 5.1. The significant ya point thrown up by the NSS data is the range in Tripura 12.1 11.6 53.2 23.1 the length of the jhum cycle. Whatever may be Sources : Sarvekshana, April, 1979, pg. 629 — 631.} Manipur is the only one of the five units which shows a the average there are many areas where the significant level of jhum cultivation amongst the non-tribal jhum cycle is much larger or much shorter than population. the average. Hence the strategy for Jhum

control cannot be based on the average figure 5.5 As this table shows the incidence of per- for a large areas, but must take into account the manent cultivation is fairly substantial in all condition in each area. cases. The impression that people are not used

Table 5.3 Duration of Jhum Cycle Cumulative Percentages Upto 5 Years Upto 6 Upto 7 Upto 8 Upto 9 Upto 10 11 Not recorded Years Years Yers Years Years Years and more Arunachal Pradesh 28.2 33.0 42.4 54.1 58.8 85.9 91.8 8.2 Assam 88.5 92.34 7.7 Manipur 71.2 79.7 6.8 Meghalaya 3.1 31.7 29.8 55.7 66.4 80.9 99.2 0.8 Tripura 81.5 96.3 3.7 Source : Savekshana, April, 1979, pg. S-633

5.8 In Jhum cultivation, the farmer shifts from TABLE 5.4 Distribution of Jhum Villages by type of land distributing plot to plot and some arrangement for re- authority States/U.T. Land Distributing Authority gulating this shift becomes necessary. Hence s Govt. Village Village Selected Not the logic of Jhum cultivation led to a situation headman council by record im which the control of land was not vested in /Chief individua ed l the individual but in the community. According Arunachal 2.4 24.7 69.4 3.5 to the studies referred to earlier in Chapter II, Pradesh the agency responsible for the allocation of Assam. 11.5 57.7 30.8 Manipur 30.5 23.7 45.8 land to each household was in some cases the Meghalaya 0.8 32.1 1.5 65.6 chief or headman and in some a village Tripura 11.1 7.4 81.5 council. The NSS Survey referred to earlier collected data on this which is reported in

Table 5.4

5.9 This table suggests that community control 5.12 In Jhum cultivation, mixed cropping is over land use may be less extensive than is common. The yield rates for paddy, the commonly supposed. The percentage of principal food crop, reported in the NSS survey cases where the selection is supposed to be and the corresponding state level yields (which made by each individual seems large and even relate mainly to settled agriculture) are allowing for response problems and survey reported in Table 5.6. errors, it would appear that the authority of headmen /chief or village council is not as TABLE 5.6 Paddy Yields, 1976-77 (Kgs/ha) direct as is commonly supposed, e.g. in the In Jhum agri- In State as a papers submitted for the seminar on the north- culture whole** east (Ref. paras, 2.35 to 2.42), There seems to be a discrepancy between picture of land Arunachal 649 886 tenure that emerges from descriptions of the Pradesh Assam. 1172 933 tribal society of the region and the data thrown Manipur 1367 1507 up by the NSS survey. This difference needs Meghalaya 461 1199 to be probed further. Tripura 334 1117 *Based on NSS for 1976-77. 5.10 The actual pattern of cultivation of Jhum **Bascd on NHCs statistics. plot is on a household basis.. Communal effort is rare except perhaps in the first stages These data have to be interpreted cautiously. when forest land is being cleaned. Jhum However, yields appear to be significantly cultivation is fairly labour intensive during the lower in Jhum cultivation except in Manipur slash and burn operations. Though precise and Assam. Some calculations suggest the data on the number of mandays required are return per manday in Jhum cultivation may be not readily available, research studies show a of the order of Rs. 2.00 to Rs. 2,50 only*. very wide range from 150 to 300 mandays per hectare. The research results generally *(i) "Rural life in Assam Hills : Case Studies of Four Villages" Agro-Economic Research Centre for North- indicate that 30-40 per cent of the labour East India, 1969. requirement is for the preparation of land for (ii) "Report on the Development of Norlh-Estern Region: Sorm cultivation by felling of trees, removal of Aspects", Govt. of India, Planning Commission, 1977. overgrowth, etc. 5.13 Apart from low productivity jhum culti- *Rural life in Assam Hills, Case studies, Four Villages" Agro- vation poses very serious erosion hazards. Economic Research Centre for North Ei st India, Jorhat, 1969. Studies done by the ICAR Research Complex 5.11 The high labour requirements of Jhum for the North-Eastern regions show the cultivation, combined with the prevalance following, picture on soil erosion from 60° — of nuclear families limits the area operated by 70° slopes: each Jhum household. Some data on this as Soil erosion t/ha/yr. reported by the NSS, are given in Table 5.5 below: First year 146-6 Second year 170-2 Table 5.5 Land holdings tribal households Abandoned Jhum (First year Average area per Average no. of Jhum cultivating Jhum plots per fallow) 30-2 household Jhum cultivating Natural bamboo forest 8-2 (hectare) household (hectare) Arunachal 1.83 2.21 The significant point in this data is that erosion Pradesh problems are significantly worse when a Jhum Assam. 1.02 1.60 plot is not abandoned but cultivated for a Manipur 0.99 1.27 Meghalaya 0.61 1.39 second year. With the" growing pressure on Tripura 0.50 1.05 land, there could be a tendency to exploit jhum Source: Savekshana. April'1979, page S. 690. lands more, intensively either by cultivating a

plot for more than one year or by shortening of (ii) Centrally Sponsored Scheme of pilot pro- the Jhum cycle by going into steeper lands. jects for the control of shifting, cultivation ; According to the NSS survey, a significant and proportion of jhum plots are cultivated for (iii) Certain schemes for the control of shifting more than one year, the relevant data being as cultivation under NEC. follows: 5.15 All these programmes are, however, being Percentage of Jhum implemented by the State /UT Governments plots cultivated for themselves, the latter two being executed under 2 years or more the guidance of the Central Government. Arunachal Pradesh 89.5 Under the NEC’s programme, eight pilot Assam 73.9 schemes of soil conservation and Jhum control Manipur 18.9 were taken up in the seven constituent units Meghalaya 22.5 located in major catchments areas. Under Tripura 10.3 these eight NEC schemes 9608 hectares of land As regards the shortening of the jhum cycle, was developed for settling 5187 families in relevant time series data are not available. permanent agriculture at a total expenditure of However, it can be presumed that the cycle is Rs. 486.16 lakhs. The average cost of shortening since the size of the population is settlement of a tribal family worked out to growing and the number of dependent on about Rss. 8,240 and for reclamation of one agriculture is high. The high rate of population hectare to Rs. 5,013. growth in. most parts of the region has been In all 60,000 hectares have been developed referred to earlier (of para 2.11). As for and 25,000 families reported to have been dependence on agriculture is as follows: settled upto the end of Fifth Plan under the % various Jhum control programmes taken up through NEC or under State Plans. Arunachal Pradesh 80.4 Assam 76.7 5.16 A broad evaluation, by the North-Eastern Manipur 71.3 Council of the efforts made so far is reported in Meghalaya 81.7 the background paper prepared for NEC meet- Mizoram 85.2 ing in December, 1980. This evaluation sug- Nagaland 79.4 gests the following trends: Tripura 76.6 (a) The hill tribes of the region have become All-India 72.0 aware of the ill effects of jhuming, dwindling productivity of the Jhum fields, and enormous Present efforts labour involved in jhum cultivation. This 5.14 The earliest attempt at tackling the pro- point is corroborated by the NSS Survey. This blem of shifting cultivation was made in the has generated a public demand for greater fifties by the then Assam Government by intro- investment by the Government towards ducing plantation of cash crops like rubber, rehabilitation schemes. A variety of factors coffee, black pepper and cashewnut with the like the reduction in the Jhum cycle, population objective of encouraging Jhumias to take to pressure and gradual socio-economic change these crops. Major thrust was, however, given and improved communications have probably in the Fifth Plan period when three different led to this. programmes were introduced in the States and Union Territories of the region. These were: (b) No single pattern can be evolved as a — common solution for the entire region for tackling the problems. The pattern of (i) Soil conservation schemes in the States settlement of Jhurnia families will have to be Plan; devised for location, based on climate, physiography, land use and traditional occupation, (c) Allotment of wet land terraces with assured Irrigation 2445 ha 63.28 13.9 irrigation has been the most effective means of Dwelling 1665 ha 33.30 7.3 House attracting Jhumias to settled agriculture, Link roads 158.3 29.40 6.4 particularly among traditional paddy growing km & 32 tribes. Similarly, use Of slopes for culverts Others 10.84 2.4 horticultural /cash crop plantation has become 456.57 100.00 popular in States like Mizoram, Tripura and Thus the direct cost per hectare of terracing and recla- Meghalaya, particularly in such areas where mation works out to Rs. 3374 and the total cost per hectare of terraced/reclaimed land works out to Rs 8,215, the produce has found quick and easy market, giving much higher net returns than even from wet land terrace. In contrast, upland terraces 5.19 The scheme as presently implemented in- involving cultivation under rainfcd conditions volves the following : have been abandoned. (i) Land development for permanent cultiva- (d) the tribals have not been able to achieve tion at 1 ha. get family. maximum benefits from the settled agriculture, mainly due to the complete absence of (ii) Cash crop plantation at 1 ha. Per family. extension service, keeping them ignorant of (iii) Supply of inputs at a subsidised rate on, a improved agricultural technology. Those sliding scale for three years. allotted wet land terraces with irrigation continue to raise only one crop in a year, while (iv) Subsidy of Rs. 2,000 for construction of those allotted upland terraces cultivate the field dwelling houses to deserving cases only. like a Jhum field. The horticultural /cash (v) Construction of link road from nearest crop plantations on slopes are badly in need of PWD roads. proper after-care. (vi) Provision of drinking water. (e) The tribals have become conscious of money oriented economy and therefore (vii) Provision of other rural amenities by con- would readily respond to any project with cerned departments. assured returns. Schemes carrying certain 5.20 The scheme is implemented through the dose of incentive will always find easy Soil Conservation Department. However, acceptability provided there is enough there is a District Level Coordination ground work done to ensure proper marketing Committee with the Deputy Commissioner as of surplus produce and prevention of the Chairman, the Divisional Soil Conservation exploitation by middlemen. Officer as Secretary and the different 5.17 There are certain schemes run by State concerned departmental heads as members. Governments either as part of the Soil The respective District Councils are also conservation programme or as special schemes members of this Committee. At the State for Jhum rehabilitation. level there is a coordination committee under the chairmanship of the Chief Secretary with 5.18 A more detailed evaluation of the Stale the Director Soil Conservation as Secretary and Government run Jhum control scheme in the heads of the concerned departments as Meghalaya is available. The physical members. These arrangements for inter- achievements of the schemes between 1974 departmental coordination have been made at and 1980 are as follows : district and state level.

