Cself (Computer Science Education from Life): Broadening Participation Through Design Agency

34 International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies, 8(4), 34-49, October-December 2013

cSELF (Computer Science Education from Life): Broadening Participation through Design Agency

Audrey Bennett, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA Ron Eglash, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA

ABSTRACT

The phrase “broadening participation” is often used to describe efforts to decrease the race and gender gap in science and engineering education, and in this paper the authors describe an educational program focused on addressing the lower achievement rates and career interests of underrepresented ethnic groups (African American, Native American, and Latino students). However “broadening participation” can also describe the more general problem of a narrow, decontextualized form of education that can alienate all demographics. Broadening the scope of computing education can not only help address disparities in different social groups, but also make technical education more attractive to all individuals, and help us create a generation of science and engineering professionals who can better incorporate an understanding of the world into their technical work. The program the authors report on, Computer Science Education from Life (cSELF) takes a modest step in this direction. Using the concept of “design agency” the authors describe how this merging of abstract formal structures, material creative practice, and cultural knowledge can improve underrepresented student engagement, and foster learning practices in computing that offer broader forms of social expression for all students.

Keywords: Computer Science Education from Life (cSELF), Computing Education, Cultural Knowledge, Design Agency, Material Media, Technical Training

1. THE NEED FOR ers). Although they constitute about 45% of the BROADENING PARTICIPATION college-age population, underrepresented ethnic groups comprised only 12% of engineering Underrepresented ethnic groups in the US bachelor’s degrees (NACME, 2008). This is not consist of three groups: African American, a problem that is simply resolving itself over Latino, and Native (which includes Native time: the shares to black and Native students Alaskan, American Indians, and Pacific Island- have remained flat since 2000. Graduate com-

DOI: 10.4018/ijwltt.2013100103

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies, 8(4), 34-49, October-December 2013 35 puter science is particularly troubling: students a key ingredient (Salmon, 2009). Similar issues from under-represented ethnicities comprised in the role of computational risk modeling only 3% of the total number of degrees granted arise in environmental disasters; for example in 2008 (Ladner, 2012). the engineering professionals in the 2010 Gulf The low representation of underrepre- Oil disaster (Deep Water Horizon Study Group sented ethnic groups (African American, Native 2011). Narrow conceptions of what it means to American, and Latino students) in the STEM be a computational scientist are inculcated in workforce in general, and computing specifi- our classrooms; it is this narrowness that allows cally, has two root causes. One is career interest: these professionals to say “it’s not my place as noted by Simard (2009) narrow perceptions to think about consequences, I’m just here to of career paths and stereotypes about what is crunch the numbers”. Broadening the forms of an “appropriate” profession contributes to the participation—educating students in the use of lack of diversity. But more problematic is the computation as an expressive medium with deep lower academic achievement, especially for connections to the social world—can serve as low-income students. High school drop-out a powerful counter-balance to this tendency to rates for African American and Latino students abdicate responsibility. are double that of white students, and triple for Native Americans (Stillwell & Sable, 2013). These lower levels of STEM achievement 2. THE ROLE OF CULTURALLY and interest are detrimental to these popula- SITUATED EDUCATION tions, resulting in lower income levels and even Barriers to participation and achievement in contributing to health disparities (academic STEM disciplines for underrepresented youth achievement is correlated with lower rates for can be framed in three categories. The first con- HIV infection and substance abuse, higher rates cerns the barriers due to economic conditions, for vaccination, etc… (Bridges & Alford, 2010; which are correlated with underrepresented Fields et al. (2007). ethnic groups, include lower quality schools, As noted in the introduction, the concept of health care, and other aspects of the learning “broadening participation” can also be applied environment and experience. A 2010 study of to students in general. In computer science, the California schools, for example, found that percentage of high school students taking com- African American students were six times puting courses has surprisingly dropped from more likely than white students to attend one 25% to 19% (Nord, et al. (2011). In recent years, of the schools at the bottom third of the state the computer science advanced placement (CS ranking (Education Trust-West, 2010). The AP) test has sustained the lowest participation second category encompasses myths of genetic rate in comparison with other STEM disciplines. determinism: the belief that a “math gene” or The CS AP exam also shows a strong gender some similar genetic construct prevents certain gap: only 19% of girls compared to 81% of boys racial groups from STEM success. There is no comprise the CS AP test-takers (NCWIT 2012). evidence for such a phenomenon, but the myth A broader approach to computing education itself can have strong negative consequences, could also improve the ability of the STEM discouraging students and diminishing their workforce to address critical humanitarian confidence (e.g. Geary, 1994) The third category and sustainability issues. The fiscal meltdown covers myths of cultural determinism: conflicts of 2008, for example, was a destructive force with stereotypes of authenticity, a perceived in much of the US economy, and precipitated lack of social relevance, accusations of “acting a global recession. Many scholars attribute the white” (Ogbu, 1998; Downey & Lucena, 1997; incorporation of computational models of risk- Eglash, 2002). Culturally situated education -for example the Gaussian copula function--as

