DOI: 10.1007/s00267-004-0273-9

Developing a National Action Plan for the Union of

ANTONY J. LYNAM* initiated a project to develop a revised National Tiger SAW TUN KHAING Action Plan. Extensive surveys confirmed in only 4 Conservation Society of 17 survey locations. Significant populations are thought International Programs to persist in the far North and far South of the country, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, NY USA 10460 where large, intact forests offer the potential for tiger recovery. With partnerships and collaborations, tiger pop- KHIN MAUNG ZAW ulations can be protected in the short term (<5 years) by Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division Forest Department expanding protected areas and corridors, mobilizing en- Ministry of Forestry forcement staff to reduce poaching of tigers and prey, and West Gyogone, Insein, , Myanmar amending existing wildlife legislation in accordance with international laws. Over the long term (5–20 years), re- ABSTRACT / A century ago, tigers were considered pests covery of MyanmarÕs tiger populations will depend on in- in Myanmar. Hunters claimed thousands, yet populations creasing support from local people, zoning tiger areas to persisted. In the past century, because of habitat loss and reduce habitat loss and disturbance, and maintaining prey depletion, coupled with the recent demand for tra- connectivity of existing national and transboundary forests. ditional medicines, tiger populations have been reduced to This article reviews the development of a new National a few hundred individuals. As a first step toward long-term Tiger Action Plan for the Union of Myanmar and discusses planning for tigers, and to guide efforts to increase pro- a blueprint for conservation measures aimed at saving ti- tected area coverage, the Myanmar government in 1998 gers from extinction.

The potential importance of Myanmar for tiger The tiger (Panthera tigris) is declining across its conservation, a desire to boost coverage of protected range (Seidensticker and others 1999) because of areas, and the lack of any systematic data on the dis- shrinking habitats, expanding human populations, and tribution and abundance of tigers and their prey increasing demand for traditional medicines and wild prompted the Myanmar government to initiate a pro- meat. Despite the trends, relatively large (>10,000 km2) ject to develop a national strategy for contiguous tracts of natural vegetation provide high Myanmar. In this article, we discuss the development of potential habitats for tigers and other large mammals the plan and review threats to tigers and the history of in and the Himalayan foothills (Lei- conservation planning for the species in Myanmar. We mgruber and others 2003; Wikramanayake and others summarize the current status and distribution of tigers 1998; Wikramanayake and others 2002). in the country and discuss the rationale for a National Within this region, Myanmar is a priority country for Tiger Action Plan. Finally, we propose solutions for tiger conservation because it includes a large propor- addressing the threats, recovering tiger populations, tion of the range and diversity of the remaining tiger and guiding future tiger conservation in the country. habitats (Dinerstein and others 1997). Natural forests cover one-third of the country (FAO 2004; UNEP 1995), some having relatively low human impact within Threats to Tigers them (Sanderson and others 2002). Myanmar provides a wide range of habitat and dis- turbance regimes for the tiger (Dinerstein and others 1997), but as in other parts of Southeast Asia, it is KEY WORDS: Tigers; Myanmar; Species recovery; Wildlife man- sensitive to a number of factors: past levels of , agement a recent burgeoning trade of tigers and tiger parts, prey depletion, habitat loss and fragmentation, and Published online: November 29, 2005. inadequate coverage and lack of effective management *Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; email: in protected areas. [email protected]

Environmental Management Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 30–39 ª 2006 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. Tiger Conservation Planning in Myanmar 31

Tiger hunting has a long history in Myanmar (Mil- Tigers are also threatened by habitat loss. In Myan- ton and Estes 1963; Peacock 1933; Pollok and Thom mar, the annual net deforestation rate between 1989 1900; Sydney 1916), as it has in other parts of the range and 2000 was 0.2% (Leimgruber and others 2003), and (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Hubback and others in some areas within the country the rate of forest loss 1924; Plas 1932; Ready 1904). In the colonial period, is more severe and exceeds the global average. Internal tigers were considered pests because they interfered fragmentation of habitats from the construction of with timber operations by killing elephant calves and dams, roads, and pipelines, which is increasing in livestock. Until 