Comparative Study on Some Physical and Chemical Properties of Ant ,Wasp and Termite Insects Nest-Mud Huda Yousif Elkheir Ismael

Comparative Study on some Physical and Chemical Properties of Ant ,Wasp and Termite Insects Nest-Mud Huda Yousif Elkheir Ismael

B.Sc. in Animal Production ,Faculty of Agriculture ,University of Khartoum,1994 A Dissertation Submitted to the University of Gezira in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Master of Science In

Biosciences and Biotechnology (Biotechnology) Center of Biosciences and Biotechnology Faculty of Engineering and Technology

May 2015

Comparative Study on some Physical and Chemical Properties of Ant ,Wasp, and Termite Insects Nest-Mud

Huda Yousif Elkheir Esmael

Supervision Committee:

Name Position Signature

Dr.Elfatih Elaagib Awad Elkarim Main Supervisor ………………………

Dr.Mutaman Ali Kehail Co-supervisor ……………………..

Date:May,2015

Comparative Study on some Physical and Chemical Properties of Ant,Wasp and Termite Insects Nest-Mud

Huda Yousif Elkheir Ismael

Examination Committee:

Name Position Signature

Dr.Elfatih Elaagib Awad Elkarim Chairperson ……………………….

Prof.Elnaeem Abdalla Ali External Examiner ……………………….

Dr. Yasir Mohamed Abdelrahim Internal Examiner ………………………..

Date of Examination:18,May,2015

Dedication

T0 Soul of my Father .…To my Mother

To my kids Hassan,Thoban and Yousif

And to all members of my family

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Acknowledgments

I thank Alla taala for all gifts that I have ,and this degree of study is one of them. Also I thank my mother Fathia and i thank my husband Abubakr very much .A great deal of thank to my brothers. A special thank for Dr.Mutaman Kehail And I thank also Dr.Elfatih Elaagib ,Prof.Elnaeem Ali and Dr.Yasir Mohamed. Thanks to staff of the soil laboratory, Agricultural Research Corporation, Wad Medani , Gezira state ,Sudan.

Comparative Study on some Physical and Chemical Properties of Ant ,Wasp and Termite Insects Nest-Mud

Huda Yousif Elkheir Ismael M.Sc. in Biosciences and Biotechnology (Biotechnology), April 2015 Center of Bioscience and Biotechnology Faculty of Engineering and Technology , University of Gezira

Abstract

Ants are eusocial insects (as same as termites) and , along with the related wasps belong to order Hymenoptera .They build their nests in a variety of places from mud mixed with varied organic compounds of their saliva. The aim of this study was to compare some physical and chemical properties of ants ,wasps and termites mud. Mud samples (about2kg for each sample) that used in this study were the nest-mud of the ant .termite and wasp insects ,where collected from the Main Campus ,University of Gezira . Some common analysis (pH ,percentage of organic carbon ,phosphorus, electrical conductivity ,moisture ,bulk density and porosity) were run at the Soil Laboratory ,Agricultural Research Corporation, Wad Medani, Gezira State, Sudan. The results of this study showed that ,the pH was nearly similar (ranged from 7.2 to 7.6) between the tested samples ,while that , the organic carbon (%) was higher in the ant (2.18) compared to wasp (0.93) and termite (0.62) mud .The available phosphorus was very high in wasp soil (120.4 mg/100g) compared to 26.4 mg/100g in ant and 7.4 mg/100g in termite mud .The electrical conductivity (ds/m) was approximately equal in ant and wasp nest-mud (6.1 and 6.4,respectively), compared to 2.6 in termite nest – mud. The bulk density (g/cm3) in the nest-mud was relatively similar (1.41 in ant,1.46 in termite and 1.43 in wasp) as same as porosity (ranged between 45-47%) in the three types .Also ,the moisture was similar in wasp and termite nest-mud (37.7%) and it was little higher in ant mud (39.3%).The recommendation of this study was to run more studies about the presence of high level of phosphorus in wasp nest-mud and how to make use of these types of mud.

دراسة مقارنة لبعض الخصائص الفيزيائية والكيميائية لطين اعشاش حشرات النمل، الدبور واالرضة

هدى يوسف الخير اسماعيل

ماجستير العلوم في العلوم والتقنية الحيوية )تقنية حيوية(، ابريل 2015

مركز العلوم والتقنية البيولوجية

كلية الهندسة والتكنلوجيا

جامعة الجزيرة

ملخص الدراسة

النمل من الحشرات االجتماعية الحقيقية )مثل االرضة ( ،وهي مثل قريبها الدبور تنتمي لرتبة غشائيات االجنحة .تبني هذه الحشرات أعشاشها في مختلف االماكن من الطين المخلوط بمواد عضوية من لعابها ،هدفت هذه الدراسة لمقارنة بعض الخصائص الفيزيائية والكيميائية لطين أعشاش حشرات النمل ، الدبور واالرضة . احضرت عينات الطين )حوالي 2 كجم لكل عينة( التي تم استخدامها في هذا البحث هي طين اعشاش النمل ،الدبور واالرضة من المجمع الرئيسي ، جامعة الجزيرة. اجريت بعض التحاليل الشائعة )درجة األس الهيدروجيني ،النسبة المئوية للكربون العضوي ، الفوسفور، الموصلية الكهربية، الرطوبة ، الكثافة والمسامية( في معمل التربة، هيئة البحوث الزراعية ، ود مدني، والية الجزيرة ، السودان. اوضحت نتائج الدراسة ان درجة األس الهيدروجيني تقريبا متشابهة )تتراوح بين 7,2 و7,6( بين العينات المختبرة ، بينما نسبة الكربون العضوي كانت مرتفعة في طين بيوت النمل )2,18( مقارنة بطين بيوت الدبور )0.93( واالرضة )0.62(. كان الفوسفور المتاح عالي جدا في طين الدبور)120.4 ملج/100جم( مقارنة مع )26.4ملج/100جم( في طين النمل و)7.4 ملج /100جم( في طين األرضة. الموصلية الكهربية كانت متساوية تقريبا في طين أعشاش النمل والدبور )6.1 و6.4 علي التوالي( ، مقارنة ب2.6 في طين أعشاش االرضة . الكثافة )جم/سم3( في طين األعشاش نسبيا متشابهة )1.41 في النمل ،1,46 في االرضة و1.43 في الدبور( مثلها مثل المسامية )والتي تتراوح بين 45-47%( في الثالثة انواع . ايضا كانت الرطوبة متشابهة في طين الدبور واالرضة )37.7%( بينما كانت اعلي قليال في طين النمل. يوصي هذا البحث باجراء المزيد من الدراسات عن تواجد المستوى العالي للفوسفور في طين أعشاش الدبور وكيف يمكن االستفادة من هذه األنواع من األعشاش الطينية .