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. 36 International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies, 8(4), 34-49, October-December 2013 can be an important resource for combating the ethnographic investigations. Native American second and third categories. Like any pedagogy, culture, for example, has the Cartesian layout this can be done well or poorly. Poor versions of orthogonal two axes, or four-fold symme- include attempts to paste a thin veneer of culture try, as a strong underlying geometric theme onto standard lessons—replacing Dick and Jane throughout its designs, concepts and practices. counting marbles with Tatuk and Estaban count- This “translation” works in both directions, as ing coconuts. A more promising path can be deeper mathematical understanding can help in found in disciplines such as ethnomathematics futher understanding of the cultural material. For and ethnocomputing, which “translates” from example, in the famous oral history of Iroquois the STEM concepts and practices embedded in peace-maker Hiawatha, we hear that phrase “he indigenous cultural practices and contemporary will split the sky” – a curious wording unless vernacular activities to their contemporary you know about four-fold symmetry: he meant equivalents (Eglash, et al. (2006; Lipka & Ad- that he would travel the north-south axis, since ams, 2004). Like many scholars investigating the Iroquois know that sun, moon and stars STEM education for underrepresented ethnic travel in “the sky’s direction” of east-west. groups (Hammond, 2001; Eisenhart, 2001; Other examples of four-fold symmetry include Rennie, et al. (2003), we agree that “learning the Shoshone prayers that begin with “the four is authentic when it takes as its starting point winds,” the Navajo orientation to four sacred the interests, perspectives, desires, and needs mountains, the four poles of the teepee, and so of the students” (Buxton, 2006). on (Eglash 2010). Thus a simulation which is modeling the beadloom’s arrangement of rows and columns as a Cartesian grid, as seen in Figure 3. COMPUTER SCIENCE 1, is not imposing western concepts on unrelated EDUCATION FROM forms; to the contrary it is “translating” a deep LIFE (CSELF) cosmological principle to its western equivalent. The suite of online applets, CSDTs, provide In our prior work (e.g. Eglash, et al. (2006; this cultural background as well as applets (flash, Eglash & Bennett, 2009; Boyce, et al. (2011), java, and javascript) which allow students to our team developed a suite of applets for simu- utilize these indigenous math and computing lating traditional cultural arts: Culturally Situ- concepts in simulations. There are two types of ated Design Tools (CSDTs), which are freely CSDT interface. The parametric interface is fo- accessible via the internet at www.csdt.rpi.edu. cused primarily on math concepts. For example As noted above, CSDTs do not impose math in beadloom tools (Figure 2) the drop-down and computing ideas from outside the culture; interface offers built-in algorithms for create a rather they make use of the mathematical and line, rectangle, and triangle as geometric figures computational ideas that are already present, in which the parameters are the vertices, as well whether explicit or implicit, in the cultural prac- as iterative patterns in which the parameters are tices they simulate. Native American beadwork, the number of iterative cycles and the initial for example, makes use of iterative algorithms conditions. This allows students to understand on a Cartesian grid; African American cornrow the parameters in a more narrative form; for hairstyles show recursive geometric transforma- example “starting with a row of 7 beads, subtract tions; urban graffiti includes polar coordinate 1 from each side as you iterate in the +y direc- curves, etc. tion.” The algorithm is fixed, but each of the In the process of designing the software, we underlined parameters can be changed by the begin with an investigation of the original cul- user. The second interface is “programmable,” tural context of the artisans, through established using drag and drop code blocks, so that students literature as well as our own interviews and

Figure 1. Comparison of Native American beadwork and its simulation by student

Figure 2. The virtual beadloom tool

can creatively invent their own algorithms, after them as physical art objects. The goal is to create learning the mathematical representation in the a learning environment in which computational first interface (Babbitt et al., 2011). thinking (CT) fundamentals are gained through a The cSELF program takes this process full synergistic encounter between creativity, culture circle, allowing students to take the culture- and computing; thus generating new avenues based simulations they have created, and render for broadening participation.