1931, the government provided licenses Myanmar, can disrupt habitats by creating barriers to and bounties for killing tigers. This led to depopula- dispersal (Goosem 1997), thus isolating tiger popula- tion on a massive scale. For example, during the 4-year tions (Smith and others 1999) and leading to increased period from 1928 to 1932, 1,382 tigers were reported mortality (Kerley and others 2002). Forest degradation killed in British Burma (Prater 1940). This approxi- caused by livestock grazing, shifting and permanent mates the current estimated population of tigers in all cultivation, mining, permanent human settlements, of Indochina (Jackson 1997). More recently, increasing and plantations is widespread (Global Witness 2003; demand for traditional medicines (Nowell 2000), tro- Rao and others 2002). phies (Martin 1997; Martin and Redford 2000), and For many years, Myanmar had one of the least live tigers in and has threatened developed protected area networks in Southeast Asia MyanmarÕs wild tiger population. Organized hunting (Balmford and Long 1995). Current government to supply the burgeoning trade (Rabinowitz and others budget allocations for protected areas may be less than 1995) has led to their extirpation in some areas (Ra- that recommended for effective management (James binowitz 1998), with the effect of escalating prices on and others 1999). Legislation to protect both wildlife the black market (Rao and others 2005). and their habitats (Ministry of Forestry 1994) is weak The sale of tiger products has been banned by the and difficult to enforce (Gutter 2001), in part because Convention on the International Trade in Endangered of low staffing and training deficiencies, so that only Species (CITES) since 1975, but thrives in illegal mar- one-third of protected areas are effectively managed kets along the Chinese border in the states of Kachin (Aung submitted). Land use planning and economic and Shan, and the Thai border in the states of Shan, ventures often have consequences in human commu- Kayin, and Mon, where it is uncontrolled (Davidson nities that conflict with the goals of protected areas. 1999; Martin 1997; Martin and Redford 2000). At least Despite the threats, the tiger in Myanmar is far from 10,000 kg of tiger bone representing 500 to 1,000 tigers a lost cause. Wildlife trade networks are organized, al- was imported by East Asian countries between 1970 beit limited in comparison with those of neighbor and 1993 (Hemley and Mills 1999). countries that have superior communications and Tigers are obligatory predators of large mammals, so transportation infrastructures. Prey and tiger popula- they are sensitive to reductions in the available prey tions can be restored if they can be protected from base (Karanth and Stith 1999; Seidensticker 2002). A hunting and trade (Kenney and others 1995; Madh- hundred years ago, people living in and around for- usudan and Karanth 2002). Large extensive wildlands ested areas traditionally hunted wildlife for subsistence of forest, shrubland/savanna, and grasslands (Leimgr- using poison arrows and primitive traps. With im- uber and others 2003) provide high potential habitat proved hunting technologies such as wire snares and for tigers. The protected area system grew from less black powder guns, some rural people in Myanmar now than 1% of the land area in 1996 to the current level of meet their subsistence needs for wildlife and generate 7% (Rao and others 2002). Training programs for a surplus for sale. Hunting is a serious threat to the nature conservation and wildlife staff have been led by integrity of most protected areas in Myanmar (Rao and several international conservation organizations in others 2002; Aung submitted), and likely occurs at Myanmar: the Wildlife Conservation Society, the some level in all areas that support wildlife. With the Smithsonian Institution, and the Harrison Institute. development of transportation networks, wildlife hun- One-third of the Nature and Wildlife Conservation ted in remote areas can now be moved more efficiently Division (NWCD) staff has received basic instruction in to urban markets (Robinson and others 1999). Tiger wildlife survey techniques, and some of these staff are vendors also offer other tiger prey species and other actively engaged in wildlife projects. Currently, 60% of wildlife prohibited by CITES (Bennett and Rao 2002; protected area wardens have undergone training in Global Witness 2003; Hill 1994; Martin and Redford protected area management methods. Staff and stu- 2000; Rabinowitz and Khaing 1998; Rao and others dents of Yangon University are part of an ongoing 2005). program of field-based research. Others have attended 32 A. J. Lynam and others

