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Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School
2009 Junior Grows Up: The Development of the Tallahassee Museum, 1957-1992 Shannon O‘Donnell
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COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
JUNIOR GROWS UP: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TALLAHASSEE MUSEUM,
1957-1992
By
SHANNON O‘DONNELL
A Thesis submitted to the Department of History in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts
Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2009
The members of the Committee approve the Thesis of Shannon O‘Donnell defended on March 18, 2009.
______Jennifer Koslow Professor Directing Thesis
______Heike Schmidt Committee Member
______Pat Villeneuve Committee Member
The Graduate School has verified and approved the above named committee members.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………….iv
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………1
1. CHAPTER ONE………………………………………………………...6 Putting the Junior Museum Movement into Historiographical Context
2. CHAPTER TWO………………………………………………………..17 See, Touch, Investigate, Solve: The Purpose of the Tallahassee Junior Museum
3. CHAPTER THREE…………………………………………………….37 Out With the Old, Embracing the New at the Tallahassee Museum
4. EPILOGUE…..…………………………………………………………57 Where to Go From Here: Evaluation and the Future
5. REFERENCES…………………………………………………………65
6. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH…………………………………………..75
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ABSTRACT This thesis analyzes the history of the junior museum movement in the United States by specifically examining the Tallahassee Museum in Florida. The Tallahassee Junior Museum was founded in 1957 to provide interactive education in natural history to school age children. In 1992 the Tallahassee Museum removed ―Junior‖ from its name, signifying a change in mission and audiences. The name rebranding marked the end of the junior museum trend. Junior museums are underrepresented in the historiography of museum studies, and this thesis aims to contribute to this literature by filling this gap through the use of archival documents, oral histories, and various secondary sources. Studying the development of the Tallahassee Museum also shows how changes in museum theory affected the practices of the institution.
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INTRODUCTION ―Lions and tigers and bears, oh my!‖ Bears yes, but rather panthers and bobcats. These native Floridian animals in their natural habitat zoo, along with a wide variety of other wildlife, are what visitors to the Tallahassee Museum have come to love over the years.1 A highly popular destination for residents of the panhandle, the museum is ―regularly ranked first or second out the state‘s museums‖ and consistently wins prestigious awards.2 In 2007 the museum celebrated its fiftieth anniversary with special events throughout the entire year.3 Visitors came out in droves to help commemorate this important milestone and show continued support for the institution.4 The museum‘s endurance in the Big Bend area of Florida speaks to the special place this organization holds within the community. Longtime museum member and community educator Julie McBride calls the institution, ―a little jewel of Tallahassee,‖ and her sentiment is shared by many visitors.5 The Big Bend area is a largely rural 200 mile stretch of North Florida from Wakulla to Levy counties with an overwhelmingly southern cultural identity. Established in 1957, as the ―Tallahassee Junior Museum‖ in 1992 the organization officially transitioned to its current title.6 The museum was created by area educators to provide interactive history and natural science education for children and young adults. The junior museum movement occurred at the beginning of the Cold War, when the United States government began to promote science training and education for students. While the museum filled a vital niche in Tallahassee, it was one of many such specific institutions established in this time period in the United States. By changing its name from ―Junior‖ in 1992, the institution responded to a major trend in the museum world. In the midst of a substantial paradigm shift in museum education in the 1980s and 1990s, museums across the nation began to eschew the term ―Junior.‖7 The
1 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 2 Gerald Ensley, ―Local Museum Slowly Escaping Its Young Ways,‖ Tallahassee Democrat, May 8, 2005, B1. 3 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Archive Press Releases: Tallahassee Museum Celebrates 50th Anniversary in 2007,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/uploads/doc/pdf/AnniversaryRelease.pdf 4 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Archive Press Releases: Golden Jubilee,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/uploads/doc/pdf/PressReleaseGoldenJubileeACelebrationofFiftyYearsNovember1020 07.pdf 5 Julie McBride, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 3, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 6 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―The Early Years – Downtown,‖ ‘Round the Bend, July 1982. 7 Gerald Ensley, ―Local Museum Slowly Escaping Its Young Ways,‖ Tallahassee Democrat, May 8, 2005, B1. 1
Tallahassee organization changed its name in an attempt to better reflect the diversity of its audiences. Its goals were not longer primarily just to serve children. In addition, the end of the Cold War changed imperatives for science education. More than a modification in persona, the change was also practical. The museum believed that altering the name would help the organization‘s ability to apply for a wider range of grants. It also saw this as an opportunity to expand and update its educational programming. Lastly, the museum believed the transformation would increase the museum‘s professional reputation among its peers within the field.8 The name change was a major turning point in the organization‘s history but it only occurred after many years of debate.9 To fully understand the impact of the name change, it is pivotal to grasp how important this museum has been to the Big Bend region over the past fifty years. It houses the area‘s only natural habitat zoo and promotes various wildlife conservation programs. In addition, the museum also plays a vital role in historic preservation. It has protected and preserved original historic buildings that would have otherwise been destroyed.10 While not the preferred method of historic preservationists, when a building is endangered it is sometimes relocated. The Tallahassee Museum houses nine historic structures on its 52 acre property. It has saved a 1880s pioneer farm, the Bethlehem Missionary Baptist Church, the Concord schoolhouse, the Seaboard Air Line Railroad Caboose, and the Bellevue, the house of Princess Catherine Murat, wife of Bonaparte Napoleon‘s nephew.11 According to Del Suggs, a long-time Museum supporter and Board of Trustees member, these structures provide ―a chance to really see what Florida used to be like.‖12 By spanning topics of race, technology, and different aspects of rural life, the sites serve to highlight a number of different historical issues. As Suggs says, ―it‘s essential that we preserve that sort of heritage.‖13 In addition to the natural habitat zoo and historic building exhibits, the museum provides visitors with a variety of educational events and programs. These events celebrate the history, nature, arts, and other cultural components of the Big Bend area, while serving to unite the
8 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 9 Del Suggs, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 4, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 10 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―Organizational History,‖ 1981, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 11 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Old Florida,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=old-florida2 12 Del Suggs, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 4, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 13 Ibid. 2 community in support of the museum.14 Some examples from over the years are the Native American Heritage Festival, the Zoobilee outdoor party, Market Days, and the Jazz and Blues Festival.15 Preschool, summer camps, and other special programming are additional staples that attract residents from across the Big Bend to the Museum. When the museum made the final decision in 1992 to rename the institution, the overwhelming majority of Tallahasseians continued to support the museum.16 Most members of the community understood the reasons behind the name change. Museum supporter Julie McBride thought that ―junior‖ did not have the best connotations or connections to the name, as opposed to ―History and Natural Science,‖ which seemed ―more prestigious, more elevated, [with] a much more educated sound to it.‖17 Moreover, most visitors understood that the word ―junior‖ impeded the museum‘s ability to win grants and gain national status.18 In 1992 the organization officially became the ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science.‖ However, it was later shortened to the ―Tallahassee Museum‖ because this had become the popular name of the institution and was easier for visitors to remember. Not all of the original museum founders agreed with the change.19 According to current director of the museum, Russell Daws, opposition came from those ―who felt by changing the name we had turned our back on kids, we had turned our back on education, and we would become a tourist attraction.‖20 These founders wanted to preserve the traditions that they had established in the 1950s and 1960s. By the 1990s, however, the museum had expanded so much that most board members felt that it had simply outgrown the original mission. Still, as evidenced by the museum‘s advanced educational program for K-12, the institution does not desire to exclude children. The museum contends that the name change allows it to create higher quality educational programming due to its more professional image as a learning center and its increased access to funding.21 Hence, education is still paramount to the mission and survival of
14 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Special Events,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=special-events-calendar 15 Gwendolyn Waldorf, ―Tallahassee Museum Milestones,‖ 2007, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 16 Gwendolyn Waldorf, 1992-1993 Tallahassee Museum Membership Renewal Card Survey, ―Suggestions,‖ 1993 Tallahassee Museum Archives. 17 Julie McBride, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 3, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 18 Gerald Ensley, ―Local Museum Slowly Escaping Its Young Ways,‖ Tallahassee Democrat, May 8, 2005, B1. 19 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 20 Ibid. 21 Ibid. 3 the organization.22 The museum‘s decision to change their name has resulted in numerous positive benefits for the institution. A measureable increase in funding and diverse visitor populations has occurred.23 Educational programming is now more cutting edge at the museum, and adheres to current trends in learning theory.24 The natural habitat zoo has been expanded and facilities have been improved due to the increased funding available.25 Wildlife conservation and rescue programs at the museum are flourishing; endangered and threatened animals have been born, such as red wolf pups.26 There have been many challenges and struggles to overcome on the path to the museum‘s name change. The decision came after several years of discussion within the community and amongst museum insiders.27 This process took even longer due to the arrival of a new Director in 1990; he needed time to find his bearings before dealing with the name situation.28 Marketing the new name and dealing with negative press after the name change was stressful for the museum staff.29 However, in the end the Tallahassee community came together to support the institution and embraced the change. Today the museum plays a large role in maintaining the cultural and historical identity of the Big Bend area. The first chapter of this thesis explains the historiography of junior museums and the fact that they have largely been left out of the overall historiography of the museum world. Next, chapter two covers the historical background and founding of the Tallahassee Museum. Chapter three addresses the museum‘s new name and ramifications of the change. The epilogue summarizes the museum‘s current practices and its path for the future. A wide variety of sources were utilized in this project. Primary documents from the Tallahassee Museum Archives comprised a large amount of the research. These records include
22 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Learning Resources,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=learning-resources 23 Russell Daws, ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science 1993-1994 Annual Executive Director‘s Report,‖ (1995). Gwendolyn Waldorf, ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science Organizational Information: Audience,‖ 1991, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 24 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Learning Resources,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=learning-resources 25 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 26 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Red Wolf Species Survival Plan,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=red-wolf-ssp 27 Del Suggs, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 4, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 28 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 29 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 4 visitation statistics, budgets, correspondence, published and unpublished histories of the museum, and other writings. Additionally, five interviews were conducted with people who had important and direct connections with the 1992 name change. Books and articles on the history of museums, museum education, and children‘s museums were used as secondary sources. Also, a vast array of websites from professional organizations provided valuable secondary information. These sources are used to address the museum‘s development over the years. The main change was that the museum altered its name to reflect the evolution of its mission. Originally, its educational goals were very broad in geographical scope and time period.30 Also, it targeted younger audiences instead of adults. Over time as the mission changed to focus on the Big Bend region and acknowledge adult visitors. It needed a new name to reflect its new purposes. Additionally, the historiography of junior museums is lacking. This work will contribute to the overall historiography of museum studies through an in depth analysis of how museum theory affected the practices of the Tallahassee Museum. Hence, the story of this institution‘s development provides a means to understanding the practical applications of theory.
30 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―The Early Years – Downtown,‖ ‘Round the Bend, July 1982. 5
CHAPTER ONE Putting the Junior Museum Movement into Historiographical Context There is a large body of literature about the history of museums; however one chapter of that history has been left out. The literature pertaining to junior museums is pitifully lacking, and the entire movement is hardly represented in the overall history of museums. This may be because junior museums have been an entirely American phenomenon, and a large portion of the research and publications conducted about museums is done outside of the United States, specifically in Britain, Australia, and Canada.1 Hence, studying junior museum necessitates an examination of related historiographies of natural history and children‘s museums. These histories show how museum have moved from a didactic approach to a visitor centered one in the twentieth century. The first article published about junior museums did not even address ―real‖ junior museums, but the Metropolitan Museum of Art‘s version of this type of institution. In 1942, author and editor of numerous museum texts Alfred Busselle Jr. wrote a brief article about a program for children instituted by the Metropolitan Museum during World War II.2 This junior museum was not an entire organization, ―but a juvenile center where the study and enjoyment of the Metropolitan Museum‘s collections begin.‖3 The Metropolitan Museum of Art chose the name ―junior museum‖ for their program because they were aware of the early development of the junior museum movement in the late 1930s and early 1940s. While indebted to this trend for inspiration, the museum acknowledged that they had not fully utilized current techniques of museum education that were so central to junior museums.4 The aim of their program was not education but entertainment for children and to ―offer stability to oppose the nervous tension‖ during wartime.5 The article about this program did not become an influential publication, as its purpose was to serve as an informative update about events and programs at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Museum educator Louise Condit produced a follow up article about the junior museum
1 Gail Dexter Lord and Barry Lord, The Manual of Museum Management (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira, 1997), 119. 2 Alfred Busselle, Jr., ―The Junior Museum in Action,‖ The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 37, no. 2 (1942), 37. 3 Ibid., 38. 4 Ibid. 5 Busselle, Jr., ―The Junior Museum in Action,‖ 37. 6 program at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1958.6 This publication, however, contributes very little to the historiography of junior museums. Similar to Busselle, Condit‘s piece was not analytical. Instead it gave an overview of the physical expansions of the new junior museum facility.7 The article does not address the educational opportunities provided by the program, and there is no indication whether the museum had incorporated any contemporary pedagogical theories in its presentation.8 The only article from this early period that analyzed actual junior museums focused less on the different institutions and more on John Ripley Forbes, the founder of the movement. Forbes devoted his life to creating fun learning spaces for children and young adults to explore natural science.9 Time magazine reported on Forbes‘ work in 1953, during the height of his efforts to establish junior museums across the country. The brief article tells about Forbes as President of the National Foundation for Junior Museums and his goal to launch over one hundred junior museums.10 This piece is an uncritical description of this man and his movement. Providing a small amount of biographical information, the article gives insight into Forbes‘ love of the natural world and his attempts to share this enthusiasm with others.11 This is the only information about Forbes that was published during his lifetime. When he died in 2006 at the age of 93, a few articles were written to celebrate his accomplishments.12 One of these appeared in the New York Times, and contributed a little more information about Forbes than the Time magazine article. It also offered an interpretation. The New York Times‘ article argued about the importance of Forbes as a leader in museum education for implementing cutting edge learning theories in the museum setting.13 Yet, for the role Forbes appeared to play in creating an entire genre of museum, it would seem that there should be much more information available about his work. Unfortunately that is not the case. The only major publication in museum studies that mentions junior museums does not
6 Louise Condit, ―The New Junior Museum,‖ The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 16, no. 9 (1958). 7 Condit, ―The New Junior Museum,‖ 258. 8 Ibid., 257. 9 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 10 Time Magazine, ―Mr. Appleseed,‖ Dec. 21, 1953, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890847,00.html 11 Ibid. 12 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 13 Ibid. 7 address the institutions established by Forbes. Museums in Motion: An Introduction to the History and Functions of Museums by former American Association of Museums President Edward P. Alexander is a very influential book about the history and evolution of the museum field.14 Even so, it provides only one sentence, which mentions the Metropolitan Museum of Art‘s junior museum. Alexander never makes mention that this movement resulted in the creation of over one hundred independent junior museums.15 In the second edition of this publication revised by Alexander‘s daughter, museum educator Mary Alexander, this mention of the junior museum has been completely removed.16 Even though the book contains a large section about children‘s museums, junior museums are entirely overlooked.17 For such an important publication to leave out an entire genre in the museum history is troublesome, and telling about the historical perception of junior museums. Their place in the historical literature has been forgotten. Of the few publications about junior museums, the only book entirely about these organizations was actually produced at the Tallahassee Museum in 1998. A group of the museum‘s founders collaborated to create a collective history of the organization in A Tale Worth Telling: The First Twenty Years of the Tallahassee Junior Museum, 1956-1976.18 The book consisted of historical information gathered from the museum‘s archives, along with personal stories from supporters and visitors.19 When writing the publication, the authors sent out a call to the community for help. In a 1996 Tallahassee Democrat article, co-author Kay Nunez asked for ―personal stories or accounts of what the Tallahassee Junior Museum has meant to you and your family would be much appreciated.‖20 Along with Nunez, these founders included Helen T. Grissett, Nancy Douglas, and Rickey Jones, who published the book themselves and circulated it locally.21 While the publication did not have a significant effect on the larger museum world, the Tallahassee