Table 5.7 Physical Achievements and expenditure of Jhum 5.21 The reaction of the beneficiaries to the control scheme in Meghwlaya scheme and the views of the Department of Item Physical Expenditure Percentage Soil Conservation on these reactions are as achieme (Rs. Lakhs) Distribution nts of follows: expenditure Terracing and 5558 ha 187.53 41.1 (i) Rainfed terraces without irrigation are not reclamation suitable for crop cultivation and irrigation is Follow up 65.03 14.2 necessary. The Department accepts the Afforestation 5007 ha 67.19 14.7 usefulness of irrigation, but draws attention to influential (persons keeping the better areas. the assured rainfall conditions in Meghalaya The Department pleads inability on this matter and .the difficulty in providing irrigation in hill as the distribution of land among village areas. members lies within the jurisdiction of the (ii) Due to lack of irrigation weed growth is . village authority. njore and hence more labour is needed for 5.22 A scheme for Jhum Control and Water- weeding. The Department accepts this but shed Management in Siang River Catchment in asserts that weed growth in unirrigated Jhum Arunachal Pradesh was sanctioned for Plots is roughly the same though it may not be implementation under NEC Programme as obvious. during the year 1974-75. The basis objective (iii) Terraced cultivation involves more soil of this scheme was to demonstrate to the working and preparation which people are not people the benefits of permanent cultivation used to. The Department points out that the over shifting cultivation. additional work is compensated by the higher It was also envisaged in the scheme to create yield. It adds that the real problem is the lack permanent cultivation area to the extent of at of familiarity with the implements used in least two hectares per family for agriculture settled cultivation. and horticulture both according to the land (iv) Terrace cultivation means monocropping capability classification. The scheme was or the cultivation of two crops in rotation, divided into three composite units located in therefore the food needs of the family are not three different mini watersheds in the fully satisfied. The Department accept this catchment area. The selection of units was end as a transitional measure, mixed done on the basis of the intensity of jhum cropping as on Jhum fields is being cultivation in the area. encouraged. 5.23 The area selected for treatment was sur- (v) The importance of fertilisers and manures veyed properly and classified suitably on the application are not realised by the farmers. The basis of its soil survey and land capability Department is taking up a programme to classification. The availability of water for demonstrate the principles and techniques of irrigation hi the command area was also taken applying plant nutriant. into account. The main, components of the schemes were : (vi) The yields from the terraces is more with first and second year and thereafter it is (a) Detailed survey and investigation, (b) Land reduced progressively. The Department feels clearance, (c) Construction of bench terraces, that yields can be maintained after the soil is (d) Contour bunding and strip cropping, (e) settled by fertiliser use and proper cultivation Construction of irrigation system, (f) Land practices. levelling and shaping, and (g) Horticultural plantation. (vii) Since the land belongs mostly to the clan families under the management of the The work was undertaken by a composite team Nokma or Raj land belonging to the local raj, of workers in each unit under the Rural Works the farmer allottees of the developed land do Department. The soil survey was done not have a sence of ownership and partially by the team of all India Land Use and responsibility. The Department points Soil Survey Organisation. The construction out that it has no direct say in this but that the of terraces was done partly by bulldozers and concerned authorities like the District Councils partly by maual labour depending on the are being pursued for taking up survey of the location and accessibility. The irrigation plot and investing the concerned farmers systems were constructed and laid out after with ownership rights. proper survey and investigation of the sources and alignment. (viii) In some centres, villagers complain that in the process of division of the land they are 5.24 In view of the shortage of manual labour sometimes given less suitable areas, the more in Arunachal Pradesh, the scheme also provided for distribution of powertillers on 50% subsidy to those individuals, who wanted 5.28 The cost of conversion to settled cultiva- to own them after proiper demonstration. tion works out to about Rs. 10,000 for 2 ha., Tractors were also deployed in the command inclusive of minor irrigation. This is certainly areas on hire basis. The people showed not excessive since, for minor irrigation alone excellent response to the use of this kind of costs of Rs. 7000-8000'/ha are considered machinery and labour saving device in the area. acceptable. Minor irrigation is an accepted 5.25 As a result of concentrated efforts for five priority in our plans and it should be possible years from 1974-75 to 1978-79 during the 5th to lead the jhum control programmes from the Five Year Plan, the following was the physical minor irrigation side. The evaluation of the achievement of the scheme at a total cost of pilot project on jhum control taken up by the Rs. 115.00 lakhs. North Eastern Council and the jhum control programmes in Meghalaya and Arunachal a) Total area brought under per- Pradesh have brought out certain other manent cultivation 2,250 hects, important points which need to be taken into (b) Area brought under irrigation. 1,170 hects. account in future programmes. The (c) Area reclaimed by terracing con- Committee would draw attention to certain tour bouncing etc. 1,170 hects other aspects which should also be taken into (d) Area brought under horticul- 1,080 hects. account in future programmes: — ture, (e) Totel number of families bene- 125 families (i) With the exception of the pilot schemes of fited. the NEC, the jhum control programmes in the region do not seem to be based on the water 5.26 Although a complete evaluation of the shed approaches. effects of this scheme on: jhum cultivation has not been done, the Committee was given an (ii) Though most programmes offer some sup- assessment by Shri I. P. Gupta, formerly in port in addition to the assistance for land Arunachal Pradesh. According to this shaping and other land conservation measures, assessment there was a very good impact on none of the programmes seem to have a truly the cultivators of the entire catchment area comprehensive and integrated package of with the result that jhum cultivation has come services for the jhumia; down considerably. In certain areas of the (iii) The .problem of weeds and pests may well project like Yingkiong people have almost be greater in settled cultivation than in jhum abandoned Jhum cultivation. In Siiriong cultivation. The package of practices village the entire area has been transformed recommended for jhum agriculture will have into a beautiful permanent ipaddy field, Where to take this into account; at least two crops of paddy are taken round the (iv) The food needs of the jhumia may not be year. Similar changes have been observed in met by the crops which would be taken up in Jomlo and Kaying areas of the project also. settled cultivation and some dependence on Not only that the farmers have taken to the outside sources for the same items will be permanent cultivation but the agricultural there. The answer does not lie in undertaking machinery like powertillers and trailers have settled cultivation with the same mix of crops also gained sufficient popularity in the area. as in jhurning but in a better public distribution 5.27 According to the evaluation, having expe- system. The cropping pattern will have to be rienced and observed the effect of this project, determined on the basis of productivity and the farmers are coming forward with their own economics. initiative to bring more areas under permanent 5.29 The Committee also notes that the orien- cultivation, for which they only want the Gov- tation of the measures taken up is basically to- ernment to provide irrigation facility, which is wards jhum control i.e. to the conversion of not within the means of the farmers. These, jhum to settled agriculture rather than to jhum areas have also started generating surplus improvement. The latter is equally important foodgrains. but practically no work seems to have been done. Suggested approach (i) Incentive for clear jungle clearances Rs. 5.30 The problem of jhum cultivation is so 150 per hect. widespread that all the households involved in (ii) Incentive for removal of unburnt logs, jhum cultivation cannot shift to settled cultiva- stems, weeds etc. Rs. 100 per hect. tion, even in a 5-10 years framework. Hence (iii) Incentive for cost of improved seeds, Rs. the strategy for jhum control must distinguish 200 per hect. between different areas on the basis of the extent to which the jhum cycle has shortened (iv) Incentive for line sowing and strip crop- and ecological problems have arisen. On the ping across the slopes : Rs. 100 per hect. basis of field surveys jhum areas should be put (v) Plant protection measures: Rs. 50 iper hect, into three categories : (vi) Incentive for sowing rabi crops : Rs. 400 (i) Areas where the cycle is still above say, 10 per hect. years and where ecological problems are not yet acute. In these areas the emphasis should 5.33 The initiative taken by Manipur and be on improving the productivity of jhum Tripura in undertaking a programme of through better agronomic practices and improving is welcome. Whereas the Tripura improved varieties; scheme has a technical content which is necessary, the Manipur scheme proposes to (ii) Areas where the cycle has fallen below say subsidise operations which anyhow form a 5 years and where ecological problems are part of the jhuming cycle. The real answer lies already acute. These areas should be taken up not in cash incentives but in the extension of on a priority basis for conversion to settled better technology and in the provision of cultivation within a period of 10 years. infrastructure and some essential inputs. (iii) Other areas : These areas will probably 5.34 The Committee notes that a fair amount of face acute problems in the near future. Hence, work in adaptative research and field trials will in this case, the immediate measures may be be necessary to identify effective measures. for improving jhum but there should at the The manner in which cropping patterns have to same time be a programme for the gradual be adapted to the terrain and climatic introduction of settled cultivation. This conditions in each micro area has to be programme may extend over a period of 20 determined. Improved varieties suitable for years. direct seeding have to be identified and 5.31 Each State/ U.T. should examine the introduced. The manner in which fertilizer jhum cycle situation in each of its villages and should be applied so as to maximise benefits identify the three classes of villages for has to be identified. All this can only be done necessary action. Having done this an if there is some adaptative research on jhum annualised programme should be drawn up. cultivation in different areas from alternatives The required finance may come from the to jhuming in terms of settled agriculture. This provisions for jhum control, soil conservation, particular aspect of agricultural research has minor irrigation, 1RD, etc. not received sufficient attention so far and should be taken up on a priority basis by the 5.32 Manipur and Tripura have proposed cer- ICAR Research Complex. The programme of tain schemes for the uipgradation of jhuming. trials-cum-demonstration of the sort proposed In Tripura what has been proposed is the by Tripura would help to generate valuable supply of composite mini kits of improved data for such adatpitative research and hence seeds, each mini kit contain a mixture of seeds must be taken up immediately. This will be in for the crops to be cultivated by the jhum the nature of an operations research household. There is also a proposal to take up programme. It is but proper that the ICAR a programme of trial-cum-demonstration Research Complex take up such an operations which will provide valuable information research programme in various sub regions. on jhuming. _The Manipur scheme proposes The establishment of extension machinery to to give incentives for improved agronomic reach jhum households can also be taken up practices in jhum lands on the following basis : immediately so that as soon as research results account are the depth of top soil, rainfall and are available they can be transferred to the drainage conditions etc. field. The Committee would emphasise that 5.37 The relevance and usefulness of each of this programme of adaptative research and ex- the models listed above also depends on certain tension for jhum improvement is absolutely factors. The first point worth noting is that the essential since even in the transitional period typical jhumia household is a subsistance agri- during which the bulk of the farming culturist who grows food crops for its own con- households in the region will continue to sumption. These households cannot be "depend on jhuming and improvement in their expected to switch over completely to a economic conditions requires that, as an plantation or pastoral system unless an interim measure at least, the productivity of elaborate marketing system for their jhuming should be improved. produce and a distribution system for 5.35 As far as conversion from jhum to settled foodgrains is built up simultaneously. The cultivation is concerned, a variety of models second factor that is relevant is the low level for settled cultivation relevant for jhum areas of agricultural technology. Almost all the are available : models described above involve techniques of (i) Conservation to Plantation. — This is cultivation that are now for jhumia. The the earliest of the proposed strategies, and in- degree of change varies between the models. volves a total shift to a plantation, crop Jike tea Hence there will be a corresponding variation or rubber. in the extent of extension support required. The third factor of relevance is the lack of (ii) Terraced cultivation. — This being labour both for the conversion operations as actively pursued in state sector schemes and well as for the subsequent farming operations. is being implemented with and without As far as conversion operations are concerned irrigation. the requirement is greatest for terraced (iii) Conversion to grass lands. — This is cultivation and lowest for pastoral operations. happening in certain areas where animal As far as labour for farming operations are husbandry and dairying has developed. concerned, the requirements are highest for the plantation operation and lowest for pastoral (iv) Three-tier System. — This involves system. crop husbandry with bench terracing in the lowest third of the slope, horti- pastoral crops 5.38 The principal criteria for the selection of a with half-moon terracing in the mid-portion model in any local area must be the extent to and forestry in the top third. which it raises productivity per unit of land and per manday of work. At (present jhum culti- 5.36 The possible types of settled agriculture vation yields a return of barely Rs. 2 to Rs. which could be taken up by the jhumia will 2.50 per manday. Almost any version of depend on a variety of factors of which the settled agriculture will yield a higher return. most important is the physiography of the area. However, the selection will be constrained by The three-tier model (mentioned above physical conditions, marketing prospects and involves an adoption of land use to the ease with which infrastructure can be physiography. The recommendation that the developed. Subsistence requirements may also lowest third be used for agriculture, the middle need to be protected. This should be done third for horti-pastoral crops and the top third within the framework of productivity for forestry is only an approximation. The maximisation by upgradation of crop distribution of land-use between these three production technology even if the crop will really depend on the gradient. For iproduc-tion is for home consumption. instance, in Assam, the proposal is to take up terraced paddy cultivation in areas up to 5% 5.39 The conversion of Jhum lands to settled slope, plantations interspersed with crops like cultivation, whatever be the model chosen, pineapples in 6-30% slope and forestry above must also take account of the nature of the 30%. Apart from slopes, the other physical land tenure system. In Jhum area, individual considerations which will have to be taken into households do not have any settled rights to Jhum lands. Control over those lands power is not provided there will be a tendency generally lies in the hands of a village council to cultivate terraced lands as if they are Jhum or a tribal chief. The area of control of the lands which would reduce greatly the benefits village as a whole is usually well-defined. The of settled cultivation. Therefore, it is first problem that has to be tackled is that of necessary to provide the required draught giving the Jhumia a permanent, heritable and ,power through power tillers and through a transferable title to some part of the Jhum suitable reorientation of the animal husbandry land. This is necessary to provide the system. The fanners will also have to be substantial amount of labour and investment trained for ploughing operations. This that the conversion to settled agriculture will training will have to be provided by the exten- require. The fact that individual control sion machinery which will have to be over land under permanent /settled cultivation strengthened for this purpose. is accepted in the region suggests that this may 5.42 The next important requirement is that the not be difficult. The second problem that will (planning of Jhum land conversion must take have to be tackled is the fact that if other place on a watershed basis. This has not households in the villages continue with Jhum always been done in existing programmes for cultivation the Jhumia will be reluctant to sur- jhum control. However, the ICAR's three-tier render his rights to Jhum lands and will also be system is designed to fit in with this approach. tempted to revert to Jhum cultivation The watershed approach which has been particularly when he faces difficulties in settled described more extensively in the National agriculture. The third problem arises from the Committee's Report on the Development of fact that settled agriculture requires less land Backward Hill Areas (Para 4.7 to 4.13) is than Jhum cultivation does. Thus, a proper important because only then can one of the use will have to be found for the Jhum lands objectives of Jhum control viz. reduction in under village control which will be surplus to run-off and soil erosion be achieved. It is also agricultural requirements once settled important because it will enable the design and cultivation is taken up. provision of irrigation facilities which are vital 5.40 It is necessary to approach the problem on for crop production in the newly terraced a community basis. The attempt should be to slo,pes. Watershed management calls for persuade all households in a village to change scientific survey and investigation of each over to settled cultivation. This can be done watershed by a technical team. Since several through the good office of the village council hundred such investigations will be necessary, or the tribal chief. The authority controlling it is essential that technical capabilities for this the distribution of land should give individual purpose be built up quickly. As an interim households permanent heritable and measure a more approximate approach to transferable rights over the land brought by watershed planning may be necessary. In them under settled cultivation. The balance practice people already do some watershed of the village lands, which will now no longer management and the experience and local be required for cultivation can be converted knowledge can provide a basis for into a community forest under state preparing a workable plan. government ownership or, if that is not 5.43 The implementation of Jhum control feasible, under the control of the village schemes has to be taken up on a projected basis council. Such a community approach will so that all related investments comprising minimise the problems involved in moving outlays on soil conservation, agriculture from the existing system of land tenure to extension, input subsidies, infrastructure, etc. individual ownership. are covered in the plan. The responsibility for 5.41 One major difficulty in Jhum control ope- implementation may rest with the project rations is the lack of draught power for village. authority even though the technical control The farmers in the area are not familiar with may be exercised by the respective technical ploughing operations, since these are not hierarchies. Attempts to integrate a large required in Jhum cultivation. If draught number of activities at watershed level should be checked. Since the basic land-uses this research is a three-tier system as given in agriculture, forests, grass lands and basic con- the table below : cern is to provide adequate return in terms of TABLE 5.8 Land-use pattern for Hill slopes in the food, fooder, firewood, etc. the level of integra- Alternative System to Replace J hunting tion should be restricted, to those line Slops Approx Land-use Conservation departments which are directly concerned. % of measures total area Other items like the improvement in logistic support should be taken cars of at a much Lower 33.5 Agriculture Bench portion terracing higher level, too many line departments should Mid portion 33.5 Horli- Half-moon not be brought together, as that would create pastoral terracing for confusion. horticultural 5.44 The foundation of agricultural advance plants. must rest on technological advance in terms of Top portion 33.0 Forestry 14.7 appropriate land use, improved varieties, better agronomic practices. This will require a 5.47 The advantages of this modified system as strong research and adaptive research in agro- indicated by ICAR are : climatic zones. (i) Productivity can be adequately increased 5.45 The :principal agriculture research orga- in the I/ 3rd terraced area and improved nisation for the hill areas of the north-east is. technology can be introduced. the I.C.A.R. Research Complex for the North- (ii) Soil and fertility loss can be checked. East region which was established in 1975. The (iii) Subsidiary sources of income can be headquarters of the complex is located in assured. Megha-laya where it has three research stations at upper Shillong (1790 m), Nayabanglow (800 (iv) The I/ 3rd terracing can be done by the m) 'and Burnihat (100 m). In addition, there family labourers of the Jhumia families. are fairly large research centres located in (v) Developmental efforts of the Government Manipur, Naga-land, Tripura, Arunachal will be greatly helped since three times more Pradesh and Sikkim-Further, it has another areas can be covered with the same amount of centre in the Karbi Ang-long District of Assam money since only I /3rd of the area has to be under the administrative control of Assam terraced. "This can also be done by giving Agricultural University. In order to work for some financial aid to the Jhumias. the entire region, the research stations have been established at different altitudes. The (vi) Since horticultural crops will be grown, region has been divided into three altitude the farmer will have a long-term interest in the ranges : (i) upto 800 m. (ii) 800 to 1300 m and land and when round the year cropping with (iii) above 1300 m. According to the ICAR good yield can be obtained from the lower Research Complex the entire region has been terraces, a gradual attitude for permanent considered as one unit so as to avoid "dupli- settlement will be induced. Even the cation of research under similar altitudes in farmers may eventually like to terrace the other various state /union territories" so that the areas themselves. available research scientists could be rationally (vii) The system will least interfere with their utilised to tackle a larger number of problems. socio-cultural system. Initially, even 5.46 With regard to shifting Cultivation the burning of the 65-70% of the lower slopes of centre took up a multi disciplinary project to the hills can be allowed before developing the develop an alternative system of farming which lower terraces. would cause the "least disturbance to their 5.48 The division of plant breeding has been socio-cultural life yet, which would help in working with as many as 17 crops. The major halting the soil and fertility erosion as well as projects include (i) development of a suitable in improving production". The outcome of high yielding variety of rice with cold tolerance foi high altitudes, (ii) development of a suitable composite variety of maize for high 5.5 1 Apart from research, the vital need in this altitude, (iii) adaptive trials with different area is for effective extension. The present varieties of other crops at various altitudes to position is rather difficult to assess since the identify suitable improved varieties for upland staff are shown under many heads. However, and irrigated conditions including selection of the broad impression is that the extension varieties suited to mixed or multiple cropping machinery is inadequate for the tasks at hand. and (iv) to collect and evaluate the indigenous Unless the extension machinery is germplasm of crops. The division has, so far, strengthened, research results cannot be collected over 400 local varieties of rice, transferred to the farmers. In this situation, evaluated them and utilised them in about 30 soil conservation measures like terracing will cross combinations. Promising lines for cold not be effective as farmers will tend to cultivate tolerance are now in advanced generations. A the terraced yields in the same manner as the local variety called 'Pawnbuf from Mizoram Jhum plots. has been found to be early in maturity and very 5.52 During the 6fli Plan, all the Slate Plans promising as upland rice for direct sowing have proposed a very substantial strengthening under low fertility and moisture stress of the extension machinery. Some of the conditions. Besides developing suitable states (e.g. Nagaland, Tripura) propose to move cropping patterns for upland terraces, varieties over to T&V system for agricultural extension suited to multiple cropping and mixed with some slight local variations. Jhum cropping have been identified. improvement as well as the conversion of Jhum 5.49 The ICAR Research Complex also has to settled agriculture will require many divisions dealing with soil science, important changes in cropping pattern and agronomy, horticulture, entomology, plant agronomic practices. Continuous technical pathology, agricultural engineering, animal guidance to the farmers wiil be required. It is, nutrition, animal health, animal production, etc. therefore, necessary that an eflec-tive extension The work done in these divisions and in the system with at least one VLW per village, one multi-disciplinary project referred to earlier extension officer per 8-10 VLWs and suitable has helped to develop a basic technology complement of subject matter specialists at package for Jhum control. What is required district and sub-divisional levels be established now is adaptive research to tailor the package in all the hill areas of the region. Areawise to the variety of conditions found in this area priorities for strengthening of extension must and an extension effort to deliver this package be laid down on the basis of the proposed to the farmers. development programmes. The extension 5.50 Facilities for adaptive research under staff must be in a position one year earlier. varying agroclimatic conditions seem to be The group must be multi-disciplinary as lacking. As pointed out earlier the ICAR required for the water shed approach. Research Complex is treating the region as one 5.53 There must also be a linked programme of unit and differentiating its work only by three trials-c'M/n-demonstration. The extension broad ranges of altitudes. However, there are machinery and the system of demonstration other sources of variation in agricultural will then provide a link between the farmer and conditions besides altitude and a large number the research workers in the ICAR Research of research farms is necessary so as to cover Complex as well as in the State Governments. each type of agro-climatic system found in the The NEC must have a cell for propagating the region. Since there may be some difficulty in watershed management, sub-approach. There doing this with the available scientific must be a smooth movement from pilot manpower in the region, this extension of schemes,, of the sort that have been taken up so research effort could be taken up on a phased far, to demonstration projects and, based on the basis. The responsibility for this localised demonstrations, a training programme for the adaptive research must be gradually passed on field level staff of the State Government. to the state governments.

6. HORTICULTURE The north-eastern region is well-suited from attributable to "citrus de-;line", a problem the point of view of climate for horticultural associated with virus. and plantation products. Moreover tree crops 6.7 The ICAR Research Complex for the can play an important role as an ecologically lorth-east has a horticulture division which so sound alternative to jhum cultivation. ar has taken up research on citrus, pineapples 6.2 The wide range of altitudes and climatic md temperate fruits (apple, plum, pear and conditions in the north-east is reflected in the reach). Considering the existing research gap diversity of fruits grown in the region. They md the available resources, the following areas range from tropical and sub-tropical fruits like of research were given priority in developing pineapple, banana, various citrus fruits research projects at various centres of the Re- and papaya to temperate fruits like apples and search Complex. even certain nut trees. Coconut and arecanut (i) Survey of different horticultural crops, also grows in the area. The cultivation of collection and evaluation of local germ-plasm. potatoes and tuber crops is fairly extensive. A large variety of tropical and temperate (ii) Identification of causes of mandarin vegetables are grown. As for plantation crops orange decline and development of suitable tea is a major crop in Assam and of late other remedial measures. plantation crops like rubber and coffee have (iii) Identification of high yielding and pro- also been taken up. Medicinal and aromatic oil mising varieties of fruits, vegetables, yielding plants like Idronella have been tuber crops, rhizomatous crops, plantation considered suitable for certain areas in region. crops, flowers and medicinal and Fruits aromatic plants for different agro-climatic zones of the region, 6.3 The available data on the area under different fruit crops and production as of 1978- (iv) Development ofi suitable agro-techniques 79 are presented in Annexure 6.1. As these for maximisation of seed production of data show the principal fruit crops, in terms of various horticultural crops including seed area and production, are banana, pineapple and production technology. citrus. Apples are an important fruit crop in (v) Post harvest technology for storage and Arunachal Pradesh. processing of various horticultural produce. 6.4 Banana is grown both in the plains and the 6.8 The declining productivity of citrus has hills. In the plains it tends to be backyard been studied in detail by the ICAR and their crop and in the hills it covers large untended findings are as follows: tracks which soon become 'banana forests'. "General neglect, mixed planting, undesirable 6.5 Pineapple is grown in this region generally intercropping, improper spacing, vigorous under rainfed conditions, often along the slope weed growth, inadequate nutrition, particularly in hilly areas and with practically no use of certain micro-nutrients, infection of fertilisers or plant protection measures. Phytophthora root-rot, gummosis, powdery Hence average yields are very low (about 8 mildew, canker and scab diseases as well as tonnes /ha.) compared to other parts of the infestation by insect pests like borers, aphids, country (about 40 to 60 tonnes /ha.). scales, mites and leaf minor etc. are major 6.6 The north-eastern region is one of three contributing factors for the decline in the entire major centres of diversity in citrus in the coun- N.E. region. Leaf analysis have indicated :ry. Mandarin orange the most that there is deficiency of Calcium and prominent variety being the khasi mandarin is excess of Iron. Indexing for greening the principal ;itrus fruit. The principal (mycoplasma) disease through chro- problem at present s that of rapidly declining matographic technique covering 18 productivity. This tage is only partly species of citrus spread over major citrus growing belts of Meghalaya has confirmed the presence of the disease in most species and 6.11 With regard to temperate fruits the varieties. However, only 3 per cent of the ICAR complex has concentrated mainly on the seedling origin Khasi mandarin trees showed identification of suitable varieties. Apple positive symptoms of the disease, thus cultivation has spread in the Kameng district indicating that greening disease is not a major of Arunachal Pradesh and an ICAR survey contributing factor for mandarin orange indicated yields as high as 80-100 kg decline in Meghalaya". /tree even in 17-20 year old trees. Upto 6.9 The ICAR has now identified a pro- 1979-80, 5 ]akh grafts have been planted in gramme of action for the rejuventation of de- Arunachal Pradesh and 50 thousand trees are clining orchards. Pilot-cron-demonstration already at the bearing stage. trials of mandarin orange on four 6.12 Research on the identification of suitable recommended root-stocks have been laid out in cultivation and appropriate agronomic Meghalaya, Naga-land, Mizoram and Manipur practices has to be accompanied by the provi- in collaboration with the Indian Institute of sion of planting material and effective Horticultural Research, Bangalore and the extension support. There are 72 nurseries in Department of Agriculture of respective states the region for the multiplication of fruit plants for ascertaining suitability of different stock- set up by State Governments (other than section combinations under local agroclimatic Assam). However, except in the case of conditions. Healthy and very highly mandarin the production of plants is much productive donor trees Have been identified in less than demand Hence in most of the states declining orchards of Meghalaya for bud-wood the annual demand of fruit plants for source of Khasi mandarin. About 70 different distribution in the blocks/ villages is met types of citrus have been collected in the region from wholesale purchase by departments from and are being studied for further economic ex- private sources within and outside the region. ploitation. This carries with it the risk of introducing 6.10 Pineapple is grown purely as a rainfed unsuitable varieties and of importing diseases crop in slopes of varying gradients and in the from other areas. Extension support is plains. In most areas it occupies the land for inadequate and there is hardly any follow up 12 to 20 years under continuous after the distribution of material Because ratooning. Planting is generally done at wider of this there is heavy mortality of plants and distances down the slopes to facilitate quick those that survive assume a wild form due to drainage of rainwater and easy weeding the lack of training of plants leading low pro, operations. The ICAR's Complex has ductivity ultimately. concentrated on agronomic aspects. Their Suggested Approach trials on optimum plant population suggest 6.13 From an examination of the situation of that the density of planting can be increased fruit cultivation in the North East at present from the present average of about 10 thousand and comparing it with the altitudes and plants /ha. to about 50 thousand plants/ha, on a climates' available m the different states, it 34% slope. The yield in the ICAR trials was would appear that many fruits which can be 74 tonnes within 19 months of planting and 84 grown in a "articular area are not being tonnes within 24 months. High density cultivated, e.g. apples in Nagaland and planting also reduced soil loss Meghalaya. With a few exceptions of apple considerably. Experiments on prolonging cultivation in Anmachal Pradesh horticulture, the harvesting period, conservation of moisture development in the region seems to be and weed control are in progress. With restricted to marginal improvements in areas regard to weed control the cultivation of a where fruits like pineapples and citrus have leguminus inter-crop like rice beam in been grown for a long time. Though there are the first year of planting was found to be a large number of schemes for extending horti- feasible and showed good effects in culture the actual impact in most cases is limit- arresting weed growth in Tripura. ed. Hence a more aggressive programme of horticultural development is required. This will involve not merely paying attention to field. This will require an extension machinery existing orchards but new developments. which is effectively linked to the research Cultivars from other areas in India in similar complex. This link at present stage of conditions have to be identified for different development may Have to be provided by the parts of the region. Bare areas in forest may NEC which should have a top level citrus also be suitable for intensive horticulture expert on its staff, whose job will be to development. Besides new fruits grown in carry over established technologies to the similar conditions elsewhere can also be various states where citrus development is promoted, e.g. chickoo, durain, mangousten. possible. The rel evant horticultural wings 6.14The identification of suitable cultivars is of states will need strengthening. a painstaking process since the evaluation 6.16 In the case of pine-apple, the root stock of suitability cannot be made until cultivars used appears to be good and it has been taken have been tried out. One implication of this for use in the rest of India. A great deal of fact is that the possibilities of taking up extension work on close planting so as to im- development cannot be based merely on the prove yield has been done and yet the spread of experience of the cultivars/plants which are to the technology has been limited. The reasons be found at present in the area. For example, for this are not readily available but one reason the possibility of apple cultivation in could be that the return from pineapple cultiva- Nagaland and Meghalaya has been discounted tion is not very high. Fresh pineapple has a because of the assessment that the yield and the limited market and therefore processing is fruit quality that ha, been observed so far is necessary. However, it would appear rather poor. In such a situation research should that the existing processing units for continue to identify other varieties which may pineapple in the North East are not very be more suitable since the basic conditions in profitable. One reason for this is the the high altitude region of these states appear to difficulty in the collection of the pineapple by be suitable for apple cultivation. The poor yield centralised processing units. If this is the at present may only be on account of the fact case then the situation may be improved by that the cultivars/plants observed or the multi-stage processing in which pineapple is agronomy practices may be poor quality. Thus crushed in the producing area in small plants horticultural research has to be aggressive and and the crushed material is moved to some continue to look for suitable varieties of centralised concentrating and processing topographical and climatological conditions plant. Such an approach would also increase indicate that a particular fruit can be grown. the value added accruing to the producing area. 6.15 With regard to citrus, the major problem It would be desirable if the economics of of citrus decline appears to have arisen from alternative processing schemes for the neglect of orchards resulting ultimately in pineapple are studied carefully by the NEC. infestation of trees with philoptera and stem- 6.17 The extension of horticulture in some borer. The prime task therefore is rejenuvation parts of the North East will meet with some of these orchards, is recommended by ICAR. difficulties of transportation. In remote In many cases this can be done just by cleaning areas which are difficult of access, it may be and pruning of trees and the addition of NPK possible to pursue the cultivation of nut trees, and micro- nutrients .In other cases since in these the problem of deterioration of budwood/rootstock from healthy and the fruit in transit does not arise. Grafted productive donor trees would have to be walnut appear to have done well in Aranachal supplied. This will require a survey of existing Pradesh and a similar approach may work in orchards and the diagnosis of the problem hill other remote areas. The converse of this is by hill and the recommendation of appropriate that the extension of fruits which can remedial measures .As pointed out earlier, the deteriorate rapidly e.g. peaches and plums required research has been taken up by the should only be taken up near markets and ICAR Complex. What is required now is the processing facilities. extension of the ICAR's research results to the 6.18 The foundation of effective horticulture The price that the producer gets is development is the availability of suitable culti- limited and much of the final price is collected vars. The nurseries in this region are produc- by the trader. ing plant materials but it is not at all clear that 6.21 The problems of marketing are further what is being produced is appropriate for the compounded by the limited fruit processing conditions in different parts of the region. It capacity in the region. The 30 or so processing would be useful to undertake a survey of the units in the region can handle only 3000 tonnes material that has been distributed to see what per annum though actual utilisation of capacity has worked. Alongwith the process of is only around 1000-1500 tonnes per identification of suitable cultivars, nurseries annum. What is required is an integrated should be expanded to meet local demand so as structure of marketing and processing starting to reduce the need to rely on purchase of from some arrangements for primary planting material of doubtful quality from trade collection (say through cooperatives), sources. processing., storage, and at the apex, an 6.19 The extension machinery for organisation that can undertake marketing horticulture in most parts of the region is weak. outside the region in national and international The horticulture wing of the agriculture markets. A beginning has been made m this department is poorly staffed and often in some direction by the establishment of a North- of the states it does not have more than half a Eastern Regional Agricultural Marketing dozen technical staff. Horticulture is an Corporation (NERAMAC). However, this important activity in this region since it can Corporation cannot be effective unless steps offer a remunerative alternative to jhum are simultaneously taken to establish suitable cultivation. Given the required scale of marketing arrangements at local level. It operations, the horticulture wing of the will also be necessary to invest in processing Agriculture Department will require substantial facilities to absorb seasonal surpluses and strengthening in all states. The extension ensure a reasonable return to the growers. effort will have to cover not merely the Processing units may not be economic unless provision of planning material and subsidies it takes up several horticultural products but also expert advice on plant protection and because of seasonally problems. All the maintenance of orchards. Moreover some horticultural growers in the area can be arrangements for adaptive research and data brought within cooperative fold and collection at state level will be linked to the processing unit. The possibility necessary to provide a link between the of introducing the two or three tree tier pattern regional facilities like ICAR Research for cooperativisation of growers and Complex and the extension machinery. linking them with direct or regional level 6.20 The upgradation of horticulture, in this processing and marketing facilities may be region will have to be accompanied by worth examining. This may be done by the NEC. effective marketing arrangements. Most of the produce is sold directly to traders in the 6.22 The processing and storage operations village market and the price realised by the will have to be designed on the basis of the producer is but a fraction of the final selling specific requirements of the region. The price. The few processing units in the possibility of fero stage processing of region also use middlemen so that producer has pineapple has been mentioned earlier. The little incentive. In the case of orange a NEC climate of the region can also be used to paper indicates the following differentials : advantage by having cool houses for cold Along area of Arunachal Pradesh Rs. 5 per100 storage in the higher altitudes and solar driers Garo hills Rs. 10 per100 for drying fruit. Southern Slopes of Khas thills Rs. 21 per100 Vegetables Shillong city Rs. 31 per100 6.23 The available information on the production of vegetables crops in the region is given in Annexure 6.2. Apart from the it could be profitable to spread turmeric, production reported in this annexure, there is a cultivation systematically in the region substantial amount of vegetable production, providing proper facilities are established for even in the jhum cultivation, for home collecting, curing and marketing of the consumption. This production is not reflected produce. Ginger production can be stepped in the data given in the annexure. up if facilities for preservation and dehydration 6.24 From the commercial point of view the of ginger are set up. most important vegetable crop is potatoes. In 6.27 The ICAR Research Complex has made Assam and Tripura it is grown mainly as a rabi various selection trials for many vegetable crop whereas in the Shillong plateau, crops under different agro-climatic conditions. where potato cultivation is quite old, two They have emphasised off season production in crops are taken. Freedom from aphids, deep order to give a better economic return. Seed and rich soil, moderate climate and fairly well production for cauli-flower and radish has also distributed rainfall make potato a promising been attempted. Vegetable seed crop for the hill areas of the north east. production for national markets may be 6.25 The ICAR Research Complex has not feasible even in the near future. The National taken up any extensive work on potato cultiva- Seeds Corporation should investigate the tion. However, because potato cultivation possibility of seed production in the area for is highly commercialised, growers have taken the Indian Market. to improved varieties, the present coverage 6.28 Large scale extension of vegetable pro- under improved varieties in the Shillong duction will depend entirely on the establish- plateau being about 20 per cent of the growth ment of effective processing and marketing area yields of 28 tonnes /ha. for the summer arrangements. This should be pursued crop and 11 tonnes /ha. for the autumn crop since many of the hill vegetables can be have been recorded in this area. These yields produced in what is the off season in the plains. compare well with all-India level. Potato However, this establishment of effective cultivation is now being extended to other hill processing and marketing arrangements will areas in the region. The potato crop in this take time. Hence, at present, the emphasis has region comes earlier than from anywhere to be on improving productivity in existing else in India. Thus it has , to compete with areas under these crops. cold storage potatoes in the early season Floriculture and has a price advantage. However, this particular aspect of potato marketing needs to 6.29 The zone comprising Eastern Himalaya be studied in greater detail by the NEC or and North-East India is one of the unique NERAMAC. The Centre's Potato Research floris-tic region of the world. It is Institute must have a station in north east to phytogeographi-cally linked with the mountain develop early season potato for better storage tropical flora of Tndo-Malaysia and the and transport. This extension of area under temperate flora of Eastern Tibet, Sino-Burma potato needs to be pursued along with related and N.E. Area. The diversity of habitat and investments in cold storage and climatic conditions have supported a very rich rrarketing. This latter aspect of processing and flora in this region. Quite a few of the best marketing can be taken up by the Regional known plants of the temperate gardens of the Agricultural Marketing Corporation. world were introduced from this region. Plantegenera like Rhododenron, Primula, 6.26 Ginger and turmeric play a role even in Gentlara, Berberis. Acer, Medanopsis, jhum cultivation. The turmeric from this re- Magnolia, Viburnum, Pedicularis, gion is particularly noted for its quality. An Epilobuim, Aimpations Buddleia, Iris and over analysis of the local variety in Meghalaya 700 species of archids have supported a showed a dry matter recovery of 20 per cent multimillion dollar horticulture industry in and cur-cumin content of 6 to 6.5 per United Kingdom, USA and Europe. cent which is much above the standard laid down for export markets. This suggests that 6.30 So far we have not been able to utilise species of high floriculture value and propagate th;s fabulous floral wealth for the benefit of the the selected species for commercial purposes. local people. Therefore development of The new tools of tissue culture and breeding floriculture should be kept in view for can help to quicken the pace of work in this generating new type of remunerative economic field. A joint unit of the Botanical Survey and enterprise for the people. It would necessitate the ICAR Research Complex should be located setting up of a floriculture development centre in this region. to undertake extensive surveys to locate plant