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The cSELF pilot program begins with willing to explore artistic practices. Students’ summer workshops for training art teachers, use of physical arts media—painting, ceramics, who subsequently pass that on to their under- etc.—to render their virtual simulations adds represented art students in high school art an important experiential component that is classes during the academic year. In the initial critical to the concept. pilots our assessment examines the extent to which this is sufficiently engaging from an arts education perspective, and its ability to teach 4. THE CSELF PROGRAM CT fundamentals. If successful, long-term cSELF began with a one-day, professional de- studies will be used to examine the impact velopment workshop in Summer 2012 for local on selection of elective computing courses in art teachers from the NY capital region: teachers high school, selection of major (computing vs from 3 school districts attended (Schenectady, non-computing related) in college, and reten- Albany and Troy high schools). The art teachers tion in those majors for students in cSELF in were introduced to 3 CSDTs: African-American comparison to their peers. Cornrow Curves, the Native American Bead- In early workshops with CSDTs we ob- loom, and African Fractals (which offers fractal served that they offer a flexible format that simulations for a variety of African architectural allows underrepresented students to engage in and artistic designs as well as fractal models both structured learning and exploratory learn- in nature). The workshop activities modeled ing where they openly create their patterns. many of the classroom activities that teachers This connection between the computational would later repeat with their students, as seen skills and understanding required to create the in Figure 3. These included: simulations, and open, unrestrained creativity can be particularly important for students from under-represented groups who may think of 1. Group discussion of the cultural back- themselves as lacking technical inclination but ground offered in the CSDT website;

Figure 3. A conceptual drawing of the cSELF program

2. Step-by-step instruction on creating basic 5. DESIGN AGENCY simulations, using the website tutorials. At this point the participants are only du- cSELF builds on the concept of ethnocomput- plicating patterns created by the original ing—the idea that important computational artisans; concepts are already present in the heritage cul- 3. Reflection on how basic CT concepts-- ture and vernacular culture of underrepresented iterative loops, variables, algorithms, geo- students. Evidence that the ethnocomputing metric transforms, etc.—are present both approach, even in its purely virtual form, can informally in the original artistic practice enhance learning comes from both qualitative and formally in the simulation (Table 1); and quantitative sources. For example, in this 4. A “performance art” activity which re- unsolicited communication, a teacher at a inforces the computational/mathematical Lakota Nation school using the Virtual Bead concepts through the creative use of body Loom tool reported: motion; 5. Creative exploration of the tools; partici- You might be interested to hear that one of pants now move from duplicating previous the students, who is an IT major, an artist, a patterns to creating new patterns of their very traditional beadworker and fluent Lakota own design; speaker, was so delighted with the software that 6. Group discussion of the artistic patterns he decided to go ahead and develop his own al- in which participants provide each other gorithms independently. He was really inspired. with supportive comments and constructive He said it was the first time that math/graphing criticism. seemed to really make sense or “click” for him. I haven’t seen how far he got with computer During the school year, art teachers add algorithms, but his final project for our math a final phase to the cSELF learning process, class was full of linear models that described using these virtual simulations in the design of his most recent beadwork creations. physical artistic counterparts. This component offered an opportunity for the art teachers to Such anecdotal evidence is complimented bring their own skills and creative insights into by our statistical studies. One published study the process. was carried out in two high school computing