14 Edward P. Alexander, Museums in Motion: An Introduction to the History and Functions of Museums (Nashville: American Association for State and Local History, 1979). 15 Ibid., 33. 16 Edward P. Alexander and Mary Alexander, Museums in Motion: An Introduction to the History and Functions of Museums, 2nd ed. (New York: AltaMira, 2008). 17 Ibid. 18 Kay Nunez and others, A Tale Worth Telling: The First Twenty Years of the Tallahassee Junior Museum, 1956- 1976 (Tallahassee: Tallahassee Junior Museum Pioneers, 1998). 19 Ibid. 20 Ron Hartung, ―Were You There When The Junior Museum Began?‖ June 14, 1996, B1. 21 Nunez and others, A Tale Worth Telling. 8 community received it with open arms and enjoyed reading about the history of such a popular institution.22 Many people felt ownership of the book because they either contributed stories or could remember and relate to the early years of the museum. Although the publication was never widely distributed, it still holds an important place in junior museum historiography as the only book written entirely about these organizations. One of the main reasons junior museums have been written out of the history of museums is that almost every one eventually transitioned into a different type of organization. Many became children museums. Forbes, for instance, started one of his first junior museums in Sacramento, California.23 However, this museum became the Sacramento Children‘s Museum (SCM) sometime in the 1970s.24 Today, SCM does not even acknowledge the fact it was originally a junior museum when recounting their institutional history.25 Sacramento‘s story is not atypical. In Charlotte, North Carolina, the former junior museum there has become the Discovery Place, a museum for children.26 Forbes considered one of his crowning achievements was the establishment of a junior museum in a gorgeous historic mansion in Kansas City, Missouri. This has now been turned into the Kansas City Museum.27 Neither one of these institutions acknowledges their origins. This is especially surprising of the Kansas City Museum, as Forbes made it known as one of his favorites.28 The original mission of children‘s museums and junior museums were not the same. Children‘s museums were places defined by their clientele. Junior museums, as Forbes conceived, were about content. They took their cue from traditional natural history museums. Forbes wanted to make cultural institutions for learning about natural history accessible, interactive, and fun learning places for children and young adults.29 Traditional natural history
22 Susan Baldino, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, January 23, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 23 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 24 Sacramento Children‘s Museum Official Website, ―History of SCM,‖ http://www.sacramentochildrensmuseum.org/about.html 25 Ibid. 26 Discovery Place Official Website, http://www.discoveryplace.org/home/discovery_place-dp_kids.php 27 Kansas City Museum Official Website, ―History of Corinthian Hall,‖ http://www.unionstation.org/KansasCityMuseum/history.html 28 Time Magazine, ―Mr. Appleseed,‖ Dec. 21, 1953, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890847,00.html 29 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 9 museums choose a didactic approach, which is what spurred Forbes into creating his own genre. Hence, while Forbes designed the junior museum with children in mind, these institutions were defined by their collections rather than visitor. Forbes‘ desire to create a natural history museum for children spoke to the cultural and social importance these museums served in Western civilizations. Since medieval times in Europe, elite members of society collected and displayed natural specimens from rock and fossils to taxonomic exhibits of animals.30 Out of these collections came the original ―cabinets of curiosity,‖ or private displays of these various natural wonders.31 The first major museum to house these types of artifacts was the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University, created in 1683.32 Today this institution is known for its display of arts and classics, not its natural history collection. Following the lead of this museum, the British Museum in London opened in 1759.33 Since that time, the British Museum has been a world leader in the field and has produced a large portion of the literature about natural history museums.34 Other publications that address the evolution of natural history museums include both editions of the Alexander‘s Museum in Motion and educator Bettina Messias Carbonell‘s Museum Studies: An Anthology of Contexts.35 These works chronicle the evolution from private ―cabinets of curiosity‖ to institutions open for public audiences due to the desire to educate about natural history.36 In addition to educational purposes, museums became symbols of national pride in Europe and in the United States they emerged alongside the political process of the new country in the 1770s.37 Junior museums did not evolve out of natural history museums alone; many have zoological elements intermixed with the museum.38 William T. Hornaday is the father of zoos in
30 Alexander and Alexander, Museums in Motion, 53-54. 31 Bettina Messias Carbonell, ed., Museum Studies: An Anthology of Contexts (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2004), 23. 32 Ibid., 3. 33 Alexander and Alexander, Museums in Motion, 28. 34 The British Museum Official Website, ―Research: Research Publications,‖ http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/research_publications.aspx 35 Alexander and Alexander, Museums in Motion. Carbonell, ed., Museum Studies. 36 Alexander and Alexander, Museums in Motion, 6. 37 Ibid. 38 John Ripley Forbes, ―A Brief History of The Tallahassee Junior Museum,‖ 1962, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 10 the United States.39 He played a central role in establishing the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. and the Bronx Zoo in New York.40 A champion of wildlife conservation and habitat preservation, Hornaday spent years in Europe studying zoos in order to create modern natural habitat zoos in America in the late 19th century and early 20th century.41 In 1997, Edward P. Alexander published The Museum in America: Innovators and Pioneers about the founders of various museums and zoos in the country.42 While he includes an entire chapter on Hornaday, he does not mention Forbes. Alexander missed an important connection between the two. Hornaday mentored Forbes and inspired him to begin the junior museum movement.43 It was Hornaday‘s influence that led Forbes to make wildlife preservation paramount to all of his junior museums.44 For some reason Hornaday is recognized throughout the historiography of zoos and Forbes in left out. Forbes attempted to carry Hornaday‘s innovations one step further. He wanted to blend zoos with natural history and science. At the same time he wanted to create interactive learning spaces for young audiences. This seems like an important achievement that would already have been recorded in the history of the field, yet it has not been. Junior museums have been left out of not only the historiography of natural history museums, but zoos as well. The genre of junior museums is similar to children‘s museums, but there are some important differences. While both are ―distinctive American institutions,‖ these museums were established in different time periods by different groups of people with diverse goals.45 Children‘s museums began with the Brooklyn Children‘s Museum in 1899.46 Educators founded these museums not only to provide children with fun experiences, but also to Americanize young immigrants. Programs set up in children‘s museums specifically targeted new arrivals from Europe in order to have them learn the language and culture of the United States, especially after
39 C.T. Hurst, ―William Temple Hornaday, Zoologist and Conservationist,‖ Beta Beta Beta Biological Society Bios 9, no.1 (1938): 5. 40 William Mann, ―A Brief History of the Zoo,‖ The Scientific Monthly, 63, no.5 (1946), 350. 41 Edward P. Alexander, The Museum In America: Innovators and Pioneers (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 1997), 193. 42 Ibid. 43 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 44 John Ripley Forbes, ―A Brief History of The Tallahassee Junior Museum,‖ 1962, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 45 Alexander and Alexander, Museums in Motion, 167. 46 Ibid. 11
World War I. 47 The most notable contributions to the development of children‘s museums came from famed educators Michael Spock and Frank Oppenheimer. In the museum world, these men are credited with ―simultaneously producing the unprecedented hands-on exhibitions of the 1960s.‖48 The two directors are said to have permanently changed the face of museums by ―introducing contextual, direct-experience interactivity to the exhibition floor,‖ and allowing visitors to ―participate in their own learning.‖49 While they did utilize these techniques, they were not the first to do so. In retrospect, it is clear Forbes based junior museums around similar principles.50 The junior museum movement took off in the 1940s, during World War II.51 Junior museums were tied in closely with Cold War politics, as they reached their height during the late 1940s and1950s.52 During this time the United States began to focus on science education for students in order to keep up with Russia, which made junior museums even more necessary as they supplemented school curriculum.53 Political and ideological battles at this time were often hashed out through the education system and, consequently, the federal government supported the proliferation of junior museums.54 Towards the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s and after the fall of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, targeting only young audiences for science education became obsolete. Museums shifted their focus to families.55 There are a number of other differences between these types of institutions. Children‘s museums were often created by teachers, whereas junior museums were formed by a nature conservationist. Educational theories also differ in these two museums. Children‘s museums are
47 Alexander and Alexander, Museums in Motion, 170. 48 Elaine Heumann Gurian, ―Noodling Around with Exhibition Opportunities,‖ Exhibiting Cultures: The Poetics and Politics of Museum Display (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), 179. 49 Ibid. 50 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 51 Time Magazine, ―Mr. Appleseed,‖ Dec. 21, 1953, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890847,00.html 52 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 53 Betty McCord to Jane Maxwell, 5 September 1980, Board of Trustees Papers, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 54 Andrew Hartman, Education and the Cold War: Battle for the American School (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008). 55 Gwendolyn Waldorf, ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science Organizational Information: Audience,‖ 1991, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 12 dominated by ―play,‖ with exhibitions ―to attract, amuse, and only incidentally, to instruct.‖56 Forbes ascribed to the discovery learning theory, where visitors were encouraged to explore and create personal meanings from their museum experience.57 Also, targeted audiences varied between the two museums. Children‘s museums target a younger age range, with some organizations focusing only on preschool-age children.58 Junior museums tended to focus on middle to high school age students, with additional programming for smaller children.59 Historic preservation and wildlife conservation are also elements unique to the junior museum. Forbes had a passion for preserving history, and housed most of his museums in historic buildings.60 Including acres of wildlife areas or natural habitat zoos also became a staple for junior museums. Tallahassee Museum member and elementary school educator Julie McBride believes this is a big difference between children‘s and junior museums. Education at the Tallahassee Junior Museum was more ―along the lines of learning about nature and getting more in touch with nature.‖61 Compared with children‘s museums, it makes a difference that so much of junior museums were outdoors; ―Most children‘s museums are not. Most children‘s museums don‘t have real animals; they have maybe puppets or stuffed animals.‖62 According to the Association of Children‘s Museums, close to thirty percent of their museum have an outdoor area or garden, as opposed to the vast majority of junior museums containing expansive natural, outside areas.63 In contrast to the absence of analytical materials on junior museums, there is a wide variety of literature about children‘s museums. In 1956 educator Dr. Charles Russell penned Museums and Our Children as a handbook for teachers working in museums.64 Another educator, Mae Woods Bell, addressed the history of these organizations in the first half of the 20th century with her article ―Children‘s Museums‖ in 1968.65 Similarly, in the 1970s museum expert Edward P. Alexander studied the origins children‘s museums in his work Museums in
56 Alexander and Alexander, Museums in Motion, 169. 57 George E. Hein, Learning in the Museum (London: Routledge, 1998), 30. 58 Alexander and Alexander, Museums in Motion, 168. 59 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 60 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―History of the Tallahassee Junior Museum: The Physical Plant of the Museum,‖ Tallahassee Museum Archives. 61 Julie McBride, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 3, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 62 Ibid. 63 Association of Children‘s Museums Official Website, ―Stats and Trends,‖ http://www.childrensmuseums.org/about/facts.htm 64 Charles Russell, Museums and Our Children (New York: Central Book Company, 1956). 65 Mae Woods Bell, ―Children‘s Museums,‖ The American Biology Teacher, 30, no.4 (1968). 13
Motion and The Museum in America.66 Museums and Children: Monographs on Education appeared in 1979 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization as a survey of museums programming for children around the world.67 Next came Doing Children’s Museums in 1988 by educator Joanne Cleaver as a guide to how to establish children‘s museums.68 In 1999 museum professional Nina Freedlander Gibans published Bridges to Understanding Children’s Museums as a research report about the history and current status of children‘s museums.69 While these publications have greatly added to the historiography of children‘s museums, none consider the junior museum movement in their texts. Hence, it should be clear that junior museums and children‘s museums were fundamentally different. Why then have junior museums been left out of the historiography of museums altogether, and children‘s museums have been included? It is possible that junior museums are overlooked for being a separate genre, and those who do not understand the differences between these institutions confuse them with children‘s museums. With over one hundred junior museums created, this could not be considered a small movement. In contrast, there were only about thirty children‘s museums in the United States during the 1970s.70 Another possible reason for the exclusion of junior museums from museum historiography is their connection to the Cold War. Americans have tried to move beyond the Cold War era dominated by fear and aggression, and while junior museums were positive places of learning, they were still linked to that time period.71 It is possible junior museums are forgotten because Americans wish to progress from that era and move forward amicably towards a more modern approach to education. A few former junior museums do acknowledge their creation stories. Along with the Tallahassee Museum, the Portland Children‘s Museum in Oregon and the Museum of Science and Technology in Troy, New York discuss their unique heritage. The museum in Portland
66 Alexander, Museums in Motion. 67 Ulla Keding Olofsson, ed. Museums and Children: Monographs on Education (Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 1979). 68 Joanne Cleaver, Doing Children’s Museums (Charlotte, VT: Williamson Publishing Co., 1988). 69 Nina Freelander Gibans, ed. Bridges to Understanding Children’s Museums (Cleveland: Mandel School of Nonprofit Organizations at Case Western Reserve University, 1999). 70 Association of Children‘s Museums Official Website, ―Stats and Trends,‖ http://www.childrensmuseums.org/about/facts.htm 71 Hartman, Education and the Cold War. 14 started as the ―Junior Museum and Adventure House‖ in a historic mansion.72 Troy‘s museum also began as a junior museum. Both organizations remember their history through photographs and personal stories.73 Unfortunately these museums are the minority in recognizing their unique place in the history of museums. From its start, the junior museum movement was based in educational theory. The historiography of museum education, therefore, is important for understanding the theoretical basis of junior museum educational programming. Aside from theoretical works, most museum education research has been centered on science museums, not natural history museums. Even so, the published research is sparse. In 1989 art educators produced Museum Education: History, Theory, and Practice, the most updated work in decades.74 The next influential work on museum education did not appear until almost twenty years later, From Periphery to Center: Art Museum Education in the 21st Century in 2007, edited by renowned art museum educator and former editor of the National Art Education Association‘s Art Education journal, Pat Villeneuve.75 This publication is a survey of art museum education‘s evolution, current state, and future direction.76 It has been a significant contribution to the historiography of museum education, along with her numerous other publications, and is utilized by museum professionals and students. In Villeneuve‘s book, David Ebitz‘s chapter ―Transacting Theories for Art Museum Education,‖ discusses various learning theories and theorists who have greatly contributed to the practice of museum education.77 Some of the most current and notable theorists are George E. Hein, John H. Falk, Lynn D. Dierking, Eilean Hooper-Greenhill, and Stephen E. Weil.78 Hein has heavily influenced the historiography of museum education through his various publications. In his notable book Learning in the Museum, Hein has developed the learning theory of
72 Portland Children‘s Museum Official Website, ―Mission and History,‖ http://www.portlandcm.org/mission_history.php 73 The Museum of Science and Technology, Rensselaer County Official Website, http://www.cyhaus.com/jrmuseum/ Portland Children‘s Museum Official Website, ―Mission and History,‖ http://www.portlandcm.org/mission_history.php 74 Nancy Berry and Susan Mayer, eds., Museum Education: History, Theory, and Practice (Reston, VA: National Art Education Association, 1989). 75 Pat Villeneuve, ed., From Periphery to Center: Art Museum Education in the 21st Century (Reston, VA: National Art Education Association, 2007). 76 Ibid. 77 David Ebitz, ―Transacting Theories for Art Museum Education,‖ in From Periphery to Center: Art Museum Education in the 21st Century, ed. Pat Villeneuve (Reston, VA: National Art Education Association, 2007), 21-30. 78 Ibid., 29-30. 15 constructivism for museums, in which learners actively participate in the museum experience and construct their own conclusions to make personal meanings.79 Falk and Dierking have worked together to produce a variety of publications, including their well-known work Learning from Museums: Visitor Experiences and the Making of Meaning.80 They proposed the contextual model of learning in museums that includes the sociocultural, physical, and personal contexts.81 Hooper-Greenhill has produced several works about museum education in relation to visitor studies and the social agency of museums.82 Her most recent book to have influenced the historiography of museum education is Museums and Education: Purpose, Pedagogy, Performance.83 To round out this list of significant contributors to the historiography of museum education is Weil. His prolific writings focus on the paradigm shift that began to occur in museum education during the early 1990s to make learning visitor centered, and how the role of the museum is perceived by society.84 Two of his most renowned books are Making Museum Matter and Rethinking the Museum: and Other Meditations.85 Overall, the historiography of museums is vast and varied, with significant contributions made from authors of diverse specialties within the field. However, there is one common thread amongst this body of literature: there has been very little written about the history of junior museums. This important movement within the museum world is not acknowledged in professional literature, and hardly mentioned in popular writing. This is especially puzzling since they speak to the historical problem of how museum changed their presentations in the twentieth century from a didactic model to a visitor centered approach. This thesis rectifies that by showing how junior museums have played an important role in the evolution of museums in the United States, and this should be recognized through the literature of the field.