Table of Contents

Subject Page Dedication iii Acknowledgments iv Abstract v Arabic abstract vi Table of contents vii List of tables ix CHAPTER ONE:INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER TWO:LITERATURE REVIEW 3 2.1 Ants 3 2.1.1 Distribution and diversity 3 2.1.2 Development and reproduction 4 2.1.3 Behaviour and ecology 5 2.1.4 Nest construction 7 2.1.5 Locomotion 9 2.1.6 Cooperation and competition 9 2.1.7 . Relationship with humans 13 2.1.8 As pests 14 2.1.9 In science and technology 15 2.2 Termites 15 2.1.1 Nests 16 2.2.2. Mounds 17 2.2.3. In agriculture 18 2.2.4. In architecture 19 2.3. Wasps 20 2.3.1. Diet 21 2.3.2. Pollination 21 2.3.3. Parasitism 21 2.3.3. Nesting habits 22 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS 23 3.1. Materials 23 3.2. Methods 23

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3.2.1. Approximate chemical analysis 23 3.2.1.1. pH of paste 23 3.2.1.2. Percentage of organic carbon 23 3.2.1.3. Available phosphorus 24 3.2.1.4. Electrical conductivity (E.C) 24 3.2.2. Physiochemical characteristics 24 3.2.2.1. Moisture content(MC) 24 3.2.2.2. Bulk density 25 3.2.2.3.Porosity 25 CHAPTER FOUR:RESULTS and DISCUTIONS 26 4.1 Chemical properties 26 4.2 Physical properties 28 CHAPTER FIVE :CONCLUSIONS and RECOMMENDATIONS 30 5.1 Conclusions 30 5.2 Recommendations 30 References 31

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List of Tables

Table No. Title Page 4.1 Chemical characteristics of wasp, ant and termite nest-mud 27

4.2 Bulk density , porosity, and moisture content of ant, termite 29 and wasp nest-mud

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Ants are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from wasp-like ancestors in the mid-Cretaceous period between 110 and 130 million years ago and diversified after the rise of flowering plants. More than 12,500 of an estimated total of 22,000 species have been classified (Agosti and Johnson, 2003). Ants have colonized almost every landmass on Earth. The only places lacking indigenous ants are Antarctica and a few remote or inhospitable islands. Ants thrive in most ecosystems and may form 15–25% of the terrestrial animal biomass (Flannery, 2011). Their success in so many environments has been attributed to their social organization and their ability to modify habitats, tap resources, and defend themselves. Their long co-evolution with other species has led to mimetic, commensal, parasitic, and mutualistic relationships (Schultz, 1999). Ant societies have division of labor, communication between individuals, and an ability to solve complex problems. These parallels with human societies have long been an inspiration and subject of study. Many human cultures make use of ants in cuisine, medication, and rituals. Some species are valued in their role as biological pest control agents (Dicke et al., 2004). Their ability to exploit resources may bring ants into conflict with humans; however, as they can damage crops and invades buildings. A wasp is any insect of the order Hymenoptera and suborder Apocrita that is neither a bee nor an ant. It is medium sized flying insect that is found all around the world. The wasp is known for its black and yellow markings which mean that some wasp and bee species are commonly confused. The wasp is found in all the countries in the world, on every continent with the exception of the Polar Regions. There are around 75,000 recognized species of wasp worldwide that grow to around 2/3 inch long (Norman and Charles, 2014).

The wasp is most commonly known for its poisonous sting that if a human is stung can often swell into a painful lump that takes a few days to soothe. Some people are allergic to wasp stings meaning the wasp sting can be fatal. Not all wasps can sting though but those that can often die once they have used their sting has it is joined onto their rear end of often becomes dislodged. When a wasp dies it releases a smell (called a pheromone) which warns the other wasps of danger and that it needs help. Despite their bright colours to deter predators, wasps are eaten by a number of different animals around the world including birds, amphibians, reptiles and various species of mammal. The queen wasp lays her eggs inside the nest which hatch in a number of days. When the wasp larvae hatch they are cared for by the other wasps in the nest and begin to hunt for food to bring back to the nest. Wasps are known to travel nearly half a kilometer away from the nest in search of food (Richter, 2000). Termites are a group of eusocial insects that were classified at the taxonomic rank order Isoptera, but are now accepted as the infraorder Isoptera, of the cockroach order Blattodea (Beccaloni and Eggleton, 2013). While termites are commonly known, especially in Australia, as "white ants," they are not closely related to the ants. As eusocial insects, termites live in colonies that, at maturity, number from several hundred to several million individuals. Termites communicate during a variety of behavioral activities with signals. Colonies use decentralized, self-organized systems of activity guided by swarm intelligence which exploit food sources and environments unavailable to any single insect acting alone. A typical colony contains nymphs (semi mature young), workers, soldiers, and reproductive individuals of both sexes, sometimes containing several egg-laying queens (Thompson, 2007). Objective: The aim of this of this work is to study some physical and chemical properties of ant, wasp and termite insects' nest-mud.

CHAPTER TWO LITRERRATURE REVIEW

2.1 Ants They are easily identified by their elbowed antennae and the distinctive node- like structure that forms their slender waists. Ants form colonies that range in size from a few dozen predatory individuals living in small natural cavities to highly organized colonies that may occupy large territories and consist of millions of individuals. Larger colonies consist mostly of sterile, wingless females forming castes of "workers", "soldiers", or other specialized groups. Nearly all ant colonies also have some fertile males called "drones" and one or more fertile females called "queens". The colonies are described as super-organisms because the ants appear to operate as a unified entity, collectively working together to support the colony (Flannery, 2011). Some species, such as the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta), are regarded as invasive species, establishing themselves in areas where they have been introduced accidentally (Hölldobler and Wilson, 2009). 2.1.1 Distribution and diversity Ants are found on all continents except Antarctica, and only a few large islands, such as Greenland, Iceland, parts of Polynesia and the Hawaiian Islands lack native ant species. Ants occupy a wide range of ecological niches, and are able to exploit a wide range of food resources either as direct or indirect herbivores, predators, and scavengers. Most species are omnivorous generalists, but a few are specialist feeders. Their ecological dominance may be measured by their biomass and estimates in different environments suggest that they contribute 15–20% (on average and nearly 25% in the tropics) of the total terrestrial animal biomass, which exceeds that of the vertebrates (Shattuck, 1999). Ants range in size from 0.75 to 52 mm in the largest species being the fossil Titanomyrma giganteum, the queen of which was 6 cm (2.4 in) long with a wing span of 15 cm. Ants vary in colour; most ants are red or black, but a few species are green and some tropical species have a metallic luster. More than 12,000 species are currently

known (with upper estimates of the potential existence of about 22,000), with the greatest diversity in the tropics. Taxonomic studies continue to resolve the classification and systematic of ants. Online databases of ant species, including Ant Base and the Hymenoptera Name Server, help to keep track of the known and newly described species. The relative ease with which ants may be sampled and studied in ecosystems has made them useful as indicator species in biodiversity studies (Schaal, 2006). 2.1.2. Development and reproduction: The life of an ant starts from an egg. If the egg is fertilized, the progeny will be female (diploid); if not, it will be male (haploid). Ants develop by complete metamorphosis with the larva stages passing through a pupal stage before emerging as an adult. The larva is largely immobile and is fed and cared for by workers. Food is given to the larvae by trophallaxis, a process in which an ant regurgitates liquid food held in its crop. This is also how adults share food, stored in the "social stomach". Larvae, especially in the later stages, may also be provided solid food such as trophic eggs, pieces of prey, and seeds brought by workers. The larvae grow through a series of four or five moults and enter the pupal stage. The pupa has the appendages free and not fused to the body as in a butterfly pupa. The differentiation into queens and workers (which are both female), and different castes of workers (when they exist), is influenced in some species by the nutrition the larvae obtain. Genetic influences and the control of gene expression by the developmental environment is complex and the determination of caste continues to be a subject of research (Anderson et al., 2008). Larvae and pupae need to be kept at fairly constant temperatures to ensure proper development, and so often, are moved around among the various brood chambers within the colony. A new worker spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young. It then digging another nests work, and later to defending the nest and foraging. These changes are sometimes fairly sudden, and define what are called temporal castes. An explanation for the sequence is suggested by the high casualties involved in foraging, making it an acceptable risk only for ants that are older and are likely to die soon of natural causes (Traniello, 1989).