ANNEXURE 6.1 Area tend production—Fruit crops A=Area in '000 hectares P= Production in ‘000 tonnes State/UT Pine- Orange Other Banana Apple Pear Fruits Papaya Mango Guava Coo Total apple citrus nut* Arunachal A 0.256 1.667 2.312 0.125 0.325 4.665 Pradesh P 2.048 1.719 6.726 0.681 1.904 13.078

Assam A 3.40 2.00 1.10 20.00 2.48 5.0 25.98 P 34.00 17.00 9.00 260.00 40.80 31.0 60.8

Manipur @ A 6.02 4.00 2.00 2.30 1.60 0.40 0.2 0.1 1.0 23.82

75.3 28.00 15.00 7.50 10.00 4.25 2.4 0.4 5.0 147.85 Meghalaya® A 7.30 4.00 1.60 2.875 0.30 0.31 17.185 P 43.00 28.00 9.40 39.327 1.85 1.25 123.027

Mizoram A 0.21 0.28 0.9 0.69 2.18 P 1.56 1.73 2.4 7.51 Nagaland A 0.11 0.36 0.47

P 1.61 1.20 2.01 Tripura A 2.83 1.21 2.8 0.30 0.8 7.14

P 10.00 8.50 2.26 1.1 38.76

TOTAL A 20.126 14.417 4.70 35.075 2.312 2.025 1.015 3 .67 0.1 1.00 5.8 84.44 P 167.51 86.349 33.49 327.227 6.726 12.53 7.404 47l28 0l4 5l00 32l1 693.835 8 Average Yield 8.32 5.90 7.10 9.33 2.91 6.18 7.20 12.88 4.0 5.00 5.53 8.21 per hectare Source: @ —Papers presented by State Departments for Horticultural Development Council Meeting held in October, Others: Basic Statistics—1979, North-Eastern Council, Shillong. *Production in million numbers.

ANNEXURE 6.2 Area and production—Vegetable crops A=Area in '000 hectares P= Production in '000 tonnes State/ UT. Potato Turmeric Ginger Tapioca Sweet potato Chillies Hill Plain

Arunachal Pradesh A 0.1 0.26 P 0.7 1.25 Assam A 33.3 6.1 5.00 1.3 8.4 10.4 P 135.6 3.6 1.45 5.4 28.2 6.2 Manipur A 1.5 1.5 2.6 P 6.4 1.8 1.6 Meghalaya A 17.6 1.3 2.1 2.0 3.8 1.2

P 80.8 1.2 8.9 10.9 12.6 0.8 Mizoram . A 0.5 0.1 4.0 0.1 3.8 P 1-.2 0.1 8.1 0.2 0.9 Nagaland A 3.7 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.3 1.4 P 20.0 1.69 0.8 1.0

Tripura A 2.1 0.9 0.2 1.5 1.0 P 26.0 1.1 0.16 13.1 0.4

TOTAL A 23.4 35.4 8.4 13.26 3.6 14.0 20.4 P 109.1 161.6 6.0 23.19 17.2 54.7 10.9 Average yield /ha 4.66 4.50 0.73 1.85 4.77 3.91 0.53

Source : ‘Basic Statics-1979’ North- Eastern Council,Shilong

7. PLANTATIONS

The development of plantation crops has been State/UT Scope by 2000 AD (000 ha) given a special place in the development Arunachal Pradesh 10 strategy for the north-eastern region, Assam 40 particularly the hill areas. This is because this area offers great promise for crops like tea, Manipur 10 coffee and rubber and also because these tree Meghalaya 2 crops are an ecologically sound alternative to Mizoram 3 jhum cultivation. Nagaland 5 7.2 With the exception of tea, plantation Tripura 2 crops are not widely grown in the region. Tea 72 is found only in Assam and Tripura where the area under tea plantations as of 1979 was 195 thousand hectares and 58 thousand hectares 7.5 A series of promotional measures will respectively. The plantation of coffee and have to be undertaken in all these non-tradi- rubber has been taken but the coverage as of tional areas before tea cultivation starts on a now is very limited, the present planted area reasonable scale. Most of these nurseries will being about 2000 hectares for coffee and 4200 have to be set up which would provide the hectares for rubber. Present plants and the basic planting materials. A number of facilities available in the region for extension Demonstration plots at suitable points will of tea, coffee and rubber are dealt with have to be raised for the benefit of the local below. planters. As tea cultivation involves a long Tea gestation period, schemes will have to be evolved for providing fiscal and monetary 7.3 Preliminary surveys in Arunachal Pra- incentives. Interest burden on loan may have desh have revealed the suitability of certain to be cushioned in the first few years by areas for tea plantation. If intensive surveys evolving a suitable scheme of subsidy. are undertaken, a number of other Concessions could also be made available to promising areas would emerge which would these non-traditional areas in the first few lend themselves to tea culture on a years on excise duty. All these non- commercial scale. Tea Board has already traditional areas will have to be nursed very registered the Chanse Prange Tea Estate in carefully during the Sixth Five Year Plan so Manipur to undertake tea culture in an area of that the commercial feasibility of tea 2000 acres in Manipur. The State Government cultivation can be established in the long run. in Meghalaya have already initiated certain concrete measures for laying out varietal 7.6 The initiative for action has to come trials of seeds and cloves. Measures are from the State Governments. The Tea Board also underway to develop and improve can only provide assistance when this initiative infrastructure around the areas suited for tea is forthcoming. In most of the States discus- culture. The soil and other related conditions sions with the Tea Board or with private parties are favourable for tea cultivation in Mizoram have started. In Meghalaya and Nagaland too. This has been established by the Prelimi- trial plots have already been laid out to nary survey conducted by the Tea Board some establish the feasibility of tea cultivation. time back. Parts of Nagaland also hold consi- Coffee derable promise in this direction. 7.7 Coffee was introduced in the North East- 7.4 According to survey carried out by the Tea ern Region around 1954 as a measure to Board and others, it is estimated that the prevent jhuming and consequent soil States/UTs can plant out the following areas. erosion initial growth and performance in the experimental gardens encouraged the expansion of coffee in different parts of the hill districts in the States of the North Eastern technical support is provided to the various Region. The present areas under coffee in the state governments and agencies implementing region is around 2000 ha. 7.8 The details of the programme. The Coffee Board, with the present area under coffee is furnished the concurrence of the Planning Commission below: has already taken necessary advance State/UTs hectares action to provide technical support in the North-Eastern Region. They have already Assam 1,148 started a training programme for workers, Arunachal Pradesh 29 posted extension officers in the region, Manipur 142 opened Coffee Demonstration Farms and Meghalaya 198 seed multiplication units. Experts of the Coffee Board are periodically visiting the Mizoram 147 region to provide necessary guidance. As Nagaland 300 an incentive for expansion programme, the Tripura 26 Coffee Board has introduced from 1979-80, 1,990 an expansion subsidy of Rs. 2500 per hectare. 7.11 The North Eastern Council is also providing balancing facilities like coffee 7.9 Experimental planting undertaken in the seedling nurseries at a cost of Rs. 99 lakhs, North Eastern Region under varying soil shade tree seedling nurseries at a cost of Rs. climatic conditions have indicated that coffee 28 lakhs, survey of suitable land at a cost of would be successfully cultivated in the hilly Rs. 21 lakhs, establishment of a model coffee regions of all the states and Union Territories processing unit with an investment of Rs. 21 in the North-East. The perspective plan for lakhs and conducting training programme in coffee development has indicated that an the Assam Agricultural University. area of 44,000 ha. could be brought under coffee by 2000 A.D. The area proposed Rubber for expansion is furnished below: 7.12 Rubber was introduced in the North State/UTs Area considered Proposed Eastern Region in 1955 and was found to suitable coverage by 2000 AD be suitable. Detailed surveys were undertaken between 1963 and 1965 by the Arunachal Khonaza in Tirap 4,000 ha. Pradesh Distt. Rubber Board which revealed that Assam and Tripura hold good prospects for Assam Karbi Anglong and 16,000 ha North Chachhar development of rubber plantations. The Districts. present planted area in the North Eastern Manipur Churchandpur and. 4,000 ha. Region is about 4200 ha. with about 200 Im phal ha. having reached production level. Meghalaya Khasi and Jaintia 8,000 ha. Tripura Government has started a project to hills plant 5000 ha. through the Forest Mizoram Kolasit, 4,000 ha. Development Corporation from 1976-77 to Bakhawthirand 1985-86 and has already brought 2662 ha. Vairengle under rubber so far. With about 129 ha. Nagaland Kohima, 4,000 ha. under private ownership, the total Mokokchung, Thensanglish. area in Tripura is around 2800 ha. The Tripura Jolaibari, Peratia, 4,000 ha. Assam plantation Corporation has already Sopahi zohila. planted about 450 ha. with rubber, with a 44,000 ha. target area of 3900 ha. by 1984. Meghalaya has 800 ha. under rubber with a target of area of 1200 ha. for VI Plan. Other State 7.10 As coffee is being introduced as a com- Governments like Arunachal Pradesh, mercial crop, it is essential that adequate Manipur, Nagaland and Mizoram also intend to take up small scale rubber plantations in proposed perspective targets for the hill states their states in lower altitudes. of the region (i.e. excluding Assam and 7.13 Taking into consideration the Tripura) amount to 79 thousand hectares. latest study (1980) by the Rubber Board, This would need nearly 2 lakh workers on a minimum area of 1,05,000 hectares could be permanent basis which may be compared brought under rubber by the turn of the with the fact that according to the 1971 century. The major scope for expansion Census these states had a total of 15 lakh would be in Assam (50,000 ha.) and Tripura workers in all. The comparison suggests (30,000 ha.) with around 25,000 ha. in the that plantation development would require rest of the States /UTs. the diversion of workers from other agricultural 7.14 The States of Assam and Tripura have deputed officers of the concerned activities. This would be facilitated if corporations and Government Departments plantation development is linked with jhum for training with the Rubber Board. The control. For jhumiya the shift to plantations Board has established a Regional Research would certainly give a return far higher than Station and a regional office in Tripura the Rs. 2 to Rs. 2.50 per day that he earns and is collaborating with Assam from jhuming. Such an approach is also Agricultural University at Jorhat in field necessary if local fears that plantation experiments. The Board has a programme development will lead to large scale for supply of high-yielding planting material immigration are to be removed. and support to small holders. The NEC on 7.18 The national policy on plantation deve- its part is financing rubber nurseries in ment emphasises the role of the small holder. Assam and Tripura . The key ingredients in the small holder approach are as follows : — Suggested Approach 7.15 lit is cleair that the expansion of tea, (i) A source for high quality planting mate- coffee and rubber in new areas in the north- rial, east is not taking place at a pace that would (ii) Research and extension support, lead anywhere near the proposed targets. (iii) Subsidies on capital and operating costs The extension of the cultivation into new to cover the gap till the trees yield a return, areas has hardly begun. In the case of coffee and rubber barely 5 per cent of the identified (iv) Common processing facilities for a group potential has been realised. At this rate of of small holders, and progress the perspective targets for 2000 AD (v) Marketing support. are clearly unattainable. Hence analysis of the constraints limiting plantation In the case of tea, coffee and rubber there are development need to be identified and existing plan schemes for this purpose. In remedial measures taken. some cases the scheme may have to be modified to suit conditions in the north-east. 7.16 An important constraint on the expan- The main requirement, however, is the sion of plantations is the labour intensive vigorous pursuit of available schemes in the nature of the activity. The history of Assam areas already identified as having substantial plantations shows that the bulk of the potential for development. labour for plantations came from outside. Even though plantation wages are high one 7.19 The plantation development question that arises whether these wages programme in this region also can be based would attract, enough for local labour in hills on the small holder approach. Compact areas where availability of labour is even areas can be taken up for development by lower than in Assam and where local wages corporation with each individual family are already high. being given the right to about 2 acres. A family with 2 adults can full time manage 7.17 Roughly speaking employment per hec- only about 2 acres- In the first stage the tare of plantation is around 2.5. The compact area would be developed by the operate as service agencies to provide input corporation with individuals being employed service to the tribals. as labourers. Once the plantations reach the 7.22 The Rubber Board has also suggested a bearing stage the management would rest similar approach in the case of rubber. with the individual family who would The Working Group on Rubber for the Sixth have access to common facilities and Plan suggested as follows. technical advice from the corporation which would also take on the responsibility for "Block planting programmes on the pattern of marketing. The individual family would the Federal Land Development have the right of usufruct but would not have Authority (FELDA) of Malaysia in which the the right to alienate the land or convert it to authority develops large blocks of plantation some other use. This will require the deve- to the stage of maturity and subsequently lopment of a special patta. The divides and distributes it among educated processing facilities required would be landless and unemployed persons in small provided for one or more of these compact units of economic-sized plantations, could areas. also be a worthwhile proposition towards solving unemployment, proper land 7.20 Such an approach has already been ac- utilisation, control of shifting cultivation cepted and tried out by the Assam Plantation etc. The workers to be engaged in the initial Development Corporation. The approach development of such block plantations should has also been accepted by the other states in be the subsequent beneficiaries of the the region. The small holder approach is resettlement scheme. In order to make the well established in the case of coffee and scheme operate ismoothly in advance, before rubber where the commodity boards play an the clearing and planting operations important role in the extension of the area. commence and they should be engaged as However, in the case of tea, the arrangements wage-earners until the stage when the parcels are less v/ell established even though there of the plantation would be distributed are small holders in the south who have been amongst them. The successful implementa- cooperativised. tion of the scheme would involve creation 7.21 The Planning Commission advised the of common facilities such as township, group various states that in view of the special land processing factories and marketing tenure system existing in the region, the organisation etc. The current efforts of the expansion of coffee may be undertaken Assam Plantation Crops Development through public sector corporations. The Corporation Ltd. for raising a 3,900 hectares Government could then invest in the equity rubber and 4,000 hectares coffee plantation in capital of such corporations and approach the hill districts of Assam for the benefit of financial institutions for loans to implement the local 'jhumiyas' (Shifting cultivators) is a the scheme. Such corporations would also be pioneering venture in this regard in India". able to obtain necessary technical know-how 7.23. The District Councils can play an im- as coffee being a new introduction, the portant role in plantation development by farmers may not be able to get the organising the extension of plantation area on same efficiently. It was proposed that land their lands. They can form cooperatives and may be identified for each of the tribal family can give rights to individuals as has been and the corporation may transfer the same to suggested above in the case of corporations. the family after the production may reach However, district councils will not have the economic level. The farmers in the meantime required technical or marketing expertise and are to be employed as workers on the even in these areas the corporation will have plantation. This would enable them to acquire to be involved as a covering organisation. the requisite knowledge of growing coffee before the same is cultivated on their own. 7.24 Though the emphasis has to be on the Subsequently, such corporations could development of plantations in compact areas to ensure an economy in the provision of technical services and processing facilities, Rapid development will require an the development of plantation on individual effective coordination machinery at state holdings cannot be ruled out. In such cases, level and the responsibility for plantation the official machinery should accept the development must be clearly assigned to a responsibility of providing technical support particular department. The approach to and planting material but the basic plantation development outlined earlier will responsibility would rest with the individual. also require the establishment of a corpora- This is what the Coifee and Rubber Boards tion in most cases. In many of the States, are doing in South India. this has already been done. In order to 7.25 The expansion of plantation activity in support the States, the NEC in its organisation this region would have to be fairly rapid if the should have a technical and managerial group perspective targets mentioned earlier are to be to assist the State Department responsible for achieved. The achievement of these targets plantations as well as the plantation is desirable, both from the point of view of corporations. Coffee, Tea and Rubber Boards the region as well as the national need for should have extension arrangements in the additional supplies of plantation products. region. 8. FORESTRY