79 Hein, Learning in the Museum, 34. 80 John H. Falk and Lynn D. Dierking, Learning From Museums: Visitor Experiences and the Making of Meaning (Lanham, MD: AltaMira, 2000). 81 Ibid., 12. 82 University of Leicester, Department of Museum Studies Official Website, ―Professor Eilean Hooper-Greenhill,‖ http://www.le.ac.uk/ms/contactus/eileanhoopergreenhill.html 83 Eilean Hooper-Greenhill, Museums and Education: Purpose, Pedagogy, Performance (London: Routledge, 2007). 84 Randi Korn, ―New Directions in Evaluation,‖ in From Periphery to Center: Art Museum Education in the 21st Century, ed. Pat Villeneuve (Reston, VA: National Art Education Association, 2007), 217. 85 Stephen E. Weil, Making Museums Matter (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002). Stephen E. Weil, Rethinking the Museum: and other Meditations (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990). 16
CHAPTER TWO See, Touch, Investigate, Solve: The Purpose of the Tallahassee Junior Museum In the 1940s and 1950s a new fad swept the country; the formation of junior museums. Educators felt that ―there was for the first time a center for children‘s activities, an innovation that caused sufficient stir.‖1 John Ripley Forbes, a noted natural science educator led this movement.2 His National Foundation for Junior Museums set up hundreds of institutions in over thirty states across the country with the goal of making history and natural science fun and educational for children.3 Forbes helped start a junior museum in Jacksonville in 1941.4 The Tallahassee Junior Museum modeled itself after the one in Jacksonville, also with the assistance of Forbes. Born in 1913 in Chelsea, Massachusetts, John Ripley Forbes appreciated the environment from an early age. In his boyhood, his family moved to Stamford, Connecticut, and living in picturesque New England aided Forbes‘ enjoyment of the outdoors. He gained his love of the natural world from his father, and ―was enthralled by the nature walks they took together.‖5 His neighbor and famed naturalist Dr. William T. Hornaday also encouraged this passion and offered advice to the young student.6 As the first director of the New York Zoological Park, now the Bronx Zoo, Hornaday had expert knowledge to impart upon Forbes and taught him about taxonomy.7 Hornaday himself made major contributions to conservation and natural science. Called by his peers a ―creative force of the first magnitude in the world of zoology, taxidermy, and museum and zoological-park administration,‖ Hornaday established many museum fundamentals.8 Essential to his success was Hornaday‘s ―unselfish service out of his vast fund of creative ability, often in the face of tremendous difficulties,‖ including the funding of zoos and
1 Condit, ―The New Junior Museum,‖ 257. 2 Time Magazine, ―Mr. Appleseed,‖ Dec. 21, 1953, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890847,00.html 3 U.S. Scouting Service Project, ―William T. Hornaday Awards History Center,‖ http://usscouts.org/history/hornadayawardsother.asp 4 The Jacksonville Museum of Science and History Official Website, ―History of the Museum,‖ http://www.themosh.org/general/history.asp 5 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 6 Time Magazine, ―Mr. Appleseed,‖ Dec. 21, 1953, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890847,00.html 7 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 8 Hurst, ―William Temple Hornaday, Zoologist and Conservationist,‖ 5. 17 museums.9 Admiring these qualities in Hornaday, Forbes strove to foster his own creativity, stretch the boundaries of imagination and education, and find unique solutions to various challenges. Hornaday lived by the slogan ―knowledge is power‖ and inspired Forbes to do the same.10 After he retired from the New York Zoological Park, Hornaday curated a special natural history collection in Stamford.11 Forbes frequented this collection, and became inspired to start one of his own. He mounted birds and animals in his family‘s attic and invited Hornaday over to see his work. Hornaday reportedly responded to the collection: ―I came over expecting to see a boy‘s collection, but instead, I have seen a scientific museum.‖12 Forbes took the lessons from Hornaday to heart, became knowledgeable about zoology and natural history, and strove for professionalism and excellence. Forbes utilized these principles in developing the genre of the junior museum. As a young man, Forbes attempted to bring natural science education to various audiences no matter what the occasion. During World War II, for instance, while serving in an Army Air Forces medical unit, Forbes ―ministered to returned airmen with shattered nerves by taking them fishing and on nature walks.‖13 He also managed to establish his first museum in Geneva, Alabama during this time.14 Spending all of his leave time campaigning, he raised money and bolstered support for the institution. After World War II, national focus shifted to the quality of childhood education in science. The federal government instituted reforms to produce better schools and trained teachers to fight what it perceived to be a communist peril.15 Forbes capitalized on these developments. He moved around the country, procuring funding and founding museums in dozens of cities. Forbes did not forget his mentor, Hornaday. After Hornaday‘s death in 1937, Forbes worked to create the William T. Hornaday Foundation to underwrite children‘s museums around
9 Hurst, ―William Temple Hornaday, Zoologist and Conservationist,‖ 5. 10 Ibid., 7. 11 Time Magazine, ―Mr. Appleseed,‖ Dec. 21, 1953, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890847,00.html 12 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 13 Ibid. 14 Time Magazine, ―Mr. Appleseed,‖ Dec. 21, 1953, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890847,00.html 15 Bernard Spodek and Olivia N. Saracho, eds. International Perspectives on Research in Early Childhood Education: An International Study (Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing, 2005), 141. 18 the United States.16 Eventually Forbes renamed the foundation to accurately reflect its cause. The National Foundation for Junior Museums funded Forbes‘ vision for several years. When the junior museum trend faded, the foundation was renamed the Natural Science for Youth Foundation.17 Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, as president of the National Foundation for Junior Museums, Forbes organized learning institutions throughout the country. He frequently enlisted the help of marginalized audiences: women and children. These groups often did not have a place in the museum world at that time, and became the focus of Forbes‘ work. He collaborated with women‘s groups such as junior leagues and other fund raising organizations to help back his museums. Women also contributed to museum collections because Forbes ―persuaded countless women to liberate their husbands‘ trophy fish from the parlor wall and donate them to science.‖18 Support from Junior leagues was essential in the early success of Forbes‘ junior museums. These women‘s organizations started in the early 1900s with the goal of promoting education and charity, and improving communities through volunteering and civic leadership.19 Eleanor Roosevelt became a charter member of the New York Junior League and supported the efforts of Forbes and his work with junior museums.20 In the 1930s and 1940s the main focus of junior leagues nationwide became education. This laid the foundation of support for junior leagues to spearhead fundraising movements for junior museums during the 1940s and 1950s. Junior leagues and junior museums became a great match and worked together to endorse education. Forbes‘ main goal became catering to children and young adults as audiences. He ―had little use for grown-up natural history museums, with their glass cases, stiff taxidermy and reverential hush.‖21 This meant that Forbes included living exhibitions, hands-on activities, and animal lending libraries. As a rule, Forbes believed, ―a museum should ring with the shouts of
16 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid. 19 The Association of Junior Leagues International, Inc. Official Website, ―Junior League History,‖ http://www.ajli.org/?nd=history 20 Ibid. 21 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 19 children as they clambered over the exhibits, and many of the exhibits should clamber back.‖22 In addition to revolutionizing museums and learning activities for children, Forbes also played a large role in historic and wildlife preservation around the country. According to his obituary in the New York Times, ―he found new uses for castoff mansions,‖ and established many junior museums in historic buildings.23 With nature as his first love, Forbes fought to include wildlife areas at his museums. Sometimes this meant helping ―turn land scheduled for development into nature preserves.‖24 The passion Forbes had for nature influenced not only the content of the museums he established, but also their physical environment and surroundings. Forbes felt that learning did not only occur inside of the museum, but also by engaging in its natural setting and experiencing the outdoors. For his tremendous work throughout the years in creating junior museums, Forbes gained national recognition. Eleanor Roosevelt commented about the work Forbes did with these museums, which were often located in urban areas where children had less exposure to nature. She wrote, ―I have seen how much the children enjoy these museums planned for their benefit, and I am sure that this is one of the ways in which we can promote a development of a very healthy interest in nature.‖25 Forbes made history with his love of nature and ability to convey it to children in the junior museum setting. In addition to the work of Forbes, The American Association of Museums (AAM) also supported the trend of junior museums. According to former Tallahassee Museum Director Lane Green, ―Big museums and the museum profession, the American Association of Museums, had begun talking about the fact that museums are dusty, they‘re stogy, they‘re don‘t touch.‖26 Museum professionals realized the potential detrimental effects to the field because children did not fully enjoy the experience of museums. This became paramount not only for the education of children, but also in cultivating future museum donors. Green says the thought at that time was: ―We‘re not going to have a generation of kids that grow up supporting museums if we don‘t engage them somehow.‖27
22 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid. 25 The Southeast Land Preservation Trust, ―John Ripley Forbes,‖ http://www.slpt.org/founder.htm 26 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 27 Ibid. 20
As an innovator and pioneer in the field, John Ripley Forbes helped to break the mold of traditional museums. While the AAM did become involved with the trend of junior museums, Forbes conceptualized and implemented these organizations.28 Current President of the Tallahassee Museum‘s Board, Susan Baldino, explained how Forbes changed thinking about museums at the time. ―We‘ve got to drop our feeling of authority and look outward into our constituency and see what they want and they need because those are the people we‘ve got to affect and impact and serve and make a difference for.‖29 Forbes did just that, and provided young adults and children with institutions they could feel ownership about: junior museums. In 1956, a small group of teachers in Tallahassee recognized the need for a museum in the area, and enlisted the help of Forbes. ―The group of school teachers desiring to make this progressive step wanted to give the youth of Tallahassee a better understanding and appreciation of natural science, the social sciences, history, and the world in which they live.‖30 These teachers did not want to build a traditional museum containing hallways of artifacts enclosed in glass cases. They wanted to follow the new guidelines laid down by Forbes and create a dynamic, interactive museum for children. In addition to many hands-on activities offered at the Museum, Forbes felt the need for exhibitions to be improved and geared towards an age-appropriate audience. Customarily, exhibitions employ ―the conventional practice of ‗permanent‘ displays with a life of five, ten, or fifteen years.‖31 This was never the case in a museum established by Forbes. While he did agree with having a limited amount of ―semi-permanent exhibits on nature subjects, such as mammals, birds, and sea life,‖ he strongly felt that ―a well balanced exhibit program should include changing exhibits on a wide variety of subjects.‖32 This protocol was explained as a ―method of reaching the public through changing exhibits.‖33 Early board members of the Tallahassee Museum supported the idea of changing exhibitions, and rejected ―permanent exhibits that stay ad infinitum gathering dust.‖34
28 Time Magazine, ―Mr. Appleseed,‖ Dec. 21, 1953, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890847,00.html 29 Susan Baldino, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, January 23, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 30 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―History of the Tallahassee Junior Museum: Why Was it Started?‖ Tallahassee Museum Archives. 31 Carbonell, ed., Museum Studies, 115. 32 John Ripley Forbes, ―A Brief History of The Tallahassee Junior Museum,‖ 1962, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 33 Betty McCord to Jane Maxwell, 5 September 1980, Board of Trustees Papers, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 34 Ibid. 21
The Tallahassee Museum enjoyed success due to the whole hearted support from the community, including public and private donors. Teachers interested in starting the Museum organized with the Leon County Association for Childhood Education in 1956 to ―adopt as a project the starting of a children‘s museum in Tallahassee.‖35 Support from the Leon County School Board also became vital to the conception of the museum, as school children comprised the largest intended audiences of visitors. According the Forbes, ―it is essential that the local school system, from the Superintendent right on down, is thoroughly sold on the idea [of the museum].‖36 Junior museums often found they could only survive if they had the support of their local school boards, including financial backing. Before the museum‘s official charter was adopted, members of Leon County Association for Childhood Education formed a planning committee. ―The committee developed tentative organizational plans, appointed a Board of Trustees…and used $200 seed money from the Association to have the Museum officially chartered.‖37 The board used this initial money to bring in John Ripley Forbes and start physically planning the Museum. Once the Museum‘s legal charter passed in 1957, the Tallahassee Junior League, then the Tallahassee Service League, became heavily involved with providing funding, board members, and volunteers for the museum.38 This began their ―impressive record of support by providing $5000 annually for two years to hire a director.‖39 The City of Tallahassee and the first museum memberships provided additional financial support.40 Forbes and the National Foundation of Junior Museums also ―offered help in the form of wildlife exhibits for the Museum, and aid in raising money locally.‖41 A long-time museum professional and associate of Forbes was Madalene Sawyer, the Director of his Jacksonville Museum during the 1950s. Forbes, along with Tallahassee Junior Museum founders, convinced Sawyer to become the first Director of the Museum.42 In January 1958, ―the state cabinet agreed to let the Museum use the old McMillan home
35 Betty McCord to Jane Maxwell, 5 September 1980, Board of Trustees Papers, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 36 John Ripley Forbes, ―A Brief History of The Tallahassee Junior Museum,‖ 1962, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 37 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―The Early Years – Downtown,‖ ‘Round the Bend, July 1982. 38 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―History of the Tallahassee Junior Museum: Where Does the Museum Get the Money to Operate?‖ Tallahassee Museum Archives. 39 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―The Early Years – Downtown,‖ ‘Round the Bend, July 1982. 40 Ibid. 41 Margaret A. Graham, Tallahassee Junior League Yearbook, 1957-1958, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 42 Betty McCord to Jane Maxwell, 5 September 1980, Board of Trustees Papers, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 22 on the corner of Adams and Madison Street as headquarters for one year.‖43 Under the direction of Sawyer, volunteers transformed the house ―into a museum that would provide experiences in nature, science, social studies, and arts and crafts for students of all ages.‖44 Educational outreach programs began before the museum actually opened to create excitement and anticipation in the community. This helped to bolster community support for the fledgling institution by providing new and stimulating learning experiences. ―On Tuesday, October 28, 1958, the Tallahassee Junior Museum officially opened its doors.‖45 Originally, the Tallahassee Junior Museum aimed to meet the educational needs of children. The choice to become a junior museum instead of a children‘s museum resulted from the museum‘s desire to focus on a broad age range of children. According to the Tallahassee Museum‘s current Director Russell Daws, ―historically there has always been an issue of the name at the Museum.‖46 Some community members favored calling the institution a children‘s museum, but others wanted to focus on more age groups. Many realized that ―the middle school and high school students could gain from the resources,‖ not just small children.47 Daws recounted that those involved reached a consensus; ―They at that point decided ‗Junior Museum‘ would be more encompassing of a broader range of students and kids.‖48 After agreeing on a name, the Tallahassee Junior Museum began operations, and became a widely renowned institution in the community. Because Forbes designed junior museums around an educational basis, he strongly affected the type of learning theory implemented at the Tallahassee Junior Museum. In the 1950s and 1960s when the Museum initially developed educational programming, most museums adhered to didactic and expository educational experiences. Children‘s and junior museums were specifically designed to create interactive and hands-on learning situations. ―A children‘s museum collects objects, not for their rarity, but for their usefulness in interpretation or education.‖49 Traditional museums at that time collected objects for historical, cultural, or monetary value. Educational programming, if it existed at all in a traditional museum, was completely centered around the object. According to art museum educators Nancy Berry and
43 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―The Early Years – Downtown,‖ ‘Round the Bend, July 1982. 44 Ibid. 45 Ibid. 46 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 47 Ibid. 48 Ibid. 49 Alexander and Alexander, Museums in Motion, 168. 23
Susan Mayer an absence of educational models designed specifically for museum use at that time led to completely didactic experiences.50 Renowned museum educator George Hein explains that ―it was assumed that people would learn, be enlightened, and be entertained by their visits to museums without any reference to the study of visitors‘ experiences.‖51 Museum staff felt that many objects did not need interpretation, that the objects would simply ―speak‖ to the visitor. However, when interpretation was provided it was done in a didactic manner. In a 1942 article, museum professional Theodore Low wrote: ―education has been placed in a moral quarantine by the staff. They have not only forced its submission but they have set it off as a necessary but isolated evil.‖52 Traditional museums often rejected formalized educational programming, and did not respect the role of education in the museum. Forbes sought to change this with his idea of the junior museum. While some didactic and expository experiences did occur in his museums, the discovery learning theory was the most commonly practiced. Forbes and the educators who believed in his vision struggled to reform museum education at the time. Low remarked, ―this battle which education has fought in the part to gain entrance into the museum has not been an easy one. Indeed, the odds have been almost overwhelmingly aligned on the opposite side.‖53 Forbes intended for junior museums ―to engage, intrigue, and inform their visitors,‖ something that did not usually occur in the traditional setting.54 Didactic, expository education is based around a teacher or museum educator organizing a lesson and then disseminating it to students. According to Hein, ―the teacher presents principles, provides examples to illustrate these principles, and repeats to some extent to implant the material in the learner‘s mind.‖55 This is often how education is approached in the regular school setting. Didactic and expository learning theories became something Forbes wanted to move away from in the junior museum. Using discovery learning theory forced museums to restructure educational programming. The staff of the Tallahassee Junior Museum, who believed that ―youth and education are fundamental‖ to their mission adopted this pedagogical position
