Coll. Antropol. 28 Suppl. 1 (2004) 147–159 UDC 811.221.3'373.6 Original scientific paper

Ethno-Cultural Heritage of the Peoples of West Pamir

Leila R. Dodykhudoeva

Department of , Institute of , Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation

ABSTRACT

The paper presents a study on the West Pamir communities (, Tajiki- stan) based on language data of the of East-Iranian origin. At present, the ethnic groups of the West Pamir: Shughni, Rushani, Bartangi, Roshorvi, Khufi, Ishkashimi and Wakhi are communities of the Ismaili Shia faith. The underlying concept of the paper is that ethnic and cultural key-concepts take place in the origin of the traditional beliefs and rituals and can be reliably reconstructed from the vocabulary of a particular community. Pamir languages vocabulary of the Pamir ethnic communi- ties that uses East and West Iranian culturally significant terms may serve as a basis for understanding the genesis of Pamir Ismailism, its particular way of absorbing exter- nal cultures, and its present specific form. The purely linguistic criteria, like temporal dimension (linguistic chronology), and geographic dispersion and mobility, are believed to be critical for linking etymology to broader socio-cultural development context of the Pamir communities socio-historical and cultural life. Contemporary social and linguis- tic dynamics in the relations between nation, religion and language in needs systematic research, and reasonable interpretation.

Key words: West Pamir, Pamir Ismailism, vocabulary analysis

The Interrelation Between Ethnicity, Culture, Religion and Language The modern interrelation between importance because of the progressive ethnicity, culture, religion and language formation and definition of categories in and particularly in Taji- like ethnic and cultural »self-identifica- kistan requires analysis, and reasoned tion« and »nationality«. In the 1990s, the interpretation. In modern Republic of Ta- process of the collapse of the Union jikistan, language problems have prime and formation of the sovereign Republic

Received for publication December 15, 2003

147 L. R. Dodykhudoeva: Cultural Heritage of West Pamir, Coll. Antropol. 28 Suppl. 1 (2004) 147–159 of Tajikistan resulted in a series of inter- data in the dictionary, extra-linguistic da- ethnic conflicts. These conflicts determi- ta – ethnic, cultural, historical, etc. – are ne society's attempts to influence lan- presented. In this way, an outline of the guage, making it a strong tool of political social and historic situation of the lan- power of a particular political group. Po- guage and its language community has litical power based on ethnic origin and emerged. For this reason it is intended language constructed a problem of paro- that the data collection should encompass chialism (mahalgaroyi). Ethnic minori- linguistic phenomena as part of an exten- ties were involved in these conflicts and sive cultural and social complex. minority languages became an additional item on which the attention of powerful groups was focused. The investigation of Location of the Pamir Languages Pamir languages vocabulary provides a Communities starting-point for further study of the so- The paper presents a study on particu- cio-linguistic situation, as the language lar West Pamir communities located in in this region plays an important role in Tajikistan based on language data of the ethnic and cultural identification. The Pamir languages that are located in four socio-linguistic situation helps shape the Central Asian countries: Tajikistan, Af- objectives of language policy, and con- ghanistan, , and . Langua- struct a balanced national cultural and ge communities speaking the Pamir lan- language policy relating to the minority guages are geographically concentrated peoples of Tajikistan. in the southeast of Tajikistan, in the Au- The paper is focused on the problem of tonomous of Mountainous-Ba- why collecting the data on a group of dakhshan, part of the Republic of Taji- closely related languages is so essential kistan. From the second part of the 20th and important for their revival, and how century they live also in inner parts of the vocabulary of these languages, and Tajikistan in , Romit and especially the dictionary, reflects differ- Nurek districts, Soghdian province and ent processes that take place in the so- Tajik cities and towns, like – cio-linguistic life of the language group. the capital of Tajikistan, and Gurghon- The main goal of The Shughn(an)i teppa, Nurek and . Today a lot of language comparative dictionary of key migrants live in all post-Soviet countries, cultural terms is to preserve and inten- mainly in the Russian Federation, only in sify usage of the traditional and historical Moscow there are about 10,000 people. vocabulary1. It also aims to include the The historical regions of compact life of terminology of the material and spiritual these communities are also in parts of Af- culture of each language; to preserve the ghanistan neighboring to Tajikistan (Ba- rites and procedures of the culture of dakhshan Province), in China in the each language and folklore based on oral northwestern part of the country and in tradition, reactivating »people's memo- Xinjian-Uygur Autonomous District (Ta- ry«, and to enhance the status of the jik region), as well as in the northern mother language and culture for local parts of Pakistan (Khunza, Gilgit, and people. Chitral). The comparative dictionary reflects This paper is based primarily on the different processes that take place in the social and language data of Tajikistan. Shughn(an)i language, and also reflects The Pamir population of Tajikistan speaks how the Shughn(an)i-Rushani languages different Pamir languages. They are: Shu- are used. Therefore, along with linguistic ghni, Bajuwi, Rushani, Bartangi, Roshor-