The National Committee has dealt in detail .vith the problems of Forest Policy in Hill State/UT Percentage of Areas ind Tribal Areas in its report on the forest area outside subject ORefer Chapter 5 of Report on the reserved protected Development of Backward Hill Area, category NCDBA and Chapter 6 of Report on Arunachal 78.4 Pradesh Tribal Areas Development, NCDBA). The north-eastern region is very well Assam 42.6 endowed with forest resources. Of the Manipur 63.4 total geographical area of 25.5 million Meghalaya 90.5 hectares about 12.5 million hectares are under Mizoram 41.7 forests. The details of the areas under forests are given in Aonexure 8.1. The Nagaland 72.0 percentage of area under forests varies and Tripura Nil the figures for individual States are as follows State Percentage of area Percentage in under forest regional total Thus very substantial proportion of forest lands in all the units other than Tripura are Arunachal 61.7 41.2 effectively outside the control of the Forest Pradesh Departments. Assam 36.4 22.9 8.3 All the States in the region have taken up Manipur 67.8 12.1 forestry development plans. Under Meghalaya 38.9 6.8 production forestry the emphasis has been on Mizoram 58.0 9.8 quick growing species as well as on economic Nagaland 17.4 2.3 plantations. Programmes of social forestry and farm forestry have also been taken up. Tripura 57.4 4.8 However, the area covered by the above North-Eastern 49.0 100.00 programmes in relation to the extent of forest Region land that needs to be covered is not very substantial. As this table shows three-fourths of the forest 8.4 The paucity of data on the forests wealth resources of the region are concentrated in in the region and the extent to which it can be three of the seven constituent units. The utilised /exploited or developed is being general picture of abundant forest resources made good by the pre-investment survey of also conceals substantial variations and there forest resources being taken up by the are states like Nagaland where the area under Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation. These forests is quite low considering the surveys are designed to assess the present topography. status of forests, their potential for 8-2 A substantial proportion of the forest re- development and also the possibilities of sources of the region are outside the reserved development of forest based industries in the and protected category and are shown as region. Survey of the entire forest area in district/ village council forests or as Manipur, Meghalaya aind Tripura has already unclassified. The percentages of forest area been undertaken. In other units like outside the protected reserved category in Assam, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh, the different constituent units was as only limited areas have been covered. The follows : survey in Mizoram undertaken is expected to be taken up in 1981-82. Reports of the surveys already carried out in Manipur, the States /Union Territories in the region are Tripura, Meghalaya, two districts of Assam, indicated below in brief: four districts of Arunachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh Tuli Catchment of Nagaland are available though some are only in draft form. The survey conducted in four districts of Arunachal Pradesh (Kameng, Subansiri, Lohit 8.5 The material available from the and Tirap) has pointed to the possibility of pre-investment survey of forests brings out setting up of a 200 tpd. paper mill with a 70 : the need to assess forest resources more 30 bamboo hard wood mix at Baiukpong and carefully. The pre-investment survey in another 130 tpd. paper mill with 60:40 Manipur has revealed that 22% of the forest hardwood bamboo mix in the Lohit Tirap area is under bamboos and open forests Area. account for 27% of the forest area. In Tripura, the survey revealed that though Assam forest lands constitute 57% of the total land The study which covered 9280 sq. kms. in the area, the forest are poorly stocked and de- Nowgong and Karbi Anglong districts of ficient in mature forest stock. The Sixth Assam has indicated a growing stock of about Five Year Plan for Tripura also states that 143 million cubic meters. It has been sug- 'due to reckless fellings, intensive grazing and gested that a 250 tpd. paper mill and a ply- frequent fires in the forests, the types of wood mill could be set up. Also the existing forests have significantly changed'. capacity can be increased. According to the Plan, the 2000 odd sq. kms. recorded as protected forests do not contain Manipur any forest worth the name except scattered Based on the estimates about the availability trees and lower types of vegetation. The of raw materials as indicated in the Pre- Plan also points out that the stock of investment Surveys Reports in respect bamboo which was estimated at 8 m. of Manipur, it has been suggested that the tonnes during 1972 has been reduced State Government could set up a saw mill, a considerably due to uninterrupted jhuming plywood mill, a hard board /chip board in the intervening years. A similar factory and on integrated 400 tonnes per day situation may well obtain in the other States newsprint paper mill or 250 tonnes per day also. It is, therefore, necessary that the pre- writing and printing paper mill. Such a set investment survey should identify areas UD would provide sustenance, direct and with low stock, medium stock and high stock indirect, to about 2 lakhs of people or nearly both within and outside the reserved one-fifth of the population of the State. Even forests. This is necessary if suitable after meeting the requirements of industry as priorities are to be established on an area- indicated above, it is estimated that there will wise basis for the planning of afforestation still be a surplus of 12 million tonnes of and exploitation, hardwood and bamboo which could be sent 8.6 The pre-investment surveys already out to meet the demand from resources-scarce carried out have highlighted the scope for States like West Bengal and Bihar. forest based industries in the North Eastern Meghalaya Region. The annual availability of forest resources based on the pre-investment The survey conducted in Meghalaya indicates surveys and the estimates worked out by the possibility of setting up a 100 tpd. pulp the State Government /Union Territory, and paper mill with a 70:30 bamboo Administrations in the region is given in pinewood mix provided the creation of plan- Annexure 8.2. tation is increased to 1343 hectares a year. 8-7 The recommendations of the Pre-invest- Nagaland ment Survey of Forest Resources in regard to The Nagaland survey which covered the the utilisation of resources identified in Tuli Catchment area covering about 2300 sq. kms. indicated the possibility of setting up a the forestry development programme to 100 tpd. paper mill with bamboo and reeds. succeed as effective control to check shifting cultivation, cannot be exercised by State Tripura Govern-ments/UT Administration. The study undertaken in Tripura has suggested that the State has enough bamboo re- 8.11 In very Indian village, traditionally a sources to support a large pulp or paper mill portion of the land was reserved for the of the capacity of 250 tonnes based on village forest. This was common property to Bamboo and Gamari in the Fatikarai bs managed by the village elders for the Catchment. As regards the hard wood benefit of all the villagers. The first to be resources of the States, it has been noted affected by the rush for forest material by the that the forests, though constituting over expanding population was the village 53% of the total land area, are poorly stocked forests; Except in the very interior areas, and also deficient in mature stock. Despite village forests are now bare earth wherever this the survey has pointed out ,that enough the land has not been encroached upon. raw materials would be available to sustain a Rehabilitation has to start here- The commercial plywood factory in the State. National Commission on Agriculture made The State Government however, feels that the following recommendations: the present yield of timber is not adequate to (i) Any programme of mixed forestry in the meet the requirements of local people and village waste lands and panchayat lands that the forests are over-exploited to meet the should be such as is acceptable to the village demand of the local people and the population. Government. (ii) The programme should be 8.8 The recommendations on the manner in undertaken only in such areas where the which forest resources can be utilised lay incidence of wastelands in a village or a great stress on the establishment of paper group of villages is sufficiently high so that a mills. However, a large number of paper part of it can always be kept apart for the mills cannot be taken up together and if satisfaction of the rights of the villagers. paper production is considered to be the main (iii) The program! \ss should take into consi- use of forest resources then much of these deration the iieed for a quick yield of such resources will remain underutilised for quite products as are the villagers' immediate some time to come. In any case, paper concern, as such, fodder and grass-should b« production is not the best way of utilising an important component of mixed forestry hard wood and timber wood and should be to be taken up with optimum input and done only as a last resort. Other higher value technology. uses of these woods must be identified if the forest resources of this region are to be (iv) Income from mixed forestry exploited in a rational manner. should be divided equally between the Panchayats and State Governments. In 8.9 The forest resources of the region has to addition, in the disposal of the produce from be utilised in an ecologically sound these forests there should be an element of manner. This requires a certain commonality preferential treatment including price pre- of approach to the entire forest area ference to the villagers. irrespective of the nature of the value of ownership. (v) The area whether in village or village forests or degraded forest areas or 8.10 In the context of development of waste lands should not bear any rights forestry in the region, the legal rights and should be developed on commercial /inherent rights of the village councils /district basis. The local population, particularly councils vis-a-vis the power vasted with the the poorer sections, may be given preferential State Governments /UT Administration treatment in disposal of the produce but under would need to be examined. If this problem overall commercial based practices. is not sorted out, there is very little chance for 8.12 The above recommendations of National The NCA's analysis points out that the Commission on Agriculture on method of exploitation relying entirely on Panchayat Forests are very relevant for the manual labour leads to a wastage both in north-east. The pattern of ownership of felling and conversion and assesses that village and district councils forests may be 40% of the total round wood volume is left as at present but siivicul-tural control may converted into timber. What the NCA be transferred to the Forest Department. proposed was the use of more Working Plans would be drawn up by the mechanised methods for felling of trees and Department and at the time of harvest there their conversion into logs at the stump site would be a sharing of proceeds with the with the help of modern tools and concerned village /district council. This transporting of logs with the help of skyline approach of course requires a substantial cranes from the felling site to a convenient strengthening of forest departments in the place for sale. With this method, transport region and also an appreciative response difficulties are by passed and even more from village and district councils. importantly percentage conversion of round 8.13 The forests under village and wood increases to nearly 80%. The district council control provide fuel and example worked out by the NCA involved a building materials for the local population. conversion of hard wood timber forest by Any programme to bring these under the replacing mature or over mature stock by silvicultural control of the Forest Department other available industrial timber species to will have to be accompanied by a programme obtain higher production per unit area. After of Social Forestry to meet the essential taking into account the very substantial requirements of the local population. In investments in infrastructure which would jhum conversion schemes, the area be required to reach this in accessible forests released from jhuming can be used for this the NCA estimated the benefit cost ratio to be purpose- In other areas the needs of the 1.28. The cost calculations of the NCA may local population will have to be taken into be somewhat out of date, but. given the fast account by the Forest Department in drawing rise in timber prices the benefit cost ratio up Working plans. A similar approach is may be even higher. The important point, necessary to meet the fuelwood requirement however, is the very low incidence of of urban areas. labour cost which over a 10 year period amount to barely 1 1 % of total cost. The 8.14 The density of population in some NEC should study carefully the experience States/ UTs is very low. This spareness of of the West Bengal Forest Department in population reduces the size of the working the Darjeeling area so as to draw usful lessons force and thus makes the exploitation of for resolving difficulties because of paucity forest resources difficult. According to the of labour and transport difficulty. National Commission on Agriculture a 8.16 It may be desirable to consider the Forestry Plan involving the felling of 1500 hectares will generate direct employment of mechanisation of forestry operations in the more than 8000 man years according to the northeast. Such mechanisation will generate present method. Some of these personnel employment opportunities for educated youth are also expected to have some technical and be economical at the relatively high wage skills. The total requirement of manpower for rates prevalent in the region. This approach, if undertaking a large scale programme of tree found feasible, will require a suitable felling and replanting would be very training programme for forestry officials and substantial. workers. 8.15 The National Commission on Agricul- 8.17 Except for Assam, all other States/UTs ture examined the problems of forestry in the in the region have problems of eastern Himalayas in West Bengal where communication. In Mizoram it has been also there is a problem of paucity of pointed out that exploitation of resources is manpower as well as transportation facility. confined to only small pockets where the local contracts can have easy access. In infrastructural requirements are built into the Meghalaya large areas of reserve forests scheme. The scheme should be drawn up in are lying untapped in the absence of adequate such a way that the cost of infrastructure, and proper communication. In Nagaland the whether it be roads or ropeways or skyline 'protected' forest area are largely inaccessible. crane can be recovered from the sale Though all the Governments have to proceeds- If such commercially oriented construct approach roads to link certain schemes are prepared, they can be taken up forest reserves, the problem is gigantic and by the financial institutions as bankable pro would call for very heavy investment. jects. Forestry exploitation plans can also be According to the National Commission on designed so as to take maximum advantage of Agriculture one km. road is necessary for the strategic roads which are being built in the one sq. km. of forest area. On this basis, the remoter parts of the region. resources required to provide adequate 8.19 The approach to forestry development in communication for the 125 thousand sq. this region cannot be based merely on the kms. of forest area in the region would be conventional approach which focusses enormous, even if the work is to be taken up attention on products like timbej, plywood, in a phased manner over a number of years. fuel wood and pulping material. There are Therefore, the provision of roads for certain other activities which need to be forestry development will have to be limited integrated with forestry development plans. to definite programmes for exploitation The more important of these are oak tasar drawn up by the Forest Department, the culture, the cultivation of fodder trees, Forestry Corporation or Forest based horticulture, development and the collection industrial units. of medicinal plants. 8.18 The problem of infrastructural development in forestry can be tackled if the 9.ANIMAL HUSBANDRY Animal husbandry is an important part of the 9.5 The need for increasing the number and traditional agricultural system in the north- improving the productivity and quality of east. For the people in this region, meat is an cattle, pigs, and poultry in this region is quite important element in their diet and the obvious. It appears that very little efforts' keeping of domesticated animals and poultry were made in the past regarding organised is a traditional activity in tribal households. development of livestocks in this region. 9-2 The present position with regard to live- Perhaps, this was largely due to the difficult stock and poultry is given in Annexure 9.1. terrain, lack of communication facilities There is a clear difference in the animal etc. But sporadic efforts made through holding pattern in Assam and Tripura on the introduction of exotic breeds of pigs, cattle one hand and the remaining five units on the and poultry for crossbreeding had been other. In these five units the number of pigs quite successful. This is specially evident and poultry is far higher than the all-India from the better type of pigs seen in and norm. Thus, the number of pigs per 100 around urban areas in several states and the population ranges from 11 per 100 in crossbreed cattle population seen in Shillong Mizoram to 40 per 100 in Nagaland as against area. In view of the traditional the all-India average of 1 per 100. In the dependence of rural /tribal population on case of poultry the range is from 89 per livestock for their well being, large 100 in Meghalaya to 272 per 100 in Mizoram consumption potential, absence of any against the all-India average of 25 per 100. sentiments regarding slaughter that help in culling and elimination of below-standard 9.3 In spite of the large livestock population stock, readiness to adopt improved methods, in this region, the local stocks are found to be resources available by way of feeds, fodders inadequate to meet the current consumption and grasses, the region has immense requirement for meat and there is large scale potentialities for rapid development in purchase of livestock, particularly pigs and livestock production. Development of cattle from outside. Cattle from the plains livestock would not only help in improving are taken in large numbers to Meghalaya, the economic position of the rural people Mizoram, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh. by supplementing their income but also may Similarly, there is large scale movement of help in the supply of improved livestock and pigs from Goalpara and Kamrup districts livestock products to other areas /markets in of Assam to Meghalaya through the country. Gauhati. There is also, some ingress of pigs from Burma into Nagaland and Manipur. 9.6 The data relating to available evidence Though precise figures are not available in on the infrastructure for animal husbandry the annual imports of animals per year, in programme is given in Annexure 9.2. Some Arunachal it is believed that 9 to 10 data on the growth in production between thousands heads of cattle are brought in every 1974-75 and 1979-80 is given in Annexure year for meat. 9.3. The data given in the Annexure 9.3 shows that considerable progress has been 9.4 The animal husbandry system in the hill made in egg production in several states like areas is essentially meat-oriented. In some Manipur and Meghalaya. Milk production is communities there are taboos against milk generally low in the hill states, the most consumption. Because the people are meat striking case being Mizoram where it eaters they have not attended to milk amounts to only a few hundred tonnes per production. However, there are signs of year. During this period of five years, the change and a growing orientation towards growth in milk production has been as milk production is evident near the urban follows : centres. State/UT Percentage growth Block with 30 sub-centres each one catering 1974 -75 to 1979-80 to 2-3 villages. 60 cattle upgradation Arunachal 33.3 centres have also been established for Pradesh crossbreeding. Assam has six Intensive Assam 22.8 Cattle Development Projects, iwo semen Manipur 18.2 banks have been established and 5 lakh cattle out of a total of 17 lakh breedable cattle have Meghalaya 22.7 been covered by artificial insemination. Mizoram 50.0 In Manipur, a medium sized ICD project has Nagaland 47.7 been set up on the basis of an earlier key Tripura 10.7 village scheme. There is a semen collection centre, four regional AI centres and 60 sub centres. Meghalaya has 2 ICD The available data also show a very sharp in- projects at Shillong and Tura and the Indo- crease in meat production in Assam. Danish project in upper Shillong. In this This would have to be probed further. state there has been a certain tradition of crossbreeding from the past. The cattle 9.7 Despite the growth in production in re- population in Mizoram is very low. How- cent years, the region continues to be ever there is a key village scheme which is deficient in animal husbandry products, proposed to be expanded to- an ICD project. particularly meat. The draft 6th Plan for A Nitrogen plant is also to be installed. Meghalaya for instance, points out that per Nagaland has one ICD project and a key capita availability of milk is only 129 grams village scheme. There is a proposal to merge as against nutritional requirements of 250 all these activities with one semen bank at grams and per capital availability of meat is Dimapur, six AI centres and 47 stockman 45 grams as against nutritional requirement of centres. Tripura has 2 ICD projects and has 90 grams. The situation would be similar in so far done about 50,000 AIs. the other states also. The starting point for the animal husbandry programmes must 9.10 The NEC has established five regional be a clear assessment of local requirements of exotic bull centres for the production of local milk, eggs and meat. This assessment exotic and crossbred bulls. In addition bull of requirements should be the basis for calves will be available from the foreign planning animal husbandry development: aided projects in Meghalaya and Assam as also from the livestock farms set up by the 9.8 The development programmes for State Government. Many of these livestock animal husbandry will involve four key farms are meant both for milk production for elements : nearby townships and for purposes of (i) Crossbreeding or purebreeding to improve breeding. The exotic beef cattle breeding productivity. farms are being established. There is a frozen semen facility at Khanapara in Assam which (ii) Provision of appropriate can service the whole region. economical feed; 9.11 With regard to dairy development (iii) Animal health cover, and some progress has only been achieved in (iv) Arrangements for processing Assam where there are at present 84 dairy and marketing. cooperatives with 10,000 members, servicing 4 town milk supply schemes. Three of the The position with regard to these and sugges- districts in Assam are covered under tions for the future for different categories of Operation Flood. There is an ambitious livestock are dealt with below. programme for extension of Amul Pattern 9.9 Several cattle development programmes of cooperativisation in urban milk have been taken up in the region. In supply. A few dairy cooperatives have been Arunachal Pradesh there is a Key village set up in some of the other states like Meghalaya and Tripura. A Central Dairy is technology, ensilage is the answer for being set up in Shillong, but has not yet taken preserving feeds for the lean season. The off the ground. There are several chilling ICAR research complex has developed centres linked to rural dairy schemes in other cheap silos using locally available material states. for this purpose. 9.12 With regard to methods of 9.15 With regard to animal health, the ICAR crossbreeding, the region has not shifted over Research has completed retrospective completely to the frozen semen technology. surveys which have helped to identify the Natural service is provided in certain areas important diseases, the critical periods: of because of the difficulty in obtaining their appearance, the endemic areas as well as supplies of frozen /liquid semen- The seasonal variations. There is a vaccine availability of breedable bulls from the production facility at Khanapara which can regional farms is limited. With natural ser- service the whole region. vice the number of cows that could be 9.16 Processing and marketing facilities for covered would be limited and the milk are being built up in the region as a part, crossbreeding target of 4 lakh animals cannot of Operation Flood. As pointed out earlier, probably be reached. Hence it is necessary inhibitions about milk production and that the frozen semen technology is consumption are slowly disappearing and, extended as rapidly as is possible. If semen wherever facilities have been provided, the production at Khanapara is stepped up all that people have taken is required is the provision of nitrogen flasks and logistic support for transporting these. A to dairying. With regard to cattle meat, certain amount of training of field staff will organised arrangements for processing and be required to ensure that the semen is thawed marketing are lacking. Animal slaughter is and the insemination done in the correct done anywhere and any how. The manner. Facilities for this; purpose are establishment of proper slaughter houses is available in the Assam Agricultural essential if the meat economy of the region University and in the regional farm. is to develop. Incidentally,, a modern slaughter house will also allow the utilisation 9.13 The cattle in the hill region are kept of byproducts like eases and blood meal. mostly on paddy straw and, in the lean Thejatter in particular is very useful for season, on leaves of plants and trees. The animal fee region is rich hi forage trees. In a recent study made by eastern regional station of 9.17 The cattle development programme National Dairy Research Institute a number of in the northeast has made some progress. legume and non-legume grasses, forage However, at least as far as meat production is shrubs, plants and trees were identified. concerned, the hill areas are heavily Many of them are having very high protein dependent on the plains. The local availability and soluble carbohydrate. Because of richness of meat will improve to some extent with the of the tree leaves and grasses cows producing crossbreeding programme as with a given rate 10 litres of milk are given only 1 to 1J kg. of of culling the absolute numbers available will concentrate ration when such cows in the rise because of the earlier age of calving and plains are given about 4 to 5 Kg. of concen- the shorter inter-calving intervals. Moreover trate ration. The ICAR and the Assam because of the higher weight of the Agricultural University must continue work crossbreds the quantity of meat available on the utilisation of local forage crops and per animal will also be higher. However, fodder trees-The programmes of social these measures will not cover the entire forestry and jhum control should include excess demand. Hence it is particularly provision for fodder trees and fodder crops important to pursue the programme of respectively. crossbreeding of beef cattle as soon as the bulls become available from the proposed 9.14 Since the high rainfall and humidity of exotic beef cattle farms. the region is not conducive for hay 9.18 With regard to feed the fodder, the polish (23%), standard pig feed (25%) and local grasses and forage trees seem to have farm grown crops (7%). The feed great potential. The ICAR has done some conversion efficiency worked out with a feed work in analysing these. This work should consisting of 2 parts of standard pig feed to 1 be used to devise appropriate feeding part cf hotel waste worked out to 4.25 to 5.74. schedules for cattle, using these nutritious On this basis, the cost of pork production grasses and leaves as ingredients. The came to Rs. 3.40 to Rs. 4.67 per Kg. This is resulting savings in concentrate rate cost will well below the prevailing pork price of Rs. improve the economics of animal husbandry. 12-16 per kg and demonstrates the economic The ICAR's technology for ensilage also attractiveness of piggery in the region. A needs to be transferred to the field. very substantial population of pig is used for food. At present, much of this spread Pigs between the cost of production and market 9.19 Piggery development has been taken up price accrues to the trader who brings in pigs in all the states in the region. Arunachal from outside. Piggery development will have Pradesh has a Central Pig farm and has set up to ensure that this income is realised by local 50 piggery demonstration units each with five farmer. It will also benefit consumers by local sows and one exotic boar. Meghalaya lowering prices- also has built up facilities for pig breeding, has distributed 210 pig production units. 9.22 With regard to health, the ICAR Re- Mizoram which has a low cattle population search Complex has stressed the importance has pursued pig production centres which of suitable housing for pigs. They have is chief source of subsidiary income for developed low-cost designs for farrowing nearly 60% of the families. Apart from the houses and grown pens. Regular vaccination expansion of pig breeding farms it has taken against swine fever is desirable and the up the distribution of pig units. In Nagaland required supplies are available from also. piggery development has been pursued Khanapara. and about 760 pig units have been distributed. 9.23 As far as processing and marketing is 9.20 The NEC has assisted in the establish- concerned, not much seems to have been ment of several pig breeding farms which can done. However, there is pork processing plant produce a total of 1000 exotic boars for cross- in the Assam Agricultural University for breeding. From this same farm 1000 training purposes. The market for processed females can be made available for pork must be studied and the required replacement of indigenous sows each year. facilities should be built into the main The use of purebred boars will produce slaughter house. crosses with 50% exotic blood. These 9.24 Pork is a preferred meat in the north- crosses will require high levels of nutrition eastern region and the large number of pigs ' and management. Hence there is a proposal in the region provide an excellent base for to use crossbred boars for breeding for development. Yet the hill areas do not seem infusion of 25% exotic blood. The ICAR to be self-sufficient and pigs are brought in Research Complex has taken up extensive from the plains. One reason for this could work on pig production and have be the lack of effective arrangements for crossbreeding programme of saddle Back, procurement of local supplies from rural areas with wild boars. to service urban markets. The shortage of 9.21 Pigs are kept mainly on kitchen waste pork and its high price make piggery a and crop residues and elaborate feed particularly attractive proposition. This will arrangements are not required. The ICAR require a more rapid extension of exotic Research Complex has studied alternative breeding and arrangements for processing low cost feeds using locally available marketing. materials. In one experiment they used a feed composed of hotel waste (45%), rice Poultry high rainfall and it may be difficult to have 9.25 Facilities for the supply of chicks are sheep with fine wool. Goat development available in the NEC Regional Poultry and goat breeding by crossing with exotic Breeding Farm and farms set up by the like Saunen goats should also be pursued individual units. The total capacity of these since goat meat will help to relieve the farms is about 3 lakhs chicks-. Infrastructure shortage of meat in the hill areas of the is being built up by the NEC for the region. production of 2.4 f lakh broiler chicks. Procuring and Marketing 9.26 With regard to feed, poultry generally 9.29 Over the past few years many facilities lives on village waste's though organised for exotic breeding have been set up in the poultry farming in the vicinity of urban areas northeastern region. This provides a has started and this requires proposed poultry base for a substantial improvement in the feed. The principal problem in the case of quality of livestock in the area. The real poultry is the lack of effective arrangements problem, at this stage, is to ensure an for the marketing of eggs and broiler meat. effective delivery system for the purposes of Though this has been suggested several times crossbreeding. With regard to feed and not much progress has been made. The local fodder the problem does not seem to be very requirement for eggs may be somewhat acute. The region has several highly limited because of the high levels of meat nutrition grasses and tree leaves for cattle. consumption. Hence any expansion in the Pigs and poultry can be raised mainly on pace of poultry development will require waste materials. As; for animal health the more effective marketing arrangements than facilities available on Khanapara and the what obtain at present. The market for veterinary organisations in the field provide a eggs and poultry meat requires close study. base for better disease control. This may be done by the NEC. 9.30 The principal problem lies in the field Other Livestock of processing and marketing. The north- 9.27 Apart from cattle, pigs and poultry eastern region has a high level of meat there are parts of the north-east with a consumption. Despite the very favourable substantial population of goats, sheep, mithun position with regard to livestock availability and ducks. Facilities for exotic breeding have the hill areas of the region are not importers been established for goats and ducks. A of meat. There is clearly some major sheep farm has been set up in Kameng in organisational failure underlying this Arunachal Pradesh and is reported to be phenomena. The Committee would suggest doing well. A research programme on that one reason for this failure could be the mithun has been taken up by the ICAR. lack of effective processing and marketing arrangements. As far as milk is concerned, 9.28 It is essential that the duckery centre in something is being done as part of the Tripura is developed and special attention Operation Flood projects. The Committee is paid to duckery in the plains. The would suggest that effective arrangements Kameng sheep experiment should be closely for procurement, processing and marketing followed. In Arunachal Pradesh what has of these products is as important as advances been attempted is the crossing of local sheep in productivity. Hence it would recommend with merino rams. In this region the that this matter be examined at a regional orientation of sheep husbandry may have to level by the NEC who may be asked to be towards meat and wool may be prepare a processing and marketing plan subordinate. Most parts of this region have for livestock produce.