Most ant species have a system in which only the queen and breeding females have the ability to mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens, while others may exist without queens. Workers with the ability to reproduce are called "gamer gates" and colonies that lack queens are then called gamer gate colonies; colonies with queens are said to be queen-right. The winged male ants, called drones, emerge from pupae along with the breeding females (although some species, such as army ants, have wingless queens), and do nothing in life except eat and mate. Most ants are univoltine, producing a new generation each year. During the species-specific breeding period, new reproductive, females and winged males leave the colony in what is called a nuptial flight. Typically, the males take flight before the females. Males then use visual cues to find a common mating ground, for example, a landmark such as a pine tree to which other males in the area converge. Males secrete a mating pheromone that females follow. Females of some species mate with just one male, but in others they may mate with as many as ten or more different males (Hölldobler and Wilson, 2009). Mated females then seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, they break off their wings and begin to lay and care for eggs. The females stores the sperm they obtain during their nuptial flight to selectively fertilize future eggs. The first workers to hatch are weak and smaller than later workers, but they begin to serve the colony immediately. They enlarge the nest, forage for food, and care for the other eggs. This is how new colonies start in most ant species. Species that have multiple queens may have a queen leaving the nest along with some workers to found a colony at a new site (Hölldobler and Wilson, 2009), a process akin to swarming in honeybees. 2.1.3 Behaviour and ecology: Ants communicate with each other using pheromones, sounds, and touch (Jackson and Ratnieks, 2006). The use of pheromones as chemical signals is more developed in ants, such as the red harvester ant, than in other hymenopteran' groups. Like other insects, ants perceive smells with their long, thin, and mobile antennae. The paired antennae provide information about the direction and intensity of scents. Since most ants live on the ground, they use the soil surface to leave pheromone trails that may be followed by other ants. In species that forage in groups, a forager that finds food marks a trail on the way back to the colony; this trail is followed by other ants, these ants then reinforce the

trail when they head back with food to the colony. When the food source is exhausted, no new trails are marked by returning ants and the scent slowly dissipates. This behavior helps ants deal with changes in their environment. For instance, when an established path to a food source is blocked by an obstacle, the foragers leave the path to explore new routes. If an ant is successful, it leaves a new trail marking the shortest route on its return. Successful trails are followed by more ants, reinforcing better routes and gradually identifying the best path. Ants use pheromones for more than just making trails. A crushed ant emits an alarm pheromone that sends nearby ants into attack frenzy and attracts more ants from farther away. Several ant species even use "propaganda pheromones" to confuse enemy ants and make them fight among themselves (D'Ettorre and Heinze, 2001). Pheromones are produced by a wide range of structures including Dufour's glands, poison glands and glands on the hindgut, pygidium, rectum, sternum, and hind tibia. Pheromones also are exchanged, mixed with food, and passed by trophallaxis, transferring information within the colony (Detrain et al., 1999). This allows other ants to detect what task group (e.g., foraging or nest maintenance) other colony members belong to. In ant species with queen castes, when the dominant queen stops producing a specific pheromone, workers begin to raise new queens in the colony. Some ants produce sounds by stridulating, using the gaster segments and their mandibles. Sounds may be used to communicate with colony members or with other species (Hickling and Brown, 2000). Ants attack and defend themselves by biting and, in many species, by stinging, often injecting or spraying chemicals, such as formic acid in the case of formicine ants, alkaloids and piperidines in fire ants, and a variety of protein components in other ants. Bullet ants (Paraponera), located in Central and South America, are considered to have the most painful sting of any insect, although it is usually not fatal to humans. This sting is given the highest rating on the Schmidt Sting Pain Index. The sting of jack jumper ants can be fatal and anti-venom has been developed for it (Brown et al., 2005). Fire ants, Solenopsis spp., are unique in having a poison sac containing piperidine alkaloids. Their stings are painful and can be dangerous to hypersensitive people (Stafford, 1996).

Trap-jaw ants of the genus Odontomachus are equipped with mandibles called trap-jaws, which snap shut faster than any other predatory appendages within the animal kingdom (Patek et al., 2006). One study of Odontomachus bauri recorded peak speeds of between 126 and 230 km/h (78 – 143 mph), with the jaws closing within 130 microseconds on average. The ants were also observed to use their jaws as a catapult to eject intruders or fling themselves backward to escape a threat. Before striking, the ant opens its mandibles extremely widely and locks them in this position by an internal mechanism. Energy is stored in a thick band of muscle and explosively released when triggered by the stimulation of sensory organs resembling hairs on the inside of the mandibles. The mandibles also permit slow and fine movements for other tasks. Trap-jaws also are seen in the following genera: Anochetus, Orectognathus, and Strumigenys, plus some members of the Dacetini tribe (Gronenberg, 1996) which are viewed as examples of convergent evolution. Suicidal defense by workers are also noted in a Brazilian ant, Forelius pusillus, where a small group of ants leaves the security of the nest after sealing the entrance from the outside each evening (Tofilski et al., 2008). In addition to defense against predators, ants need to protect their colonies from pathogens. Some worker ants maintain the hygiene of the colony and their activities include undertaking or necrophory, the disposal of dead nest-mates (Julian and Cahan, 1999). Oleic acid has been identified as the compound released from dead ants that triggers necrophoric behavior in Atta Mexicana. Nests may be protected from physical threats such as flooding and overheating by elaborate nest architecture (Tschinkel, 2004). Workers of Cataulacus muticus, an arboreal species that lives in plant hollows, respond to flooding by drinking water inside the nest, and excreting it outside. Camponotus anderseni, which nests in the cavities of wood in mangrove habitats, deals with submergence under water by switching to anaerobic respiration (Nielsen and Christian, 2007). 2.1.4 Nest construction Complex nests are built by many ant species, but other species are nomadic and do not build permanent structures. Ants may form subterranean nests or build them on trees. These nests may be found in the ground, under stones or logs, inside logs, hollow stems, or even acorns. The materials used for construction include soil and plant matter,