international meetings and received training at uni- Society (WCS) in developing an updated tiger conser- versities in the United States and the United Kingdom. vation strategy. The WCS has collaborated with the Finally, and most importantly, the Myanmar govern- Myanmar Forest Department since 1994 under the ment supports these efforts. auspices of a Memorandum of Understanding. In 1998, a project was initiated to determine the status of tigers History of Conservation Planning for Tigers across the country, and to define a set of necessary management and conservation actions to preserve ti- In 1981, the Myanmar government estimated the gers in their remaining natural habitats in Myanmar. tiger population in the country at 3,000. But evidence that tigers were absent from many of their former Steps in the Process strongholds (Milton and Estes 1963) and threatened in others (Rabinowitz and others 1995) suggested the The project began with a training course for pro- need for a revised conservation assessment. On the tected area and forestry staff at Alaungdaw Kathapa basis of calculated tiger densities for similar habitats in National Park, a reserve historically known for its ti- Thailand (0.6–1.0 individuals per 100 km2 (Rabinowitz gers (UNDP/FAO 1982). The course familiarized 1993) and the assumption that half of the remaining participants with the conservation status of tigers and closed-canopy forests in the country were populated by the threats facing them in Southeast Asia and pre- tigers, approximately 600 to 1,000 tigers were estimated dicted tiger areas (Tiger Conservation Units or TCUs; for the country (Myanmar Forest Department 1996). Dinerstein and others 1997) in Myanmar. In the late Revising the assessment, Uga and Than (1998) 1990s, the status of tigers in these areas was largely considered the original population estimates to be unknown, so field techniques for filling gaps in overestimates and suggested that the true numbers knowledge of tiger abundance and distribution (Ka- might be in the range of 250 to 500. They considered ranth 1995; Karanth and Nichols 1998) were taught. that habitat models predicted large intact tiger sub- After training, the Forest Department and WCS se- populations (Wikramanayake and others 1998), but lected seven participants to form a National Tiger apart from biologic exploration in parts of northern Survey Team. The team would be responsible for Myanmar (Rabinowitz 1998; Rabinowitz and others conducting field surveys and educational presenta- 1995) and assessments of other forest areas by the tions across the country. United Nations Development Programme/Food and Working with WCS researchers, the team consid- Agriculture Organization (UNDP/FAO) Nature Con- ered predicted tiger areas (Dinerstein and others servation and National Parks Project, tiger status was 1997) along with existing information on tigers from mostly unknown. Certainly, as in many parts of the ti- published historical records, habitat analyses, satellite gerÕs range, no systematic efforts had been made to imagery, and information from local people. Areas estimate even the relative density of tigers. The best that tigers historically inhabited and available infor- information for many areas amounted to anecdotal mation suggesting their continued presence were reports from local people (Rabinowitz 1999). Infor- identified as priority areas for new surveys. Field sur- mation from systematic field surveys was identified as a veys were conducted at selected sites during 1999– critical need, both to refine priorities for conservation 2002 to establish whether tigers still inhabited these efforts and to help identify the location of future pro- areas or not. A database was established to archive tected areas (Uga and Than 1998). records from the tiger field surveys and to serve as a The Myanmar government has a policy goal to in- future reference. Meetings were held periodically to crease the size of the protected area system to 10% of update Myanmar government officials on the progress the countryÕs surface area (NWCD 1994; Rao and oth- of the surveys. The surveys confirmed tigers for less ers 2002). Because tigers require large intact areas that than one-fourth of the predicted sites, suggesting a contain year-around water and prey (Schaller 1967; widespread decline in their range within the country. Sunquist 1981), and because they inhabit a wide range Areas in the North (Hukaung Valley, Upper Chin- of habitat types and disturbance conditions (Schaller dwin, Htamanthi) and South (Tenasserim Hills; Fig- 1966), tigers were considered a focal species (Miller ure 1) probably support most of MyanmarÕs and others 1999) for indicating areas to be incorpo- remaining tigers, and are priority areas for future rated into the system of protected areas (Uga and Than conservation actions (see next section). Drafting and 1998). production of a National Tiger Action Plan (NTAP) In 1997, the Myanmar government formally re- (Myanmar Forest Department, 2003) required 6 six quested the assistance of the Wildlife Conservation months and was completed in July 2003. Tiger Conservation Planning in Myanmar 33

Figure 1. Tiger survey locations and status (1999– 2002) and estimated tiger distribution in Myanmar.