ANNEXURE 9.1 Livestock and Poultry

State/Union Territory Cattle Buffaloes Sheep Goats Horses & Pigs Other Total Livestocks Ponies

Livestocks Poultry

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Arunachal Pradesh 153 11 21 74 5 113 @ 382 1,170 Assam 6,796 489 51 1,258 10 397 1 8,002 8,879 Mani pur 305 61 2 16 1 144 9 530 1,008 Mizoram 49 3 (a \ 23 2 43 @ 120 1,088 Meghalaya 471 40 20 119 6 151 @ 813 1,073 Nagaland 93 8 (a) 24 2 238 10 ** 375 715 Tripura 592 14 3 198 @ 45 @ 853 665

All India 1,78,380 5 7,380 1,995 67,515 914 6,896 9,120 3,53,338 1,38,476

NOTE : Reference year for Arunachal Pradesh, 1979 : Assam, Manipur and all-India 1973 and for other State/UT-1977 ©BelowSOO, **relates to Mithuns:(a) 584. Source:—1. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Min. of Agriculture & Irrigation, Govt. of India. 2. State Government and Union Territory Admn. for Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh. 3. Statistical Hand Book of Assam, 1976, Govt. of Assam. 4. Some Basic Statistics of Tripura, 1978. 5. Statistical Hand Book of Manipur, 1978. 6. As reported in Basic Statistics of North East Region, 1980, NEC.

ANNEXURE 9.2 Veterinary Health and Farms (As on 1977-78) Item Arunachal Assam Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Tripira Pradesh

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Health Doctors 50 495 78 59 16 21 65 Fieldmen 1,714 228 155 178 131 392 Hospitals 26 27 1 2 39 1 Dispensaries 63 251 55 41 13 21 29 Mobile Units 6 16 1 9 3 10 3 Artificial Insemination Centres 212 40 66 1 41 12 Vety. aid Centres 65 30 Govt. Farms Cattle 8 8 1 2 3 5 1 Sheep 2** 1 1 2*

Poultry 1 12 3 7 3 4 3 Pig ...... 1 6 3 5 3 6 4 Fodder ..... 7 6 2 2 3 1 2

Private Farms Poultry ..... 219 4 Pig 1 NOTE.—54 Veterinary aid Centers in Arunachal Pradesh *Goat Farm. **One Goat Farm. Source.—State Governments and Union Territory Administrations. As reported in Basic Statistics of North East Region, 1980, NEC.

ANNEXURE 9.3 Production of Livestock Products

Milk Eggs Meat 000 Tonnes 000 Tonnes 000 Tonnes 74—75 78—79 74—75 79—80 74—75 79—80 Arunachal Pradesh 22.5 30.0 16.5 22.0 0.3 0.5

Assam 340 .0 417 .5 270 .4 279 .0 0 .20 17 .0 Manipur 50.75 60.00 17.00 30.00 n.a. n.a. Meghalaya 44.0 54.0 20.8 30.0 16.2 18.6 Mizoram 0.30 0.45® 2.50 5.0 4.0 6.50 Nagaland 2.20 3.25 9.80 13.80 2.80 3.16@ Tripura 14.00® 15.5 19.0@ 20.5 1.60 4.14®

10. HANDLOOMS AND SERICULTURE HANDLOOMS limited range of products which reach the With 13.56 lakhs looms spread over the states market even within the region and the total of Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Meghalaya production offered in the market is and Tripura and the Union Territories of commercialy not significant. Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh, the 10.3 The foundation of any North-Eastern region accounts for 35 per cent effective programme of handloom of the hand-looms in the country. development in the region must necessarily The state-wise distribution is given below lie in a suitable organisational set up. In its Nos. in 000 report on Village and Cottage Industries, the Committee has suggested a group Centre Arunachal Pradesh 100 approach for servicing clusters of artisans. Assam 694 The same approach is relevant for the development of the handloom sector in the Meghalaya 4 conditions prevailing in the North-East. Manipur 250 To start with there has to be a thorough survey of looms in the various states and Mizoram 90 Union Territories so as to locate clusters Nagaland 95 of active loom workers who could be brought into commercially developed. It should be Tripura 123 possible to identify at least 50 such group TOTAL 1356 centres in the different states and Union 10.2 Even though the handloom population is Territories. Once these are identified a large, in terms of actual production, the package of measures comprising training, contribution of this region to the total national loom modernisation, design and product cloth output is not commensurate. In the development and market linkage should, absence, of reliable data on the flow of yarn be introduced to make each of the group to these states, it is not possible to estimate Centre viable and self-sustaining. For the the production of handloom cloth in this identification of group centres an important region. factor to be borne in mind will be the availability of weavers who will be However, it has to be noted that a very high interested in getting themselves trained in proportion of the North-Eastern handlooms the operation of the newly introduced wider are not commercially operated but mainly width in the looms. Weaving as it has cater to the household demands. Also a already been noted,' is not a full-time large proportion of the, looms are narrow- economic activity. Most of the weavers in width 'loin looms'. Weaving is a kind of a several areas are women. Wages, that the tradition and almost every female member of new looms provide to these people will have the household is trained in weaving. It is to be attractive enough to1 induce enthusiasm undeniable that the weaving skills and design in seilected areas for these projects. X traditions in the various parts of the north-east further" factor to be borne in mind is the are rich and unique. The development of wage levels obtaining in the other spheres of this sector in the North-Eastern Region will economic activity in the region, especially in have to concentrate on commercialisation of the border tracts. these skills and designs. This would involve identification of a number of products which 10.4 The replacement of the loin loom by would have market potential within the wider width looms may be the basis for region, in the rest of the country and also in the commercialisation of the handloom the export markets. At present since the industry. But this has to be undertaken with a majority of the looms operate to meet great deal of discretion and caution. Loin household demands there are a very looms will continue to be appropriate for serving local markets. Further the loin loom in spite of the handicap of the narrow attach themselves as guides to the production width of the cloth produced has design centres proposed to be set up in these group advantages. The texture of the loin loom centres on the common workshed basis. cloth is acknowledged to be superior to most Initially the production centres will primarily of the handloom production and the design be training centres where a master artisan possibilities are substantial in this type of would impart training to selected local weaving. The strategy has to be to locate weavers in the operation of the new type of commercial uses for this type of cloth. So far looms and the production of newly developed no real attempt has been made to utilise the products. At the end of the predetermined richly embelished loin loom products of this training period the master artisans region for production of fashion garments together with the trained weavers would which can have appeal in the export market. form the production centres to be organised Development Commissioner for Handlooms on the cooperative basis or in any other should take up special projects to find means convenient form. of commercial exploitation of the loin loom 10.7 Since the introduction of these new types tradition of this region. of looms will be producing varieties of 10.5 By and large, the project for cloth, which may not have ready market development of the handlooms in this within the region, the necessary market region will involve introduction of other support to the programme has to be carefully types of wider width looms. Given the planned. The production Centres constraints of space in the existing organised on the basis of workshed in the households, the common workshed group centres would be attached to the approach is perhaps best suited for the already existing state level organisations for introduction of these new types of looms. In purposes of market support. This linkage the identified group centres over a period of 5 has to be established from the inception so years about 50,000 new looms should be that these small productions centres are not- introduced in such common workshed s. It bogged down with uncleared production. is estimated that the total investment for this While some amount of market will be project covering 50.000 looms will work out available locally and could be taken care of to Rs. 25 crores at the rate of Rs. 5,000 per by the state level corporations, it is necessary loom installed, which would cover the cost to forge links with the existing marketing of looms, workshed and margin for working organisations in the hand-loom sector for capital. An approach similar to that in national level marketing of the production. carpet development scheme may be an The NEHHDC has already taken steps to economic answer. open show-rooms in the different parts of 10.6 The most important aspect in the intro- the country besides warehouses. The. duction of the new wider width looms in the Committee would recommend that an important role should be played by All India areas is training. From the' operation of loin loom the weavers have acquired a high Handloom Fabrics Marketing Cooperation degree of skill and it should be possible for Society which has a series of well-appointed them with some amount of training to take up show rooms all over the country. weaving on these new looms. In all the 10.8 A considerable amount of work has also identified group Centres, training facilities to be done for design development and will have to be set up. The approach product development. Even assuming a should be similar to the training of carpet per loom production of 4 meters per day, weavers in different parts of the country the total cloth production that will arise from successfully taken up from 1975-76. The the introduction of the proposed 50,000 emphasis in these centres will be on training a looms would work out to 50 million meters. sufficient number of master artisans, who Successful marketing of 9-630 PC (ND)/X1 in turn would train other weavers in the this production would depend on the areas. Each of trained master artisans should development of a proper product-mix which has an appeal in the markets of the country. The distance involved and outside; the region. Development the difficult nature of the terrain push up the Commissioner for Handlooms has already cost of yarn for the North-Eastern weavers. located weavers service centres with The Committee recommends that the present design sections at Gauhati, Imphal transport subsidy scheme should be and Agartala. These will have to be operated on a much more liberal basis as strengthened particularly with reference regards yarn. The various handloom to designing and training facilities. The corporations and apex societies already Committee has already taken note of the rich set up in the states together with design traditions in the region and these NEHHDC will have to play a more active design centres will have to develop a range role in the distribution of yarn. of products based on the local designs. The 10.10 The role of the North-Eastern Handi- Government have already decided to set up crafts and Handloom Development an exclusive institute of handloom Corporation and various State Corporations technology for the North-East which is set up in the States /Union Territories of most likely to be located at Gauhati. This the region except Arunachal Pradesh and, institute will have to play a very important Meghalaya has not been clearly demarcated role and carry out continuous research and with the result that there is considerable development work. Both in regard to overlapping and confusion. The training and design development this institute NEHHDG should act as an overall will have to coordinate with the coordinating agency for the development of organisations implementing the the handlooms and handicrafts sector in the aforesaid project. North-East. As mentioned earlier, one of 10.9 With the introduction of commercial the problems of the handlooms industry in the wider width looms the demand for yam North-Eastern Region is the supply of yarn to is bound to go up. It has been estimated at the handloom weavers. The Corporation present that the yarn requirements of the could supply the yam upto the District level region is around 20,000 bales per month. to the District Industries Centres. From these, This is based on the assumption that 4 lakh the States agencies can take up the looms would become commercial and the per responsibility for ensuring that yarn reaches loom consumption would be 100 kg. of yarn the handloom weavers. A process per annum. As against this total requirement, house at Gauhati has been sanctioned, the current estimates of the total inflow NEHHDC could extend this role to cover of yarn into the region is around 3000 to more and more processing facilities in 3500 bales per month. The commercialisation different areas according to demand for of handlooms throughout the project processing both yarn and cloth. As far as approach outlined earlier would definitely marketing is concerned, the State Corpo- help build up the local demand to the rations could concentrate on marketing in estimated level of 20,000 bales per month. their own states while the NEHHDC would At present only 2 spinning mills exist in the concentrate on the All-India market and for region, both in Assam, and their production the States where such corporations have not of hank yarn is around 500 bales per been set up. The Corporation in month only. Another mill is in the process of collaboration with the Regional Institute being established in Manipur. It would be for Handloom Technology could associate desirable to set up more spinning mills in itself with the technical training for weavers the region. Some attempts are already and management training for executives at under way in this direction and two different levels. Other activities of the cooperative spinning mills in Assam and one Corporation would include facilities for in Tripura are being considered. The warehousing supply of credit and acting as an establishment of these mills however, apex organisation in the region. Thus in will necessarily take some time and till then short, the NEHHDC could mainly concern yarn has to flow into the region from the rest itself with the supply of yarn and other inputs development and supply of design, marketing Ericlture assistance and training. As far as actual 10.12 Ericulture based on castor plantation is weaving operations are concerned, these a low return activity and is conducted to large would be supervised by the State. extent for self, consumption. The culture of Corporations and who would also be eri silk worm (Philos amis rieni) is practised responsible for marketing in the local area. during villager's leisure hours from stray SERICULTURE castor plantations supplemented 10.11 The north-eastern region is a major occasionally, by other secondary food centre of Sericulture in the country. In this plants in case of shortage of leaves. For region, it comprises the culture of four the tribals, the chrysalid is a delicacy and the varieties of silk-worm, namely eri, muga, oak cocoon a byproduct. The eri-cocoon is tassar and mulberry. Though sericulture is invariably spun and not reeled, and as such traditional in this area from time immemorial, the eri-cocoon and yarn fetch a lower price eri and muga culture are more or less than reeled cocoon and yarn. The exclusive perogative. Oak tassar culture is, production of main bulk of yarn is by Takli however, a recent introduction and its — rather a slow and tedious process. Eri prospect is yet to be ascertained from; the hand spun yarn is valued only for men's commercial point of view. The wrapper and women's scraf. Because of Mulberry silk industry though old and lack of remunerative' irfc'ome, no commercial traditional in the region has not been able to motive enters the entire operation. On an come out of its old rut as such, the average, not more than 10-15 kg of cocoon industry still languishes in stagnancy. The are produced by a family in a year. In the level of production of different types of silk absence of any marketing facility, the in the region is reported in Table 10.1. There weavers are constrained to sell their fabrics is heavy concentration of activity in Assam in at uneconomic prices to the traders. A all the varieties of sericulture. In case of oak family cannot earn more than a few tassar, Manipur is the only state where hundred rupees inspite of all efforts. There there is heavy concentration of this activity. is -limitation in rearing of eri worm because of labour involved in procuring leaves and considerable space required for mass rearing. Table 10.1 Leavel of production of raw silk during Fifth Plan Lakh Kg State/U.T. Mulberry Tassar EVI Muga

1973-74 1978-79 1979-80 1973-74 1978-79 1979-80 1973-74 1978-79 1979-80 1973-74 1978-79 1979-80 Arunachal Pradesh Assam 0.13 0.16 0.08 1.31 1.06 1.42 0.75 0.24 0.45

Manipur neg 0.02 0.02 neg 0.14 0.15 neg 0.04 (100 Kg) (9 Kg) Meghalaya neg neg neg 0.04 Mizoram Nagaland Tripura neg (6kg) neg neg neg 0.01 (602kg) Source. — Report of Sub-Group on Sericulture, Ministry of Commerce, Government of India, page . 81 and Annexure IV.