Table 1. Computational concepts taught through CSDTs

Native American Virtual Bead Loom African-American Cornrow Curves • Geometric shapes • Iterating copies of a seed shape • Line of symmetry • Changing copies with transformational geometry • Reflection symmetry parameters: dilation, rotation, translation, reflection • Four-fold symmetry • Parameters as variables • Cartesian coordinate system • Same algorithm with different initial values for • Plotting points on a cartesian coordinate system variables produces different outcomes • Plotting points on a cartesian coordinate system to • Differentiating variables inside and outside of create lines. iterative loop • Plotting points on a cartesian coordinate system to create 2D shapes • Plotting points on a cartesian coordinate system using iteration algorithms

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. 40 International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies, 8(4), 34-49, October-December 2013 classes in New York City (Eglash, et al. (2011). described as a sort of transparent window that Students in the study used one of two websites, passively delivers the facts about the world. both with java applets, in two classes taught by But he points out that if you actually follow the same instructor: one class used a popular the scientific process in detail, there is a kind (non-cultural) site for fractals education, the of “resistance” that is often encountered: na- other our African Fractals site. The results were ture won’t respond in the exactly the ways the surprisingly strong: both the pre/post differences scientist was hoping it would. So you make in skills and the pre/post differences in attitudes adjustments—“tune” the machine in various toward computing careers show statistically ways, change chemical mixtures, and some- significant improvement (.001 confidence level) times even change your goals. Rather than a in the class using the CSDT website. transparent window, it is a gradual “negotiation” The main hypothesis of the cSELF program between people, nature and machines; success is that these advantages of ethnocomputing can occurs when they arrive together at some mutu- be enhanced by including a physical component. ally acceptable conclusion. At the core of cSELF lays the concept of “design In similar ways that Pickering describes the agency.” Agency has been defined differently scientific process, we posit that “design agency” in various disciplines. In philosophy, agency is is a mangle between the human and non-human usually defined as the capacity to take action on elements of a design process. While it might one’s mental decisions; it is considered sepa- include a similar “negotiation” with nature—the rately from “free will” since someone might physics of clay, for example, will both facilitate express their agency on the basis of motivations and constrain the sculpting process—culture that are caused by the will of someone else. can play a similar role here. Consider, for Philosophers often use agency in this sense as example, the case of a student who is trying to something which distinguishes the conscious- create a straight line with the beadloom tool ness of humans from the actions of machines or (Figure 4). As long as the line is oriented at a other non-conscious entities (Johnson, 2006). multiple of 45 degrees—0, 45, 90, etc--the line Sociologists on the other hand often focus on is smooth, as we see with the line from (-14,- the contrast between the agency of individuals 14) to (14,14). But at other angles it becomes (thus more closely associated with free will) jagged (as we see with the other line). That is and the social structure in which they are em- not a bug; it’s simply the fact that any Cartesian bedded; for example the barriers we describe grid with intersections on integer values must in the case of underrepresented students who have a kind of “staircase” appearance when it do not feel free to engage in computer science is fitting lines at those angles. Students respond education because would cast them as “nerds” to such discoveries of “resistance” in various or violates other social expectations would be ways. Some restrict their design to angles with a case of blocked agency. “Design agency” multiples of 45 degrees. Others make use of the makes use of this sociological sense of human “jaggedness,” reflecting the same jagged line agency in relation to free will, but allows its over the Y axis to form a symmetric pair. Culture mixture or synthesis with non-human agency is present prior to the design process because as described by Pickering (1995). According the applet is based on the native American to Pickering, non-human agency in nature or beadloom—had it been based on other beadwork machines lacks intentionality, but as it mixes techniques there would have been a different with human agency the resulting “mangle” set of constraining/enabling features. But it can can shift both human and non-human sides in also play a role in the on-going design process unexpected ways. when the student begins to see that traditional In Pickering’s work, the focus is on scien- beadwork has been influenced by the same tific inquiry. Pickering notes that in the typical “resistance”—some traditional designs restrict description of science, the lab apparatus is themselves to multiples of 45 degrees, and

Figure 4. A student who encounters the contrast between smooth and jagged lines in the virtual beadloom can respond to this “resistance” in at least two different ways. Both can be found in ordinary beadwork.