148 L. R. Dodykhudoeva: Cultural Heritage of West Pamir, Coll. Antropol. 28 Suppl. 1 (2004) 147–159 vi, Khufi, Sarikoli (more widely present- language is spread among all Pamir peo- ed in China); Yazghulami, Wakhi, and ple as a . Ishkashimi. The population of Afghani- stan speaks also Sanglichi, and there are some remnants of Zebaki. These langua- Endangered Language Status ges have no script and steady written tra- According to policy of dition and are used only as spoken lan- Tajikistan up to 1989 Pamir languages guages in the area. Their status (and that did not have an independent status. In of their local vernaculars and micro dia- 1989 the »Law on Language« in Tajik So- lects) is still discussed in . cialist Republic was published. This doc- ument admitted the existence and spe- Language Origin and Contacts cific status of the Pamir languages de iure since it envisages conditions for »in- Language communities speaking the dependent development and usage of Pamir languages live in Badakhshan close Gorno-Badakhshan (Pamir) languages«, to each other. Genetically, Pamir langua- although de facto the situation with the ges (like ) represent the East-Ira- use of these languages was rather more nian subgroup of the Iranian language complicated. group, a branch of the Indo-European Most of these indigenous languages of family. Within the East Iranian group, Badakhshan fall into category of endan- the Shughn(an)i-Rushani language group gered languages. Languages like Rushani, is the only genetically closely related Yazghulami, and Ishkashimi are listed in group of languages, which are all located the Red book of the endangered languages closely together in the northwest part of of the world by UNESCO. Other langua- the region. Other East-IranianPamir lan- ges, sometimes with fewer speakers, like guages, like Pamir languages Wakhi, Ish- Roshorvi, Bartangi, Sarikoli, Khufi, and kashimi, Sanglichi, Munji and Yidgha as Sanglichi are not included in this list. well as Ossetic, Yaghnobi, and Pashto do Several vernaculars are not entirely not create a close genetic community. known to international scholarship and The Pamir languages reside in close often are not described at all. These in- contact with the languages of other origin clude vernaculars of Barwoz in Shugh- that sometimes are not even closely re- nan, Sawnob, and Bardara in . lated to Pamir or Iranian ones. So, the of- Some of them are still spoken, like Ba- ficial state language of Tajikistan, Tajik, juwi and Sanglichi, others are deemed no as well as the state language of Afghani- longer to be in use, like Barwoz, and still stan, , are of the West-Iranian group others have completely vanished from us- (Pashto is of the East-Iranian group). The age. In some cases there are only short state language of Pakistan, Urdu, is of preliminary descriptions, like those of Ze- Indo-Arian origin. In Northern areas the baki or Old Wanji. There are cases when Pamir languages are also in contact with the very existence of a particular vernac- Dardic group and isolated Burushaski lan- ular is doubted, like Sarghulami, or lavz-i guages, and in China in Xinjian-Uygur mazor. This was described by Zarubin at Autonomous District (Tajik region) – Chi- the beginning of the 20th century as a ver- nese along with Uygur, of Turkic origin, nacular of the Afghan village of Sarghu- and also Tajik for the District are used. lam, which had a mazor2,3. But the ver- Though Shughn(an)i communities are nacular has not acquired any further ve- habitually spread only in Tajikistan and rification. To some extent even the stabil- traditionally Shughn(an)i ity of the most widely spread languages