50 Berry and Mayer, eds., Museum Education. 51 Hein, Learning in the Museum, 5. 52 Gail Anderson, ed., Reinventing the Museum: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on the Paradigm Shift (Lanham, MD: AltaMira, 2004), 32. 53 Ibid., 33. 54 Alexander and Alexander, Museums in Motion, 168. 55 Hein, Learning in the Museum, 26. 24 from the start. 56 Discovery learning theory is much more hands-on than didactic lessons. At the time when Forbes was creating junior museums, however, this learning theory did not have an official label. In fact, ―discovery learning theory,‖ did not gain a formal name until the 1960s. However, in retrospect the type of education implemented in junior museums fits precisely into this category. The shift to visitor centered active learning was, as Hein writes, the difference between ―expository teaching and discovery learning.‖57 According to Hein, there are a variety of elements that constitute discovery learning theory. Exhibitions that allow exploration, freedom of movement throughout the area, and provide a wide array of interactive materials usually conform to this theory.58 However, when practically applying discovery learning, there can be minimal didactic components, such as labels and panels that ―ask questions, and prompt visitors to find out for themselves.‖59 Also, visitors should be provided with a means to evaluate their personal conclusions against the accepted ―correct‖ interpretation of an exhibition.60 Providing expert testimony for visitors to consider is also an important aspect.61 Educators at the museum base educational programming around active learning. Hein states that ―discovery education approaches have accepted the idea that learning is an active process, that learners undergo changes as they learn, that they interact with the material to be learned more fundamentally than only absorbing it, that they somehow change the way their minds work as they learn.‖62 Paramount to this thought was the aptly named Discovery Center established at the Tallahassee Museum in the 1960s. Educators became involved in designing this building, made for educational play and exploration of the natural world. The motto of the Discovery Center is ―See, touch, investigate, solve.‖63 A multitude of activities became available at the Discovery Center. These included scaled down interactive exhibitions, science projects, the wet lab Exploratorium, and even
56 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―Organizational History,‖ 1981, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 57 Hein, Learning in the Museum, 30. 58 Ibid., 33. 59 Ibid. 60 Ibid., 30. 61 Ibid. 62 Ibid. 63 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Discovery Center,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=discovery-center-2 25 watching the staff feed the small live animals like snakes and baby alligators. Educators encouraged visitors to run around, touch things, and ask questions without concern that they would be reprimanded, judged, or graded. This is why the museum still believes that the Discovery Center is one of its education department‘s greatest achievements.64 The staff also believes that this is why it has been an enduring favorite of visitors for decades. In keeping with Forbes‘ ideas about education, all programming at the Tallahassee Museum has been based upon the discovery learning theory. Hein explains that ―learning includes more than piling facts and concepts into the warehouse of the mind. As people learn, their capacity to learn expands; the shape and volume of the mind‘s warehouse is transformed by the process of grappling with the new information.‖65 Because educators founded the museum, they understood learning as an epiphanic process. These educators wanted to make museum learning audience centered instead of object centered. Forbes explained that junior museum staff in teaching programs ―should be able to speak the child‘s language and think a child‘s thoughts.‖66 Educational programming during the 1950s and 1960s at the Tallahassee Junior Museum included the popular ―pet-lending library‖ and the ―treasure chest‖ program.67 The pet-lending library allowed animals such as ―hamsters, prairie dogs, white mice, snakes and raccoons to go home for the weekend with a child whose parents came in with him and agreed to see that the pet was well cared for.‖68 Educational materials about how to care for the pet, where it comes from, and how it lives in the wild were also provided. This gave children the opportunity to learn about the animals first hand and create memorable learning experiences with them and explore a subject not regularly addressed in school. The program gained immense popularity with children because of the unique pets available, and also with parents who did not have to keep the pets indefinitely.69 The treasure chest program also provided children and young adults with valuable discovery learning experiences. Because the museum‘s original mission included exposing students to world views and giving them an opportunity to learn about other cultures, the treasure
64 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Discovery Center,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=discovery-center-2 65 Hein, Learning in the Museum, 30. 66 John Ripley Forbes, ―A Brief History of The Tallahassee Junior Museum,‖ 1962, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 67 Mary Leslie K. Drake, Tallahassee Junior League Yearbook, 1960-1961, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 68 Betty McCord to Jane Maxwell, 5 September 1980, Board of Trustees Papers, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 69 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―The Early Years – Downtown,‖ ‘Round the Bend, July 1982. 26 chests focused on international topics.70 Treasure chests were lent out to area teachers to ―enrich school classes.‖71 Teachers from first grade through junior high school utilized the chests and worked in cooperation with various school libraries.72 This allowed for the museum to reach exponentially more students and to cultivate an interest in visiting the institution. Teachers came to rely heavily on these treasure chests as supplements to their regular lesson plans. Treasure chests contained items from various different countries and regions donated to the museum, often by the board, staff, or members. These included ―toys, articles of clothing in children‘s sizes, games, books, and other things representative of that country.‖73 Treasure chests represented countries like Japan, China, Mexico, and Peru, and regions such as the Middle East.74 Trying on the clothing and playing with toys and games allowed students to experience elements of a specific country firsthand. Other chests contained natural history items such as ―bird nests, bird eggs, perhaps a stuffed bird – anything that could be handled and studied at close range.‖75 Interactive learning with items students would not normally have in a classroom fostered community support, funding for the museum, and further practice of the discovery learning theory. With strong outreach programs building support in the community, the museum created an educational program in-house to match. An early board member wrote, ―we always strove for a widely varied program at the Museum, and had activities in art, natural history, foreign countries, science – you could hardly name a field we left unturned.‖76 Discovery and hands-on activities were always the central focus of education in the museum. For example, in an exhibition about pioneers, real coffee grinders and iron sewing equipment were included, along with black and white drawings of these objects in a book. Curators noted that ―instead of just looking at the drawing, children could actually take the things in their hands and turn the cranks and learn about how they operated.‖77 Children created learning experiences by using the tools themselves, and sharing the information with other students and their families. This exhibition provided an example of the curators and educators at the Tallahassee
70 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―The Early Years – Downtown,‖ ‘Round the Bend, July 1982. 71 Betty McCord to Jane Maxwell, 5 September 1980, Board of Trustees Papers, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 72 Ibid. 73 Ibid. 74 John Ripley Forbes, ―A Brief History of The Tallahassee Junior Museum,‖ 1962, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 75 Betty McCord to Jane Maxwell, 5 September 1980, Board of Trustees Papers, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 76 Ibid. 77 Ibid. 27
Junior Museum working together. For every exhibition the museum has created, this has been the case.78 In traditional museums, education and curation are often divorced from one another and their departments never work together. Work on exhibitions ―has become the function of the curator‖ and excludes educators.79 According to Low, ―once the exhibition has been arranged without consulting the educational staff the curator says, ‗Here it is. Now you explain it to the public.‘‖80 Because educators were central to the Tallahassee Museum‘s formation, they fostered a very different approach. Educators became involved in planning exhibitions alongside the curatorial team from the start. Hence, the discovery learning theory influenced all areas of the museum‘s administration. The implementation of the discovery learning theory by educators and curators also is evident on the Museum‘s pioneer farm exhibition. In 1961 the Museum acquired the farm through donations from various locations in North Florida and South Georgia.81 Once the buildings had been reassembled at the museum, the staff designed educational programming for visitors to learn about the farm. This included various hands-on and discovery activities that allowed students, families, and even older guests to partake in traditional 1880s Big Bend farming activities.82 To former Tallahassee Museum Director Lane Green, the educational experiences meant serving the entire community. Learning at the Museum became for ―the whole population and age range, even grandparents.‖83 Especially true at the pioneer farm, multi-generational groups could participate in interactive living history encounters that appealed to all the senses. This included activities such as blacksmithing, gardening, tool making, woodstove cooking, butter making, quilting, wool spinning, and traditional clothes washing.84 Green felt that ―having something for grandparents to parents to kids to relate to [made] the experience fuller and richer.‖85 Always a proponent for historic preservation, Forbes usually established his junior
78 Betty McCord to Jane Maxwell, 5 September 1980, Board of Trustees Papers, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 79 Anderson, ed., Reinventing the Museum, 33. 80 Ibid. 81 John Ripley Forbes, ―A Brief History of The Tallahassee Junior Museum,‖ 1962, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 82 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―The Big Bend Farm,‖ Tallahassee Museum Archives. 83 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 84 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Experience Living History,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=experience-living-history 85 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 28 museums in existing historic buildings, and out of the 125 junior museums in the United States in 1962, ―only about 25% are housed in buildings designed particularly for them.‖86 While the museum‘s original location in a historic house was in keeping with Forbes‘ vision, the directors began looking for ways to expand their ability to discuss the Big Bend area‘s natural history. This is why, in 1962, the museum moved from the historic but small house in downtown Tallahassee to its current home on Lake Bradford. In its new location it could expand facilities and utilize a more natural setting.87 The site ―promised exciting opportunities to explore nature, conservation, and science.‖88 This new lakeside property provided space for a natural habitat zoo and the preservation of regional community buildings, like the pioneer farm and eventually an historic schoolhouse, church, and plantation home.89 Although many would have liked to have been able to find another historic building in which to house the main museum, none were available at that time in Tallahassee. Hence, the museum held a competition of local architects to find the perfect design for the Lake Bradford location, it order to take advantage of the beautiful surrounding environment.90 For inspiration the winning architects camped at the site, and came up with a design that united education with nature in a whimsical fashion.91 The architects kept their audiences in mind by designing buildings children could enjoy and that would make adults recall the ―enthusiasm, happiness, and playfulness of youth,‖ and to ―express the spirit of the Museum.‖92 This became especially evident in the upsweeping of the tent-like roofs on the five building complex. Learning from the natural setting was also important, as the buildings contained multiple large windows, were connected by natural walks, and built nestled into the surrounding palmetto forest.93 This design promoted easy access to and creative inspiration for natural science education. Many of the educational programs at the Museum became designed around the physicality of the buildings, which included bird watching rooms and a building created
86 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―History of the Tallahassee Junior Museum: The Physical Plant of the Museum,‖ Tallahassee Museum Archives. 87 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―Organizational History,‖ 1981, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 88 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―History of the Tallahassee Museum,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=museum-history 89 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―History of the Tallahassee Museum,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=museum-history 90 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―History of the Museum: Buildings,‖ Tallahassee Museum Archives. 91 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―History of the Tallahassee Museum,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=museum-history 92 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―History of the Museum: Buildings,‖ Tallahassee Museum Archives. 93 Betty McCord to Jane Maxwell, 5 September 1980, Board of Trustees Papers, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 29 especially for the Discovery Center.94 The 1960s and 1970s became influential decades of growth for the Museum. The building of physical structures, cultivation of a strong Board of Trustees and qualified staff, enhancement of collections, and increased development community support occurred during this time. According to professionals in the field ―throughout the 1960s, museums launched ever more expansive, and expensive, courses of renovation.‖95 In this decade the museum completed the permanent administration, education, and exhibition buildings.96 While the museum maintained its support within the Big Bend area throughout the 1970s, with expansion came financial challenges. Admission fees first appeared in 1970 to help increased revenue for the museum.97 According to the 1971-1972 Tallahassee Junior League Yearbook, these were the first years that ―extensive membership drives were conducted.‖98 The museum began a preschool program and summer camps to increase revenue. Special fundraising events such as Market Days became widely attended and celebrated occasions. Many new animal habitats opened, including the black bear, alligator, and bobcat, which attracted large numbers of visitors.99 In 1980, Lane Green began his term as the sixth director of the museum.100 He stayed until 1990, and during those ten years he brought many beneficial changes to the organization. This influential period of time led up to the museum‘s name change in 1992. Green continued to build upon the improvements begun in the 1970s. Working with his staff, he added more new animals to the natural habitat zoo. The highlight of this endeavor became the grand opening of the Florida panther habitat in 1982.101 For playing such a significant role in the museum‘s history, the Florida panther became immortalized as the logo for the organization. Green and his team also created the ―guest animal habitat‖ to host non-native Floridian animals.102 This very popular innovative feature achieved the museum‘s goal of attracting new visitors and enticing
94 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Discovery Center,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=discovery-center-2 95 Gregory Nosan, ―Women in the Galleries: Prestige, Education, and Volunteerism at Mid-Century,‖ Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies 29, no. 1 (2003): 51. 96 Gwendolyn Waldorf, ―Tallahassee Museum Milestones,‖ 2007, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 97 Ibid. 98 Margie Smith, Tallahassee Junior League Yearbook, 1971-1972, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 99 Del Suggs, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 4, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 100 Gwendolyn Waldorf, ―Tallahassee Museum Milestones,‖ 2007, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 101 Ibid. 102 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 30 people who had already been to the museum with ever changing, exotic exhibits. Championed by Green, the staff who worked with the native Floridian animals in the natural habitat zoo always made sure the animals were their first priority. Ethical and humane treatment of the animals took center stage, and the creatures never became confined to traditional cages. Each species received a sizeable territory in which to roam in a natural, wild setting.103 The museum never captured animals for display; instead, all the animals procured had been deemed a public nuisance or were rescue animals in need of a home and possibly some rehabilitation. Staff in the animal department felt these creatures had ―been lucky to find a home at the museum,‖ as an alternative to euthanasia or harm in the wild.104 A prime example of this is the current pair of bobcats at the Museum. One bobcat has a permanently injured leg due to a gunshot wound.105 The other feline was kept as a pet, declawed, and eventually released into the wild and became a nuisance animal when searching for food at houses.106 Other examples of rescue animals are the museum‘s black bears and river otters. In addition to rescuing animals, the museum also has a history of conducting conservation and breeding programs. Hornaday set the standard for breeding programs in America in the early 1900s to protect large game and other wildlife.107 He looked at these conservation programs as ―warfare on behalf of wildlife.‖108 The most notable and successful programs Hornaday established helped to greatly increase the number of bison and Alaskan fur seals.109 Directly influenced by Hornaday, the programs at the museum have helped the Florida panthers and red wolves. The severely endangered Florida panther has benefitted tremendously from the museum‘s rescue program.110 Inbreeding and lack of viable habitat due to humans encroaching on their territories led to a devastating population decline.111 The animal
103 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Wildlife Florida,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=wildlife-florida 104 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―The Museum‘s Bobcats,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=the-museum-s-bobcats 105 Ibid. 106 Ibid. 107 Alexander, The Museum in America, 200. 108 Hurst, ―William Temple Hornaday, Zoologist and Conservationist,‖ 11. 109 Alexander, The Museum in America, 200. 110 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Panther Recovery,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=panther-recovery 111 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Panther Recovery,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=panther-recovery 31 department has since bred Florida panthers with Texas panthers to diversify the gene pool and is planning a long range effort for acquiring large areas of land to reintroduce the panther into the wild.112 Since 1988, the museum has participated in another equally successful survival program. The Red Wolf Species Survival Plan is a cooperative program with various breeding facilities to manage endangered species with a goal of re-releasing them into their original territories.113 In 1980, red wolves became extinct in the wild, and only survived due to the foundation of this breeding program.114 Several pups have since been born at the museum, and the staff continues to actively participate in this recovery program. In addition to championing conservation programs, Hornaday also fought for protective wildlife legislation. By 1911 Hornaday helped pass the Bayne Bill of New York which banned the sale of native game and allowed for private breeding institutions.115 This important piece of legislation paved the way for similar bills in other states and eventually nationwide protective laws. Hornaday strove to establish game reserves and legally set aside protected land.116 He especially focused on saving birds, which led to conservation acts across North America.117 This legislation led by Hornaday in the 20th century opened the door for similar protective acts in the 21st century. One federal law, for instance, banned the use of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) pesticide in the United States. Developed during World War II as strong, modern insecticide, legislation passed in 1972 prohibited the use of DDT on crops.118 DDT became problematic when single-cell organisms absorbed the chemical and then passed in up through the food chain in a process known as biomagnification.119 The use of DDT greatly affected the population of bald eagles in the United States. In the 1950s and 1960s bald eagle populations plummeted and the birds became endangered.120