some make use of symmetric jaggedness. And Creativity is sometimes thought of as an culture can guide the design process in other exploration in the space of possible designs directions as well. One student, for example, (e.g. Gero & Kumar, 1993). But like real-world decided that he wanted to replicate the Puerto explorers, the places you visit can both constrain Rican flag in the beadloom tool (Eglash et and enable your travel, and even “mangle” your al., 2006). He found that the flag included an goals: your car breaks down but you manage to equilateral triangle with strong symbolic sig- buy a horse; the horse tends to look for green nificance. The “resistance” he encountered to grass which is by a creek, the creek has a raft, creating an equilateral triangle on a Cartesian and so on. Just as it may have never occurred to grid (you can’t simply count the beads on each the traveler to explore the waterways, it never side because the beads across the diagonal are occurred to the student of Puerto Rican heritage farther apart than those on the axis) resulted in that he would be eagerly engaged in a geometry his investigation of triangle geometry; eventu- problem. The framework of design agency helps ally he discovered he could use two 30-60-90 us understand how the “mangle” between hu- triangles to create the 60-60-60 required by the man intentions and non-human facilitation in flag. Resistance is not simply negative, it can creates new bridges (or rafts) between social positively guide as well as restrict, and that and technical worlds. Thus one way to look at guidance creates new affordances and learning the cSELF program is that it is creates a learn- opportunities in the process. ing environment in which cultural and artistic

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. 42 International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies, 8(4), 34-49, October-December 2013 resources enter into a productive negotiation simulation for scaling sequences in cornrow with computational design agency. braids looked like spiders (Figure 6). The topic Culture is not the only source of these of spiders also came up during a presentation enabling and constraining mangles in cSELF; on African traditional design, and perhaps that the physical arts become another component; connection inspired him to focus on the spider a means to bring together head, heart and theme when he rendered the final physical hand. The students and art teachers were version (Figure 7). Other students carried the highly creative in their process of devising interpretive license even farther. One student physical renderings for the virtual designs. re-interpreted the scaling sequence of geometric Of course this is the norm for an art class, but figures as a series of cigarettes that had burned it was striking that even in cases where there to decreasing lengths; her final piece featured was little algorithmic change, the physical a scaling sequence of physical cigarette butts medium became an additional opportunity for glued to a painted figure with a death’s head creative agency. In the case of designs in the rising from her chest. Starting with similar virtual beadloom, for example, the Cartesian scaling sequences from the fractal CSDT using grid design remained largely the same, but its triangles (Figure 8), a different student created medium was transformed from virtual image the paper sculpture of Figure 9, along with a to ceramics, mixed media, and even electrical more upbeat narrative: optics (jars of color water lit from below), as seen in Figure 5. My 3D fractal piece was inspired by my daily In other cases the physical renderings be- encounters with teenagers in my school. When I came more interpretive. One African American got to high school I noticed that more and more student, for example, noted that one of his people judge others based on their personali-

Figure 5. Physical renderings offer an additional opportunity for creative agency, even in the case of purely abstract patterns

Figure 6. Using the cornrows tool, a student is inspired to title this “spiders”

Figure 7. The same student emphasizes the spiders theme in his physical rendering

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Figure 8. A fractal virtual design, and paper rendering of the pattern, provided by the teacher as an example

Figure 9. After modifying the teacher’s virtual example, the student added an artistic rendering of the design