Conservation Actions for Myanmar Tigers practice however, full recovery in many places is un- likely because of intractable threats such as permanent In theory, with good management, tigers can re- human settlements; roads and railway lines; plantations bound to their former abundance in all parts of their of sugar cane, rubber, and oil palm; military camps, range in Myanmar where suitable conditions exist. In insurgents, or both, indicating availability of firearms; 34 A. J. Lynam and others

permanent cultivation; and extraction of timber spe- evidence of regulated hunting that leads to sustainable cies such as teak (Rao and others 2002). The NTAP harvests of tropical wildlife is equivocal (Robinson and (Myanmar Forest Department, 2003) will serve as a Bennett 2000), studies in have demonstrated that guide to the recovery of tiger populations in key parts large mammal populations increase under manage- of the national range where they currently persist, and ment regimes that emphasize active protection from to restoration of populations in areas where they have hunting (Madhusudhan and Karanth 2002). Ongoing been lost and where there is a reasonable probability of protection programs in Cambodia (Lynam 2004) and successful recovery. The plan was accepted by the Thailand (A.J. Lynam, personal observations) suggest Myanmar government and currently is being imple- similar results for primates, large birds, and medium- mented by the Forest Department at the direction of large mammals. the Minister of Forestry. We review the plan and discuss As in many other parts of Southeast Asia, protected what will be necessary to implement each of its nine areas in Myanmar generally suffer from a low staffing elements. Where appropriate, we refer to examples of and enforcement infrastructure (e.g., guard posts, successes and failures from other tiger range countries. vehicles) relative to their size. Although hunting in these reserves is prohibited by law, elevated levels of Suppress All Killing of Tigers and the Illegal Trade in protection will be needed to maintain tiger prey pop- Tiger Products ulations. For example, to match staffing levels found in some of the more effective tropical parks (3 staff/100 In any of the range countries, this is a primary km2; Bruner and others 2001), 200 protection staff challenge for tiger managers due to the high com- would be needed in the 6,450-km2 core area of the new mercial value of tigers and persecution by owners of Hukaung Valley Tiger Reserve. However, because of livestock. A number of steps will be necessary to arrest budget limitations and a lack of skilled labor, only one- the killing of tigers in Myanmar. First, the existing third of this number could be realistically deployed, Protection of Wildlife and Protected Areas Law should but would provide at least a deterrent against poach- be amended to enable implementation of CITES), to ing. Forestry staff should be empowered to enforce which Myanmar signed on in 1997. Putting more bite wildlife laws outside protected areas, where many into the law would include imposing a fine structure important wildlife populations lie. Conservation for offenders commensurate with the commercial va- awareness lectures and stiff penalties discourage lue of tigers. Second, accelerated wildlife awareness poaching and transport of illegal wildlife in Cambodia training for local officials will be necessary, and gov- (M. Soriyun, personal communication) and are also ernment staff in tiger areas should be recruited to needed to deter wildlife offenders in Myanmar. participate in tiger conservation. Third, a national The Ministry of Forestry should amend domestic wildlife enforcement and investigations unit must be legislation to enable CITES implementation, and also developed to suppress trade, trafficking, illegal killing to upgrade the national protection status for large and capture, habitat destruction, and other wildlife ungulates that are potential tiger prey species, such as crimes, and staff must be recruited to join the unit. Asiatic buffalo (Bubalis bubalis), hog deer (Axis porci- Successful initiatives, such as IndonesiaÕs Wildlife nus), red muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak). Restrictions Crimes Unit (Lee and others 2005) could serve as a should be imposed on commercial farming of other model. Fourth, incidences of livestock predation by ungulate species because the farms may become con- large cats are rarely reported in Myanmar, but probably duits for illegal trafficking of wild animals from na- amount to a few cases each year. Because of this, it tional forests. would be relatively inexpensive to offer the affected farmers some kind of compensation for their losses. Improve Forestry Management to Stop Further Loss Several tiger range states (e.g., Russia, , India) of Tiger Habitat and Restore Degraded Habitat have explored using compensation and other strategies Some important tiger areas lie in active forest har- to reduce animosity among locals who might retaliate vest zones (e.g., the Tenasserim Hills), which include by killing tigers. parts of Kayin (Karen), Mon, and Tanintharyi Divi- sions. Traditional methods of harvest, which involve 30- Reduce Killing of Tiger Prey Species and year cutting cycles and the use of elephants for removal Associated Illegal Trade of logs, reduces environmental damage, as compared Reduction in the availability of large ungulate prey with other extraction methods, and should be applied is an important causal factor in the local extinction of in all forest concessions in accordance with national tiger populations (Karanth and Stith 1999). Although regulations. Commercial logging opens up tropical Tiger Conservation Planning in Myanmar 35

