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TECHNOLOGICAL TRANSITIONS IN THE FAR NORTH: YUKON PEOPLE’S DIFFICULT BUT TRANSFORMATIVE RELATIONSHIP WITH TECHNOLOGY. A Dissertation Submitted to the College of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Interdisciplinary Studies University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon By SHELAGH ROWLES © Copyright Shelagh Marie Rowles, December, 2020. All rights reserved. Unless otherwise noted, copyright of the material in this thesis belongs to the author. PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis/dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Postgraduate degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of this thesis/dissertation in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis/dissertation work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis/dissertation or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis/dissertation. i DISCLAIMER Reference in this thesis/dissertation to any specific commercial products, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favouring by the University of Saskatchewan. The views and opinions of the author expressed herein do not state or reflect those of the University of Saskatchewan and shall not be used for advertising or product endorsement purposes. Requests for permission to copy or to make other uses of materials in this thesis/dissertation in whole or part should be addressed to: Chair, Interdisciplinary Studies Program College of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies 116 Thorvaldson Building, 110 Science Place University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5C9 Canada OR Dean, College of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies University of Saskatchewan 116 Thorvaldson Building, 110 Science Place Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5C9 Canada ii ABSTRACT This interdisciplinary study of technological change in Canada's Yukon Territory investigates the impact of technologies introduced into Yukon. It examines the capacity of governments, businesses and citizens to adopt and adapt new technologies beginning in the early 20th century and carries the examination through to Yukon's contemporary construction and mining sectors. The study contends that throughout the 20th century, the federal government supported the introduction of new technologies in Yukon's mining and construction sectors to establish a Southern presence in the territory and to access mineral resources needed to fuel the government's interests in expanding economies in Southern Canada and did little to build local capacity to use or modify new technologies to suit the interests of Northern people. Little consideration was given to the social and environmental implications of large-scale mining or the application of construction technologies designed for Southern environments in Yukon. Further, it argues that the introduction of co-created and Yukon specific legislation, the Yukon Environmental Socio-economic Assessment Act (YESAA) in 2006, changed how Southern centric technologies were introduced in Yukon and inspired governments and businesses in Yukon to experiment with North-centric innovation. Nevertheless, the study argues that increased competition from national and multi-national companies, a shortage of high-end technical expertise in the territory, and the poor state of its rural education system left Northern people vulnerable to disruption and marginalization from the global economy. The North is not, however, merely a sub-Arctic variant of southern innovation environments. People, governments and businesses are searching -- with uneven success -- for innovations specifically designed for the northern setting, which contribute to improved well- iii being in the territory. This study describes the gap between southern-centric innovation concepts and the interplay of Northern innovation with the geographical, economic and social realities of the North, suggesting that the potential exists for the development of a northern-focused innovation ecosystem in Yukon and across the Canadian North. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Ken Coates, for all his support throughout my interdisciplinary journey. Without his encouragement and guidance, I would have never finished. His passion for the North and interest in Yukon inspired me to keep going. I am also grateful to Dr. Carin Holroyd who reviewed drafts of the thesis in detail and provided me with invaluable guidance and feedback. Thank you to the other committee members Dr. David Zhang, Dr. Lee Swanson, Dr. Justin Longo for reviewing drafts and offering thoughtful guidance at critical writing stages and to Dr. Bram Noble for Chairing the thesis committee. I appreciated the good questions and comments from the external member of my committee, Dr. Lee Huskey, from University of Alaska Anchorage. My co-workers at YukonU showed incredible patience with my endless pestering about their thoughts on innovation and the future of mining and construction in Yukon. Thank you for the many provocative conversations and for your delightfully boundless enthusiasm for and optimism about the Yukon. I appreciate the willingness of people in Yukon’s mining and construction sectors to share their perspectives on the current and future challenges. Your insights were vital to the study. I am grateful to my mother, Mary Rowles, who patiently edited the document for typos -twice! I also would like to acknowledge my daughter, Bronwyn. She helped me figure out formatting challenges and commiserated with me when formatting the document was getting the best of me. My sons Seamus, Henry and Julian were always willing to chat about fanciful advancements in technology and what may or may not be viable in Yukon. My youngest son, Geordie, who has no memory of me not writing a thesis, has decided he needs time before using the word innovation again. Finally, I could not have done this without the support and love of my wonderful husband, Mark Stevens. This dissertation was researched and drafted at our kitchen table. Mark’s encouragement of my work, his interest in ideas, and his tolerance for my perpetually deferred household tasks (which is no small thing in a Yukon cabin) were instrumental to my perseverance. v DEDICATION To my husband, Mark, and to my children Bronwyn, Seamus, Henry, Julian and Geordie. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS PERMISSION TO USE ................................................................................................................................... I DISCLAIMER ................................................................................................................................................ II ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................... III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................................................V TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................................. VII LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................................... XI LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................................... XII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................................... XIII CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................................ 3 1.3 SCOPE OF RESEARCH ..................................................................................................................................... 9 1.4 THE YUKON, ITS LAND, GOVERNMENTS, PEOPLE, ECONOMY AND EDUCATION SYSTEM ........ 10 1.4.1 Geography of Yukon ................................................................................................................................. 10 1.4.2 Yukon's Governments ............................................................................................................................... 10 1.4.3 Yukon's Population .................................................................................................................................... 12 1.4.4 Yukon's Economy ...................................................................................................................................... 14 1.4.5 Yukon's Education