and ants carefully select their nest sites; Temnothorax albipennis will avoid sites with dead ants, as these may indicate the presence of pests or disease. They are quick to abandon established nests at the first sign of threats. The army ants of South America, such as the Eciton burchellii species, and the driver ants of Africa do not build permanent nests, but instead, alternate between nomadism and stages where the workers form a temporary nest (bivouac) from their own bodies, by holding each other together (Hölldobler and Wilson, 2009). Weaver ant (Oecophylla spp.) workers build nests in trees by attaching leaves together, first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then inducing their larvae to produce silk as they are moved along the leaf edges. Similar forms of nest construction are seen in some species of Polyrhachis (Robson and Kohout, 2005). Formica polyctena, among other ant species, constructs nests that maintain a relatively constant interior temperature that aids in the development of larvae. The ants maintain the nest temperature by choosing the location, nest materials, controlling ventilation and maintaining the heat from solar radiation, worker activity and metabolism, and in some moist nests, microbial activity in the nest materials." Some ant species, such as those that use natural cavities, can be opportunistic and make use of the controlled micro-climate provided inside human dwellings and other artificial structures to house their colonies and nest structures (Friedrich et al., 2009). Most ants are generalist predators, scavengers, and indirect herbivores. But a few have evolved specialized ways of obtaining nutrition. It is believed that many ant species that engage in indirect herbivore rely on specialized symbiosis with their gut microbes to upgrade the nutritional value of the food they collect and allow them to survive in nitrogen poor regions, such as rain forest canopies (Anderson et al., 2012). Leafcutter ants (Atta and Acromyrmex) feed exclusively on a fungus that grows only within their colonies. They continually collect leaves which are taken to the colony, cut into tiny pieces and placed in fungal gardens. Workers specialize in related tasks according to their sizes. The largest ants cut stalks, smaller workers chew the leaves and the smallest tend the fungus. Leafcutter ants are sensitive enough to recognize the reaction of the fungus to different plant material, apparently detecting chemical signals from the fungus. If a particular type of leaf is found to be toxic to the fungus, the colony will no longer collec

t it. The ants feed on structures produced by the fungi called gongylidia. Symbiotic bacteria on the exterior surface of the ants produce antibiotics that kill bacteria introduced into the nest that may harm the fungi (Schultz, 1999). 2.1.5 Locomotion: The female worker ants do not have wings and reproductive females lose their wings after their mating flights in order to begin their colonies. Therefore, unlike their wasp ancestors, most ants travel by walking. Some species are capable of leaping. For example, Jerdon's jumping ant (Harpegnathos saltator) is able to jump by synchronizing the action of its mid and hind pairs of legs. There are several species of gliding ant including Cephalotes atratus; this may be a common trait among most arboreal ants. Ants with this ability are able to control the direction of their descent while falling (Yanoviak et al., 2005). Other species of ants can form chains to bridge gaps over water, underground, or through spaces in vegetation. Some species also form floating rafts that help them survive floods. These rafts may also have a role in allowing ants to colonize islands (Morrison, 1998). Polyrhachis sokolova, a species of ant found in Australian mangrove swamps, can swim and live in underwater nests. Since they lack gills, they go to trapped pockets of air in the submerged nests to breathe (Clay and Andersen, 1996). 2.1.6. Cooperation and competition: Meat-eater ants feeding on a cicada, social ants cooperate and collectively gather food. Not all ants have the same kind of societies. The Australian bulldog ants are among the biggest and most basal of ants. Like virtually all ants, they are eusocial, but their social behavior is poorly developed compared to other species. Each individual hunts alone, using her large eyes instead of chemical senses to find prey (Crozier and Jefferson, 1988). Some species (such as Tetramorium caespitum) attack and take over neighboring ant colonies. Others are fewer expansionists, but just as aggressive; they invade colonies to steal eggs or larvae, which they either eat or raise as workers or slaves. Extreme specialists among these slave-raiding ants, such as the Amazon ants, are incapable of feeding themselves and need captured workers to survive. Captured workers of the enslaved species Temnothorax have evolved a counter strategy, destroying just the female

pupae of the slave-making Protomognathus americanus, but sparing the males who don't take part in slave-raiding as adults (Achenbach and Foitzik, 2009). The spider Myrmarachne plataleoides (female shown) mimics weaver ants to avoid predators. Ants form symbiotic associations with a range of species, including other ant species, other insects, plants, and fungi. They also are preyed on by many animals and even certain fungi. Some arthropod species spend part of their lives within ant nests, preying on ants, their larvae, and eggs, consuming the food stores of the ants, or avoiding predators. These inquilines may bear a close resemblance to ants. The nature of this ant mimicry (myrmecomorphy) varies, with some cases involving Batesian mimicry, where the mimic reduces the risk of predation. Others show Tasmanian mimicry, a form of mimicry seen only in inquilines Aphids and other hemipteran insects secrete sweet liquid called honeydew, when they feed on plant sap. The sugars in honeydew are a high-energy food source, which many ant species collect (Styrsky et al., 2007). In some cases, the aphids secrete the honeydew in response to ants tapping them with their antennae. The ants in turn keep predators away from the aphids and will move them from one feeding location to another. When migrating to a new area, many colonies will take the aphids with them, to ensure a continued supply of honeydew. Ants also tend mealy bugs to harvest their honeydew. Mealy bugs may become a serious pest of pineapples if ants are present to protect mealy bugs from their natural enemies (Jahn and Beardsley, 1996). Myrmecophilous (ant-loving) caterpillars of the butterfly family Lycaenidae (e.g., blues, coppers, or hairstreaks) are herded by the ants, led to feeding areas in the daytime, and brought inside the ants' nest at night. The caterpillars have a gland which secretes honeydew when the ants massage them. Some caterpillars produce vibrations and sounds that are perceived by the ants (DeVries, 1992). Other caterpillars have evolved from ant-loving to ant-eating: these myrmecophagous caterpillars secrete a pheromone that makes the ants act as if the caterpillar is one of their own larvae. The caterpillar is then taken into the ant nest where it feeds on the ant larvae. Fungus- growing ants that make up the tribe Attini, including leafcutter ants, cultivate certain species of fungus in the Leucoagaricus or Leucocoprinus genera of the Agaricaceae family. In this ant-fungus mutualism, both species depend on each other for survival. The ant Allomerus decemarticulatus has evolved a three-way association with the host plant, Hirtella

physophora (Chrysobalanaceae), and a sticky fungus which is used to trap their insect prey. Ants may obtain nectar from flowers such as the dandelion but are only rarely known to pollinate flowers. Lemon ants make devil's gardens by killing surrounding plants with their stings and leaving a pure patch of lemon ant trees (Duroia hirsuta). This modification of the forest provides the ants with more nesting sites inside the stems of the Duroia trees. Although some ants obtain nectar from flowers, pollination by ants is somewhat rare. Some plants have special nectar exuding structures, extra floral nectaries that provide food for ants, which in turn protect the plant from more damaging herbivorous insects. Species such as the bullhorn acacia (Acacia cornigera) in Central America have hollow thorns that house colonies of stinging ants (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) that defend the tree against insects, browsing mammals, and epiphytic vines. Isotopic labeling studies suggest that plants also obtain nitrogen from the ants (Fischer et al., 2003). In return, the ants obtain food from protein- and lipid-rich Beltian bodies. Another example of this type of ectosymbiosis comes from the Macaranga tree, which has stems adapted to house colonies of Crematogaster ants. Many tropical tree species have seeds that are dispersed by ants. Seed dispersal by ants or myrmecochory is widespread and new estimates suggest that nearly 9% of all plant species may have such ant associations (Hughes and Westoby, 1992). Some plants in fire-prone grassland systems are particularly dependent on ants for their survival and dispersal as the seeds are transported to safety below the ground. Many ant-dispersed seeds have special external structures, elaiosomes that are sought after by ants as food. A convergence, possibly a form of mimicry, is seen in the eggs of stick insects. They have an edible elaiosome-like structure and are taken into the ant nest where the young hatch (Hughes and Westoby, 1992). Most ants are predatory and some prey on and obtain food from other social insects including other ants. Some species specialize in preying on termites (Megaponera and Termitopone) while a few Cerapachyinae prey on other ants. Some termites, including Nasutitermes corniger, form associations with certain ant species to keep away predatory ant species (Quinet et al., 2005). The tropical wasp Mischocyttarus drewseni may build their nests in trees and cover them to protect themselves from ants. Other