149 L. R. Dodykhudoeva: Cultural Heritage of West Pamir, Coll. Antropol. 28 Suppl. 1 (2004) 147–159 with a rather huge population like cause the decrease of community mem- Shughn(an)i and Wakhi is insubstantial. bers. Their marriages outside the com- munity and life in other language envi- The Pamir languages are used mainly ronment lead to transfer of their children as languages of oral communication, for to another mother tongue and a different the most part as family and community social and cultural environment. languages in rural communities. With some exclusion, up to now languages are transmitted from parents to children. Some Written Heritage and Education local isolated communities like Zebaki, Bajuwi, and Barwozi, that are in transi- The official state language of Tajiki- tion, cease completely to pass the langua- stan is Tajik (West-Iranian group). This ges on to their children. Pamir languages is also the language of written heritage, have now for the most part deteriorated literature, education, administration and and are spoken mainly in private. The mass media. Its prestige is high and the native speakers adopt the externally con- area of usage is rather broad functionally veyed hierarchical attitude towards their and geographically. In view of this, Pamir own local culture and mother tongue, and language communities have ceased to the level of mother tongue competency in speak their mother tongues in public and some communities is rather low. Nearly there is a type of diglossia in Badakh- all mother speakers of these languages shan's socio-linguistic situation when the are bi- or multilingual. In contemporary native speaker in official situations speaks situation, with lots of migrant population Tajik. Pamir language communities have that creates all over the world it adopted the surrounding dominant cul- became important for these marginalized ture, partly for political reasons, because groups (as a rule men) to preserve their during the war of 1992 these ethnic and their off spring's ethnic and cultural groups were nearly exterminated in the identification, especially in the case of inner Tajikistan, but partly also for eco- cross-ethnic, cultural or language mar- nomic reasons, such as employment, job riages. Even if a person of the second gen- rank, salary level. An excellent illustra- eration does not speak the mother, or tion is that teachers of the local Tajik better say the father tongue himself, it is schools in inner Tajikistan are mainly of extremely important for him that there is the Pamir ethnic origin. a community speaking the language, that this language is still alive and rather vi- Confessional Sketch tal and can be transmitted in frames of the community to future generations, and A distinct version of Islamic ideology – that ethnic and cultural traditions are Ismaili Shiya, has become dominant among preserved and are still in use and vital. the Pamir peoples. The West Pamir ethnic Even in the historical place of living of groups: Shughn(an)i, Rushani, Bartangi, the Pamir communities, in Badakhshan, Roshorvi, Khufi, Ishkashimi and Wakhi the number of the speakers of minor Pa- follow presently the Nizari branch of Is- mir languages is diminishing today. The mailiya Shiya Islam that is led by the re- economy crisis and lack of the earth in ligious leader Agha Khan the Fourth, high valleys cause younger generations to Shah Karim al-Khusayni. Pamir commu- leave minor communities, like high iso- nities' confessional environment is alien, lated valleys of Bajuw, Khuf, and Ro- as people living in close neighborhoods shorv, in search for jobs. The migration to are mainly Sunni Muslims. This is the busy cities and low living conditions third feature, after state borders and lan-

150 L. R. Dodykhudoeva: Cultural Heritage of West Pamir, Coll. Antropol. 28 Suppl. 1 (2004) 147–159 guages, that cut off people living near by. from the 16th century the manuscripts of It is acknowledged by scholars that roots the pilgrimage cycle, guides on sacral pla- of Central Asian Islam are linked with ces, like Futuh al-kharamain or theologi- pre- Islamic pagan cults and religions. cal treatises, like Dalayil al-khayrat as- The Islamic tradition itself, that was and Simlali, and Kitab-i Khaja Abul Kasim is practiced in the Central Asia, can be Khakim Samarkandi were occasionally stratified chronologically, regionally and finished4. Along with other local cults ele- ideologically, and in addition to orthodox ments of theomachy, and theomnemiya branch could also be related to various Is- (zikr), cults connected with Zoroastrian lamic subdivisions (mazhab), like early rituals and beliefs, cults of the saints Islamic mysticism, various doctrinal de- adopted by Islam from different rites viations from the Muslim mainstream, as (Christian, etc.), and philosophical and well as to specific rites institutionalized ideological traditions connected with Neo- within Islamic orders. Disseminated on Platonic, Mandeyan and Hessian, etc. different regions, Islam had incorporated These were incorporated into the pan- to its pantheon numerous local deities theon of »Pamir Ismailism«, thus keeping and mythological personages, sacral - to a certain extent the intrinsic meaning jects and traditions. and integrity in the system of sacred im- Moving forward from this thesis the ages and religious beliefs, practices and principal target is to analyze contempo- esoteric interests of the West Pamir people. rary use of the ancient ritual and ceremo- Traces of the local cults are most dis- nial terminology as a reflection of cul- tinctly apparent in local toponyms such tural and language priorities of the West as Mu{kil Ku{o, and micro-toponyms like Pamir people, as well as an influence of Zikrak-yîlgâ, regional onims connected neighboring ethnic groups of Tajikistan, with toponyms like tahallus Pomer-zod; Kirghizia, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Chi- anthroponymic system Nazri, Ziyorat- na. The Pamir cultural lexis may serve as -moh, Mast-Ali, Bangi and other onims of a basis to obtain specific knowledge with Pamir languages, which are traced back regard to Ismaili traditions, culture, his- to different forms of worshipping to local tory, philosophy, etc. idols, the name of the village Namadgut Consequently, Pamir communities' re- in valley, embodiement of na- ligious complex consists of a set of com- ture, in particular, the Solar cult Xhan- mon-life traditions that preserve elements dut, the cult of landscape saints qirum(b) of various older religious rites. Some of 'small hill or heap of stones', ostùn 'local these archaic beliefs and rites are rather sacral place', and 'mausoleums' mazor vital and retain genetic links to the an- that are now in process of gathering into cient religious thoughts and ideological a Guidebook on sacral places of the West concepts. The most apparent of these are Pamir, rivoyats of these places contained cults associated with different local types information on legendary issues on saints' of theophany: different types of divine life, sufis' tombs, narration of the »pil- manifestation, like Bar Panja, khu{ poy grimage cycle«, popular all over the Mus- qadam of the Prophet or Imam Ali. That lim East. Also connected with an ancient was connected with an ancient idea of idea of magical divine manifestation were magical meaning of the »footprint« and anthropomorphous beliefs like vozh 'good reproduction of the relics that are objects spiritual creature', arwo 'the spirit of of worship. It is worth mentioning here dead ancestor', as well as zoomorphous that all over Central Asia by the picture beliefs: burx 'mountain goat, local saint, of the Prophet's »foot-print« beginning toponym: the name of mazor'. In the peo-