112 Ibid. 113 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Red Wolf Species Survival Plan,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=red-wolf-ssp 114 Ibid. 115 Hurst, ―William Temple Hornaday, Zoologist and Conservationist,‖ 11. 116 Ibid., 13. 117 Ibid., 12. 118 United State Environmental Protection Agency Official Website, ―DDT Ban Takes Effect,‖ http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/ddt/01.htm 119 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Biomagnification,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=biomagnification 120 American Eagle Foundation Official Website, ―Recovery and Protection,‖ http://www.eagles.org/moreabout.html 32
Conservation and breeding programs like the one found at the Tallahassee Museum helped to bring the national bird back from the edge of extinction.121 The animal department at the museum has followed Hornaday‘s lead in bird conservation, and has made a special effort to focus on protecting bald eagles. Due to the diligent work of these programs nationwide, including the museum‘s program, bald eagles were recategorized from endangered to threatened in 1995 as the number of nesting pairs increased.122 Bald eagles are now legally protected by the Endangered Species Act and the Bald Eagle Act, which would not have been passed without the precedents previously set by Hornaday‘s campaigning.123 Even though the museum worked extremely hard to renovate the animal facilities and make other expansions, the institution faced financial challenges. Non-profit organizations, like the Tallahassee Museum, often incur financial hardships. The museum offered the position of Director to Green primarily for this reason. Green explained the situation: ―I knew a lot of the people who were on the Board of Directors. One of the things that the museum was needing at that time was a better connection with the business community. I knew a lot of the business community.‖124 This was a period of time when non-profit businesses and especially museums were undergoing administrative restructuring. They looked to businesses for a new model and their directors needed to have a firm grasp of business management to grapple with their institutions‘ financial realities.125 Green fully understood and greatly enhanced the financial situation of the museum. During his time there he cultivated donors, set up large-scale fundraising events, and increased the number of museum visitors and memberships.126 According to a Director‘s Report made to the Board in 1988, the Museum was setting all-time high records for attendance and memberships, with ―three years in a row that we held at least 70,000 people attending.‖127 Funding improved, which allowed for the establishment of the endowment fund. Green‘s fundraising accomplishments were staggering: ―When I went there the budget was about 150,000
121 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Bald Eagle,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=bald-eagle 122 American Eagle Foundation Official Website, ―Recovery and Protection,‖ http://www.eagles.org/moreabout.html 123 Ibid. 124 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 125 Lord and Lord, The Manual of Museum Management, 194. 126 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 127 Mary Register, Minutes of the Executive Council of the Tallahassee Jr. Museum, ―Lane Green‘s Director‘s Report,‖ Oct. 12, 1988, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 33 dollars a year. Ten years later when I left it had a million dollar budget. We had to raise every dime of that every year.‖128 Increases in funding provided the opportunity for an expansion of educational programming and events. More adults and families began to attend the museum, not just children and school groups. Board member Del Suggs recalled, ―we really wanted to aim at a more diverse audience.‖129 The museum was becoming more sophisticated, and reaching beyond a youthful audience. Reevaluation of the museum‘s mission became essential during this time. According to Green, the mission was central to developing a strategic plan: ―Are we true to our mission? Does the mission need to be expanded, does it need to be condensed? What are we doing best? Are we doing everything that our mission says we‘re supposed to do? That‘s how a non-profit is judged.‖130 Daws remembered how broad the museum‘s original mission was, and the need for it to be more narrowly focused: ―The early mission of the museum was to really have a global view: the histories, cultures, geographies, environments or the world from the beginning of time. That‘s a pretty broad mission that was doomed for failure with the resources of Tallahassee and this organization.‖131 In the late 1980s, the mission came under heavy scrutiny. The mission‘s focus shifted to become much more regionally sensitive. Also, the mission addressed a new target audience, emphasizing families instead of just children.132 Green told about the museum ―expanding the mission to do things that engaged the entire family. Three generations: kids, parents, grandkids.‖133 Not only families, but the entire community became encompassed by the new mission. The most recent version of the museum‘s mission statement moves beyond families to reach the entire community: ―to promote knowledge and understanding of the Big Bend‘s cultural history and natural environment, inspiring people to enrich their lives and build a better community.‖134
128 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 129 Del Suggs, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 4, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 130 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 131 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 132 Gwendolyn Waldorf, ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science Organizational Information: Audience,‖ 1991, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 133 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 134 Museums USA Official Website, ―Museum Info: Tallahassee Museum,‖ http://www.museumsusa.org/museums/info/1160506 34
This shift in audiences is evident in the visitation statistics of the museum. The 1991 statistics showed that fifty one percent of visitors were children, and forty nine percent were adults.135 Hence, the museum‘s audiences had transitioned from being mainly children a strong illustration of the institution‘s movement away from being a junior museum. With a median visitor age of almost thirty, the museum had successfully expanded its audiences to include ―all age groups.‖136 This became reflected in the new mission statement that appropriately reflected the demography of the museum‘s actual visitors. Because the museum analyzed the mission in such detail during the late 1980s and early 1990s, many felt it was time to also reexamine the name of the institution. The mission became the driving force of the museum; everything centered on being true to the mission.137 Since the mission had changed, many felt the ―junior‖ in Tallahassee Junior Museum was no longer appropriate. Daws remembered that at that time ―it became apparent that our name and the perception of being a children‘s museum wasn‘t fitting as well; our audience was changing.‖138 With the museum‘s target audiences and mission now aligned, it became apparent that the name of the institution should be altered to reflect these vital changes. Even visitors to the museum agreed, as shown by comments for a special event exit survey conducted in August, 1991. Many suggested a name change: ―I had no idea what to expect, didn‘t know what it was from the name. Ought to call it something more attractive to adults.‖139 Another comment advocated a new name: ―Maybe ‗Botanical & Zoological Garden.‘ When you hear ‗Junior Museum,‘ I had another perspective of what to see.‖140 According to Green, during his last few years at the Museum the idea of the name change was heavily circulated amongst museum insiders: ―We went through all kinds of discussions about what that name should be.‖141 According to Daws, the institution conducted research about why the name should change and what it should change to: ―Through the Board role, there were lots of conversations with people in the community, both internal audiences and external
135 Gwendolyn Waldorf, ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science Organizational Information: Audience,‖ 1991, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 136 Ibid. 137 Carbonell, ed., Museum Studies, 96. 138 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 139 Gwendolyn Waldorf, Tallahassee Junior Museum Storytelling Program Exit Survey, August 17, 1991, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 140 Ibid. 141 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 35 audiences. We tried to explain that for the best interest of this institution‘s long term survival and flourishing, that needed to happen.‖142 There were years of debate over what the new name should be. Green said that the question at that time was, ―could you retain some of the old name, add something to the old name?‖143 According to Daws, this was exactly how the final name came about, as a combination of old and new. ―From the very beginning there was a strong sense that it needed to have the word ‗Tallahassee‘ in it because it represented what our mission was about. There was a strong sense that it needed to reflect what we as a museum did.‖144 At first this debate culminated in the new name, the ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science,‖ which was later truncated to the ―Tallahassee Museum.‖ In 1992 Daws officially implemented the new name. Green left the museum amicably in 1990, when Tall Timbers wildlife research station offered him their director position.145 He oversaw the initial name change discussions and research, but the actual change was carried out two years after Daws took over as the museum‘s director. Green fully supported the decision carried out by Daws. He explained: ―I knew it should happen. . . . I enjoyed talking to people about it and why it needed to change because I was convinced that it was the right thing to do. I didn‘t avoid it; I didn‘t blame it on Russell.‖146 However, some complications ensued when presenting the name to the public and the new Tallahassee Museum had to win over visitors by explaining the name change.
142 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 143 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 144 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 145 Tall Timbers Research Station Official Website, ―Executive Director,‖ http://www.talltimbers.org/ed-message.html 146 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 36
CHAPTER THREE Out With the Old, Embracing the New at the Tallahassee Museum The museum‘s March 1992 newsletter officially presented the name change of the ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science‖ (later to be the Tallahassee Museum) to the public, along with an accompanying press conference. In the newsletter, Daws explained what the original mission was, and how it had changed over the years to better serve the museum‘s audience. He related how the Museum took years of ―intensive study‖ by the Board and ―input from Museum visitors, members of the community, funding sources, and museum professionals‖ into consideration when deciding on the name change.1 On January 16, 1992 the Board formally voted on the new name, and on May 1, the name took effect.2 The museum‘s name change lent credibility and professionalism to the organization, and allowed for more financial support and the ability to gain accreditation. However, the transition did not go over smoothly throughout the entire community. The Tallahassee Democrat published an article leaking the information before it became public with the official announcement in the newsletter.3 This editorial article had a negative take on the new name, and stated that longtime visitors no longer felt ownership of the institution. Museum insiders felt betrayed, and regretted the decision to keep certain members of the press involved in the name change process. Daws said, ―We had been led to believe that our name change was supported by a media individual that we were counting on to help get the word out in a positive light.‖4 The museum team was shocked when, ―Unexpectedly that person, who had been kept aware of the process, announced it before we were ready for it to be announced with sort of a negative story, so they got us off to a bad start.‖5 Suggs described the museum‘s reaction to the article: ―Once that happened, we went into this bunker mentality.‖6 This forced the museum to be reactive instead of proactive about presenting the new name, but eventually they got past the hurdle of the initial negative press. Most people in the community did support the new name. Green commended the museum for how they handled the difficult situation publically. ―I think the museum was doing
1 Russell Daws, ―A Rose By Any Other Name…,‖ ‘Round the Bend 13, no. 3 (1992): 8. 2 Ibid. 3 Del Suggs, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 4, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 4 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 5 Ibid. 6 Del Suggs, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 4, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 37 it due diligence to deal with something as dramatic as the name change. If the institution didn‘t matter to the community, it could change its name every three days. It‘s meant a lot to the community, so that made it more of a difficult thing to deal with.‖7 The majority of the Big Bend area took time to process the name change of such a popular organization, and came around to support the decision. While some of the public did not agree with or understand the new name, most visitors did not have any problem with the change. Julie McBride, a twenty five year member of the museum recalled her family‘s reaction at the time: ―We love the Museum! We would go no matter what the Museum would be called.‖8 She also understood why the Museum made this decision. McBride stated that ―they wanted to let people know that it‘s more than just a playground; ―junior‖ makes you think of things for little kids.‖9 Local business owners also commended the museum‘s efforts to professionalize. The publisher of Tallahassee Magazine wrote Daws a personal note about the endeavor: ―Congratulations on getting the name changed!‖10 Even the 1992-1993 Tallahassee Museum Membership Renewal Card Survey included positive remarks. Members wrote, ―Keep up the good work!‖ and ―We love it all.‖11 An additional survey reported affirmative comments: ―We enjoyed it, I think they are changing beautifully!‖12 Marketing the new name was also a challenge for the museum. The main reasons for this were ―limited financial resources‖ and lack of planning.13 To popularize the new name, the museum created the famous Florida panther logo. Visitors felt strong ownership of the museum‘s panthers and embraced this new symbol. Daws also explained why it became confusing for some locals to use the new name: ―We kept our brand and only changed our name. It‘s understandable why if you still have the same brand and you‘re doing that brand even better, why they still associate you with the old name.‖14 Some visitors did note the confusion in the 1992-1993 Membership Survey. One
7 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 8 Julie McBride, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 3, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 9 Ibid. 10 Brian Rowland to Russell Daws, April 1993, Tallahassee Museum Papers, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 11 Gwendolyn Waldorf, 1992-1993 Tallahassee Museum Membership Renewal Card Survey, ―Suggestions,‖ 1993 Tallahassee Museum Archives. 12 Gwendolyn Waldorf, Tallahassee Junior Museum Storytelling Program Exit Survey, August 17, 1991, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 13 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 14 Ibid. 38 member wrote, ―I guess I‘ll always call you the ‗Junior Museum‘ but I still love it.‖15 While some made more forceful comments such as ―the new name is absurd,‖ the vast majority of negative comments simply addressed the nostalgia involved with the ―Junior‖ name.16 Overall, most comments appeared positive: ―You are doing a super job,‖ and ―Thank you for being a part of our community.‖17 After some initial misunderstanding and resistance from a small portion of the community, subsequent marketing campaigns proved successful in ingraining the new name in the Big Bend area. Changing the museum‘s name legally became a much easier venture. Daws filed the name change paperwork with the Florida Department of State‘s Division of Corporations on April 30, 1992.18 According to Daws, this was the quickest and easiest part about the whole process. ―The legal change, with a vote of the Board and filing the proper paperwork you can change your name within weeks.‖19 Signs around Tallahassee giving directions to the museum were also changed at include the new name. Over a dozen signs were changed with the funding and assistance of the local government and businesses.20 Although the museum identified changes in audience and the mission as primary reasons for the transition from a junior museum, there are numerous other central reasons for why the name change came about. Professional changes within the museum field, the proper timing within the Museum and Big Bend community, an educational paradigm shift, funding, image, and accreditation are just some of the main reasons. A multitude of intertwined factors propelled this change. The name change at the Tallahassee Museum reflected a larger trend in the museum profession. In the 1980s and 1990s junior museums transitioned to names that better described their institutions and to avoid confusion with children‘s museums. The original junior museums had focused on constructing their institutions for science and history around their audiences.21 They were named due to these target audiences: children, students, and young adults. Over time
15 Gwendolyn Waldorf, 1992-1993 Tallahassee Museum Membership Renewal Card Survey, ―Suggestions,‖ 1993 Tallahassee Museum Archives. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 18 Florida Department of State, Division of Corporations, ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science,‖ http://www.sunbiz.org/scripts/corevt.exe?action=DETNAM&inq_doc_number=700373&filing_type_fld=DOMNP 19 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 20 Russell Daws to Charles Dunn, 22 May 1993, Tallahassee Museum Papers, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 21 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 39 the subject matter of the museums had stayed the same but the educational programming had been expanded to include adults. Junior museums now strove to include all audiences and so their names no longer reflected the demographics of their visitors. Green tells about the trend: ―When you get to 1990, a lot of those junior and children‘s museum across the country had found they needed to grow up in name to attract support.‖22 The Jacksonville museum led the way in the name change trend. They transitioned to become the Jacksonville Museum of Arts and Sciences (later the Jacksonville Museum of Science and History) in 1977.23 In Troy, New York, The Rensselaer County Junior Museum changed its name to the Museum of Science and Technology, Rensselaer County.24 Similar name changes occurred in Kansas City, San Jose, and Portland.25 Junior museums went out of style by the mid 1990s, and only a small handful remained in the country. Other professional changes in the field also affected the disappearance of junior museums. Forbes had a novel idea when he created audience centered museums. In the 1990s, however, the rest of the museum field began to catch up to this idea. In 1970 the AAM‘s publication Museum News included an article from President Joseph Veach Noble that laid forth the manifesto for museums at that time.26 The responsibilities of every museum were to: collect, conserve, study, interpret, and exhibit.27 As a new paradigm in museum purpose and responsibility emerged in the 1990s, renowned museum theorist Peter van Mensch, Stephen Weil‘s teacher, proposed these five aspects to be changed; museums should preserve, study, and communicate.28 The term communicate allowed museums to focus outward on serving their audiences instead of solely inward on their collections. Rising accountability to audiences in mainstream museums meant that junior museums no longer inhabited a unique niche and, instead, they became obsolete. In addition to the general trend away from junior museums, the Tallahassee Museum‘s own natural development led it towards the new name. Besides attracting broader audiences and