wasps such as A. multipicta defend against ants by blasting them off the nest with bursts of wing buzzing (Jeanne, 1995). Stingless bees (Trigona and Melipona) use chemical defenses against ants. Certain species of ants have the power to drive certain wasps, such as Polybia occidentalis to extinction if they attack more than once and the wasps cannot keep up with rebuilding their nest. Fungi in the genera Cordyceps and Ophiocordyceps infect ants. Ants react to their infection by climbing up plants and sinking their mandibles into plant tissue. The fungus kills the ants, grows on their remains, and produces a fruiting body. It appears that the fungus alters the behavior of the ant to help disperse its spores. in a microhabitat that best suits the fungus Strepsipteran parasites also manipulate their ant host to climb grass stems, to help the parasite find mates (Wojcik, 1989). A nematode (Myrmeconema neotropicum) that infects canopy ants (Cephalotes atratus) causes the black-coloured gasters of workers to turn red. The parasite also alters the behavior of the ant, causing them to carry their gasters high. The conspicuous red gasters are mistaken by birds for ripe fruits, such as Hyeronima alchorneoides, and eaten. The droppings of the bird are collected by other ants and fed to their young, leading to further spread of the nematode (Poinar and Yanoviak, 2008). South American poison dart frogs in the genus Dendrobates feed mainly on ants, and the toxins in their skin may come from the ants (Caldwell, 1996). Army ants forage in a wide roving column, attacking any animals in that path that are unable to escape. In Central and South America, Eciton burchellii is the swarming ant most commonly attended by "ant-following" birds such as ant-birds and wood-creepers (Willis and Oniki, 1978). Birds indulge in a peculiar behavior called anting that, as yet, is not fully understood. Here birds rest on ant nests, or pick and drop ants onto their wings and feathers; this may be a means to remove ectoparasites from the birds. Anteaters, aardvarks, pangolins, echidnas and numbats have special adaptations for living on a diet of ants. These adaptations include long, sticky tongues to capture ants and strong claws to break into ant nests. Brown bears (Ursus arctos) have been found to feed on ants. About 12%, 16%, and 4% of their fecal volume in spring, summer, and autumn, respectively, is composed of ants (Swenson et al., 1999)

2.1.7. Relationship with humans: Weaver ants are used as a biological control for citrus cultivation in southern China. Ants perform many ecological roles that are beneficial to humans, including the suppression of pest populations and aeration of the soil. The use of weaver ants in citrus cultivation in southern China is considered one of the oldest known applications of biological control (Hölldobler and Wilson, 2009). On the other hand, ants may become nuisances when they invade buildings, or cause economic losses. In some parts of the world (mainly Africa and South America), large ants, especially army ants, are used as surgical sutures. The wound is pressed together and ants are applied along it. The ant seizes the edges of the wound in its mandibles and locks in place. The body is then cut off and the head and mandibles remain in place to close the wound. Some ants have toxic venom and are of medical importance. The species include Paraponera clavata (tocandira) and Dinoponera spp. (false tocandiras) of South America (Haddad et al., 2005). In South Africa, ants are used to help harvest rooibos (Aspalathus linearis), which are small seeds used to make a herbal tea. The plant disperses its seeds widely, making manual collection difficult. Black ants collect and store these and other seeds in their nest, where humans can gather them en masse. Up to half a pound (200 g) of seeds may be collected from one ant-heap. Although most ants survive attempts by humans to eradicate them, a few are highly endangered. These tend to be island species that have evolved specialized traits and risk being displaced by introduced ant species. Examples include the critically endangered Sri Lankan relict ant (Aneuretus simoni) and Adetomyrma venatrix of Madagascar (Chapman and Bourke, 2001). It has been estimated by E.O. Wilson that the total number of individual ants alive in the world at any one time is between one and ten quadrillion (short scale) (i.e. between 1015 and 1016). According to this estimate, the total biomass of all the ants in the world is approximately equal to the total biomass of the entire human race (Holldobler and Wilson, 2009). Ants and their larvae are eaten in different parts of the world. The eggs of two species of ants are used in Mexican escamoles. They are considered a form of insect caviar and can sell for as much as US$40 per pound ($90/kg) because they are seasonal and hard to find. Atta laevigata are toasted alive and eaten (DeFoliart, 1999).

In areas of India, and throughout Burma and Thailand, a paste of the green weaver ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) is served as a condiment with curry. Weaver ant eggs and larvae, as well as the ants, may be used in a Thai salad, yam, in a dish called yam khai mot daeng or red ant egg salad, a dish that comes from the Issan or north-eastern region of Thailand. Saville-Kent, in the Naturalist in Australia wrote "Beauty, in the case of the green ant, is more than skin-deep. Their attractive, almost sweetmeat-like translucency possibly invited the first essays at their consumption by the human species". Mashed up in water, after the manner of lemon squash, "these ants form a pleasant acid drink which is held in high favor by the natives of North Queensland, and is even appreciated by many European palates. In his First Summer in the Sierra, John Muir notes that the Digger Indians of California ate the tickling, acid gasters of the large jet-black carpenter ants. The Mexican Indians eat the replete workers, or living honey-pots, of the honey ant (Bequaert, 1921). 2.1.8 As pests: The tiny pharaoh ant is a major pest in hospitals and office blocks; it can make nests between sheets of paper. Some ant species are considered as pests. The presence of ants can be undesirable in places meant to be sterile. They can also come in the way of humans by their habit of raiding stored food, damaging indoor structures, causing damage to agricultural crops either directly or by aiding sucking pests or because of their stings and bite. The adaptive nature of ant colonies makes it nearly impossible to eliminate entire colonies and most pest management practices aim to control local populations and tend to be temporary solutions. Some of the ants classified as pests include the pavement ant, yellow crazy ant, sugar ants, the Pharaoh ant, carpenter ants, Argentine ant, odorous house ants, red imported fire ant, and European fire ant. Ant populations are managed by a combination of approaches that make use of chemical, biological and physical methods. Chemical methods include the use of insecticidal bait which is gathered by ants as food and brought back to the nest where the poison is inadvertently spread to other colony members through trophallaxis. Management is based on the species and techniques can vary according to the location and circumstance (Sapolsky, 2001).