151 L. R. Dodykhudoeva: Cultural Heritage of West Pamir, Coll. Antropol. 28 Suppl. 1 (2004) 147–159 ple's memory also lives the tradition to mologies and tracing the etymon by de- identify as objects of worshipping some termining its basic meaning allow expos- local endemic plants and flowers: am- ing the ritual's components and deter- baxhc, vurs 'juniper' and straxm. mining the origin of the rite. A recon- structed form displays an original version (the earliest known use), subsequent Language Data – A Source of Cul- changes in its appearance and meaning, tural and Religious Reconstruction processes of borrowing and transmission The underlying concept of the paper is between languages, and allows identify- that the origins and stratification of tra- ing its cognates in related languages. The ditional beliefs and rituals can be reliably analysis of language data in historical as- reconstructed from the vocabulary of the pect allows to expose those language phe- particular community that uses cultur- nomena that are relevant to the previous ally significant terms of both eastern and epochs, to place them within a time and western . Pamir vocabulary may serve space frame, to correlate their character- as a basis for understanding the genesis istic features with the respective epochs, of Pamir Ismaili tradition, its particular historical events, cultural and common- way of absorbing external cultures, and life reality, i.. to link them to a broader its present specific form. The roles of tem- cultural background of the community's poral dimension (the linguistic chronol- development. ogy) and that of the geographic dispersion and mobility as a background for linguis- tic transformation are believed to be criti- Pamir Language Data cal for linking a purely linguistic etymol- The data presented in the paper re- ogy to broader socio-cultural development flects on the data collection and the prep- in Iranian populations. The modeling of aration of a multilingual dictionary enti- the socio-linguistic processes in the Pa- tled The Shughn(an)i language compa- mir languages is compared with lexico- rative dictionary of key cultural terms6. graphic data describing modern Tajik di- The data for the dictionary were recorded alects and Tajik literary language, as well 5 mainly between 1999–2003 (with the fi- as classical Persian data . nancial support of the »Soros Founda- As the contemporary forms in langua- tion« and »Russian Scientific Foundation ge and culture mirror the elements of for Humanities (RGNF)«). During this various previous cultures and languages time five summer field sessions were con- to clarify particular aspects of the dynam- ducted. The vocabulary was compiled in ics of oral tradition based on »minor» lan- order to collect, preserve and revitalize guages, particular questionnaires were the mother languages of the Pamir mi- composed. These included different types nority groups. The very process of the of ethno-linguistic, socio-linguistic and work was divided into two phases: the ethno-cultural data, like local ethnonyms, initial and the main one. Since »minor» endonyms, eponyms, toponyms, hydro- languages have no written tradition, nyms, etc. these two steps of research were designed to ensure the representation of data on several chronological levels, to record and The Process of Reconstruction – thus to preserve and transfer traditional Linguistic Paleontology knowledge to future generations, and to The analysis of verbal expression of provide data for future diachronic re- the ritual or its elements, derivation of ety- search.