10.13 The main problem lies in fact that the (ii) Development of infrastructural eriworm is reared on castor leaves. The facilities by way of setting upgrainages for plantation of castor is expensive, if done supply of eri silk worm eggs to the eri rearers, only for eriworm rearing. Experiments in organising spinning activities and decen- close planting of castor are necessary. It is tralised basis and helping in the marketing of also possible for substituting castor by eri yarn. Ailanthus glandulosa or Aexcel sa (iii) Upgrading the existing research (Barkesseru) for rearing eriworm, Quick institution of Central Silk Board for undertak- growing in nature, it is perennial plant with ing applied research on eri culture in abundant foliage after proper pollarding. If collaboration with State level Ailanthus is introduced, the plantation area Agricultural Institutions. can be brought down to about one-tenth resulting in considerable reduction in The above programme of action is urgently expenditure. Alternatively, other food called for as this sector remains untapped and plants like payam, Alianthus, gular, Kesseru has to be fully exploited for creation of need to be planted at the periphery so that employment and also for utilising the eri silk uninterrupted leaf supply is assured. yarn for clothing needs in this area. Rearing of eriworm on tender leaves of Muga Culture secondary food plants, followed by mature castor leaves (which fall off naturally) at the 10.14 Muga-culture is also indigenous to the last stage of the worm will be helpful for region. The culture of muga worm economy of leaf consumption for land (Antheraea assama) has its own problems and management and ai the same time additional peculiarities. The insect is basically a wild earning by selling of castor seeds. There is one. Unlike mulberry, eri or oak tasser no improved appliance for spinning of ericulture, muga culture is undirectional activity cocoon, which is mostly done on Takli' where in that the seed cocoons are procured output is very small. The new 'Ambar invariably from the hilly tracts and worms are Charkha' for spinning of ericocoon and other reared in plains. Unlike other silk worms, silk wastes should be introduced. Cost of muga worms degenerate soon in the plains production of yarn would be cheap and because of adverse environment in summer earning per spinner would increase and winter and the whole operation is started considerably. The most important factor in a new every year. Maga plants of Som development of ericulture is consolidation (Machilus odoratissima), Snalu (Litsae with sound organisational system for Polyantha) etc., take five years to grow for production and regulating the products rearing to commence and more land is instead of further expansional activities. required for plantation. Production per unit Suitable agencies should be formed to area of land is less and that too is safeguard the interest of the rearers, spinners unpredictable. Consequently, the returns to and weavers by regulating the market of a family from muga rearing are not very cocoon, yarn and fabric with sound high, considering the area of high land procurement and distribution system and involved, particularly so if the cost of the proper marketing organisation. In family labour also is taken into account. order to exploit the rich potential that Therefore, the industry is taken as a exists for ericulture, it is necessary to chalk subsidiary source of livelihood only by the out the following programme of action : traditional rearers. i) Organised castor plantation in specific 10.15 For lack of improved reeling methods areas by identifying farmers who are of muga cocoon rearing is done at village willing to undertake eri plantation and silk level by primitive method which has its own worm rearing. limitations. As such the situation is fully exploited by traders in a land-locked village like Sualkuchi with about 8,000 population of weaker sex, who do the bulk of reeling at evolve a cocoon procurement system with a nominal wage. In muga culture, the minimum price support scheme main difficulties are nonavailability of organising proper preservation centre for healthy seed, unpredictable harvest, storage of muga cocoon along with a uncertain rearing behaviour, natural cocoon drying chamber, setting up of power enemies, race degeneration, difficulty of driven reeling units and introducing control handling large number of moths, large sex and marketing facilites for the end-products ratio for laying preparation, absence of are essential for rationalisation of the hibernating character in winter, absence of industry. The Committee endorses this machineries for economic reeling view. In order to step up production of remoteness of areas of operation and above Muga silk a number of important measures all middlemen's) interference in trade are called for : — cocoon, yarn and fabric. The rearing is (i) Area under muga plantation should be hazardous, cost of grainage operation is high substantially increased to make available the and output of harvested cocoon is very low. host plant for rearing activities. 10.16 It is necessary that different categories (ii) Muga plantation which is undertaken in of artisans should get their due share so that the forest areas should be developed on the profit margin can be ploughed back to economic scale of plantation as has. been them in order to provide incentive for done in the case of tropical arjuti increased production. The artisans, plantation so that rearing activities are therefore, should be motivated to form facilitated. cooperatives so that most of their problems could be solved in an organised manner. It (iii) A package of incentives should be is also essential to streamline the cultural provided to the muga rearers and a scheme on operation by improved method of the lines of the Inter-State Tasar Project for plantation such as utilisation of the increasing muga silk production should technique of clonal production of plants. be implemented by Central Silk Board Increase in the production of quality seed is under the Centrally sponsored scheme. important, i.e. by increasing the seed source (iv) Activities of the raw material bank for by intensive rearing, by preservation of seed muga raw silk opened recently by cocoon at cold storage at 50°C for 100 days Central Silk Board should be stepped up and or so during summer and winter by avoiding arrangement should be made to ensure that hazardous rearing period and by utilising the procurement of cocoons is -,,- the hibernating strain of seed cocoon. directly from the rearers themselves and not The present practice of reeling on 'Bhir' from the middle man dealers. Further should be substituted by more improved muga cocoons should be treated as minor method of reeling. NEC is trying to evolve forest produce and fair price should be a sophisticated muga reeling machine assured to the rearers. Since muga rearers with the cooperation of National Institute of are part of the tribal community in the area, Design at Ahmedabad. It has been tribal development plan programmes should suggested that the most important thing in include specific projects for muga muga culture is organised reeling and development. weaving along with the organisation of a 'Raw Material Bank' for muga cocoons during Mulberry Sericulture Industry commercial seasons for successful 10.17 Mulberry culture is also traditional to production of quality fabric. The basic the region. However, because the culture concept of having a 'Raw Material Bank' is to is age old, there is no standard breed of silk organise reeling at the places of cocoon worm in the region and the worms produced production all the year round, the concept are of inferior quality. Moreover, the being to streamline the entire process of plantations are often of mixed varieties of production including elimination of the mulberry which affect yam quality middlemen. It is, therefore, necessary to adversely. By virtue of favourable climatic conditions, all types of silk worms raw silk to the weaving Centres should be are reared, but these are scattered over in undertaken. remote areas rendering supervision and Oak Tasar Culture collection of cocoons difficult. It is, therefore, necessary to consolidate the culture 10.19 Oak tasar culture is distinct from the of mulberry silk worm for a healthy traditional types of sericulture discussed development of the industry. The earlier. Oak tasar culture has been introduced essential requirements of mulberry silk into the region as one element in the attempt worm culture are (a) a suitable climate and to improve the economic condition of (b) Abundant growth of mulberry leaves. the Jhumias. At present the programme All these requirements suit well in most of the has made substantial progress in Manipur, states and Union Territories of the North though a beginning has been made in all Eastern Region. The crucial elements in the other units, except in Tripura. A the strategy for the development of mulberry note on the Development of Oak Tasar culture therefore have to be the rearing of Industry in Manipur is given at Aruiexure high silk yielding variety of silk worm race 10.1. To provide research and and improvement of leaf yields by extension development support for Manipur Tasar of high yielding varieties and appropriate Industry and other states of North Eastern agronomic practices. Region, Central Silk Board established a Regional Tasar Research Station at Imphal. 10.18 The Committee further suggest The contribution made by this research the following : — station in genetics and physiologv of insect, (i) It should be examined that as to what are new techniques of rearing, preservation of the varieties of mulberry which will grow seed cocoon, suitable packaging for transpor- profitably in this area and help in the tation of cocoon to higher altitude, process of increasing mulberry silk surface disinfection of eggs, new nursery industry in this region. techniques for raising oak seedlings, (ii) Detailed trials of several varieties of silk renovation of farm and raising oak worm, mono, bi and multivoltine should be plantation, reeling and spinning, tested out to find a suitable economic mix of extension and training etc. are given in varieties which can give three or four raisings Annexure 10.2 a year. 10.20 The current level of production levels (iii) In order to popularise mulberry sericul- reached in Manipur are as follows: — ture, 10 pilot extension Centres should be set Year Laying Cocoon Raw Silk up by Central Silk Board in this Region. 1979—80 27 lakhs 1100 12300 (iv) Nucleus grainages of Central Silk Board kahanas Kg. should be established for production of seed 1980—81 47 lakhs 3400 20000 cocoons and supply of commercial eggs to kahanas Kg. the rearers. As a subsequent measure the State Governments should be helped to set up grainages for production of According to a 1969 survey there are 2 lakhs commercial layings. acres of oak plantation in Manipur of which, (v) As far as possible even from the begin- as of 1980-81 around 12500 acres were being ing the improved techniques of the rearing of used for oak tasar culture. The standard mulberry worm successfully adopted in scheme assumes that one family will tend 2.5 Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil acres. The income that the family can earn Nadu should be introduced in this Region depends! on the number of disease free also. layings DFLs the production per laying in (vi) Arrangements for marketing of terms of cocoons and the number of crops cocoons, reeling of cocoons and supply of taken per year. The standard scheme assumes a 1000 DFLs par crop per hectare and 20 cocoons per DFL. With two crops 10.23 Some of the problems and this gives an output of 40 thousand measures suggested for development of oak cocoons. The DFLs are distributed by tasar industry in this area are stated in the Government for a charge of Rs. 5 per 100 the following paragraphs : and the cocoons are purchased at Rs. 60 per In oak tasar culture, production of seed 100. The gross annual income per farmer cocoons is inadequate due to low effective (not allowing for the costs of family labour) rate of rearing and high sex-ratio for estimated to Rs. 2400. The NEC paper on preparation of commercial layings. Most sericulture, places the income at a lower cocoons produced are used for laying figure of Rs. 1500 because, according to it preparation. For preparation of layings, cocoon productivity is only 12.5 per DFL. seed cocoons are subjected to a period of 10.21 It has been suggested that oak tasar artificial hibernation, i.e. preservation in culture can be organized to yield three cool environment. A more precise and crops according to the following schedule: efficient method i.e. preservation of the First crop May — June seed cocoons in cold storage should be adopted. The problem of irregular emergence Second crop July- August can be solved to a large extent by finding out Third crop September — October the required temperature for seed preservation. Supply of seed cocoons can However, practical experience would show be increased considerably when optimum that productivity and earnings can be conditions for their preservation are sustained and improved by systematically established. rearing 2 crops and the possibility of getting earnings from third crop is yet to be 10.24 Oak tasar worm shows a tendency of adequately established. In actual practice continuous degeneration affecting the vigour much of the income arises from the first crop of the worm as well as fertility. Pure parent and in fact even the second crop stocks of A. pernyi and A. roylei need to be productivity may not have stabilised. maintained in large numbers, so that fresh hybrids can be obtained every year. The 10.22 There is abundance of oak plant all rearing of parent stocks can ba intensified over the state of Manipur. Around 20 at the parent stock stations of Meghalaya lakhs Oak seedlings were raised for ultilising and Manipur. Stocks of hybrids can be the same for gap filling in the reared in controlled rearing houses to departmental farms as also for prevent degeneration. distribution among private farms. Considering the potential that exist for 10.25 A, proylei can also be reared practising oak tasar on an extensive scale in on Castanapslis which is abundant in the the state, the State Government have: to foothills and in the plains. Such rearing is take a number of coordinated measures possible in. early spring and late autumn, in for achieving oak tasar silk production. order to increase the quantum of seed. Similarly in the areas of Aruna-chal Pradesh, 10.26 The perforated cocoons of oak Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram tasar are utilised for preparation of also, Oak tasar plantation are available in an 'ghicha'. The preparation is a tedious and abundant measure and should be fully cumbersome process. For bulk production exploited under this programme. The of oak tasar yarn out of waste cocoons, Committee, therefore, recommends that oak 'Ambar Charkha' can be introduced. plantation should form part of the forestry Realability of 55 per cent has been achieved programme in this region, and in reeling of oak tasar cocoons. programme extension facilities should be Standardisation of reeling and boiling provided to increase the area under Oak processes is essential in order to achieve a plantation. production of uniform and quality reeled yarn. 10.27 Annexure 10.3 contains data This should not be regarded merely as a regarding the results obtained at the subsidiary occupation. But an important Extension Centres of Central Silk Board in economic activity in this region which the States of Manipur, Nagaland, would lead to employment activities in other Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram. The sectors like reeling, weaving, dyeing, figures collected would show that oak printing, marketing, and so on. tasar rearing can provide a .substantial income— per family by practising 2 crops. ANNEXURE 10.1 A Note on the Development of Oak Tasar Industry in Manipur The introduction of oak tasar in Manipur is of cocoons. Encouraged by the preliminary recent origin. The potentiality of oak tasar trials a Team of experts from Central Silk siikwork rearing in this region were realised Board were deputed in 1972 to conduct a when, in 1968 the Director, Central Tasar survey of the state and to submit a Techno- Research & Training Institute, Ranchi visited economic feasibility report for the introduc- Manipur and advised for the introduction tion of tasar silkworm rearing on oak of oak tasar culture in the state. which grows abundantly in the foot hills of Accordingly, in 1969 1st trial rearings the states. The team formulated a project of oak tasar worms was undertaken at which1 envisaged aid outlay of 8.1 crores the three different places, viz. Thongjao, and production of 5.1 lakh kg. of silk by Boljang and Motbung. The same year in covering 300 village centres and August, a second crop was taken up at generating employments 900 full time and 1 Boljang and Motbung. In the yean 1970 lakh part time workers. The implementation experimental rearings were taken up in a of this project was recommended to the private unit at Motbung in the month of State Government. March — April with 80 DFLs and with 1 However, taking into consideration the 980 eggs, at Boljang (Departmental) . limitations of trained technical persons The private unit brought 5400 cocoons infrastructural facility, the project was later while the Departmental rearing produced only suitably modified. The modified projects 91 cocoons. The trial rearing conducted envisaged an outlay of Rs. 2.5 crores, with during 1969 and 1970 proved beyond an annual production of 20000 kg. of silk by doubt that oak tasar culture could be covering 20 village centres and introduced in the state. It was, therefore, generating emplyment for 2000 full time in the year 1971 that mass scale trial rear- and 30,000 part time workers. This ings were taken up and 22,385 DFLs were modified project was then taken up by the distributed to 47 units (including State Govt for implementation during the 5th departmental) which resulted in the yield of plan. The progress so far achieved is 350,845 seed cocoons. & 46300 reeling detailed below :

Year Farms started No DFLs prepared Cocoons produ- Silk/Spun Silk Employment lakhs ced lakhs produced Kg.