2.1.9 In science and technology: Observed by humans since the dawn of history, the behavior of ants has been documented and the subject of early writings and fables passed from one century to another. Those using scientific methods, myrmecologists, study ants in the laboratory and in their natural conditions. Their complex and variable social structures have made ants ideal model organisms. Ultraviolet vision was first discovered in ants by Sir John Lubbock in 1881 (Lubbock, 1881). Studies on ants have tested hypotheses in ecology and sociobiology, and have been particularly important in examining the predictions of theories of kin selection and evolutionarily stable strategies. Ant colonies may be studied by rearing or temporarily maintaining them in formicaria, specially constructed glass framed enclosures (Kennedy, 1951). The successful techniques used by ant colonies have been studied in computer science and robotics to produce distributed and fault-tolerant systems for solving problems, for example Ant colony optimization and Ant robotics. This area of biomimetics has led to studies of ant locomotion, search engines that make use of "foraging trails", fault-tolerant storage, and networking algorithms (Dicke et al., 2004). Anthropomorphised ants have often been used in fables and children's stories to represent industriousness and cooperative effort. They also are mentioned in religious texts (Deen, 1990). In parts of Africa, ants are considered to be the messengers of the deities. Some Native American mythology, such as the Hopi mythology, considers ants as the very first animals. Ant bites are often said to have curative properties. The sting of some species of Pseudomyrmex is claimed to give fever relief (Balee, 2000). Ant bites are used in the initiation ceremonies of some Amazon Indian cultures as a test of endurance. Ant society has always fascinated humans and has been written about both humorously and seriously. Mark Twain wrote about ants in his book (Twain, 1880). 2.2. Termites: Termites are a group of eusocial insects that were classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera, but are now accepted as the infraorder Isoptera, of the cockroach order Blattodea. While termites are commonly known, especially in Australia, as "white ants," they are not closely related to the ants. Like ants, and some

15 bees and wasps all of which are placed in the separate order. Termites divide labor among castes, produce overlapping generations and take care of young collectively. Termites mostly feed on dead plant material, generally in the form of wood, leaf litter, soil, or animal dung, and about 10% of the estimated 4,000 species (about 3,106 taxonomically known) are economically significant as pests that can cause serious structural damage to buildings, crops or plantation forests. Termites are major detritivores, particularly in the subtropical and tropical regions, and their recycling of wood and other plant matter is of considerable ecological importance. As eusocial insects, termites live in colonies that, at maturity, number from several hundred to several million individuals. Termites communicate during a variety of behavioral activities with signals. Colonies use decentralized, self-organized systems of activity guided by swarm intelligence which exploit food sources and environments unavailable to any single insect acting alone. A typical colony contains nymphs (semi-mature young), workers, soldiers, and reproductive individuals of both sexes, sometimes containing several egg-laying queens (Beccaloni and Eggleton, 2013). 2.2.1. Nests: Termite workers build and maintain nests which house the colony. These are elaborate structures made using a combination of soil, mud, chewed wood/cellulose, saliva, and feces. A nest has many functions such as providing a protected living space and water conservation (through controlled condensation). There are nursery chambers deep within the nest where eggs and first instar larvae are tended. Some species maintain fungal gardens that are fed on collected plant matter, providing a nutritious mycelium on which the colony then feeds. Nests are punctuated by a maze of tunnel-like galleries that provide air conditioning and control the CO2/O2 balance, as well as allow the termites to move through the nest. Nests are commonly built underground, in large pieces of timber, inside fallen trees, or atop living trees. Some species build nests above ground, and they can develop into mounds. Homeowners need to be careful of tree stumps that have not been dug up. These are prime candidates for termite nests and being close to homes, termites usually end up destroying the siding and sometimes even wooden beams. Some species build complex nests called polycalic nests. This habitat of forming polycalic nests is called polycalism. Polycalic species of termites form multiple nests, or calies, connected by

16 subterranean chambers. All four subfamilies of the Termitidae are known to have polycalic species. This habit can make control difficult because when one nest is

eliminated, re-infestation can easily occur via the underground connections to other nests. Polycalic nests appear to be less frequent in mound building species, although polycalic arboreal nests have been observed in a few species of the Microcerotermes and several species of Nasutitermes (Thompson, 2007). 2.2.2. Mounds : Mounds, also known as "termitaria occur when an aboveground nest grows beyond its initially concealing surface. They are commonly called “ant hills” in Africa and Australia, despite the technical incorrectness of that name. In tropical savannas, the mounds may be very large, with an extreme of 9 m (29.5 ft) high in the case of large conical mounds constructed by some Macrotermes species in well-wooded areas in Africa (Two to three meters, however, would be typical for the largest mounds in most savannas. The shape ranges from somewhat amorphous domes or cones usually covered in grass and/or woody shrubs, to sculptured hard-earth mounds, or a mixture of the two. Despite the irregular mound shapes, the different species in an area can usually be identified by simply looking at the mounds (Costa-Leonardo and Haifig, 2014). The sculptured mounds sometimes have elaborate and distinctive forms, such as those of the compass termite (Amitermes meridionalis and A. laurensis) which build tall, wedge-shaped mounds with the long axis oriented approximately north– south, which gives them their common name. This orientation has been experimentally shown to assist thermoregulation. The thin end of the nest faces towards the sun at its peak intensity, hence taking up the least possible heat, and allows these termites to stay above ground where other species are forced to move into deeper below ground areas. This also allows the compass termites to live in poorly drained areas where other species would be caught between a choice of baking or drowning. The column of hot air rising in the aboveground mounds helps drive air circulation currents inside the subterranean network. The structure of these mounds can be quite complex. The temperature control is essential for those species that cultivate fungal gardens and even for those that do not; much effort and energy is spent maintaining the brood within a narrow temperature range, often only plus or

17 minus 1° Celsius over a day. In some parts of the African savanna, a high density of aboveground mounds dominates the landscape. For instance, in some parts of the Busanga Plain area of Zambia, small mounds of about 1 m diameter with a density of

about 100 per hectare can be seen on grassland between larger tree- and bush- covered mounds about 25 m in diameter with a density around 1 per hectare, and both show up well on high-resolution satellite images taken in the wet season (Weesner, 1960). These flying ants come out of their nests in the ground during the early days of the rainy season. The alates have been an important component in the diet of native African populations. Different communities had different methods of collecting or even cultivating the insects, but most of them favored the alates, though some also collected the soldiers of some species. Queens are harder to acquire, but are widely regarded as a delicacy when available. The insects are nutritious, having a good store of fat and protein, and are palatable in most species, with a nutty flavour when cooked. They are easily gathered at the beginning of the rainy season in West, Central and Southern Africa when they swarm, as they are attracted to lights and can be gathered up when they land on nets put up around a lamp. The wings are shed and can be removed by a technique similar to winnowing. They are best gently roasted on a hot plate or lightly fried until slightly crisp; oil is not usually needed since their bodies are naturally high in oil. Traditionally, they make a welcome treat at the beginning of the rainy season when livestock is lean, new crops have not yet produced food, and stored produce from the previous growing season is running low. On other continents, termites also are eaten, though generally more locally or tribally in parts of Asia and the Americas than in Africa. In Australia, the aboriginal peoples knew of termites as being edible, but apparently they did not relish them greatly, even in hard times. It is unclear from most sources whether the lack of interest extended to the alates, as well as the workers and soldiers (Engel and Krishna, 2004). 2.2.3. In agriculture: Termites can be major agricultural pests, particularly in East Africa and North Asia, where crop losses can be severe. Counterbalancing this is the greatly improved water infiltration where termite tunnels in the soil allow rainwater to soak in deeply

18 and help reduce runoff and consequent soil erosion through bioturbation (Costa- Leonardo and Haifig, 2014).