152 L. R. Dodykhudoeva: Cultural Heritage of West Pamir, Coll. Antropol. 28 Suppl. 1 (2004) 147–159

The initial phase consisted of collect- tute of and at the In- ing and recording data gathered in ar- stitute of the History, Archeology and chives and obtaining data from different Ethnography, in Tajik Academy of Sci- types of texts, like research works on hu- ences in Dushanbe. Language materials manities, historical description of the gathered from different vocabularies, his- neighboring regions, printed media and torical documents and written materials literature materials. In this particular in Tajik, Dari and Farsi, which contain case, the first step was to collect the old- lexical data on Pamir vocabulary were est written materials. The first scholarly used as alternative sources of information. descriptions were made in 1866 and 1867 The data were collected on the basis of by the British officer Shaw who a thematically arranged list that has about during his stay in the region provided the 20 lexical clusters of cultural terminol- description of several Pamir languages ogy: traditional and »new« data. Thus, and published two articles: »Wakhi and the data were collected on the basis of a Sarikoli« and »Shighni«. The Russian ge- glossary and contain the following en- ologist D. L. Ivanov recorded phonetic tries: The physical world; Mankind; Ani- and grammatical data as well as the vo- mals; Body parts, functions and condi- cabulary of the Shughn(an)i language. tions; Food and drink; Cooking and uten- His information was published in 1903 by sils; Clothing; Personal adornment and Zalemann. The main body of written data care; Dwelling and house; Agriculture and on Pamir languages was gathered mostly vegetation; Physical acts; Motion; Qual- at the beginning and towards the end of ity; Quantity; Number; Possession, prop- the last century by a number of eminent erty; Commerce; Spatial relations; Place, scholars. A large collection is gathered in form, and size; Time; Sense and percep- Zarubin's archive at the Institute of Ori- tion; Emotion; Mind and thought; Vocal ental Studies, in the Russian Academy of utterance, Speech; Political divisions; So- Sciences, in Sankt-Petersburg. Several cial relations; Warfare; Law; Religion, de- major collections can be found in the ar- monology and superstition; and Verbs. chives of M. S. Andreev in the Library of These contained material vocabulary, the Tajik Academy of Sciences, and the like professional lexical groups, such as Museum of A. A. Semenov, at the Insti- local handicrafts: traditional pottery (ku- tute of the History, Archeology and Eth- loli), knitting (jurob) and weaving (men's nography, Tajik Academy of Sciences, in and women's distribution); embroidery Dushanbe. Semenov was the first to be- (toqi, etc.); animal husbandry (specific gin the research of Badakhshani Ismailis ethno-linguistic terms) and women' sum- and gave the description of their tradition mertime cattle-breeding (yel~izan); tradi- and its rituals enlisting local languages’ tional construction (~îd) and household data. The largest collection of data on terminology; spiritual vocabulary; kin Pamir languages, systematically assem- and gender terminology; calendar and ho- bled since 1967, is gathered at the De- lidays; significant religious and secular partment of Pamir Philology of the Insti- official and informal customs and rituals; tute for Humanities, which is a part of demonology; superstition; general inter- the Tajik Academy of Sciences in Kho- community relations, etc. rogh. Apart from this, Soviet scholars The absence of an alphabet and writ- started collecting materials on Pamir ten tradition meant that the data had to folklore and traditional culture from the be written in the international Iranian 1920s onwards. These materials can be transcription. The data are organised in found at the Folklore Funds of the Insti- electronic »forms«. Each »form« presents

153 L. R. Dodykhudoeva: Cultural Heritage of West Pamir, Coll. Antropol. 28 Suppl. 1 (2004) 147–159 data on the main »linguemes», i.e. local struction of the historical dynamics of re- vernaculars, dialects and micro-dialects. ciprocated East and West Iranian influen- These are Shughn(an)i language and the ce on the lexeme, comparison with the vernaculars Bajuw, Shahdara, and Bar- lexicographic data of modern Tajik dia- woz. The layout of each »form« is fixed. lects and standard language, a commen- First, the Shughn(an)i term is provided tary on the origin of the word and con- and then all other linguemes with their tacts with other languages (original/loan translation or explanation are listed ac- words), an ethno- and socio-linguistic companied by a usage example with its commentary including comment on the translation. For each »form« relevant bib- ethno-cultural identification of the lexe- liography is provided containing the dif- me as well as descriptive and explanatory ferent dates when the term was recorded remarks on every kind of context and us- and field data source. Each item has vo- age. cabulary parallels taken from standard Tajik language and/or Tajik South-East- ern dialects neighboring Pamir langua- Preliminary Research Findings ges. These parallels sometimes have spe- Aside from intra-linguistic output, cific meaning, or are semantically pa- like preserving the main stock of the vo- rallel with Tajik examples. Each item has cabulary, gaining new lexicographic, and a commentary that consists of a pointer by this etymological data, by describing to lexical synonyms, an etymological com- and recording the vocabulary of closely ment, where the reconstructed proto- related languages of this particular Shughn(an)i form is linked with ancient East-Iranian group of spoken languages, and medieval East- and West-Iranian we recorded and researched the history of languages thus reconstructing the pho- the cultural and confessional tradition of netic transformation of the form, a recon- the West Pamir people. As an illustration