22 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 23 The Jacksonville Museum of Science and History Official Website, ―History of the Museum,‖ http://www.themosh.org/general/history.asp 24 The Museum of Science and Technology, Rensselaer County Official Website, http://www.cyhaus.com/jrmuseum/ 25 Time Magazine, ―Mr. Appleseed,‖ Dec. 21, 1953, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890847,00.html 26 Weil, Rethinking the Museum, 57. 27 Ibid. 28 Ibid., 58. 40 changing the mission, the museum‘s collections also grew. The original mission emphasized education about different global cultures. Because of the museum‘s location, however, donations for the collections often had a more regional than worldly focus. ―As our collections grew, obviously collection items from our regional area, and history and past, were coming in much quicker than African artifacts. So there was a natural evolution based upon collections,‖ recalled Daws.29 Original discussions about changing the name began in the 1970s, when the museum experienced major physical growth.30 Yet the mission and target audiences stayed mostly the same as 1957. When the museum reevaluated its mission in the late 1980s, talks about rebranding reemerged. Green laid the foundation for the change by increasing the museum‘s community support and funding base. Although the name change was already in the works when Green left the Museum, he acknowledged that Daws played a significant role in the transition. Green said, ―It could have been that it was perfect timing because I had gotten it to the point that it had a solid foundation and it was ready for the next jump, and maybe it took new blood to do that.‖31 Also affecting the timing of the name change was the museum‘s board of trustees. Information on the new paradigm shift in museum responsibility and trend away from junior museums began to circulate more widely and reached the board members. This became important as these people held the real power to implement the new name as the governing body of the museum. Suggs talked about what it was like to be on the board at that time: ―It was pretty easy to reach a consensus.‖32 He continued on to say, ―There has been very little opposition. When we reach a decision, it‘s pretty much unanimous.‖33 That type of unity within a board can be very hard to establish and maintain. The timing was right for the name change in 1992 because the Board functioned exceptionally well and cooperated about the process. Green agreed with Suggs‘ evaluation of the board, commenting that ―a lot of community input and the overwhelming majority of the current board of trustees and the current founders thought it was okay, that was the thing to do.‖34
29 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 30 Ibid. 31 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 32 Del Suggs, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 4, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 33 Ibid. 34 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 41
Educational programming utilized the collections, so it too naturally evolved alongside the changing collections. The most popular outreach program, treasure chests, was no longer viable to continue as the collection changed. Also, as Tallahassee‘s population grew and visitation to the museum increased this program became harder to sustain. The museum‘s focus now became regional and for all ages, and therefore the institution devised strong new educational programming to take this into account. As the paradigm shift that van Mensch and Weil described began to take hold of the museum world, it severely affected museum education.35 Forbes‘ junior museums already adhered to the discovery learning theory, infused with small traces of didactic education. However, from World War II in the 1940s until the 1990s, education in the larger museum world remained virtually unchanged. If education was acknowledged at all by a traditional museum, it was done in a didactic fashion.36 The timing of the name change also made sense given changes in pedagogical theory. In the late 1980s and early 1990s the first new wave of publications about changes in museum education began to circulate. These publications espoused discovery and constructivist approaches to museum education, not didactic.37 Hence, what the Tallahassee Museum was doing no longer set them apart any more from the mainstream. One of the most influential new works came from the AAM‘s effort to establish professional standards of quality in museum education.38 The Association produced a report called Excellence and Equity: Education and the Public Dimension of Museums in 1992 to set forth guidelines about the best practices in museum education.39 Led by an informed director who was heavily involved with the AAM and adhering to progressive, professional ideas, the Tallahassee Museum‘s staff continued to embrace discovery learning, and began to move in the direction of constructivism.40 While constructivism and discovery learning theories are similar, there are a few important differences when applying constructivism in the museum. According to museum educator and theorist George Hein, constructivist learning situations require two separate
35 Weil, Rethinking the Museum, 61. 36 Berry and Mayer, eds., Museum Education. 37 Ebitz, ―Transacting Theories for Art Museum Education,‖ 21-30. 38 American Association of Museums, Excellence and Equity: Education and the Public Dimension of Museums (Washington, D.C.: American Association of Museums, 1992). 39 Ibid. 40 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 42 components: ―recognition that in order to learn the active participation of the learner is required‖ and ―conclusions reached by the learner are not validated by whether or not they conform to some external standard of truth, but whether they ‗make sense‘ within the constructed reality of the learner.‖41 Mistakes are only made by the learner when their conclusions do not correspond to the evidence, and differ from what the learner could ―reasonably conclude from all the information available to her at the time she reaches that conclusion.‖42 This differs from didactic learning, where responses are judged based on external standards of truth.43 Hein believes that constructivist learning in the museum is inevitable, because people naturally create personal meaning out of their own experiences.44 Everyone views and interprets the world differently, and these various viewpoints are acceptable and valuable. According to Hein, constructivist exhibitions in museums are accessible at a variety of points, and contain no specific path to follow.45 A wide variety of interactive activities are available, and multiple viewpoints are presented to visitors.46 Connections with objects and ideas are made by encouraging visitors to draw from their own personal experiences.47 Empowering visitors with the ability to ―experiment, conjecture, and draw conclusions‖ is also essential when practicing the constructivist learning theory in museums.48 Educational programming at the Tallahassee Museum continued to utilize the discovery learning theory advocated by Forbes, and gradually began to blend in elements of the constructivist learning theory set forth by Hein. Several components of these two theories overlap, such as the use of interactives in exhibitions and the ability to freely explore the museum space.49 Educators at the museum intermingled discovery and constructivist elements through a variety of activities for audiences of all ages and backgrounds. At the Tallahassee Museum, education continued to be diverse and ubiquitous in the 1990s and through to present day. Its current director of education, Jennifer Golden, has been contributing to the museum for years, and has been a trained professional educator for several
41 Hein, Learning in the Museum, 34. 42 Ibid. 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid. 45 Ibid., 35. 46 Ibid. 47 Ibid. 48 Ibid. 49 Ibid., 33-35. 43 decades.50 She works together with various other departments at the museum to form a well- rounded, cohesive educational program. These departments include exhibits and collections, as well as animals. When challenging the idea of the didactic museum in 1990, museum theorist Weil posed the question ―should museum education appropriately remain the responsibility of a separate department?‖51 According to Hein, the answer in a constructivist museum is no; all departments should function together to promote learning.52 Evidence of various departments collaborating on programming at the museum shows that constructivism is utilized. Additionally, the museum‘s organizational chart illustrates the departments as an interconnected web, instead of in the traditional hierarchical fashion.53 This provides further evidence of a movement towards a constructivist museum. With the combination of being a history and natural science institution that contains a natural habitat zoo the Tallahassee Museum provides distinctive educational opportunities for visitors. Educational activities at the museum do not resemble those usually found at school, and learners have much more freedom to self-conduct their experience at the museum. Brimming with hands-on activities, the museum epitomizes a smooth blend of discovery and constructivist learning theories in their Discovery Center and at their workshops.54 Exhibits at the Museum encourage exploration and questioning, and apply all the necessary elements for discovery and constructivist learning theory based experiences.55 There are several components of programming that have comprised the educational activities and functions of the Tallahassee Museum since the early 1990s. Some of these components have included camps, preschool classes, animal encounters, tours, special events, and the Discovery Center.56 Other aspects have been maps and signage on the museum grounds, labels and interpretation of exhibits, the museum‘s website, and literature like pamphlets and informative newsletters. Through these activities and under the leadership of experienced
50 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Our Staff,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=join-our-staff 51 Weil, Rethinking the Museum, 61. 52 George E. Hein and Mary Alexander, Museums: Places of Learning (Washington D.C.: American Association of Museums, 1998), 14. 53 Tallahassee Museum Organizational Chart, 2001, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 54 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Exhibits,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=museum-exhibits 55 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Current Exhibits: Event Details,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/uploads/doc/pdf/Health_events9.pdf 56 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Learning Resources,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=learning-resources 44 educators, the Tallahassee Museum has provided visitors with improved quality since the name change by utilizing the latest educational theories in their programming. Summer camps at the Tallahassee Museum have been one of the most popular educational activities available to visitors. Parents have written comments about how much their children ―LOVED” the camps which are a ―wonderful asset!!!‖57 Every year these camps fill up quickly to maximum capacity. They are broken down into weekly sessions, and accommodate students from kindergarten through eighth grade.58 Each week has a different theme that promotes discovery about history and the natural world. These camps are lead by certified teachers, and campers receive small group instruction and individualized attention. At the museum ―the adult-to-child ratio is 1:8, which means a friendly, warm and enjoyable camp experience for [campers].‖59 A camp instructor explained that the museum educators promote constructivist learning activities for campers of all ages, such as conducting specific natural science experiments and participating in animal caretaking.60 Teenage volunteers are also utilized to help the teachers, and this provides the teens with an educational opportunity to learn more about the teaching profession firsthand.61 Campers‘ favorite activities often include fieldtrips taken outside of the museum.62 While the weekly curriculum highlights what is available on grounds at the museum, it is important for campers to receive diverse experiences consisting of hands-on learning off-site to gain further benefit from discovery and constructivist situations. For example, during the camp session themed ―Wild Things‖ in 2008 campers went to a wildlife rescue facility and got to participate in the daily activities of the organization.63 These programs have been crucial for promoting and popularizing the museum as a place of learning and attracting repeat visitors.
57 Gwendolyn Waldorf, Tallahassee Museum 1992 Newsletter Survey, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 58 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Summer Camps,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/summer-camps 59 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Camps,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=camps 60 Megan Crombie, telephone conversation with Shannon O‘Donnell, February 13, 2009. 61 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Volunteer Youth Team,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=volunteer-youth-team 62 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Summer Camps,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/summer-camps 63 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Camps,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=camps 45
In addition to summer camps, the museum also offers year round Discovery classes.64 These are one-day sessions that take place on days off from school. Similar to the summer camps, these gatherings are themed and based on small group instruction. However, because they are single-day meetings, they take place at the museum and are packed with concentrated but fun learning experiences.65 These camps provide educational alternatives to school for students on days that would normally be spent less constructively. Preschool classes have also continued to be a well-loved part of the Tallahassee Museum‘s educational offerings. Visitor surveys have included comments such as ―We are great fans of…the Preschool Program, keep up the great work you are doing!‖66 These have been conducted at the museum for since 1968, and usually have a long waiting list due to their esteemed reputation.67 The museum‘s preschool has been nationally accredited by the National Association for the Education of Young Children, and maintains professional standards of excellence.68 Additionally, the program has been accredited as a Florida Gold Seal Center for providing superior quality childcare for over a decade.69 Most programs that have been accredited with these distinctions are found at Montessori or preparatory schools.70 Montessori programs advocate children learning through free choice and self direction.71 This learning style is similar to constructivism, and both have roots in the work famed developmental theorist Jean Piaget conducted in child development.72 However, the museum‘s name change lent more
64 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Discovery Camps,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=camp-schedule 65 Ibid. 66 Gwendolyn Waldorf, Tallahassee Museum 1992 Newsletter Survey, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 67 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―History of the Tallahassee Museum,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=museum-history 68 National Association for the Education of Young Children Official Website, ―NAEYC Academy for Early Childhood Program Accreditation,‖ http://www.naeyc.org/academy/search/Search_Result.asp?Condition=%20And%20P.City%20=%20%27tallahassee %27&pno=2 69 Florida Department of Children and Families, ―Gold Seal Quality Care Program,‖ http://www.dcf.state.fl.us/childcare/goldseal.shtml 70 National Association for the Education of Young Children Official Website, ―NAEYC Academy for Early Childhood Program Accreditation,‖ http://www.naeyc.org/academy/search/Search_Result.asp?Condition=%20And%20P.City%20=%20%27tallahassee %27&pno=2 71 Montessori Official Website, ―The Montessori ‗Method‘,‖ http://www.montessori.edu/method.html 72 Les Archives Jean Piaget Official Website, ―Jean Piaget: Vie,‖ http://archivespiaget.ch/fr/jean-piaget/vie/index.html 46 credibility and professionalism to the institution, and enhanced the programs‘ ability to gain accreditation. Preschool classes are structured around exploring the natural world and utilizing hands- on teaching tools. According to the Museum‘s website, their ―excellent teachers create enjoyable, active learning experiences both in the classroom and around the museum‘s entire fifty-two acres.‖73 By taking advantage of the museum‘s natural setting, students are engaged in the worlds of history and science that they are discovering through these classes. Through the creation of active learning experiences, children are exposed to discovery and constructivist learning styles from an early age. The preschool teachers also encourage discovery and constructivist style learning at home by including parents in the program and encouraging them to explore with their children by providing advice in the museum‘s website column ―Teachable Moments.‖74 While the camps and classes at the museum have been geared primarily towards a younger audience, the daily educational animal encounters are exciting for all ages. These take place in the Chapin outdoor classroom, and are facilitated by a trained professional.75 Visitors get to experience nature up close as a different native Floridian animal is featured at each encounter. Usually visitors are allowed to touch or hold the animals while the instructor answers questions and engages in a dialogue with participants. These encounters address not only the animals themselves, but also what people can do to help protect the habitats that these animals live in. It is a hands-on way to follow in Forbes‘ footsteps and to get visitors thinking about the environment and what they can do to play their part in conservation. This program has maintained popularity, and as one visitor noted in a survey, the museum‘s ―hands-on stuff is good—both for kids and adults.‖76 For visitors who enjoy a quieter setting, the Tallahassee Museum has continued to offer exhibits in the Phipps gallery and the Fleischmann Natural Science Building since the 1960s.77
73 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Early Childhood Programs,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=early-childhood-programs 74 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Teachable Moments,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=teachable-moments 75 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Chapin Outdoor Classroom,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=chapin-outdoor-classroom 76 Gwendolyn Waldorf, 1992-1993 Tallahassee Museum Membership Renewal Card Survey, ―Suggestions,‖ 1993 Tallahassee Museum Archives. 77 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Exhibits,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=museum-exhibits 47
These exhibits have always based around themes of Florida natural science or history. They offer multiple perspectives and seek to actively engage the visitor through a variety of mediums by utilizing discovery and constructivist principles. For example, the current exhibit in the Phipps gallery, ―A Picture of Health in Florida: 1830s – 1930s‖ includes different sections on African American and Seminole medicine of the time.78 Text panels, photos, objects, sound recordings, and interactive devices such as a doctors bags and a large table based on the game ―Operation‖ offer visitors a multitude of diverse ways to learn from the exhibit.79 These experiences are self-directed, and provide something for all age groups. To enhance the exhibits at the museum, there are supplemental educational activities for those interested in learning more about the subject matter. These special events include off-site field trips, workshops, discovery tables and hands-on activities, reenactments, and other endeavors. For the current medical exhibit, there are at least seventeen major supplemental activities for visitors, most which are free of charge.80 Highlights include workshops on taking a ―naturopathic approach to health‖ and a Civil War battlefield triage reenactment.81 Another self-directed learning opportunity at the Tallahassee Museum has been found on the nature trail. The museum offers a detailed map of the trail and a guide to the native Floridian animals seen in the natural habitat zoo. 82 Also seen on the trail are explanatory signs about the animals along with bronze 3-D depictions of the animals for children, the visually impaired, and others to touch and enjoy. Addressing accessibility issues is a major part of constructivist learning, and the museum adheres to these principles.83 In keeping with Forbes‘ educational mission, several small kiosks on the trail offer interactive games featuring the animals that encourage children to think about their natural surroundings and strive to protect them. For those who prefer a bit more guidance to their visit to the Tallahassee Museum, audio tours are available. While these are still self-guided and the visitor can chose which entries to
