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Using Ulva (Chlorophyta) for the Production of Biomethane

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Using Ulva (Chlorophyta) for the Production of Biomethane Using Ulva (Chlorophyta) for the production of biomethane and mitigation against coastal acidification Albert Oluwatobi Amosu A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree PhD in the Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, University of the Western Cape. Supervisor: Professor Gavin W. Maneveldt (University of the Western Cape) Co-supervisors: Dr. Deborah V. Roberson-Andersson (University of KwaZulu-Natal) Professor John J. Bolton (University of Cape Town) June 2016 I declare that “Using Ulva (Chlorophyta) for the production of biomethane and mitigation against coastal acidification” is my own work, that it has not been submitted for any degree or examination in any other university, and that all the sources I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. 24th June 2016 Albert Oluwatobi Amosu Date ii I dedicate this thesis to the blessed memory of my mother Princess Nimotalai Abiodun Akanke Adejumobi Amosu GRD II, NCE, B.Ed (Hons), RSA (London) iii Abstract In South Africa the green macroalga Ulva armoricana is the main species of macroalgae cultured. The species is currently the largest aquaculture (2884.61 tonnes) product by weight with a corresponding capacity for biogas (CH4) production. We have shown that biotransformation of U. armoricana to Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is viable and economically feasible as a clean fuel. pH toxicity tests showed that U. armoricana can be used as a health index, under potentially increased CO2 concentrations that can occur in IMTA carbon sequestration. We have shown sporulation to be the morphological response to environmental stress, which is indicative of chlorophyll degradation and a reduction in the photosynthetic activity of the alga. With the exception of Cadmium (Cd), the physico- chemical values obtained and the dissolved nutrient/heavy metals uptake by the alga all fell within the FAO/WHO permissible standards. Our Cd values therefore negate the use of these macroalgae for human consumption. We have also shown that U. armoricana can be used in eco-monitoring by playing a significant role in wastewater filtration and bioaccumulation. Nutrient utilization and proximate composition results show that African mud catfish (Clarias gariepinus) grow well on a protein-enriched Ulva diet, suggesting that enriched Ulva has the potential to be a successful fish feed. This thesis suggests among others, that South Africa could take advantage by being the first African country to propose specific standards for edible macroalgae as its successful research innovations and development provides a template for other African countries to further their aquaculture sectors. Additional benefits (bioremediation, ocean de-acidification through the capture of atmospheric and dissolved CO2 during growth to assist in climate change mitigation) from Ulva farming activities bode well for the aquaculture industry. iv List of Papers and Contributions by Authors In addition to the General Introduction and General Discussion, this thesis is largely prepared as a series of articles (see below) by publication. I. A.O. Amosu, D.V. Robertson-Andersson, G.W. Maneveldt, R.J. Anderson and J.J. Bolton (2013). South African Seaweed Aquaculture: A sustainable development example for other African coastal countries. African Journal of Agricultural Sciences 8(43): 5260- 5271. II. A.O. Amosu, D.V. Robertson-Andersson, E. Kean and G.W. Maneveldt (2014). Aquaculture benefits of macroalgae for green energy production and climate change mitigation. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research 5(7): 146-152. III. A.O. Amosu, D.V. Robertson-Andersson, E. Kean, G. W. Maneveldt and L. Cyster (2016). Biofiltering and uptake of dissolved nutrients by Ulva armoricana (Chlorophyta) in a land-based aquaculture system. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 18: 298-304. IV. A.O. Amosu, D.V. Robertson-Andersson, J.L, Knapp, G.W. Maneveldt, L. Auersward and J.J. Bolton (under review). Environmental response and pH tolerance of induced CO2 in Ulva rigida (Chlorophyta) under controlled conditions. International Journal of Environmental Pollution. V. A.O. Amosu, A.M. Hammed, G.W. Maneveldt and D.V. Robertson-Andersson (under review). Comparative analysis of nutrient utilization and proximate composition of Ulva armoricana (Chlorophyta) and formulated feeds on the growth performance of African Mudcatfish Clarias gariepinus (Burchell) fingerlings. Animal Nutrition and Feed Technology. v It is important to note that the planning and preparation of the articles for publication is a process separate from the actual project (laboratory and fieldwork). Besides managaing the practical and theoretical components of the thesis, as the first author I was responsible for the data analyses presented in the papers, preparing the first working draft, accommodating all editorial comments by the supervisors (co-authors) of the project, submitting the manuscripts for peer-review, and revising the manuscript based on the peer-reviewed process. My supervisors and other co-authors on the project provided only editorial comments to an original version of the manuscripts. I therefore take sole and full responsibility for the quality and condition of the final accepted versions of these peer-reviewed papers that had been derived from my thesis. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page …...…………………………………………………………………………… .…... i Declaration ...………………………………………………………………………………… ii Dedication ...………………………………………………………………………………… iii Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………… ... iv List of papers and contributions by authors …... ……………………………………...……... v Chapter 1. General Introduction and Literature Review 1.1 Background .………..………...………………………………..……………………........ 1 1.1.1 Macroalgae as an alternative fuel source …...………………………………………. 4 1.1.2 Global problem of increased CO2 ………………………………………………..…. 5 1.1.3 CO2 uptake in macroalgae …………………………………………...………………. 6 1.2 Macroalgae and their culture ……………………………………………...…………...… 7 1.2.1 Macroalgae in fish nutrition ………………………………………...……...………... 8 1.2.2 Macroalgae in sustainable aquaculture production ………………………..……….. 9 1.2.3 Macroalgae in Integrated MultiTrophic Aquaculture ……………….………...…….. 9 1.3 The genus Ulva ……………………………………………………………………...….. 11 1.3.1 Taxonomy ..………………………………………………………………..………... 11 1.3.2 Ecology, distribution and habitat …………………………………………...……… 13 1.3.3 Life history ………………………………………………………………..…...……. 13 1.4 Commercial use and value of Ulva ………………………………………..………..….. 16 1.4.1 Utilization as a feed ……………………………………………………...……...….. 16 1.4.1.1 Ulva monoculture ……………………………….……………..……………...….. 17 1.4.1.2 Polyculture …………………………………...…………………………………... 17 1.4.1.3 Macroalgae in Integrated MultiTrophic Aquaculture ……..………………...…… 18 1.4.2 Methanogenic potential ……………………………...…………………...………… 19 1.5 Ulva cultivation techniques ……..…………………………………………………….... 19 1.5.1 Open water cultivation ……….………………………………………………..….... 20 1.5.2 Land-based cultivation or semi-closed aquaculture ………………..…………..….. 20 1.5.2.1 Pond cultivation ……...……………………………..…………………………..... 21 1.5.2.2 Tank culture …………………………………………...……………………..….... 22 1.5.2.3 Raceways, spray cultivation and high-high–intensive systems ……….………….. 23 1.5.2.4 Polyculture ………..…………………………………………………………...…. 24 vii 1.6 Factors affecting growth and cultivation of Ulva ………………………………………. 26 1.6.1 Temperature ……………….…………………………......……...…………………. 26 1.6.2 Light ……………………………………………………… ..……..……………….... 26 1.6.3 Aeration …………………………………… ...……………………..………………. 28 1.6.4 Salinity ………………………..………………...…………………..………………. 29 1.6.5 Carbon ………………………………………… ...…………………..……………... 29 1.6.6 pH ……………………………………………… ...…………………..…………….. 31 1.6.7 Nitrogen …………………………………………...…………………..……………. 32 1.6.8 Phosporous ………………………………………...…………………..…………… 33 1.6.9 Heavy metals ……………………………………………………………....……….. 34 1.6.10 Water flow and movement ………………………………………...……..…………. 35 1.6.11 Stocking density ……………………..………………………………….…..………. 35 1.6.12 Seasonality ……………………………...………………………………..….……… 36 1.7 South African Ulva culture ………………………………………………...……...……. 37 1.7.1 Ulva culture and their commercial uses …………………………..……………...… 38 1.7.2 Taxonomic concerns of Ulva culture ……………………………..………………… 39 1.8 Aims of the Study …...…………………………………………...……..………………. 41 1.8.1 Rationale …………………………….………………………………...……………. 41 1.8.2 Objectives ………………………………………..…………………………………. 42 Chapter 2. Paper 1 ………………………….……………………………..……………… 44 South African Seaweed Aquaculture: A sustainable development example for other African coastal countries Abstract ………………………………………………………………….………………..... 45 Introduction ………………………………………………………..……………………….. 46 The South African Seaweed Industry ………………………………………………………. 49 Importance, uses and benefits ………………………………………………………...……. 53 Global seaweed trade ……………………………………………………………………….. 55 Africa regional seaweed aquaculture development ………………………………………… 56 West Africa ………………………………………………………………..…………….. 57 North Africa …………………………………………………………….…..…………… 57 East Africa ………………………………………………………………………………. 57 Southern Africa ………………………………………………………………………….. 58 Problems and prospects of seaweed aquaculture in Africa …………….…………………... 60 Lessons for other coastal nations ……………………………………………………..…….. 61 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 63 viii Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………..….. 63 References ……………………………………………………………………..…………… 64 Chapter 3. Paper 2 ………………………………………………… ………...……………75 Aquaculture benefits of macroalgae for green energy production and climate change mitigation
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