TABLE 1 FORM 1: USES OF THE TERM »XALÎFÂ ID«5–8

Lingueme Word Meaning/Translation Shughn(an)i xalîfâ6 n. khalifa, religious executive, vicegerent of pir in Badakh- shan; man's name Bajuwi xalîfâ6 Shohdara xalîfâ6 Barwoz xalîfâ6

Tajik xalifa arch. religious executive in , looking after perform- ing of sharia laws; deputy of the officer; apprentice; (class) monitor

Badakhsh xalifa7 id Bukhara xalifa7 religious executive in Bukhara, looking after performing of sharia laws xalif(a) khalif, vicegerent xalifa5 deputy; vicegerent, khalif

154 L. R. Dodykhudoeva: Cultural Heritage of West Pamir, Coll. Antropol. 28 Suppl. 1 (2004) 147–159

TABLE 2 FORM 2: USES OF THE TERM »ZIKRI« 3,5,6

Lingueme Word Meaning/Translation Shughn(an)i zikri3 pious meditation; mystical contemplation; zikr Shughn(an)i zikri6 mentioning God; mentioning as adoration of God's name; appeal of praying person to his own memory during unbro- ken prayer Bajuwi zikri6 Shohdara zikri6 Barwoz zikri6

Shughn(an)i composites and compounds: zikri ~îdow to pronounce prayer xudoy zikri to pronounce special prayer ~îdow

Shughn(an)i zikr(i)* pious meditation; mystical contemplation; zikr Bajuwi zikri Shohdara zikr(i) Barwoz zikri mentioning God; mentioning as adoration of God's name; appeal of praying person to his own memory during unbro- ken prayer

Toponym: Shughn(an)i zikrak yîlgâ5 microtoponym: name of the summer pasture

Tajik zikr mentioning, remembering, pronouncing; special prayer dur- ing which the name of God is repeated Toponym: Tajik zikrak (Badakhsh.) microtoponym: name of the summer pasture yelgo(h)

* The following terms in Shughn(an)i, Bajuwi, Shohdara and Barwoz were recorded between 2000 and 2003. to the language data several »forms« from khara …' is archaic in modern Tajik liter- »Religion: Official and informal customs« ary language, though it is preserved in cluster are given. Bukhara dialect and classical Tajik. In The term xalîfâ id in Pamir langua- the Pamir languages it is an important ges, which derives from T xalif(a) ('reli- Ismaili term designating a local religious gious executive in Bukhara, looking after executive who deals with people in their performing of sharia laws'), is an old loan everyday life taking part in the ceremo- word from khalîfatun 'khalif' that nies of birth, wedding and death, cf. Tajik came through Tajik language (Table 1). millo, mullo 'religious executive in Sunni The meaning 'religious executive in Bu- and Shiya Islam; literate person'. The

155 L. R. Dodykhudoeva: Cultural Heritage of West Pamir, Coll. Antropol. 28 Suppl. 1 (2004) 147–159

TABLE 3 FORM 3: USES OF THE TERM »DÂWAT« 3,5,6–8

Lingueme Word Meaning/Translation Shughn(an)i dâwat3 religious ceremony of setting on candle; funeral repast Shughn(an)i dâwat6 appeal; invitation; mission; relig. Funeral repast cere- mony of repast ceremony of the Pamir Ismailis Bajuwi dâwat6 Shohdara dâwat6 Barwoz dâwat6

Shughn(an)i composites and compounds: dâwatgar inviting person dâwat ~îdow invite; appeal dâwat dâd arrange funeral repast dâwati fano appeal to non-existence, religious ceremony of Pamir Ismailis

Shughn(an)i phrases: Ar-tân di mûd, on the third day after person's death, funeral repast is arayum m‘q-ta wi organized for him dâwat d‘n Tajik da(')vat repast, appeal

Badakhsh dav/wat7 appeal; invitation; mission; relig. funeral da'vat5 invitation, appeal, mission, religious procedure