1974--75 10 1 16 5000 2000 1975 —76 10 1 18 5000 4000 1976—77 10 6 80 8000 6000 1977—78 13 8 100 12000 8000 1978—79 14 10 225 14000 10000 1979—80 22 15 250 15000 10000 1980—81 60 30 200 15000 N.A. Till date the state has established 42 of seed cocoons & in the 1st crop of 1981- Tasar Farms and 18 seed farms making the 82 only 1.5 lakhs of DFLs could be total to sixty. It has been seen that produced. Then was again a set back in the during the year 1980-81 in the 1st crop the 1st crop due to larval mortality and against state distributed 30 lakhs of DFLs which the expectations of 15 lakhs of cocoons there resulted in the production of 2 crores of was only 5 lakhs of cocoons valued at Rs. cocoons valued at Rs. 12 lakhs and engaged 30,000 only. There are two crops 1st crop is about 3000 tribal families. The second taken in April-May and the second crop in crop however did not come up to the August-September. expectations which resulted in the shortage The main bottleneck which has station has solved many! outstanding restricted the cocoon production is of technical problems faced by oak Tasar availability of adequate DFLs for rearings. Industry in addition it has been responsible Since the State Government has opened 60 for making available a good number of tasar seed farms jt is envisaged that it will not trained personnels to the states through take long to solve this problem. regular training programme conducted at All the cocoons produced in the State this station. The notable achievements and are being purchased by the State Department contributions made by this station during the of Sericulture. The rates for the purchase of period from 1972-73 to 1980-81 are dealt seed cocoons are 10 paise/ cocoon while the hereunder :— reelable cocoons are being purchased @ 6 Breeding and Genetics + Physiology paise/cocoon. The poor & cut cocoons are 1. Raising of 2nd Crop. — Ever since its being purchased @ Rs. 15 Kg The State has inception the oak tasar industry of Manipur also started one silk reeling & spinning was assured of only one crop in a year as factory with 100 reelers/spjnners, but majority of the purpae of-spring crop (April- presently only spun yarn from Tasar cocoons May) used to be in diapause till next is being produced as bulk of oak tasar spring. It was with constant researches at cocoons reeled in the factory is pierced. this research station that the diapause of this The production of reeled yarn is very much in insect was interferred with., by subjecting significant. The rates for Reeled & spun 16 hours photo periodic treatment to the yarn are Rs. 325 per Kg. and Rs. 200 to cpcoons of spring crop for the period of 25 Rs. 225 while the rates for Ghicha days. This treatment results in are Rs. 150 — 175 per kg. respectively. emsrgence of moth and seed production It is estimated that the extent of nature grown for raising a 2nd crop which has now oak plants is about 80,000 hectares out of established as a commercial crop of oak which the area presently available for tasar tasar and stands regularised. It has since culture is above 4000 hectares. The then doubled the output of oak tasar silk. rearers have plenty of plantation in the 2. Introduction of third crop. — In orden foothill which is readily available. Hence to make tasar culture more remunerative the possibility of- introducing tasar attempts were made since 1977 to explore the plantation in the valley where paddy is possibility of raising a third crop1. The third grown remains very remote. However 20 crop can be raised as a late autumn crop by lakhs oak Seedling were raised for slight adjustments in the photo periodic treat- utilising the same for gap filing in the ment. The first crop cocoons are departmental farms as also for distribution divided in two batches. In one batch, the among the privarte rearers. cocoons are exposed to photo periodic ANNEXURE 10.2 treatment as per the normal timing for Contribution of Regional Tasar Research raising the normal 2nd crop. While in 2nd Station Imphal in the Development of oak batch the cocoons are exposed to Tasar in the North Eastern Region photoperiodic treatment one month after the (1972 to 1980-81) initiation of photoperiodic treatment for the normal 2nd crop. The emergence thus starts Establishment of R. T. R. S. in the last week of August and the rearing To provide Research and Development could be taken up from September to support for Manipur Tasar Project and November. This crop is named as late the other States of North Eastern Region, autumn crop. Central Silk Board established, a Central Attempts to improve A Proylei. — It has Tasar Research Sub-Station at Imphal been observed that fecundity and shell (Manipur) in 1970 which was raised to the weight of A, Proylei is very poor and ranges status of a Regional Station in 1974. between 50 — 300 eggs and 0.2g to 1.2g. Through its relentless efforts this research respectively. Studies are afoot to (a) Indoor rearing : improve upon existing performance of (i) Bottle method. — Cut-twigs of A. Proylei through interregional oak bushes are inserted in a hybridisation higher commercial chara- container (bottle) having water. The cters like fecundity, shell weight and uniform newly hatched larvae are placed on development. Breeding experiments the twigs which in turn are conducted have shown that the selection covered with a polythene bag to pressure is favourable for isolation of avoid driage of leaves. After about stocks for improved fecundity, shell weight five to six days when the worms and uniform development. To avoid getting have entered 2nd stage and have poor progenies it has since been advocated to developed enough grip they are the Sericulture Department, Govt. of Manipur transferred to the oak bushes outdoor. to resort to selection of only good cocoons for 1 seed purposes. (ii) Tray method . — The indoor rearing may also be conducted by (a) Inter Reginal Hybridisation. — In feeding the newly hatched worms order to study the effect of hybridisation in trays with the twigs. The cut between A. Proylei of different regions of portion of twigs is plugged with Manipur (North. South, Eas.t and West) wet cotton which helps, in and other states like Nagaland, Mizoram, keeping the leaves fresh for longer Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, inter time. After about 5-6 days indoor regional hybrids were prepared and rearing under controlled conditions reared. Results obtained indicated the worms are transferred outside on gain in different cha-ters over Mid- oak bushes. parent value. Thus it was advocated that the stocks of A, Proylei of a (b) Rearing under nylon net. — The particular place can be rejuvenated by rearing of early stage tasar worms under resorting to hybridization between the nylon net reduces the crop loss by breeds of different region. protecting the worms from birds and other pest & predators, which take a very (b) Intersplecific hybridisation. — In heavy toll. 12500 worms can be order to improve upon the existing conveniently reared in a small nylan net performance of A. Proylei J., this species (11'X12'X9') upto the end of 2nd stage. was crossed with A. Proylei and A, Peryni and reared for few (c) Regulation of worm density on generations. Results obtained revealed bushes. — It has been observed that the gain in commercial character of A. frequent transfer of worms adversely Proylei. Thus it was recommended that effects the effective rate of rearing. The the stocks of A . Proylei can be back transfers are thus reduced by regulating crossed either with A. Proylei or A. the release of worms according to ths ferny i for getting higher yields. availability of foliage on a particular bush so that their entire larval period is 4. New technique of rearing. — Being completed on that bush. This method reared outdoor, the caterpillars are generally reduces mortality and helps in the increase exposed to the attack of pest, predators, heavy of production. rainfall and hailstorms resulting in heavy croplosses. The following new 5. Preservation of seed cocoon. — The techniques developed at this station have cocoons of autumn crop were stored at resulted in increasing the effective rate of Imphal which used to result in untimely eme- rearing from 20 to 25% as the high rate of gence of moths sporadically from middle losses in the initial stages of rearing are of December to middle of March. Thus the minimised to a very great extent. seeds prepared were wasted as during this period suitable oak leaves for rearing are not available. The problem was therefore to delay the emergence upto middle of repellent viz. Turpentine oil wa^ then Mauch so as to coincide the preparation of taken up. So far the observations seeds with natural sprouting of oak leaves. revealed that use of Turpentine oil as It was through extensive research work for repellent has given encouraging results. 2-3 years that this research station could The experiment however is still in progress. advocate the preservation of autumn crop 9. To minimise losses due to virosis cocoons from November to middle of through NAOH. — It has been observed March, every year at places of high altitude that virosis take a heavy toll of the worms 6,000' — 6500' ASL) viz., Ukhrul and during the rearing. To check the incidence Tadubi. This technique has helped in of virosis, different concentrations of synchronising the emergence of moths with NAOH solution were used as spray on the bud-breaking resulting in maximum foliage. The 0.5% concentration showed utilisation of cocoons for seed production some promise. The experiment is still in during a predetermined period. progress. 6. Preservation of seed cocoons 10. Surface disinfection of eggs with harvested in the second, crop at low soap and formalin solutions. — The temperature at lower altitude. — In order disinfection of eggs with formalin solution to avoid the loss of seed cocoons in transit alone does not remove the meconium and the seed cocoong may! also be preserved at other sticky substances from the surface of low altitude by keeping them in cold _the eggs which may be the source of storage where temperature should be secondary infection. As the larvae eat the maintained at 2°C. eggshell just after hatching it is necessary 7. Suitable package for transportation of to remove all the meconium from the cocoons to higher altitudes. — On the eggshell. An experiment was therefore request of the Director of Sericulture, taken up to find out the best way to remove Manipur, an experiment as taken up to the meconium completely. The result study the various types of packages obtained revealed that eggs if gently suitable for transportation of cocoons, as rubbed and washed first with soap solution the mortality during transportation of and then with 5% formalin for 5-10 cocoons in gunny bags to higher altitude minutes loose the meconium layer and back was very high. Three different completely and are throughly dis- types of packages were taken for the study. infected. 1. Tea chest box with perforation. 11. Utiliszation of Uyung and Shahi.— 2. Bamboo basket with frame (2'X2'X 1.5’). Manipur has mixed population of Q. 3. Bamboo basket without frame (2'X2'X serrata and Q. dealbata. Through 1.5’). experimentation this research station 4. Control (transport in gunny bags) has established that out of several It was observed that pupal mortality was as combinations tasar silkworms fed on Q. high as 45% in the cocoons transported in serrata in the first thres stages followed gunny bags followed by Tea chests (30.56%). by feeding on Q. dealbata in the later The mortality was lowest in bamboo stages giving good results. This finding is of baskets with or without frames (15-16%). particular importance to Manipur as the Hence to and fro transportation of seed mixed plantation can be meaningfully cocoons for preservation at higher utilised for increasing iasar cocoon altitude was advocated in bamboo production. baskets. Host Plant : 8. Control of fly pests. — Earlier attempts 12 New Nursery techniques for made by this station in controlling the menace raising of oak seedlings.— The outer seed of flv pest with the use of tugon and rotten coat of Q. acutissima (Syn. Serrata) seed fish met with little success. The use of is hard resulting in irregular and prolonged period of germination. This has been Reeling & spinning solved by subjecting the seed coat to 16. Studies on optimum condition for mechanical scarmca-tion followed by stifling and storage of cocoons. — It soaking in water at normal room has been confirmed after repeated trial temperature for 48 hours. that the optimum condition for stifling of This treatment results in 98% A. proyeli cocoon is 80° — 90°C for 4-6 germination within 25 days time. The hours. After stifling the cocoons can be treated seed can be directly sown either preserved at room temperature for reeling in nursery beds or in polythene tubes with purposes upto 32 months without any rooting media consisting of cowdung, damage to reeling qualities of the cocoons compost and soil in the ratio of 1:1:1. where the production and reelability stands 97% cooking efficiency, 202.0g 13 Studies on the correlation between prunning and sprouting in oak plants.— production /8hrs/ 4 ends and 73% Periodic prunning and leaf plucking was reelability as against 91% cooking resorted to understand the behaviour of oak efficiency, 136.0g production per 8 hrs/4 ends plants in relation to sprouting and and 37% reelability of control (one week maturity or leaves It was observed that preservation). during March to July if the 'plants were 17. Comparative reeling performances given light pruning, it accelerated the on conventional Trivedi reeling machine. growth and sprouting was observed within Modified Trivedi reeling machine & 10-12 days and leaves were ready for use C. T. R. & T. I. Reding Machine: — withm 30-34 days. Similarly, it is possible to Among the thnee machines it is found that C. obtain suitable flush of leaf during Autumn, T. R. & T. I. reeling machine is best when the temperature is low by _resort-ing of all as regards production /8 hrs and to pruning or leaf plucking though in this reelability age which stand at 200g and case he sprouting gets a little delayed. 62% respectively. In the past the Tins observation is of great Significance in reelability of oak tasar cocoons was not more utilizing the oak plantation for raising a third than 40% and production 60-80g/hrs. After crop. making extensive studies and researches 14 Renovation of farm and raising of this station has been able to improve the oak plantation 'at Regional Tasar reelability from 40 to 62% and the pro- Research Station, Impha!.— duction of silk fibre 175-200 gms per When the station was handed over by the 8 hrs on C. T. R. & T. I. reeling machine. state department the farm was having only 18. Evolution of improved1 cooking Mulberry plantation. After the takeover, technique for good as well as stained the farm was completely renovated and relaid cocoons. — The station has evolved for raising oak plantation. Presently, 11 improved cooking technique for reeling acres are covered with oak plantation of good as well as stained cocoons where which can sustain the rearing of 5,000 DFLs cooking efficiency stands at 80-90%. The annually. techniques are detailed below : 15 Disease of Q. acutissima — Q . (a) For good cocoons. — 1-10 minutes acutissima widely growing in Manipur and boiling in plain water-1- 30-60 minutes Nagaland, suffers from the following steaming at 15 p. s. i.4-soaking in diseases, the causative organisms ot wnicn 0.02—0.05% biopril 50 for 18-22 were identified. 1. Sooty Mould hours initially at 40-60°C and then left at (Chaetophama Guarcifolia). 2. Rust Mould room temperature. (Cronartlwn guercum).. 3. Powdery Mildew (b) For stained cocoons. — 30-45 (Phyillactinea corvillid). Studies on the minutes boiling in 0.5% Monopol measures for their control are under progress. soap+0.2% laboratory grade washing soda + 0.3-l-N'10 HCI solution. +45-60 minutes steaming at 15 p. s. i. above the provided that the yarn should be sized same solution + soaking in 0.15% biopril properly before and during weaving. 50 solution for 18-22 hours initially at 23. Studies on processing oak tasar fibre. 40-60°C and then left at room — It has been found that oak tasar fibre can temperature. be bleached with H2O2, and sodium silicate 19. Anilozyme-P method for cooking which gives better and brighter look. The of oak tasar cocoons. — The technique of cloth gives very fine and shining texture like cooking of oak tasar cocoons with Biopril-50 mulberry silk fabric if it is treated with is not economical due to its high cost hence it stannous chloride (Sn Cla) solution (0.5%). is necessary to find out the other cheaper It has also been observed that oak tasar enzyme which could be used as a substitute fibre is having good affinity for an acid for Biopril-50. Extensive studies with dyestuffs. different enzymes have shown that 24. Insertion of the twist of oak tasar Anilozyme 'P can serve as a fibre. — In mulberry reeling silk is normally substitute far Biopril-50. Here the special obtained in reel form which necessitates the advantage is that the Anilozyme-P activates winding in bobbin form for the subsequent even at low room temperature of 12°C operation of doubling and twisting but in case whereas Biopril-50 is effective at higher of oak tasar reeling silk is obtained directly in temperatures only and is much more bobbin form. So there may not be further economical than Biopril-50. requirement of bobbin formation. 20. Evolution of reeling technique for With the idea the bobbins obtained from emerged cocoons. — It was an old concept reeling machine can be directly fed to that the moth while emerging from cocoon twisting machine eliminating the re- cuts the fibre. But this station after reeling operation carried out usually extensive studies has observed that after reeling. The process is found to be emerging moth does not cut the fibre successful and twist per inch (T. P. I.) can be but only disperses jt without breaking its adjusted as pen the requirement. continuity and hence like intact normal 25. Increase of cohesion of reeled silk cocoons they can be successfully reeled thread. — The cohesion of reeled silk thread where production and reelability attained produced by Biopril-50 method is nil under the technology developed stands resulting in splitting up filaments. Therefore at 150g/8 hrs/4 ends and 58% to increase the cochesion the reeled silk respectively as against 200g and 62% in thread in bobbin form should be subjected to normal cocoons. From economic point of steaming of polyvihnyl alcohol solution view reeling of pierced cocoons is better (1.0%) for 20-30 minutes and then bobbin than ghicha/spun yarn preparation which is should be re-reeled. the normal practice till today. Extension 21. Studies on ghicha and charkha spinning. —Simple soap soda boiling is 26. All the useful findings of this Research found to give economic and better result Station have since been demonstrated before when production/8 hrs and spinning the state sericulture Department's officials in efficiency stand at 172g of 15 s count the field with reproducible results. The state and 85% while in charkha spinning the department has since adapted the results production stands at 75g/8 hrs/ of 20s passed on to them. yarn count with 75% spinning efficiency. Training 22. Studies or weaving of oak tasar 27. This research station has been imparting fibres. — The studies have been taken on training on the different aspects of oak tasar loom throw and fly shuttle looms which culture since 1973 to Graduates, under indicate that oak tasar fibre can be success- graduates and farmers sponsored by the fully used for weaving of quality cloth Government of Manipur, Nagaland, and Mizoram under the following training In addition to these training programmes this programmes : — station is also imparting training to the 1. Oak Tasar Culture training to graduates. candidates of other organisation like Khadi & Village Industry, Manipur, Institute of 2. Intensive practical training programme for People's Action, Manipur. So far this pest graduate diploma course. station has trained 5 persons of Khadi &. 3. Oak tasar culture training to Matriculates. Village Industry and 9 persons of Institute of 4. Oak tasar culture training to the farmers. People's Action in the reeling & spinning of oak tasar cocoons. The details of number of persons trained in each training programme is presented in table (I). Table1 Oak Tasar culture Training Programme conducted at Regional Tasar Research Station, Imphal

Year Intensive training programme Oak tasar culture training Oak Tasar Culture Farmer training for the post Graduate diploma to graduate Programme trainees No. of trainees Duration of No. of Duration of No. of Duration of No. of Duration of trainning trainees trainning trainees trainning trainees trainning 1973 20 6 weeks 40(Manipur) 3 months 1974 16 3 months 40(Manipur) Do. 1975 7 2 Months 17 Do. 38(Manipur) Do. 1976 18 Do. 5(Nagaland) Do.

1977 9 3 Months 3(Nagaland) Do. 1978 10 7 Months 8(Nagaland) 6 Months

4(Mizoram) 1979 14 11 Months 2(Meghalay One Months 5 2 Months a) 1(Manipur)

4(Nagaland) 6 Months 4(Mizoram)

1980 13 3 Months 4(Nagaland) 6 Months 8 2 Months Total 71 53 153 13

28. Oak Tasar Grainage Centres — Year State DFLs distributed Regional Tasar Research Station has 1979 Manipur 36810 opened one oak tasar grainage centre each Nagaland 118748 in the promotional states of North Arunachal 12603 Eastern Region viz. Manipur, Pradesh. Nagaland,, Assam,, Arunachal Pradesh 1980 Manipur 50399 and Mizoram. The main objective of such vast network of Grainages is to Nagaland 44211 strengthen the backbone of the newly Arunachal 17836 developed industry by supplying quality Pradesh seeds to the rearers. Since inception these grainage centres have distributed quality Working experiences in these centres DFLs details of which can be visualised from for the last two years, it has been the table below : observed that the response in the three states namely Manipur, Nagaland and 2. Feasibility studies on the rearing of Arunachal Pradesh is very much encouraging. the A. proylei and the cropping pattern to be But in states like Assam and Mizor.am, the followed. response is poor possibly due to the non- 3. Selection of site for preservation adoption of tasar culture by the tribals. of seed cocoons. Establishment extension Centres 4. Demonstration of improved & grainage For the transfer of technology from rearing technique of oak tasar silk worms. 5. laboratory to the field and to popularise Seed multiplication programme of A. oak tasar culture in the neighbouring proylei. states, four extension centres one each 6. Distribution of seeds to the rearers and to in Nagaland, Assam, Anunachal Pradesh the respective state departments. and! Mizoram were established during the year 1976-77. The centres soon after 7. Training to farmers. their establishment took up the The progress made by these centres is following programme of works. tabulated in Table 2. 1. Surveys extension programmes on the socio-economic conditions of villagers. Table 2 Activities of Extension Centres Programme of C.T.R. & T.I Extn. C.T.R. & T.I Extn. C.T.R. & T.I Extn. C.T.R. & T.I Extn. work Centre Kikruma, Nagaland Centre Grampani, Centre Dirang, Arunchal Centre Champahi,Mizoram Assam Pradesh

1. Survey on 8150 acres of plantation Plantation available Plantation available Plantation available only plantation & available in 27 villages only nearby Garam- nearby Dirang village very nearby Champ-hai village rearing of nearby Kohi-ma 5164 tribal pani no concentration of few tribal families are very few tribal families villages. families showed interest tribals. available. are available. in Oak tasar culture,

2. Cropping Sprouting of leave observe in Sprouting of leaves ob- Sprouting of leaves ob- Sprouting of leaves in 1st pattern 1st week of April mixed serve in 1st week of serve in 1st week of April week of April Q. Serrata. population of 0. Ssrrata & March. Q. Serrata Q. Serrata and Q. Semi Semiserrata. Two crops in Q.-deal. bata. The per- plantation. Two crops in serrata, Mixed population a year. Spring crop April- formance of A on Q. a year. Spring crop . Twofcrops in a year. May, Autumn crop August- dealbata were found very March-April, Autumn Spring crop April-June, October. encouraging i.e. 1 .0-1 .2g. crop August -October. Autumn crop August- shell weight. Two crops in a October. year. Spring crop April to May. 2. Autumn crop August-October. 3, Selection of site Pfutesero-6500AMSL. Shillong Peak-45001 - L. Bomdila-6500 ASL. Lengto'ng peak-7000 for preservation of AS ASL, seed cocoons.

4 Demonstration Demonstration was given to Demonstration was gi- Demonstration was gi-• Demons'tratio'n was gi ven of technique of the State officials of ven to the -State offi- ven to the State officials to, the state officials of grainage and new Nagaland Govt. and private cials of Assam & Me- of Arunachal Pra-desh Mizoram Government. technique of rearers of Nagaland. ghalaya Government . and private rearers. rearing of oak tasar silk worm. 5. Seed Seed multiplicationpro- Seed multiplication Seed multiplication Seed multiplication pro" multiplication gramme has been underway programme has been programme has been • gramme had been ta" ken programme since its inception. underway since its in- underway since its up for the period of 1977-79 ception. inception. but due to disturbed law and order situation' of Mizoram the programme was discontinued due to temporary closure of E.C. Table 2 Activities of Extension Centres Programme of C.T.R. & T.I Extn. C.T.R. & T.I Extn. C.T.R. & T.I Extn. C.T.R. & T.I Extn. work Centre Kikruma, Nagaland Centre Grampani, Centre Dirang, Arunchal Centre Champahi,Mizoram Assam Pradesh

6. Distribution of 1979 year- 124562 DFLs 1979 year— 6499 DFLs 1979 year— 14092 1979—26196 DFLS seeds to the were distributed among 122 were reared depart- DFLs were distributed were distributed among 10 rearers 7 State rears and state farms. Total mentally and harvested among 5 rearers The total rearers and state farm. farms. production of year was 54060 cocoons. No production, was recorded Total production was recorded as 802340 cocoons. supply to the private as 61476 cocoons. 1980— recorded as • 135743 1980-54375 DFLs were rearers due to no 17724 DFLs were cocoons. 1980 Centre was distributed among 48 rearers availability. 1980— distributed among 2 closed due lo disturbed and state farms. Total 3115 DFLs were reared rearers, States farms and situation of Mizoram. production was recorded as departmentally and Naga land Govt. The 1 62444 cocoons. harvested 36852 production of cocoons. Arunachal pradesh was recorded as 290758 cocoons. 7. Farmer training 1979—11 farmers No one responded. No one responded. No one responded. programme for trainees were trained, 1980— two months. 30 farmers trainees were trained.

ANNEXURB 10.3 Present Position of Oak Tasar Industry in the North Eastern States It has been observed that the response to Oak tribals. Tasar cultivation has been quite encouraging While detailed data with regard to all the in some of the States like: Manipur, rearers covered by state Governments are not Nagaland, Meghalaya and Arunachal available with, we can indicate the results Pradesh. But in the states of Assam and obtained by our grainage/ Extension Centres Mizoram the response is slightly poor due which are as follows : to non-adoption of tasar culture by the

Year/Season Name of centre No. of rearers Qty. of Total outturn of Value of Average covered by the layings cocoons cocoons income per Extn. centre supplied harvested earers (Rs). I Crop 1983 Manipur 17 50000 DFLs 12.76 kg 1-.57* lakhs 1 5,700 924 II Crop . 44 31.50 kg. 1.02 lakhs 10,200 425 '80: I Crop Nagaland . 45 (in 5 villages) 31,228 81-895 (harvested 8,189 227 from four villages) '79: II Crop 77 (in 7 villages) 67,916 499471 (harvested 49,947 757 from six villages) I Crop Nagaland 59 38979 131471 13,147 223 '80: 11 Crop 12 15396 38899 3,889 324 1979 Dirang 5 14092 61476 6,147 1,225 1980 Dirang 4 3476 63743 6,374 1,593

I crop 1979 Mizoram 5 6030 14883 1488 298 II crop 1980 5 5688 12000 1200 240 The station did not function due to disturbed condition *(harvested by 24 rearers ,the crop of 20 reares were of poor people. As will be evident from above the Oak Tasar rearing can provide a substantial income per family from one or two crops. There is, no dearth of Oak flora also. But the main bottle-neck appears to be the availability of sufficient quantity of DFLs to the rearers. This problem needs an immediate solution through the joint eiforts of the State Government and the Central Silk Board.