forests, making wildlife populations inside them sus- where possible. Existing logging roads should be ceptible to hunting, which then is notoriously difficult closed or access on them restricted. This will be espe- to control (Robinson and others 1999). Hunting must cially challenging in Tanintharyi Division, where be banned in forest harvest areas in Myanmar. Coop- ongoing projects will expand the highway network by erative programs involving conservation nongovern- 1,000 km in the next few years, with inevitable loss and ment organizations and logging companies in Malaysia subdivision of habitat. A balance needs to be found and Cambodia have helped to reduce hunting and between the desire for national development through destructive logging practices (Gumal and Chin 2003; expansion of tourism, transportation infrastructure, Lynam 2004). In Myanmar, this might be achieved by and plantations on the one hand and tiger conserva- engaging the Myanmar Timber Enterprise in conser- tion on the other. vation planning. Conservation awareness training for forest harvest staff would be a part of such programs. Establish Protected Areas, Ecological Corridors, and Priority Management Areas to Protect Wild Improve Forestry Management to Reduce Tigers and Their Habitat Intrusions of People Into Tiger Habitats and To ensure even a partial probability of tiger persis- Improve Planning to Avoid Development in Critical tence in the long term, populations numbering several Tiger Areas hundred tigers would need to be maintained (Reed Perhaps the most challenging aspect of tiger con- and others 2003). On the basis of known ranging pat- servation will involve reclaiming plantations and terns (Smith and others 1987), this number of animals revoking mining licenses in key tiger areas. For exam- would require thousands of square kilometers of hab- ple, in the Hukaung Valley Tiger Reserve, more than itat. Only in recent years have areas been incorporated 9,000 people occupy lands around five major gold for the purpose of protecting entire landscapes for mines (Myanmar Forest Department, unpublished wildlife Myanmar (Rao and others 2002). Existing data). Thousands of hectares of natural vegetation smaller protected areas with tigers should be enlarged around these mines have been removed or degraded, to allow for expansion of populations. There has been thus reducing available habitats for tigers. The mines good progress in this area, for example, with the should be closed and vegetation rehabilitation should enlargement of the Hukaung Valley Tiger Reserve be commenced, but realistically, this will take years to from 6,450 to 21,802 km2 to create the worldÕs largest accomplish. Closing the mines will mean closing mar- tiger reserve (Rabinowitz 2004). Together with the kets for wild meat (e.g., sambar, wild boar, gaur, por- adjacent Bumphabum and Hponkanrazi Wildlife cupine), which are supplied by hunters who poach in Sanctuaries and Hkakaborazi National Park, the and around the mines (Rabinowitz 2004). Northern Forest Complex protects a landscape the size In the short term and as part of its policy, the Forest of Belgium (>30,000 km2). Forest reserves (12,000 Department will create buffer zones inside tiger re- km2) in the Tenasserim Hills represent excellent serves (e.g., Hukaung Valley Tiger Reserve, Htamanthi opportunities for expansion of the protected area sys- Wildlife Sanctuary) to allow rights and privileges for tem in southern Myanmar (Salter 1994). New pro- local people to extract certain resources such as rattan, tected areas, Tanintharyi National Park (2,590 km2) bamboo, and other nontimber forest products, but not and Lenya Wildlife Sanctuary (1,766 km2), already to hunt. Additional areas in which no extraction is al- incorporate some of these tiger habitats. The proposed lowed (i.e., Strict Conservation Zones) should be de- Tanintharyi Nature Reserve will add a further 1,700 fined and enforced by ranger patrols. Proactive km2. Management plans are required for all protected separation of tigers from people in this way may help to areas, but the plans for areas that include tigers must reduce conflicts that result in the loss of tigers specify local solutions for managing tiger populations, (Madhusudan and Karanth 2002; Nyhus and Tilson such as restrictions on human use (see preceding sec- 2004). Local people will need to accept restrictions on tion). access to tiger areas. To encourage acceptance, a tiger education curriculum already tested in India and Improve International Cooperation and Establish Malaysia (Naiman 2002) is currently being adapted for Transboundary Protected Areas to Maintain use in Myanmar. Connectivity of Tiger Habitat Across International Tiger survival can be negatively affected in land- Boundaries scapes altered by roads (Kerley and others 2002). The Myanmar includes the most extensive wildlands for construction of new public roads through Myanmar large mammals in Asia (Leimgruber and others 2003), forest reserves that support tigers should be avoided but cross-border links give them even greater potential. 36 A. J. Lynam and others