2.2.4. In architecture: The Eastgate Centre, Harare, is a shopping centre and office block in central Harare, Zimbabwe, whose architect, Mick Pearce, used passive cooling inspired by that being used by the local termites. Termite mounds include flues that vent through the top and sides, and the mound itself is designed to catch the breeze. As the wind blows, hot air from the main chambers below ground is drawn out of the structure, helped by termites opening or blocking tunnels to control air flow. Their wings often have micro-structures like micrasters, microsetae or rods that repel water. Ecologically, termites are important in nutrient recycling, habitat creation, soil formation and quality and, particularly the winged reproductive, as food for countless predators. The role of termites in hollowing timbers and thus providing shelter and increased wood surface areas for other creatures is critical for the survival of a large number of timber-inhabiting species. Larger termite mounds play a role in providing a habitat for plants and animals, especially on plains in Africa that are seasonally inundated by a rainy season, providing a retreat above the water for smaller animals and birds, and a growing medium for woody shrubs with root systems that cannot withstand inundation for several weeks. In addition, scorpions, lizards, snakes, small mammals, and birds live in abandoned or weathered mounds, and aardvarks dig substantial caves and burrows in them, which may then become homes for animals such as hyenas and mongooses. As detritivores, termites clear away leaf and woody litter and so reduce the severity of the annual bush fires in African savannas, which are not as destructive as those in Australia and the U.S.A. Their role in bioturbation on the Khorat Plateau is under investigation. Globally, termites are found roughly between 50 degrees north and south, with the greatest biomass in the tropics and the greatest diversity in tropical forests and Mediterranean shrub lands. Termites are also considered to be a major source (11%) of atmospheric methane, one of the prime greenhouse gases. Termites have been common since at least the Cretaceous period. Termites also eat bone and other parts of carcasses, and their traces have been found on dinosaur bones from the middle Jurassic in China (Machida and Matsumoto, 2001).

2.3. Wasps : The wasp is medium sized flying insect that is found all around the world. The wasp is known for its black and yellow markings which mean that some wasp and bee species are commonly confused. Like many other insect species, the wasp is social insect and many wasps, as many as 10,000, inhabit just one nest. The queen wasp is the only breeding female and she builds the nest from a papery substance that is made up of chewed wood and plants. Typically, the wasp only lives for 12 - 22 days (Norman and Charles, 2014). Wasps build their nests in a variety of places, often choosing sunny spots. Nests are commonly located in holes underground, along riverbanks or small hillocks, attached to the side of walls, trees or plants, or underneath floors or eaves of houses. Wasp nests are most easily found on sunny days at dawn or dusk as the low light levels make it easier to spot the wasps flying in and out of their nests. Wasps will attack and sting humans, particularly if threatened, so care should be taken around wasps and their nests. Wasp nests found in public places (such as in latrines or other commonly used public spaces) should be reported to the local council or pest control service for removal. Despite their bright colours to deter predators, wasps are eaten by a number of different animals around the world including birds, amphibians, reptiles and various species of mammal. The queen wasp lays her eggs inside the nest which hatch in a number of days. When the wasp larvae hatch they are cared for by the other wasps in the nest and begin to hunt for food to bring back to the nest. Wasps are known to travel nearly half a kilometer away from the nest in search of food. One colony cycle lasts for approximately 6 – 11 months and each colony cycle consists of around 3000~8000 larvae. The extraordinarily good adaptation skill of Vespula vulgaris makes it possible to live in a wide range of habitats, from torrential areas to artificial environments such as gardens and human structures. However, this species along with other wasps' species such as Vespula germanica, has immensely impacted the lives of many humans, especially those in New Zealand and Australia, as its activities pose a great threat for the people. These wasps are the main culprits of damaging fruits, stinging people, adversely affecting tourism and hindering outdoor activities (Norman and Charles, 2014).

2.3.1. Diet: Wasps are omnivorous animals and therefore eat a mixture of plants and other animals. As with bees, the wasp prefers the sweeter plants and primarily eats nectar, fruits and honey. Wasps also eat insects and even large caterpillars. Many wasps are predatory, using other insects (often paralyzed) as food for their larvae. In parasitic species, the first meals are almost always derived from the host in which the larvae grow. Several types of social wasps are omnivorous, feeding on a variety of fallen fruit, nectar, and carrion. Some of these social wasps, such as yellow jackets, may scavenge for dead insects to provide for their young. In many social species, the larvae provide sweet secretions that are consumed by adults. Adult male wasps sometimes visit flowers to obtain nectar to feed on. Generally, wasps are parasites or parasitoids as larvae, and feed on nectar only as adults. Many wasps are predatory, using other insects (often paralyzed) as food for their larvae. In parasitic species, the first meals are almost always derived from the host in which the larvae grow. Several types of social wasps are omnivorous. Some of these social wasps, such as yellow jackets, may scavenge for dead insects to provide for their young. In many social species, the larvae provide sweet secretions that are consumed by adults. Adult male wasps sometimes visit flowers to obtain nectar to feed on in much the same manner as honey bees (Richter, 2000). 2.3.2. Pollination: While the vast majority of wasps play no role in pollination, a few species can effectively transport pollen and therefore contribute for the pollination of several plant species, being potential or even efficient pollinators. In a few cases such as figs pollinated by fig wasps, they are the only pollinators, and thus they are crucial to the survival of their host plants (Suhs et al., 2009). 2.3.3. Parasitism: With most species, adult parasitic wasps themselves do not take any nutrients from their prey, and, much like bees, butterflies, and moths, those that do feed as adults typically derive all of their nutrition from nectar. Parasitic wasps are typically parasitoids, and extremely diverse in habits, many laying their eggs in inert stages of their host (egg or pupa), or sometimes paralyzing their prey by injecting it with venom through their ovipositor. They then insert one or more eggs into the host or deposit them upon the host

externally. The host remains alive until the parasitoid larvae are mature, usually dying either when the parasitoids pupate, or when they emerge as adults (Ortolani and Cervo, 2009). 2.3.3. Nesting habits: The vast majority of wasp species are parasitoids, and do not make nests of any sort; nests are only constructed by wasps in the Aculeata. The type of nests produced by aculeate wasps varies widely, based on the species and location. Social wasps produce nests that are constructed predominantly from wood pulp. By contrast, solitary wasp nests are typically burrows excavated in a substrate (usually the soil, but also plant stems), or, if constructed, they are constructed from mud. Unlike honey bees, wasps have no wax producing glands. The nest is usually constructed from chewed bark and dried timber mixed with saliva and is a light grey/beige color with a papery appearance. If undisturbed and built in an unrestricted space, the nest can measure up to 90 - 120 cm in circumference towards the end of the summer months. A nest this size would contain between 5,000-10,000 individual wasps. New nests are formed each year by queen wasps that have overwintered. Depending on the weather, nests can be found in late spring/early summer. The worker wasps die in the autumn and the nest is never reused (Ross, 1991).

CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1. Materials: 3.1.1. Mud samples: Mud samples that used in this study were ant, termites and wasp nest-mud. These samples were brought from Elnishishiba area (1kg for each). The mud samples were transferred to the soil Laboratory, Agricultural Research Corporation, Wad Medani, Gezira state, Sudan, where the physical and the chemical tests were run. 3.2. Methods: All tests were run according to Soil Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954). 3.2.1. Approximate chemical analysis: 3.2.1.1. pH of paste: The pH-meter was calibrated using buffer solutions pH 7 and pH 9. 100 ml distilled water was added to soil until concentrated paste was obtained. The pH was read after 1 hour. 3.2.1.2. Percentage of organic carbon: It was determined by Walkely and Black method (1956). Reagents used : (a) concentrated sulphuric acid (b) Potassium dichromate (c) Ferrous sulphate (d) Ortho-phenanthroline indicator In which 5 g soil was added to 15ml potassium dichromate to oxidize the organic carbon in 250 ml volumetric flask and 10ml concentrated sulphuric acid were added to raise the temperature for reaction .After half an hour, 15 ml distilled water were added and filtered.10ml of sulfuric acid were added to the filtrate .At the end the un reacted k2cr2o7 potassium dichromate was titrated with standard ferrous sulphate

(FeSO4.7H2O) using ortho-phenanthroline indicator. At the end of the reaction (equal point), the color changed from orange (color of potassium dichromate) to light green to dark green to wine red. The organic carbon can be calculated as follow:

Organic carbon %=(meK2Cr2O7(used)×.0337)/wt of soil(g) 3.2.1.3. Available phosphorus: Was extracted by Oleson sodium bicarbonate method (1954).

Procedure

5 g air dry soil was weighed .100 ml sodium bicarbonate (pH 8.5) was added. It was put in a shaker for half an hour .Then after filtration using What man no .42 filter paper , 20 ml of filtrate were added to 20 drops concentrated sulfuric acid. After over night ,it was filtered again .5 ml of the filtrate were added to 5 ml standard solution in 50 ml volumetric flask ,completed to volume ,then transmittance was read using a wave length of 882nm .And it was plotted against P concentration.

Extractable concentration in soil (ppm) = ppm P (graph) × (100/5) × (50/5)

Where:

100 = total volume of the extract.

50 = final volume of the aliquot on which p concentration was read.

5 = weight of the soil sample.

5 = volume that was taken from the filtrate. ppm = part per million phosphorus.

.2.1.4. Electrical conductivity (E.C): The EC-meter was checked using 0.01 NKCL which should give reading of 1.413 ds/m at 25 o C. The paste of 300 g soil was prepared and extracted using Buckner funnel with What man No. 42. Part of the clean filtrate was transferred into a suitable container, then the conductivity cell was immersed in the extract and the reading was recorded. 3.2.2. Physiochemical characteristics: 3.2.2.1. Moisture content (MC): 10 g of sample was weighed. Then it was placed in an electric oven at 105 o C . for 24 hours . Then the soil was weighed to give dry weight. % soil moisture = {(weight of air-dry soil) - (weight of oven dry soil)}/(weight of oven dry soil)×100

3.2.2.2 Bulk density (dry- moist): Procedure : a metal ring of a known volume was pressed into the soil (intact core) ,so volume of the soil sample was determined .The weight of soil sample was determined after drying .

Soil bulk density =weight of soil (g) /volume of soil(cmᵌ) 3.2.2.3. Porosity: The total porosity was calculated using bulk and particle densities as shown below: % total Porosity = { 1- (bulk density/particle density)} x 100 Where: particle density = 2.65 g/cm3

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS and DISCUSION 4.1 Chemical properties: The chemical analysis of the three insects' nest-mud is displayed in Table (4.1). As is evident from this table, the pH for the three types of nest-mud, were relatively similar (the pH of nest-mud of ant was 7.2 (the more neutral mud), of termite 7.6 similar to that of wasp). The organic carbon (OC %) was higher in ant nest-mud (2,184) compared to wasp (0.93) and termite (0.62) nest-mud. The available phosphorus (AVP) was relatively very high in wasp soil (120.4 mg/Kg soil), compared to 26.4 mg/Kg soil, in ant nest-mud and only 7.4 mg/Kg soil, in wasp nest-mud. The electrical conductivity (EC in ds/m) was approximately equal in ant (6.1) and wasp (6.4), compared to termite nest-mud (2.6). It was clear that, although the nest-mud of ant, wasp and termite insects were not similar in their chemical properties (pH, organic carbon, available phosphorus, carbon/nitrogen ratio and electrical conductivity), but ANOVA proved that, these differences were not significant (f=1.76; f-crit= 3.48)

Table (4.1) Chemical characteristics of wasp, ant and termite nest-mud

Sample PH OC% AVP (mg/Kg EC ds/m soil) Ant nest-mud 7.2 2.184 26.4 6.1 Termite nest-mud 7.6 0.62 7.4 2.6 Wasp nest-mud 7.6 0.93 120.4 6.4

Descriptive stat.

Mean 7.47 1.25 51.4 5.03 SE 0.13 0.48 34.93 1.22 Min 7.2 0.62 7.4 2.6 Max 7.6 2.18 120.4 6.4

ANOVA

f-stat 1.76 f-crit 3.48 P 0.2131

4.2 Physical properties: The physical properties of bulk density, porosity and moisture content of ant, termite and wasp nest-mud, were presented in Table (4.2). The results showed that, the bulk density (g/cm3) of the three types of mud were relatively similar (1.41 in ant, 1.46 in termite and 1.43 in wasp nest-mud). Porosity (%) approximately similar in the three types were 47 in ant, 45 in termite and 46 in wasp nest-mud. The moisture content (%) was also similar in wasp and termite nest-mud (37.7%), while it was relatively high in ant nest-mud (39.3%). ANOVA proved that, the relatively small differences between the tested physical properties, were statistically, not significant (f=2.75; f-crit=5.14). Accordingly, the three types of insect's nest-mud were similar in their physical characteristics.

Table (4.2) Bulk density, porosity and moisture content of ant, termite and wasp nest- mud

Sample Bulk density Porosity% Moisture (g/cm3) content% Ant nest-mud 1.41 47 39.3 Termite nest-mud 1.47 45 37.7 Wasp nest-mud 1.43 46 37.7

Descriptive stat

Mean 38.23 46 1.44 SE 0.53 0.58 0.02 Min 37.7 45 1.41 Max 39.3 47 1.47

ANOVA f-stat 2.75 f-crit 5.14 P 0.00001

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS and RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Conclusions: 1- Ant nest-mud has approximately neutral alkaline reaction, wherease termite and wasp nest-mud showed slightly alkaline reaction. 2- Ant nest-mud has the highest organic carbon. 3- Available phosphorus was very high in wasp nest-mud compared with the two other types. 4- Ant and wasp nest-mud is slightly saline while that of termite is non saline. 5- For the physical properties, the differences were minor between the three insects nest-mud, except, for the moisture content which was higher in ant nest-mud. 5.2 Recommendations: The recommendation of this study was to run more studies about the presence of high level of phosphorus in wasp nest-mud and how to make use of these types of mud.

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