78 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Current Exhibits,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=current-exhibit 79 Ibid. 80 Ibid. 81 Ibid. 82 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Wildlife Florida,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=wildlife-florida 83 Rebecca McGinnis, ―Enabling Education: Including People with Disabilities in Art Museum Education,‖ in From Periphery to Center: Art Museum Education in the 21st Century, ed. Pat Villeneuve (Reston, VA: National Art Education Association, 2007). 48 listen to, they provide supplemental information to the signage around the museum.84 This mainly pertains to the historic buildings, including the farmstead and Bellevue Plantation. All of these historic structures include signage and interactives such as video or audio enhancements. The audio tour is for those who prefer solitary investigation of the historical content, and are quite popular with adult visitors. Because the museum is in such a historical setting, living history naturally fits in with the educational programming. On special days costumed interpreters inhabit the grounds and the historic buildings, and interact with visitors.85 These include a blacksmith who will let anyone interested come hammer at his working forge, farmers who enlist the help of visitors to sow their fields, weavers who encourage children to come touch their handiwork, and a bevy of other lively characters.86 Visitors of all ages and especially families really enjoy these hands-on activities, which tends to increase repeat visitation. With the motto ―See, touch, investigate, solve,‖ the Discovery Center has easily remained the most popular aspect of the Tallahassee Museum‘s educational programming. 87 While the museum designed the Discovery Center with the discovery learning theory in mind, the Center has become the perfect testing ground for the museum‘s educators to blend discovery theory with constructivism. Visitors are free to move about the Center from station to station, constantly exploring and making connections.88 Constructivist elements like a comment wall have been added to the Center.89 Here, visitors can leave written remarks and observations for others to read, and represent the voices of multiple audiences who visit the museum. While the museum itself offers a bounty of educational activities, the website is also packed with educational materials. The site is a testament to the museum‘s efforts to constantly progress and embrace technology. It is brightly colored and easy to navigate, making it accessible for even small children. The website includes interactive cartoon stories about the ―Adventure Kids,‖ a team of diverse children who investigate the natural world and solve
84 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Tour Programs,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=group-programs 85 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Big Bend Farm,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=big-bend-farm 86 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Experience Living History,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=experience-living-history 87 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Discovery Center,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=discovery-center-2 88 Ibid. 89 Ibid. 49 mysteries.90 Some of the ―Adventure Kids‖ face accessibility issues, which are creatively addressed by adhering to constructivist thought.91 Additionally on the website are detailed educational resources for teachers and parents.92 It also lists an extensive library of photos and videos of the museum to be used for educational purposes.93 Even the language used on the website illustrates the museum‘s implementation of constructivism. Hein wrote about the shift in language when addressing constructivist theory, and the museum follows this shift by using terms such as ―learning‖ in place of ―education,‖ and also using the words ―explore, discover, engage, and experience‖ to describe the museum.94 Overall, the Tallahassee Museum provides complete educational programming for visitors interested in any aspect of the museum. Specialized activities accommodate different learning styles, leaving visitors free to participate as much or as little as they choose. Education spans all aspects of the museum, including the orienting devices at the front entrance, the educational toys and literature sold at the gift shop, and even community partnerships and outreach events. The museum staff has continually worked hard to ensure the visitors‘ trip is well-rounded to promote satisfaction through unique learning experiences. Due to all of these changes and expansions at the museum during the late 1980s and early 1990s, the educational programming had outgrown the name ―Junior.‖ Learning activities were no longer geared solely towards children and teenagers; families and adults of all ages began to actively participate in new offerings.95 The visitor demographics and education programming enrollments reflected increased adult visitation to the museum.96 This became an important and strong argument for changing the institution‘s name to something that would accurately reflect the roles and functions of the museum. One of the most substantial reasons the museum changed its name to the Tallahassee Museum was funding. Even though the museum is a non-profit organization, they are still a
90 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Adventure Kids,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=learning-adventures-2 91 Ibid. 92 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Learning Resources,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=learning-resources 93 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Video Library,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=video-library 94 Hein, Learning in the Museum, 30. 95 Gwendolyn Waldorf, 1992-1993 Tallahassee Museum Membership Renewal Card Survey, ―Suggestions,‖ 1993 Tallahassee Museum Archives. 96 Gwendolyn Waldorf, ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science Organizational Information: Audience,‖ 1991, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 50 business. Green related that his business skills were a main reason the board brought him to the museum: ―The bottom line is important. The bottom line is whether you‘re bringing in more than you‘re spending. That always has to be someone‘s focus in the institution.‖97 The name ―Junior‖ compromised funding and support for the museum. Major potential sponsors in the community often felt the organization was only for children. At the time of the name change, the Museum had been in a ―deep financial crisis.‖98 While Green had created unprecedented growth in the museum‘s financial base, none of the funds were recurring. Hence, fundraising had to begin all over again every fiscal year. It was this financial crisis that spurred the urgency of the name change. It allowed the museum to look to many more sources. Daws explained, ―there were many areas we could not seek funds from with the current mission/name disconnect.‖99 Not only did the name hinder local funding for the museum but also state, federal, and other private funding. No matter how exceptional a museum‘s programming or exhibits are, if they cannot sustain funding, they will be in danger of closing.100 The title ―Junior‖ put the museum‘s state and federal funding from grants in jeopardy. ―We had applied for some grants that we had been denied because we weren‘t a ‗real museum‘; grants that we got a couple years later simply after changing the name,‖ remembered Suggs.101 Local competition for funding also increased during this time. The Museum of Florida History opened in 1977 as the state history museum.102 In the early 1990s the Museum of Art Tallahassee and the Odyssey Science Center were established and eventually merged in the late 1990s to form the Mary Brogan Museum of Art and Science.103 Florida State University‘s Museum of Fine Arts also found a permanent home and expanded operations in the 1970s.104 With all of these major institutions opening in Tallahassee, funding sources became spread thin through the cultural community. Competition for state and local government funds and the
97 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 98 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 99 Ibid. 100 Carbonell, ed., Museum Studies, 89. 101 Del Suggs, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 4, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 102 Museum of Florida History Official Website, ―Museum Info,‖ http://www.museumoffloridahistory.com/ 103 Mary Brogan Museum of Art and Science Official Website, ―MOAS,‖ http://www.thebrogan.org/ 104 Florida State University Museum of Fine Arts Official Website, ―Organizational History,‖ http://www.mofa.fsu.edu/history.html 51 federal Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS) became fierce amongst these institutions. This culminated in the late 1980s and early 1990s before the Tallahassee Museum changed its name. The Tallahassee Museum‘s board of directors was particularly interested in securing funding from the IMLS because it was a new revenue stream. Green recalled when these grants first became available in the mid-1980s: ―Seventy five, 100,000 dollars worth of operating money. That was like a gold mine to a museum. To qualify for it you had to be very specific in your mission, following your mission, your name, and making everything fit. It was hard, but in the very first year we got one of the first grants, 50,000 dollars.‖105 This grant was an incredible help to the museum, and the institution came to rely upon it heavily. When the IMLS changed its funding categories, however, the term ―Junior‖ suddenly thrust them into trouble. One year in the late 1980s the museum missed receiving the grant, which served as a wakeup call. Green explained, ―We had to compete in the children‘s category and they were only doing children‘s things and a lot of the younger-aged things. We were doing activities outside of that. All of a sudden we didn‘t get the grant.‖106 This furthered the idea of a name change. At the time, Green and his staff thought, ―We have to change our name and adjust our mission to incorporate what the original purpose was, but expand that purpose and change the name.‖107 Funding statistics of the Tallahassee Museum from 1991-1994 show the drastic effects the name change had on the museum‘s finances. In the 1991-1992 Annual Executive Director‘s Report, approximately fifteen percent of the museum‘s income came from grants and local government funding.108 By the 1992-1993 report, the first year of the name change, close to twenty five percent of the budget came from these sources.109 Also that fiscal year the museum became one of only 300 museums nationwide to receive an IMLS General Operating Support grant worth over $112,500.110 The 1993-1994 report illustrated that the name change had taken
105 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 106 Ibid. 107 Ibid. 108 Russell Daws, ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science 1991-1992 Annual Executive Director‘s Report,‖ 14, no. 1 (1993). 109 Russell Daws, ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science 1992-1993 Annual Executive Director‘s Report,‖ 15, no. 1 (1994), 1-8. 110 Russell Daws, ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science 1992-1993 Annual Executive Director‘s Report,‖ 15, no. 1 (1994), 1-8. 52 effect, and the museum had a surplus of $48,000.111 Grants are usually written one year in advance, and because this became the first full year the name change applied, the museum benefitted greatly. Daws believed that without the name change, the museum faced failure due to the depletion of major funding sources: ―The ultimate outcome once the name change occurred allowed us to position ourselves and market ourselves in a way that greatly expanded our access to and receipt of financial resources.‖112 This became a primary goal of the name change. Without funding, the museum could no longer operate. Daws said the name change ―allowed us to find funding at the state and national level that were previously not available to us. It allowed us to better reach out to our region for support as well.‖113 The Tallahassee Museum did succeed in achieving its goals in terms of funding with the name change, and the decision has continued to produce positive financial results. One of these benefits has been sustained funding by IMLS grants, including a grant to produce the high quality, educational website for the museum.114 The desire to enhance their image with the regional community and within the professional field dictated the museum‘s name change. Green described how the organization‘s image was affected: ―The official name that we put on grant applications and solicitations needed to be grownup rather than Junior. Junior means that you‘re not quite senior; you‘ve not quite made it yet. You‘re still trying to be something.‖115 The museum had already become something; it had become a unique learning facility for all ages in the Big Bend area. With the name change the museum gained more credibility and respect visitors, sponsors, other museums, and professional organizations. This enhanced funding opportunities and placed the museum on par with institutions perceived to be more serious. Another reason the name change enhanced the museum‘s image was clarifying that it was not a children‘s museum. When many people heard the name ―junior,‖ they assumed the museum was a place only for children. In a list from the 1980s of common misconceptions about the museum, one problem reported was many people believed ―this is a children‘s
111 Russell Daws, ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science 1993-1994 Annual Executive Director‘s Report,‖ (1995), 3. 112 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 113 Ibid. 114 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Home,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/ 115 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 53 museum.‖116 Museum staff acknowledged that the name ―Junior‖ was problematic, and that ―adults enjoy visiting and coming to our programs as much as the kids.‖117 The museum‘s new name solved this problem and being perceived as a children‘s museum was never an issue after 1992. Image also tied into the museum‘s attempt at accreditation by the American Association of Museums (AAM) in the mid-1980s. This was another eye opener for the Museum that facilitated the name change. While the museum did gain accreditation in 1985, it was not without a long struggle over the institution‘s name.118 ―Had the museum continued to be viewed as a children‘s museum it would have never been accredited by the AAM,‖ said Suggs.119 Currently there are no junior museums in existence that are accredited and only four percent of all children‘s museums have received AAM accreditation.120 Established decades before the Tallahassee Museum, these institutions are very large and successful, and located in major cities. In the museum world, children‘s museums often carry a stigma because they usually do not collections in the traditional sense. These institutions must work hard to prove that they are ―real‖ museums as defined by the AAM‘s standards and, hence, worthy of accreditation. As the influential museum director and author Peter Marzio commented in the 1970s, ―I concluded, frankly, that children‘s museums…weren‘t really museums.‖121 Former Director of the Indianapolis Children‘s Museum believes many museum professionals take this view because of the lack of research produced by children‘s museums.122 This is compounded by the fact that ―children‘s museum staff are not hired for their scholarly or academic experience or even inclination.‖123 Due to these challenges and the attitudes of some museum professionals towards museums that target children, it would have been virtually impossible for the museum to be accredited had it remained a junior museum. Green and his staff led the effort for accreditation, and the AAM recommended the name change right away. The AAM received the museum with confusion; ―Are you really a children‘s
116 Gwendolyn Waldorf, ―Common Misconceptions About the Junior Museum,‖ Tallahassee Museum Archives. 117 Ibid. 118 Gwendolyn Waldorf, ―Tallahassee Museum Milestones,‖ 2007, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 119 Del Suggs, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 4, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 120 The American Association of Museums Official Website, ―List of Accredited Museums,‖ http://www.aam-us.org/museumresources/accred/list.cfm?mode=search 121 Alexander and Alexander, Museums in Motion, 181. 122 Ibid. 123 Ibid. 54 museum? What age child?‖124 Because the museum dealt with all ages this was difficult to answer, although they were definitely not a children‘s museum. The museum did finally receive accreditation, but only after taking steps towards a new name. Changing the name also allowed for accreditation from the American Association of Zoology for Parks and Aquariums, which addressed the natural habitat zoo component of the institution.125 Accreditation is vital in the museum field for establishing and maintaining professional standards. The accreditation program recognizes museums for their ―commitment to excellence, accountability, high professional standards, and continued institutional improvement.‖126 While being accredited is closely tied to funding, accreditation encompasses much more than just financial opportunities.127 According to the AAM, some of the benefits of accreditation for museums include: credibility and responsibility, clearer sense of purpose, leverage and support, sustainability, and a stronger institution.128 The AAM Museum Accreditation Program has been implemented since 1971, after being conceptualized in the 1960s.129 Designed to organize and professionalize American museums, accreditation is the highest standard a museum can achieve. The process takes three to four years to complete, and not every museum that applies is successful.130 Accreditation involves an extensive application, multiple commission meetings and committee visits. Recommendations for changes to the museum can be made by the accreditation committee, like the name change for the Tallahassee Museum.131 The museum successfully completed the accreditation process because the AAM felt the institution was making significant steps towards the name change. The Tallahassee Museum has had much experience with accreditation, as it successfully completed a subsequent review for reaccreditation in the 1990s, and again in 2009. This is a process that consists of a self-study conducted over one year by the museum and a visit by an
124 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 125 Del Suggs, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 4, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 126 The American Association of Museums Official Website, ―About the Accreditation Program,‖ http://www.aam-us.org/museumresources/accred/about.cfm 127 Lord and Lord, The Manual of Museum Management, 56. 128 The American Association of Museums Official Website, ―The Benefits of Accreditation,‖ http://www.aam-us.org/museumresources/accred/benefits.cfm 129 The American Association of Museums Official Website, ―Accreditation Program History,‖ http://www.aam-us.org/museumresources/accred/history.cfm 130 Non-Profits Plus: Museum Accreditation Assistance Official Website, ―FAQs,‖ http://www.nonprfts.com/faq.htm 131 The American Association of Museums Official Website, ―About the Accreditation Process,‖ http://www.aam-us.org/museumresources/accred/AccredProcess.cfm 55
AAM committee, and is done at least every ten years.132 For Daws, accreditation carries immeasurable benefits. Measuring ―how we maintain our collections, how we present information to the public through our programs, how we maintain ethical operations, our transparency, our fundraising and financial operations, how we serve as a very effective public trust to the community,‖ is very satisfying for Daws and his staff.133 Accreditation also serves to give the museum national recognition for adhering to the best professional standards and practices. It furthermore gives the museum access to influential and important traveling exhibits, and fosters development and facility improvement.134 With so many valid reasons for the Tallahassee Museum to adapt a new name, the institution moved forward with the decision and never looked back. Various elements of the museum were affected by this choice, and the majority of the community chose to still support the organization.135 While the name change might have seemed abrupt to some, the changes at the museums that prompted the new name were much more gradual. As the museum evolved to improve in quality and professionalism, they drew in higher numbers of visitors and celebrated their diverse backgrounds.136 Practically everyone involved with the museum benefitted from the name change, and these benefits have continued to enhance the institution even today. After the end of the junior museum movement, Forbes continued to work to advocate education and wildlife conservation. In 1976, he founded a conservation group called the Southeast Land Preservation Trust to monitor real estate development and protect wildlife areas.137 In the late 1980s Forbes learned of a forest in Sandy Springs, Georgia that was going to be developed.138 He campaigned to make it a natural preserve, and in 1989 a 30-acre area was designated the John Ripley Forbes Big Trees Forest Preserve, which includes 200 year old white oaks.139 Forbes worked for promote wildlife conservation until his death in 2006 at age 93.