The most important links are with forests in Thailand Respected people with local knowledge about wildlife and India. Forest reserves and protected areas in the should be recruited to run such programs, and to Tenasserim Hills form a corridor linking important ti- participate in conservation activities and foster good ger habitats in ThailandÕs western and Kaeng Krachan relations with tiger conservation staff. This has already Forest complexes, and together comprise a 39,000-km2 begun in the Hukaung Valley, with Lisu and Naga transboundary complex. Similarly, the Northern Forest hunters hired as rangers, guides, and field assistants. Complex and adjacent protected forests in northeast- Public awareness could be increased if tiger television ern India amount to some 36,000 km2 of protected documentaries available on international cable televi- lands. Ideally, antipoaching patrols, cross-border trade sion channels were made available on local Myanmar monitoring, and tiger surveys would be coordinated television. across borders. In reality, because of vastly different land use practices and forest management policies, Define Roles and Responsibilities of Personnel security, staffing, and access issues, the best that can be Responsible for Tiger Conservation hoped for is a regular exchange of information on is- Wardens of reserves where tigers exist need special sues concerning transborder tiger populations (e.g., training to help them manage conservation resources cross-border trade) among the relevant agencies. for tigers more effectively. Some of these wardens Workshops should be held with local officials to gather should visit model wildlife reserves in India (e.g., relevant information on these issues, to increase Nagarahole and Badhra) to observe day-to-day opera- awareness of tigers, and to facilitate cooperation to tions and bring back skills and ideas to apply in suppress threats to tigers. Spatially explicit databases Myanmar reserves. Beyond this, a training curriculum based on updated tiger conservation units (Dinerstein should be developed to provide annual in-service and others 1997) that cover the transboundary areas courses in leadership skills, decision making, planning, will be of use in future conservation planning. protection, use of information and technology, and personnel management in accordance with ASEAN Monitor the Status of Tiger and Prey Populations to guidelines (Appleton and others 2003). This would Assess the Effectiveness of Conservation Efforts build upon the experience that most wardens have and Provide Guidance for Improvement received through training programs with international The management of tiger populations has already conservation nongovernmental organizations. Finally, begun in the Northern Forest Complex as part of new roles for junior staff in key tiger reserves should be protected area initiatives. Preliminary evidence from clearly defined by their wardens in accordance with field surveys in the Hukaung Valley suggests that tigers Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division standards. can be found widely across available habitat (WCS, unpublished data), but because conservation resources Challenges for Implementation are limited, management of tigers will focus on key habitats and core areas. Future activities will involve Implementing the nine-point NTAP will necessitate estimation and monitoring of tiger and prey popula- tackling the full range of factors that threaten the sur- tions, as well as creation of spatially explicit databases vival of MyanmarÕs wild tigers. The scope of the challenge to monitor trends in human use. In the Tenasserim makes this a complicated and daunting task at every le- Hills, information on tigers is limited, so a first priority vel. Many of the issues are cross-sectoral, and they will will be to establish tiger occupancy patterns in the require the exploration of approaches that do not fall Tanintharyi National Park, the Lenya River National within the tradition of wildlife management in Asia. Al- Park, and the proposed Tanintharyi Nature Reserve. though we have specified what should be done, the ways Field monitoring of tiger and prey should be evaluated and means remain to be determined for many of the using standardized techniques (Karanth and Nichols actions. Fortunately, interest and concern about Myan- 2002), and forest staff should be