Tajik composites and compounds: Badakhshan da(')v/wati fano appeal to non-existence, religious ceremony of the Pa- mir Ismailis in Badakhshan

word as a specific Ismaili term was bor- The term dâwat id in Pamir langua- rowed to about 11th cen- ges, which comes from an old loan word tury and preserved in all Pamir langua- dâwat ('appeal; invitation' gained the ges without change of form. Being a term meaning 'mission') in Ismaili tradition it preserved its original meaning. from Arabic through Tajik language, is In Rushani, Khufi, and Bartangi the represented in Table 3. It is also used as term zikri, which is an old loan word from an incomplete form of dâwati fano ('ap- Arabic language that came through Ta- peal to non-existence, religious ceremony jik, is represented in Table 2. Sufi term is of Pamir Ismailis')3,6, fano3,6, fano ('non- also represented. The Pamir languages existence, frailty')7, fano ('non-existence, meaning varies from that in classical Per- non-existing; unconsciousness')5, cf. also sian and Tajik. The term was widely used fano sittow ('to be exhausted, tired') and in Central Asia in medieval period, as it fonî ('perishable')3,6. In Pamir languages was the area of several Sufi orders loca- it is an important Ismaili term designat- tion. ing a specific religious procedure execut-

156 L. R. Dodykhudoeva: Cultural Heritage of West Pamir, Coll. Antropol. 28 Suppl. 1 (2004) 147–159

TABLE 4 FORM 4: USES OF THE TERM »ARWO« 3,5,6–8,10

Lingueme Word Meaning/Translation Shughn(an)i arwo, sg.3 dead ancestor soul, spirit; memory of the dead Shughn(an)i arwo, sg./ arwogù/on, pl.6 dead ancestor soul, spirit; memory of the dead Bajuwi arwo6 Shohdara arwo6 Barwoz

Shughn(an)i arwo, sg. / arwogù/on pl.* dead ancestor soul, spirit; memory of the dead Bajuwi arwo Shohdara arwo Barwoz (h)arwo

Shughn(an)i composites and compounds: arwohak night moth

Tajik arvoh, sg. / ruh, pl. spirit (of dead) bad panjsher arvo(ha)k7 night moth ruh, sg / arvoh, pl.5 soul; spirit; life

Classical Tajik composites and compounds arvohi mujarrad free spirits

* The following terms in Shughn(an)i, Bajuwi, Shohdara and Barwoz were recorded between 1999 and 2003.

ed on the third night after a person's tural and religious term designating a death. This lexeme being a specific Is- series of specific religious procedures exe- maili term in Arabic and Persian without cuted every Thursday night in memory of change of form was preserved in all Pa- the spirits of the dead ancestors in which mir languages. The main body of the se- the hostess of the house burns incense mantic field is also preserved. (bùy) in memory of the spirits. The word is preserved in all Pamir languages as The term (h)arwo id in other Pamir well as in neighboring Tajik and comes from an old loan word languages. The main body of the seman- from Arabic through Tajik language (Ta- tic field is also preserved. ble 4), cf. the Rush Bart terms arwogirak ('small present, sacrifice in memory of an- The Sh-Rush term mawlô(i) (mawlo(i) cestors'), arwohak ('night moth'), Wakhi id in other Pamir languages) comes from arwo(h)ék, Ishk arwok id, also Yagn ar- an old loan word from Arabic through wohi guza{tagon ('greeting on occasion of Tajik language (Table 5). In Pamir lan- Nauruz, greeting in honour of ancestor's guages it is an important religious term spirits'), Kirgh arbak ('ancestors' spirits'). that was used in different situations as In Pamir languages it is important cul- an exclamation, a call for help. The word

157 L. R. Dodykhudoeva: Cultural Heritage of West Pamir, Coll. Antropol. 28 Suppl. 1 (2004) 147–159

TABLE 5 FORM 5: USES OF THE TERM »MAWLÔ(I)« 3,5–7

Lingueme Word Meaning/Translation Shughn(an)i mawlô(i)3,6 the Lord; Agha Khan Bajuwi mawlô(i) 3,6 Shohdara mawlô(i) 3,6 Barwoz mawlô(i) 3,6

Shughn(an)i phrases: Yô mawlô(i) O Lord; O imam Tajik mawlo the Lord; host Badakhsh mawlo(i)7 the Lord; Agha Khan mawlo5 the Lord; host; slave; relative

TABLE 6 FORM 6: USES OF THE TERM »AJIN« 3,5–7,10

Lingueme Word Meaning/Translation Shughn(an)i Ajinâ3,6 evil spirit; metaphor. mad Bajuwi ajinâ3,6 Shohdara ajinâ3,6 Barwoz ajinâ3,6

Words of the same origin jin(n) demon Tajik ajina evil spirit dial ajina7 werewolf, evil spirit