132 The American Association of Museums Official Website, ―About the Accreditation Process,‖ http://www.aam-us.org/museumresources/accred/AccredProcess.cfm 133 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 134 The American Association of Museums Official Website, ―Accreditation,‖ http://www.aam-us.org/museumresources/accred/index.cfm 135 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 136 Gwendolyn Waldorf, ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science Organizational Information: Audience,‖ 1991, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 137 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 138 Ibid. 139 Ibid. 56
EPILOGUE Where to Go From Here: Evaluation and the Future Although largely unrecognized in the study of museuology, the junior museum movement was important to the overall development of making science education interactive. Today, these types of institutions have been almost completely eradicated from the profession because they have transitioned into other types of cultural organizations.1 Some became exclusively children‘s museum and others became focused solely on science. 2 Others could not morph into either and closed their doors. The Tallahassee Museum has managed to transform itself and its mission but yet retain some of the spirit and character of its origins. By absorbing many junior institutions into the world of children‘s museums, many children‘s organizations were actually improved. Forbes held his movement to such elevated standards that when these institutions became children‘s museums, they had better standards of practice and higher quality educational programming.3 Those junior organizations that chose to become children‘s museums felt that it was easier to maintain their target audiences rather than try to expand to become an entity that included a variety of different audiences.4 Also, many junior museums had made funding connections with organizations that supported education for children. To successfully become anything other than a children‘s museum, these institutions would have had to build new funding bases from scratch.5 Also, community need and support factored into the decision to become a children‘s museum for many former junior organizations. Many communities did not have any other similar institutions available for children, and felt the need to keep this type of museum around to enhance the area.6 Additionally, some communities felt strong ownership of their junior museums as educational places for children, and supported their decisions to become child- centered learning institutions. A few examples of junior museums that transitioned into children‘s museums are in
1 Cleaver, Doing Children’s Museums. 2 Ibid. 3 Sacramento Children‘s Museum Official Website, ―History of SCM,‖ http://www.sacramentochildrensmuseum.org/about.html 4 Association of Children‘s Museums Official Website, ―Strategic Framework,‖ http://www.childrensmuseums.org/about/strategic.htm 5 Washington State Department of Early Learning, ―Children‘s Museums,‖ http://www.del.wa.gov/partnerships/coalitions/museums.aspx 6 Discovery Place Official Website, http://www.discoveryplace.org/home/discovery_place-dp_kids.php
57
Sacramento, Charlotte, Fort Worth, Nashville, Portland, and Troy, New York.7 In Sacramento, California, the junior museum established by Forbes in the 1940s is now the Sacramento Children‘s Museum. While it retains the children‘s museums principles of a play-based environment that caters to children ages 0 to 8, it did retain a few elements of the junior museum.8 These include encouraging children to think for themselves and utilize creative exploration.9 The former junior museum found in Charlotte, North Carolina has since become the Discovery Place.10 The Association of Children‘s Museums recognizes this and similar other types of institutions as a kind of children‘s museum.11 Much like the Sacramento Children‘s Museum, the Discovery Place has mainly become a true children‘s museum, but has kept a few small components of its junior museum origins. In Fort Worth, Texas, the Fort Worth Museum of Science and History is one of the most popular attractions in the area.12 This former junior museum has expanded into a children‘s museum that even includes a planetarium.13 These two organizations have blossomed from their solid foundation as junior museums into creative institutions that include elements beyond what are normally found in a children‘s museum. One of the earliest junior museums founded by Forbes is found in Nashville, Tennessee.14 Now the Adventure Science Center, it still retains a mission of providing children with unique science experiences, much like junior museums. The museum celebrates its history as a junior museum, and expresses that ―Forbes‘ vision is as strong as ever. Adventure Science Center still creates opportunities for children to learn and have fun.‖15 So too does the current Portland Children‘s Museum in Oregon. Founded in 1946 as the Junior Museum and Adventure House,
7 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 8 Sacramento Children‘s Museum Official Website, ―History of SCM,‖ http://www.sacramentochildrensmuseum.org/about.html 9 Ibid. 10 Discovery Place Official Website, http://www.discoveryplace.org/home/discovery_place-dp_kids.php 11 Association of Children‘s Museum‘s Official Website, ―ACM Membership Roster,‖ http://www.childrensmuseums.org/join/roster.htm 12Time Magazine, ―Mr. Appleseed,‖ Dec. 21, 1953, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890847,00.html 13 Fort Worth Museum of Science and History Official Website, ―About the Museum,‖ http://www.fwmuseum.org/meet/about_facts.html 14 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 15 Adventure Science Center Official Website, ―History,‖ http://www.adventuresci.com/default.aspx?section=aboutus&title=history&page=4 58 this institution also recognizes the importance of its history in shaping the current activities of the museum.16 The Museum of Science and Technology, Rensselaer County, in Troy, New York also commemorates their beginnings as a junior museum.17 While some former junior museums transitioned into children‘s museum, others chose to morph into a new type of science and history museum. 18 Although children are still a targeted audience, these museums also seek to cater to families, and adults alike. They differ from traditional natural history museums because their founders were educators and these institutions still retain a discovery pedagogical approach to provide meaningful learning experiences.19 The institution established by Forbes that became the model for the Tallahassee Museum in Jacksonville is one of the museums that made this change. Now the Museum of Science and History, this organization offers diverse and exciting exhibitions, including a planetarium.20 Another museum that has successfully maintained the strong community ties originally built in the 1940s as a junior museum is now the Kansas City Museum.21 This is a history museum that provides valuable educational opportunities through original programming.22 Other examples of museums that have made this transition are in California. In San Francisco, the Randall Museum began as one of Forbes‘ discovery based junior museums.23 Today, it is an expansive facility ―where children and adults can explore the creative aspects of art and science and made discoveries about nature and the environment.‖24 The Lindsay Wildlife Museum in Walnut Creek is very similar to the Tallahassee Museum.25 Since its beginnings as a junior museum, visitors have been able to experience wildlife firsthand with the
16 Portland Children‘s Museum Official Website, ―Mission and History,‖ http://www.portlandcm.org/mission_history.php 17 The Museum of Science and Technology, Rensselaer County Official Website, http://www.cyhaus.com/jrmuseum/ 18 Cleaver, Doing Children’s Museums. 19 Ibid. 20 The Jacksonville Museum of Science and History Official Website, ―History of the Museum,‖ http://www.themosh.org/general/history.asp 21 Kansas City Museum Official Website, ―History of Corinthian Hall,‖ http://www.unionstation.org/KansasCityMuseum/history.html 22 Kansas City Museum Official Website, ―Current Exhibits,‖ http://www.unionstation.org/KansasCityMuseum/exhibits.html 23 Cleaver, Doing Children’s Museums, 57. 24 Randall Museum Official Website, ―Home,‖ http://www.randallmuseum.org/HOME/tabid/36/Default.aspx 25 Cleaver, Doing Children’s Museums, 59. 59 expansive collection of rescued animals.26 Inspired by Forbes, this institution espouses creative learning theories such as discovery and constructivism, which is evident throughout the museum and in their discovery center.27 While many former junior museums have made the change to children‘s or other various museums, some have not completed the transition. There are a handful of small junior museums left in the United States. One of these is the Junior Museum of Bay County in Panama City, Florida.28 This organization resembles the Tallahassee Museum several decades ago, with a historic cabin and natural trail.29 They still offer Forbes‘ traditional discovery style programming, and have chosen not to change their name due to such strong ownership in the community. However, this junior museum has not been able to attain AAM accreditation, due to the challenges and limits posed by their name. The same is true for the Palo Alto Junior Museum in California. This museum offers discovery style based experiences for learners and wildlife encounters.30 However, their expansion has also been limited due to their name. The organization is not accredited by the AAM, and does not even have a website.31 While they still maintain community support, this museum has not fully made the transition to twenty-first century standards of museum operation. There have been many diverse outcomes for former junior museums, and most have transitioned into successful, creative, centers of learning. This clearly illustrates that the junior museum movement has come to an end. However, these museums would never have achieved their status or utilized such innovative learning styles if they had not begun with solid foundations as junior museums.32 Forbes truly influenced an entire generation of museums, and that influence can still be seen in the innovative techniques employed by these thriving intuitions. Junior museums have played several important roles in the overall history of museums.
26 Lindsay Wildlife Museum, ―History,‖ http://www.wildlife-museum.org/about/history.php 27 Cleaver, Doing Children’s Museums, 59. 28 Ibid., 75. 29 Junior Museum of Bay County, ―Exhibits,‖ http://www.jrmuseum.org/exhibits.htm 30 Cleaver, Doing Children’s Museums, 52. 31 City of Palo Alto, ―Junior Museum and Zoo,‖ http://www.cityofpaloalto.org/depts/csd/activities_and_recreation/attractions/junior_museum/default.asp 32 The American Association of Museums Official Website, ―About the Accreditation Process,‖ http://www.aam-us.org/museumresources/accred/AccredProcess.cfm 60
Forbes was an innovative leader in education because he advocated using hands-on, discovery style learning techniques at a time when most museums were exclusively didactic.33 From their beginnings as junior museums, many institutions, like the Tallahassee Museum, expanded to include elements of constructivism.34 They contributed greatly to the new paradigm shift in museum education. Additionally, junior museums have impacted the field by being leaders in modeling as audience centered, responsible, and accountable organizations.35 Junior museums played a role in historic preservation and in wildlife conservation. Forbes had a deep love for historic buildings and preserving the past for future generations.36 In over one hundred cases, he found historic buildings to house junior museums and he refused to construct a new building for these institutions if a historic one could be located.37 Forbes also supported and continued to advance the efforts originally made by Hornaday.38 Inspired by Hornaday, Forbes included conservation programs in many of his junior museums.39 Programs like these are still found in museums today, and have helped to rescue countless animals and preserve vast areas of land.40 By combining both elements into one institution, Forbes conveyed the message to his audience that a community‘s historic resources encompassed its natural and built environment. In Tallahassee there have been positive and negative consequences as a result of the name change, although the positives far out outweigh the negatives. Receiving accreditation has been one of the museum‘s greatest accomplishments. Funding increased by leaps and bounds due to the name change, and the museum‘s annual operating budget is well over one million dollars.41 Attendance and membership numbers have steadily increased, with an especially large increase
33 Anderson, ed., Reinventing the Museum, 33. 34 Hein, Learning in the Museum, 35. 35 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 36 Time Magazine, ―Mr. Appleseed,‖ Dec. 21, 1953, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890847,00.html 37 Tallahassee Junior Museum, ―History of the Tallahassee Junior Museum: The Physical Plant of the Museum,‖ Tallahassee Museum Archives. 38 The New York Times, ―John Ripley Forbes, 93, Who Planted Many Nature Museums, Is Dead,‖ Sept. 5, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/05/obituaries/05forbes.html?_r=2&oref=slogin 39 John Ripley Forbes, ―A Brief History of The Tallahassee Junior Museum,‖ 1962, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 40 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Wildlife Florida,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=wildlife-florida 41 Russell Daws, ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science 1992-1993 Annual Executive Director‘s Report,‖ 15, no. 1 (1994), 3. 61 in the number of adult visitors.42 Museum member Julie McBride believes the new name is much more inviting to diverse audiences. ―I think it‘s open for everybody. They have a lot that appeals to kids, but lots of different ages, not just preschool. I‘ve seen young couples out there, older kids seem to like it.‖43 The name change has also allowed the museum to expand educational activities and participate in progressive museum education and learning theories. These important changes are some of the main reasons why the Tallahassee Museum decided to become an institution of history and natural science, rather than a children‘s museum. As McBride noted, the organization did not want to exclude any potential visitors; those of all ages and backgrounds are always welcome.44 However, there are still a wide range of activities for children to enjoy. Event and educational planning at the museum does include the needs of children, also strives to encompass a wide range of visiting audiences.45 Along with special programming, the museum‘s diverse exhibitions bring together multi-generational groups to create enriching learning experiences.46 The main identifiable downside to the name change was the resistance of some of the original founders. Both Green and Daws received negative criticism for championing the name change.47 Green thought it was because some of them feel the ―‘Tallahassee Museum‘ doesn‘t connect back to the group of founders who gave everything they had: time, energy, support and dollars to get the concept going.‖48 Suggs, Daws, and Green all acknowledged the biggest shortcoming of the name change; which was that they could not bring all of the founders along for a new chapter in the museum‘s history.49 Green lamented, ―That would have been important. I don‘t know if anything could have been done to make that possible because they were from another generation of folks.‖50
42 Russell Daws, ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science 1993-1994 Annual Executive Director‘s Report,‖ (1995), 3. 43 Julie McBride, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 3, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 44 Ibid. 45 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 46 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Exhibits,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=museum-exhibits 47 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 48 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 49Del Suggs, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 4, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 50 Lane Green, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 14, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 62
Other than leaving out some of the founders, the only other negative consequence to the name change has been confusion.51 Suggs recounted the numerous times out of town visitors had been sent to the ―Junior Museum‖ by locals, only to find that no museum existed by that name.52 Daws explained: ―Some communities can easily handle many words in a name. Tallahassee, unfortunately, does not have the capability. . .I think it‘s the community culture.‖53 To remedy this problem, the Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science adopted ―doing business as‖ the ―Tallahassee Museum‖ in 2005, by once again filing the necessary paperwork with the Florida Department of State‘s Division of Corporations.54 This has greatly reduced any uncertainty in the Big Bend area. Daws believes this simplification ―has tremendously helped.‖55 Even with the challenges encountered along the way, the Tallahassee Museum‘s transition from a junior museum can be viewed as one of the most important events in the institution‘s history. The positive benefits from the name change have been proven for nearly two decades. Accreditation and increased funding allow for continued expansion and updating, which keeps the museum relevant for today‘s visitor. According to Baldino, relevance is the one of the biggest obstacles facing modern museums. ―You always have to change and you always have to progress and you have to advance. You have to look at what you‘ve got and make sure you‘re still relevant.‖56 The name change helped the museum to accomplish this, and allows for its continued growth. In order to maintain relevance and evaluate their standards of quality, the museum participates in the AAM Museum Assessment Program (MAP).57 This confidential consultation process by the AAM helps museums organize their priorities and attain their goals while adhering to the best practices in the field.58 The MAP contains three steps that are completed
51 Gerald Ensley, ―Local Museum Slowly Escaping Its Young Ways,‖ Tallahassee Democrat, May 8, 2005, B1. 52 Del Suggs, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 4, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee FL. 53 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 54 Florida Department of State, Division of Corporations, ―Tallahassee Museum of History and Natural Science,‖ http://www.sunbiz.org/scripts/cordet.exe?action=DETFIL&inq_doc_number=700373&inq_came_from=NAMFWD &cor_web_names_seq_number=0001&names_name_ind=N&names_cor_number=&names_name_seq=&names_na me_ind=&names_comp_name=TALLAHASSEEMUSEUM&names_filing_type= 55 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 56 Susan Baldino, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, January 23, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 57 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 58 American Association of Museums Official Website, ―Museum Assessment Program,‖ http://www.aam-us.org/museumresources/map/index.cfm 63 within a one year time period: self-study, peer review, and implementation.59 Through peer review, recommendations for improvements are made to the museum participating in the MAP. When the Tallahassee Museum first participated in the MAP in the early 1990s, they wanted the reviewers to evaluate the name change.60 The suggestion of shortening the name to the Tallahassee Museum from Museum of History and Natural Science arose from this assessment.61 Over the years the Museum has participated in multiple MAP reviews, and continues to scrutinize their practices through honest self-evaluation. In addition to participating in the MAP to ensure the future of the museum, educational programming is also evaluated in order to progress with newer learning theories.62 By honoring the past and looking to Forbes‘ plan of being cutting edge at the time and utilizing the discovery learning theory, educators at the museum are not afraid to advance and experiment with the constructivist learning theory.63 Daws, the Board, and the museum‘s staff make sure to repeatedly scrutinize the mission and follow the strategic plan so the organization is never again in the position where there is a disconnect from the mission. Today the museum is continually ranked high among the preeminent cultural institutions in the area, and has been voted ―Best Museum‖ by the Best of Tallahassee Awards numerous times.64 Daws appreciates every moment of it: ―We know our survival would not have been possible without the wonderful and generous support we receive from our community, businesses and local government.‖65 The Tallahassee Museum has endured for over fifty years, and it will continue to be a staple in the area‘s cultural community and shape the identity of the Big Bend identity for years to come.
59 American Association of Museums Official Website, ―What is MAP?‖ http://www.aam-us.org/museumresources/map/whatismap.cfm 60 Russell Daws, interview by Shannon O‘Donnell, March 5, 2008, tape recording and transcript, Tallahassee, FL. 61 Ibid. 62 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Early Childhood Programs,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=early-childhood-programs 63 Tallahassee Museum Official Website, ―Learning Resources,‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=learning-resources 64 Gwendolyn Waldorf, ―Tallahassee Museum Milestones,‖ 2007, Tallahassee Museum Archives. 65 Russell Daws, ―Want A Zoo?‖ Tallahassee Democrat, June 25, 2007, B1.
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Tallahassee Museum Official Website. ―Special Events.‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=special-events-calendar
Tallahassee Museum Official Website. ―Summer Camps.‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/summer-camps
Tallahassee Museum Official Website. ―Teachable Moments.‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=teachable-moments
Tallahassee Museum Official Website. ―Tour Programs.‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=group-programs
Tallahassee Museum Official Website. ―Video Library.‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=video-library
Tallahassee Museum Official Website. ―Volunteer Youth Team.‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=volunteer-youth-team
Tallahassee Museum Official Website. ―Wildlife Florida.‖ http://tallahasseemuseum.org/index.php?page=wildlife-florida
Tall Timbers Research Station Official Website. ―Executive Director.‖ http://www.talltimbers.org/ed-message.html
Time Magazine. ―Mr. Appleseed.‖ Dec. 21, 1953. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890847,00.html
United State Environmental Protection Agency Official Website. ―DDT Ban Takes Effect.‖ http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/ddt/01.htm
University of Leicester, Department of Museum Studies Official Website, http://www.le.ac.uk/ms/
University of Leicester, Department of Museum Studies Official Website. ―Professor Eilean Hooper-Greenhill.‖ http://www.le.ac.uk/ms/contactus/eileanhoopergreenhill.html
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U.S. Scouting Service Project. ―William T. Hornaday Awards History Center.‖ http://usscouts.org/history/hornadayawardsother.asp
Villeneuve, Pat, ed. From Periphery to Center: Art Museum Education in the 21st Century. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association, 2007.
Washington State Department of Early Learning. ―Children‘s Museums.‖ http://www.del.wa.gov/partnerships/coalitions/museums.aspx
Weil, Stephen E. Making Museums Matter. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002.
Weil, Stephen E. Rethinking the Museum: and other Meditations. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990.
Woods Bell, Mae. ―Children‘s Museums.‖ The American Biology Teacher 30, no.4 (1968).
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Shannon O‘Donnell was born on September 24, 1986 in Tallahassee, Florida. She attended Florida State University for her bachelor‘s degree in history with a minor in humanities, graduating in 2007. In 2009 she will receive her master‘s degree in historical administration and public history, and a museum studies certificate from Florida State University. She held a position at the Tallahassee Museum in 2008 working with exhibitions and collections. Currently she works at the Mary Brogan Museum of Art and Science with exhibitions and educational programming.
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