trained in these marÕs conservation and developmental issues are techniques, which involve the use of camera traps and increasing, and the new leadership of the Ministry of line-transect surveys. Forestry is strongly committed to the conservation cause. Already, implementation of the plan is progressing, Improve Public Awareness of the Importance of with the setting aside of large wildland areas for tigers Tiger Conservation to Increase Support From Local and other wildlife. However, the challenges to main- People tain and manage these areas are staggering, and new Wildlife education programs are needed to dis- innovative mechanisms of financial support (e.g., courage hunting by local people in key tiger areas. through private donors) must be explored and Tiger Conservation Planning in Myanmar 37

implemented to compensate staff and new programs. aimed at securing the future of the tiger must be rep- Training staff to understand and enforce the new rules licated in earnest across its range. and regulations is the first step to building professional capacity, but managers and decision makers must ultimately address the incentives necessary to induce Acknowledgments competent parks personnel to work under arduous and A National Tiger Action Plan for the Union of dangerous living conditions. Likewise, educating local Myanmar was made possible by the Minister of Forestry people to understand and respect the new restrictions Director-Generals U Soe Tint, U Than Shwe, U Kyaw must be followed by viable alternatives of support. Tint, U Shwe Kyaw, and U Soe Win Hlaing; former At the same time, incentives for cooperation of NWCD Director U Uga; territorial staff of the Forest protected area staff and legal residents inside tiger re- Department; the Local commander of Tanintharyi serves with forest protection staff and local officials Division; and U Tun Paw Oo, Director of the Tan- based outside these areas will be needed to reduce the intharyi Forest Department. U Aung Than wrote the killing of large ungulates that enter the domestic trade first tiger action plan, which served as a foundation for in wild meat, hides, traditional medicines, and tro- the current plan. We also thank staff of the Wildlife phies. The dependencies of people involved in illegal Conservation Society—Myanmar Program and the Na- wildlife trade must be reduced. In some areas where tional Tiger Survey Team including U Than Myint, U the price of wild meat is less than that of domestic Saw Htoo Tha Po, U Kyaw Thin Latt, U Myint Aung, U animals, small micro-loans and grants for ecofriendly Myint Maung, U Tin Mya Soe, U Htay Win, U Sein business ventures and community development ven- Aung Min, U Thein Lwin, U Khin Maung Htay, U Tun tures will be needed to increase production of livestock Tun Lwin, U Moe Myint Aung, U Zaw Naing Tun, and and decrease the harvest of wild animal populations. Daw Myint Myint Oo, for assistance in carrying out all The livestock then will need to be managed so they do aspects of the field program. Financial support for the not become prey for tigers! development and implementation of the Plan has Admittedly, unilateral actions taken by the Myanmar come from Save the Tiger Fund, a collaboration be- government may be insufficient to save tigers because tween the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation and of factors outside its control. For example, efforts to ExxonMobil, US Fish and Wildlife Service, private do- stop the killing and trade of tigers might reduce the nors, and the Wildlife Conservation Society. Finally, we supply end of the market, but if demand from neigh- thank Alan Rabinowitz for initiating tiger conservation boring countries is not addressed, some level of trade work in Myanmar and helping to inspire the creation would persist. Myanmar will need to enlist support and of some important protected areas. William Duck- cooperation from the governments of Thailand and worth, Joshua Ginsberg, Alan Rabinowitz, Madhu Rao, China in order to reduce trade and trafficking. John Seidensticker, and Christen Wemmer provided Deforestation is occurring at relatively high rates, but it comments on earlier drafts, which greatly improved is concentrated in border areas and involves neighbor the final manuscript. countries (Global Witness 2003; Rao and others 2002). Stopping the loss of tiger habitat in transborder areas and stemming cross-border trade will be among the Literature Cited biggest challenges for implementation. Appleton, M. R., G. I. Texon, and M. T. Uriarte. 2003. The NTAP was initiated in 2003, and an ambitious 5- Competence standards for protected area jobs in South year schedule was adopted (Myanmar Forest Depart- East Asia. ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Con- ment 2003) to stabilize tigers, prey, and habitat, which servation, Los Banos, Philippines. are ‘‘measurable currencies’’ for tiger conservation Aung, M. submitted. Policy and practice in MyanmarÕs pro- (Ginsberg 2001). Given complex politics and other tected area system. 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