Tajik composites and compounds ajinabodak dust column made by wind ajinazada raging, franzied is preserved in all Pamir languages as tambourine')10 come from traditionally well as in neighboring Tajik and Turkic the word jin ('evil spirit, demonic crea- languages. The main body of the seman- ture; mad'), is regarded as an Arabic loan. tic field is also preserved. This traditionally famous Arabic term The term ajinâ id in Shughn(an)i-Ru- McDonald proposes as a probable Latin shani languages (Table 6), cf. also Tajik origin of Lat. genius11. Ajinâ ('evil spirit, dial ajina ('evil spirit'), Sh ajinâ ('evil demonic creature; mad') is likely to be an spirit; metaphor. mad'), jin(n) ('evil spi- Arabicised derivative in plural form from rit'), Yagn ajina ('type of elf; small de- jinn (sg. jin(n) 'demon') gave in Shugh- monic feminine creatures of 4–5 years old n(an)i pl. ajinâ, which is an autonomous girl's height that gathered at nights on word in singular with the meaning of summer pastures xon and danced playing 'demon of a specific type'.

158 L. R. Dodykhudoeva: Cultural Heritage of West Pamir, Coll. Antropol. 28 Suppl. 1 (2004) 147–159

REFERENCES

1. DODYKHUDOEVA, L.: Yusufbekov Shodik- dyochnoj literaturi, Moscow, 1999). — 7. ROZEN- hon, Mirzoev Shonazar. (Electronic database, Mos- FELD, À. Z.: Tadzhiksko-russkij dialektnyj slovar. cow-Khorogh, 2001). — 2. ZARUBIN I. I.: Bartang- (Izdatelstvo Leningradskogo universiteta, Lenin- skie i Rushanskie teksty i slovar. (Akademija nauk, grad, 1982). — 8. IAGELLO I. D.: Polnyj persidsko- Moscow/Leningrad, 1937). — 3. ZARUBIN I. I.: Shug- arabsko-russkij slovar. (Tipo-Litografija Shtaba Tur- nanskie teksty i slovar. (Akademija nauk, Moscow/ kestanskogo voennogo okruga, Tashkent, 1910). — 9. Leningrad, 1960). — 4. DODYKHUDOEVA, L.: Khu- BAKHTIBEKOV, T.: Shughn(an)i grammar. (Akade- dozhestvennaya kultura knigi Sredney Asii i Indii mija nauk, Dushannbe, 1979). — 10. ANDREEV, M. 16–19 vekov. (Nur, Dushanbe, 2001). — 5. ANONY- S.: Materialy po etnografii Yagnoba. (Akademija MOUS: Farhangi zaboni tojikî. (Sovetskaya entsiklo- nauk, Dushanbe, 1970). — 11. MCDONALD, D. B.: pedija, Moscow, 1979). — 6. KARAMSHOEV, D.: Jinn. Encyclopaedia de’l Islam. (V. I., Paris, 1913). Shugnansko-Russkij slovar. (Glavnaja redaktsija vo-

L. R. Dodykhudoeva

Department of Iranian Languages, Institute of Linguistics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Bolshoy Kislovskiy Pereulok 1/12, 103009 Moscow, Russian Federation e-mail: [email protected]

ETNOKULTURNA BA[TINA NARODA ZAPADNOG PAMIRA

SA@ETAK

U ~lanku je opisano istra`ivanje zapadnopamirskih zajednica Badakhstana i Tad`i- kistana na temelju jezi~nih podataka pamirskih jezika isto~noiranskog podrijetla. Etni~ke zajednice zapadnog Pamira koje vjerski pripadaju ismailitskom islamu obu- hva}aju [ugnane, Ru{ane, Bartange, Oro{orve, Hufe, I{ka{ime i Vahe. Osnovna pret- postavka ovog istra`ivanja jest ~injenica da temeljni etni~ki i kulturni koncepti izviru iz tradicionalnih vjerovanja i rituala i da se stoga pouzdano mogu rekonstruirati po- mo}u rje~nika odre|ene jezi~ne zajednice. Tako rje~nik jezika pamirskih naroda koji koriste kulturno zna~ajne pojmove isto~nog i zapadnog Irana mo`e poslu`iti kao temelj za razumijevanje geneze pamirskog ismailizma, osobitog na~ina na koji apsorbira vanjske kulture, i specifi~nosti njegove dana{nje situacije. Isklju~ivo lingvisti~ki kri- teriji kao {to su vremenska dimenzija, odnosno jezi~na kronologija, te zemljopisni polo- `aj i kretanja, smatraju se klju~nima u povezivanju etimologije i {ireg sociokulturnog razvojnog konteksta dru{tvenopovijesnog i kulturnog `ivota pamirskih zajednica. Su- vremena dru{tvena i jezi~na dinamika naroda, vjere i jezika u Tad`ikistanu zahtijeva sustavno istra`ivanje i razumnu interpretaciju.

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