11. INDUSTRY AND MINERALS

The North-East despite its vast resources is (iii) Other Small 'industries including agro- one of the least development regions of the processing like fruit canning, meat pro- country, as far as industry is concerned. The cessing, timber processing, etc. present position with regard to the 11.4 From the point of view of medium and development of medium and large industries large industry the most promising resources is presented in Annexure 11.1 and with regard are the forest wealth of the region and the to small scale industries in Annexure 11.2. substantial deposits of oil, coal and limestone. As these data show, the only significant The development of horticulture and development has been of wood based and plantations can assist in the growth of small petro-chemical units in Assam in the medium and medium agro-based industries. The and large sector. growth of sericulture and the demand for yarn 11.2 The industrial backwardness of the in the handloom sector provide a base for the northeast has been recognised in the Report development of textile industries. on Industrial Dispersal of the NCDBA, where These along with a variety of small units for the entire area has been made eligible for serving local consumption demands can incentives/ subsidy. The Committee has provide the basis for a more rapid recommended a growth centre based industrialisation of the area. approach and suggested the location of three such centres in Assam. As for the other 11.5 The exploitation of forest resources for States, their requirements have been included industrial development is, to a large extent, in a block allocation of 10 centres, for Jammu contingent on administrative measures to & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, the reorganise control over forests which were North-Eastern States (other than Assam) and referred to earlier. In the absence of these the Union Territories (Para 7.15 of the Report measures the uncertainties surrounding raw on Industrial Dispersal, NCDBA). The material availability-may be such that units Committee has suggested an organisational even if established may not be able to arrangement for these centres which will function effectively. Some forests based allow the implementing authorities great deal industries like those manufacturing tea- of flexibility in planning and execution. chests cater essentially to local demand. But (Paras 7.18 and 7.19 of the Report on certain others like ply-wood and venier and Industrial Dispersal, NCDBA). The paper are oriented to national markets. The Committee has also stressed the importance forest resources of the north-east relative to of infrastructure development at the growth the rest of India are so substantial that there is centres and suggested a scheme for funding ample scope for such national markets costs of the development (Para 7.29 of the oriented units in this region despdte its Report on Industrial Dispersal, NCDBA). remoteness from major markets. 11.3 The types of industries that can 11.6 The oil resources of the north-east have be promoted in the north-eastern region fall already led to the development of refineries broadly within the following categories : and petro-chemical units in the region. The growing production of oil and gas in this (i) Major raw material based industries, region will lead to further developments in which in the north-east would be mainly this sector. The coal and limestone deposits of paper, cement, and petro-chemicals. the region provide a base for a cement (ii) Industries to supply local demands, industry. However, because cement is a low where the scale of local requirements is large value product and because the limestone enough to substain an economically viable deposits are in the more remote parts Of the unit. region this industry may have to be oriented essentially to local requirements. 11.7 In agro-based industries, fruit processing 11.10 Resource based industries are only one in the small and medium sector is an of the different types of industries that can be established industry. The extension and set up in the region. There are other upgradation of horticulture will create some industries based essentially on local markets. further scope for development provided the The identification of these would have to be markets for processed fruits are identified and based on a careful survey of the present level developed. At present no organised effort in of demand for manufactured consumer goods this direction seems to have been made. The and intermediate goods in the region. The regional corporation for agricultural Committee is not aware of any such marketing may have to enter this field in a systematic study in this area. It would systematic way. The same situation obtains recommend that the NEC undertake such a for plantation products like tea, coffee and study of the local demand for manufactured rubber. goods, the manner in which this is being met, 11.8 Textile industries based on sericulture or the extent to which the local demand can be on yarn requirements or handlooms must be met by local units, the types of units, that can linked with the support system for these be set up for this purpose, the optimum scale sectors. The Committee has referred earlier to and investment for such units, etc. One area the problem of yarn supply for handlooms that needs these analyses is the purchase and the possibility of establishing spinning programme of government departments and units in the region. Cooperative or public related organisations (e.g. the army). There sector investment may be the right answer in may well be a great deal of scope for local this case. development on the strength of this demand. Another such area is the 11.9 The broad indication of the resource- potential for ancilliarisation arising from based industries which could be developed existing and proposed large projects. is based on our present knowledge of the resources of this region. However, this 11.11 Some assesment of the types of indus- knowledge is very incomplete. The trial projects that can be taken up has been agricultural potential (as distinct from current prepared by the North East Industrial and production) of the region has Technical Consultancy Corporation (NEITCO) which did a study for NEC. not been systematically assessed. Full Besides this, action plans have been prepared information on the availability of forest by several DICs. These Action Plans also resources is not available at the level of identify a certain number of industries for geographical disaggrega-tion and detail that is which there is, on the face of it, a potential for required for industrial planning. With development. These reports can provide a regard to mineral resources (other than starting point for more detailed feasibility re- oil), it appears that only 25% of the region ports which should try and establish the feasi- has been surveyed systematically so far. bility and viability of the proposals and Given the difficulty in attracting manpower provide the basis for a bankable proposition. from outside and the lack of a sufficient The feasibility reports may be commissioned number of adequately trained local persons, it by the promotional agencies of the state may take decades to survey the area fully. It governments like the Department of may be desirable to follow a slightly different Industries and the Industrial Development approach in which, in the first instance, a Corporations. large part of the region is covered by first approximation survey based on exploration 11.12 The firming up of project ideas must be agencies. Thereafter promising areas could accompanied by the process of identifying be identified and priorities set for the more erlter-preneurs. The North-East cannot be detailed ground based surveys. Detailed totally lacking in entrepreneurship. There investigations can be taken up when the will be some individuals with business prospect for the exploitation of a surveyed acumen in trading, commercialised deposit seems sufficiently. agriculture and traditional industries. There are also a fair number of technically qualified committee would recommend that the IDBI young people. The existing industrial base should set up a regional entrepreneurship of the region, though small, will also have development centre in the north east. Apart individuals who have the capacity to expand from actual training, this centre should also their operations and who can provide the provide guidance to other 'EDP' programmes required entrepreneural skill for medium by undertaking periodic evaluation of these scale projects. Entrapreneurship from programmes. The NEC can also play an outside the region can also play an important role in this task in several ways. important role particularly in the larger Firstly, it can strengthen the expertise projects. available within the region by organising 11.13 Entrepreneurial training training programmes for the staff of the state programmes have been taken up by several and district level industrial promotion orga- agencies in the region, viz. NEITCO, the SISI nisations. Secondly, it can help the states in and SIET offices in Gauhati, SBI, etc. getting expertise from outside whenever it is However, the general experience is that these required. Thirdly, it can assist the states in programmes have not been very effective and arranging for suitable exposure to working very few of the people who have been trained enterprises both within and outside the north- have, in fact, set up industrial units. The east region for the entrepreneurial trainees. Committee has dealt with the approach to the entrepreneurial development at some 11.15 The development of entrepreneurship length in its Report on Industrial Dispersal as well as the need for technical support (Ref. Chapter IX of Report on Industrial Dis- during the construction and operation stage persal, NCDBA). The essential elements of will require an effective institutional system. these approach are (i) a coordinated inter- At present such an institutional system exists agency approach so that the entrepreneur on pa-per. Most districts have DICs. There when he completes his training can be are several SIDS institutions in the area. A 'adopted' by the relevant support organisation technical consultancy organisation (e.g. the DIC) and financial institutions (NEITCO) has been set up by IDBI. (e.g. the SFC or SIDC), (li) effective However, almost all of these institutions training in financial, managerial and suffer from a lack of technical staff. technical aspects of the proposed field of Experienced local persons are not readily operation, (iii) preliminary work on project available and experts from outside are preparation during the training, (iv) exposure reluctant to go there. If small industry based to the working of similar working enterprises, on local entrepreneurship is to be developed (v) effective advice and guidance during this situation will have to be corrected. One project implementation and later (vi) approach would be to identify local people assistance in meeting the teething problems in with some jpotential and arrange for them to the early stages of production. In addition, be trained and exposed to work situations the entrepreneurial trainees will also have to outside the region. The second would be have access to other facilities given to small to induct experts from outside by offering entrepreneurs like the provision of factory special inducements. One possible approach sheds, finance, raw material supply and would be to exchange personnel between the marketing support, etc. institutions in the north east and their 11.14 The Committee has recommended a successful counterparts elsewhere in the three-tier structure for entrepreneurial country. The expert from elsewhere in the development, the first tier being provided by country would work in the north-east while DIC, the second by the State level the officer from the north-east works in the promotional agencies and the third by a counterpart institution to gain the necessary regional centre to be set up by the IDBI. In experience. After a fixed period of, say the north-east the dependence on the third two years, the expert on deputation can revert tier, may be quite substantial. Hence the back and the officer from the north-east can return. Such an arrangement could help in building up the talent in local personnel. The the transport subsidy scheme. However, NEC and the DC(SSI) would have to accept actual disbursement under this scheme have responsibility for such a programme. been very meagre and have only amounted to 11.16 The Committee has recommended cer- Rs. 5 lakhs upto 1980-81. tain measures for ensuring that government 11.18 The uncertainties in the supply of raw purchase programmes and the ancillary materials from outside the region would have potential of large projects is used to promote to be reduced firstly by the extension of the small industry development in backward national distribution network of major areas (ref.

ANNEXURE 11.1 Medium and Large Scale Industries in North-Eastern Region Class of Industries Arunachal Assam M anipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Tripura Pradesh

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sugar Factory 3 1 Paper Mill 3*'* K 1* Oil Refinery 3* Jute Mills 1 1* Cement Factory 1 1 1 Hard Board 1 1* Spun Silk Mills 1 1@ Cycle Factory 1 Distillery Project 1 Plywood and other wood produci s 2 13 1 Fertilisers. 2 1 Gnomical Industry (including 12 2 Miscellaneouspetrochemicals) Industries 7 . TOTAL 2 48 1 3 5 1 *under construction @ spinning MUI unaer construction **Two under construction Source : Basic Statistics, North-East Region, 1980, North-East Council Sect. Shillong.

ANNEXURE 11.2 Distribution of Small Scale Industries, 1971 Industry Groupwise Arunachal Pradesh Assam Manipur Meghalaya Mizc-ram Nagaland Tripura Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1. Food Products 152 10 19 14 3 37 235 2. Beverages 1 1 3. Hosiery and Garments 1 29 71 2 7 1 3 114 4. Wood Products 5 268 242 33 11 3 41 603 5. Papsr Products (Pigments) 176 12 11 2 4 1 206 6. Lsather Products 8 1 1 1 2 13 7. Rubber & Plastic Products 3 198 16 15 2 9 21 264 8. Chemicals 126 9 7 2 26 170 9. Mineral Products 1 97 7 17 2 3 8 135 !0. Bisic Motal Alloy Industrial (units). 37 1 3 4 11. Metal Products 1 282 58 14 11 9 51 426 12. Machinery and Parts 27 7 3 17 54 13. Else. Machinery Apparatus . 11 20 3 5 39 14. Transport Equipment and parts 10 6 1 17 1 5. Misc. manufacturing Industries 17 5 5 2 5 34 !6. Repair and Ssrvices 209 20 33 9 4 26 301 TOTAL. 11 1648 485 164 61 38 246 2653 Source : All India Report on Census of Small Industries Vol. 1,1976 as reported in Basic Statistics of North Eastern Region 1980, NEC.

12. TRANSPORT AND POWER

The provision of infrastructure for produc- Railways tion is one of the major important 12.4 The existing rail route within the region components of development planning. The is confined practically to Assam with term infrastructure includes a large number of network just touching Nagaland and Tripura. items. In this chapter we concentrate on two The States of Meghalaya and Manipur and key items viz. Transport and Power. the Union Territories of Arunachal Pradesh TRANSPORT and Mizoram are outside the railway map of 12.2 The problem of transport facilities in the the country. Even in Assam, the important north-east is very acute. It has been argued district towns of Nowgoug, Jorhat, Sibsagar that this deficiency has been "the main reason and Tezpur are on branch lines. This is due to for the backwardness of the north-east region the fact that the existing rail network was laid and has created a feeling of isolation in the mainly to serve the tea gardens and did not people" (Paper on Transport and take into account the other needs. Communication prepared by NEC, 12.5 Some steps have already been taken to December, 1980). remedy this situation. Six new railway lines 12.3 Estimates of the level of originating and are under construction to link all the units in terminating traffic at selected points in the the north-east with the rail system. A part of region have been prepared on the basis of an the existing meter gauge network in Assam is analysis of rail traffic data and survey of road being converted to broad guage. movements by RITES for the Transport 12.6 The National Transport Policy Policy Planning Project of the Planning Committee examined the problem of rail Commission. These estimates are as follows. development in backward areas and

TABLE 12.1 recommended that in any region where normal resources on a large scale are Traffic lavels in the North East 1978-79 (in thousand tonnes) evidently available, an integrated plan should Centre Railways Highway be evolved to develop new growth centres and promote economic activity, the provision Origina Termina- Origina Termina- of new rail lines being an element in such ting ting ting ting traffic traffic traffic traffic development. It has also been pointed out that this region is very dependent on supplies of Bongaigaon 1 13 3 essential commodities from outside and the Dhubari 226 397 45 60 lack of adequate rail facilities lead to Gauhati 506 866 562 454 uncertainties in supply and high prices. Lumding 217 819 108 183 12.7 Many proposals for new rail lines have Silchar 82 99 266 113 been suggested by the NEC. Broadly Dibrugarh 276 423 39 57 speaking they fall into the following categories : North 994 35 30 Lakhimpur (i) A broad gauge line along the South Bank Shillong 26 7 of the Brahmputra's. The present line runs Agartala 1 18 6 5 north of the river and does not directly link several important towns. Kohima 115 61 Aizwal 1 16 163 (ii) Increasing capacity on the critical Lum- ding-Badarpur hill section which connects the Hafoli 1 10 (Itanagar) Brahmaputra Valley with South Assam, Source : "Study on Model Tests & Traffic Flows'' Report IV, Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura. The capacity Vol. II, Annex. 14, RITES. in this section is fully booked and any major investments in industries like paper, south of the Mikir hills is impossible unless this is region has to be seen in the context of the done. virtual absence of alternative transport (iii) Various proposals for short facilities in areas outside the Brahmaputra extensions some of which will connect capital Valley. cities like Agartala, Aizwal and Itanagar with 12-10 The peculiar problems of movement in the rail network. the region are not brought out fully by 12.8 The National Committee is not in a posi- statistics on road density. The structure of tion to comment on the merits of these the network is such that quite often in the hill proposals. However, it would emphasise the areas the movement from one point of the need for economical transport facilities not State to another may have to take place just for industrial units but for activities like through the plains. For example the road horticulture plantation, forestry and related routes from Tura in the Garo Hills to Shillong agro-industry. The most important gap which goes via the plains. The nearest seems to be the limited capacity available to district headquarters is Ziro in Loser service the areas south of the Mikir hills. It Subansiri district and it is 162 km away, will be seen from the data given in Table (The distance between Ziro and Itanagar, as 12.1 that when Lumding and Silchar are the crow flies is about 50 km.). compared, the proportion of road movement 12.11 Road development is a major activity in is much higher in the case of Silchar. The this region and accounts for a large railway lines south of the Mikir hills are proportion of the plan outlay of all the States being further extended into Manipur, Tripura in this region other than Assam and Tripura. and Mizo-ram. Traditionally the movement The NEC has taken up the construction of a from these areas, to major markets in the number of inter-State roads of regional rest of country may have taken place importance. Upto March 1980, 250 kms. of through what is now Bangladesh. Since new construction and 700 kms, of this route is not now available except for improvement have been completed by the some limited movement by inland waterways, NEC. a linkage via the Brahmaputra valley is 12.12 Besides roads this region has a essential. This would require that the entire particular problem of transportation because section from Gauhati to Lumding and it is split in two by the massive Brahmaiputra southward would have to be upgraded and its whose length in the Assam plains is 720 kms. capacity increased. Already its capacity is At present there is only one rail-cum-road below requirements and will be even more so bridge across the river near Gauhati. One once the new lines into Manipur, Tripura and bridge is under construction a.t Tezpur and Mizoram become operational. The the Government of India have approved the Committee would suggest that the proposals construction of another one at Jogihapa. in this regard and other proposals for rail Another bridge across the Dihang at Passighat development in the region may be examined had also been approved. The NEC expects sympathetically keeping in mind the to take up another bridge at Dibrugarh in the relaxation of investment criteria suggested by Seventh Plan. Thus with these development the National Transport Policy Committee. facilities for north-south movement across the Roads and Bridges Brahmaputra will be greatly improved. 12.9 The present position with regard to road 12.13 The theoretical transport development in the region is rqported in requirements of the region for optimum Annex-ure 12.1. As this data show the length development are so vast that they cannot be of motor-able roads per 100 sq. km. is below met only over a period of time. For example, the national average in all States except the NCA has suggested a norm of 0.75 km of Assam and Tripura and substantially sto in road per sq. km. of forest areas. On this Arjunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and basis the 1.25 lakh sq. km. of forest in the Mizoram. The lower density of roads in this north-east would require the development of 94 thousand kms. of road which clearly 12.16 The development of roads is not suffi- cannot be done in the near future. Similarly cient by itself. Industrial units and if the real density per sq. km. in this region is commercialised agriculture require access to to reach the present national norm it would regular trucking sources. Leaving out Assam require the construction of about 2500 kms of the number of goods vehicles registered in rail length. Hence a norm based approach to the different States is very low, the figures transport development in the north-eastern being as follows : region is infeasible. Nos 12.14 At present stage of Arunachal Pradesh 100 development transport development in the Manipur 140 0 north eastern region would have to Meghalaya 1000 be based on the specific needs of each Mizoram 500 project and programme. Moreover, given the Nagaland 800 large gap in requirements, every attempt must Tripura 2200 be made to locate projects and programmes in manner that minimise the need for additional At this level of availability it would be infrastructure. Thus market oriented difficult to provide an assured service in all horticulture can be developed fast in areas the parts of the region. The developments clearly served by roads. Forest based indus- in horticulture, plantations and other sectors tries can be located in forest areas which can suggested earlier would be difficult unless be readily opened for exploitation. The trucking services are available even in the resource available for road works may be interior. The Committee would, therefore, stretched further if the standards of road recommend that special measures to promote construction are re-examined in the light of road transport operations may be taken. area needs so as to identify economics in This could take the form of concessional construction costs. loans in freight transport operations or the extension of freight services by public sector 12.15 Development activity cannot be road transport corporations. restricted, of course, to the places which are at present accessible by road. There will be Other modes of Transport areas where new opportunities have been 12.17 Besides road and rail, the north-eastern identified and can be promoted if road region offers several opportunities for transport is provided. The roads required for movement by inland waterways. It has such punposes should be given priority in the nearly 2000 kms. of navigable waterways, the general road development programme of the (principal one being Brahmaputra. The states, NEC and the Centre. There is a Assam Inland Water Transport Corporation programme for the construction of strategic provides some services in Assam. The roads and roads required for administrative Central Inland Water Transport Corporation purposes. The compulsions with regard to has a service linking Gauhati with Calcutta. routes and alignments differ in these cases The possibility of taking up water transport from development roads. However, there in some of the tributaries of the Brahmaputra will be many cases where such administrative has been identified and areas of potential and strategic roads will help to exploit have been identified. Further development potential for development. One further of IWT in this region would relieve the possibility for extending the road network is pressure on the rail and road system and to include road development as part of a needs to be pursued. productive scheme. A commercial forestry scheme can include the required road 12.18 The very difficult terrain in the north- development within the forest area. These east and the difficulty in providing reasonably roads can be used for other purposes. A direct surface connections has been similar approach may be possible in other recognised in the provision of air services in sectors e.g. plantation. the region both by Indian Airlines and the new third level air service, Vayudoot. The NEC has identified several areas where 1300 MW of thermal capacity over a 25 year ropeways schemes could be taken up. These period beginning 1980. Out of the alternative mode of transport can help to meet additional hydel potential 7500 MW is requirements for large industrial or mining expected to come from the Di-hang Project projects and would have to be considered and 1500 MW from the Subansiri Project. mainly in the context of such developments. Both of these sites are in very difficult terrain in Arunachal Pradesh and at present are under Transport Coordination investigation. Judging by our

ANNEXURE 12.1 Total Motorable Road Length (As on 31-3-1979)

State/Union Territory Total Road Motorable Non-Motor- Motorable Roads Percentfge of Length Road Length able Road - Motorable Road Length per 100 Per to Total Road 3q.km thousand Length Area population 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Arunachal Pradesh 11553 4991 6562 5.27 9.25 43.20 Assam 56983 3615! 20464 46.52 2.04 64.09 Manipur 8842 6393 2449 28.54 5.17 72.30 Meghalaya 3690 3637 53 16.16 3.12 98.56 Mizoram 2916 2946 13.89 7.48 100.00 Nagaland 5785 5571 214 33.16 9.74 96.30 Tripura 7836 5397 2439 51.40 3.01 68.87 T otal 97605 65424 32181 25 .66 2 .78 67 .03

All India 1694110 1344372 259738 40 -98 2 .13 83 .81

Sources : 1. Bisic Road Statistics of India, J978-79, Transport Research Division, Ministry of Shipping and Transport. 2. Statistical Hand Book, Mizoram, 1978.