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies, 8(4), 34-49, October-December 2013 45 ties, style of clothing, their hobbies, who they’re 7. THE ARTS-COMPUTING friends with and much more. Because of this, DISCONNECT: WHY WE NEED bullying often occurs and kids feel pressured THE CSELF PROGRAM to change their persona to fit in and stop the bullying they experience. This false personal- At first glance, it might seem that the arts con- ity is something that hides some one’s true self nection is already well-covered in computing from the world around them, but will never truly education. After all, many computing classes be who they really are. My project is of a boy include graphics and animation components. hiding behind a window. This red window is his However our initial investigation has revealed ticket to popularity and acceptance. However, three significant gaps: the 3D triangle fractals represent the boy’s true personality. The triangles create a mask that 1. Art in computing education is generally represents his personality coming through. As limited to a role as motivator or “content the triangles get bigger and bigger, the personal- provider;” something to attract student ity gets stronger and stronger, eventually coming interest. While a project to create an on- up onto the window like it’s breaking through line gallery might be inspiring for some his false persona. Everybody will always have students, it still keeps a conceptual barrier their true being inside of them which is what in place between the artistic and technical makes them happy. Who we are is who we are process. Allowing students to see com- and it will always prevail in the end. putational thinking in the artistic works themselves changes the status of both art One concern that often arises in discus- and computing in the mind of the student; sions of this program with math and computing it makes computation itself available as a instructors is the fear that students who are not medium of artistic expression; technically inclined will “ditch” the technical 2. The arts simulated by CSDTs—Native content and focus on artistic interpretations. Pre/ American beadwork, African American post test scores on math and computing con- cornrow hairstyles, etc.— are distinctly cepts showed clear learning gains for many of associated with the cultures of under- the students. There was no correlation between represented students. By using physical scores on pre/post tests and the decision about algorithms in culture-based arts, and match- how closely the physical form would duplicate ing these with computer simulations of the its virtual inspiration, indicating that creative artifacts, students from these background agency was not in competition with technical can learn computational thinking through learning. their own heritage and vernacular culture, and other students can learn greater cross- cultural appreciation; 6. THE RELEVANCE OF 3. The high school courses that offer com- CSELF’S CURRICULUM putational thinking are, not surprisingly, TO COMPUTER SCIENCE mostly limited to computing classes. How- EDUCATION STANDARDS ever, cSELF offers computational thinking through an arts curriculum. This allows cSELF’s curricula provides high school youth three potential advantages: first, it brings with training in computational thinking that cor- a new pool of students into the computing relates with the College Board’s seven core prin- education pipeline. Second, it potentially ciples for computer science education (Table increases the number of underrepresented 2) (see complete descriptions of core principles students in the computing education at collegeboard.com/html/computerscience).

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Table 2. The College Board’s seven core principles in correlation with computer science education

College Board’s Principle cSELF’s Pedagogical Activity or Component 1. Computing fosters creative cSELF engages youth in a design process explicitly for creative expression and the creation of expression. artifacts. Computing is a creative act. 2. People use models and simulations In cSELF, students are simulating culture-based arts, essentially “reverse- to generate new understanding and engineering” the original patterns and uncovering the algorithms that knowledge. were at work. As noted in the discussion of “resistance” and design agency, the cSELF gain insight into the enabling and constraining aspects of the different 3. Insight and knowledge can result simulations. Looking back on the traditional patterns, it becomes more from translating and transforming clear why certain structures are present. In addition, the final step allows digitally represented information. them to transform their digital works into physical renderings, which allows them further insight into the ways that our world can be seen in terms of an underlying computational structure. Iteration, recursion and algorithms are concepts that students must 4. Sequencing, selection, iteration, explicitly utilize in the CSDT tools--The Virtual Beadloom and Cornrow and recursion are building blocks Curves--as well as artistically with hands-on, arts activities. The aesthetic for an algorithm which is a precise components naturally lend themselves to concepts such as selection sequence of instructions for a process (colors of beads for example) and sequencing (for instance difference that can be executed by a computer. cornrow braids are associated with different iterative sequences). 5. Programming is an iterative process The CSDT interface offers immediate visual feedback; students are that requires an understanding of how constantly adjusting parameters and checking results as they “hone in” on instructions are processed. a particular design. The CSDT community website is freely accessible via http://community. 6. The internet and the systems built csdt.rpi.edu/ and allows users to upload simulations and share them in on it facilitate collaboration. open-source fashion, encouraging collaborations. cSELF begins with cultural art forms that embody both a social background and the computational thinking that is embedded in its 7. Computing is situated within designs. The process of physical rendering allows students to move economic, social, and cultural away from the screen and interact with each other and the art studio contexts. environment, further enhancing the social and material components of the experience. The facilitation of design agency offers the opportunity for further social commentary.

pipeline. Finally, it increases the number merely allowing pre-college computing educa- of creatively inclined students in college tion to match a process that is already occurring computing disciplines, adding intellectual at the college level: the dramatic increase in diversity as well as ethnic diversity. computer science/artistic practice synthesis that is increasingly featured in the aforementioned One potential objection against this last college programs, and beyond college, for point might be that students entering into the computing careers in industries such as gaming computing education pipeline through cSELF and media production. will tend towards interdisciplinary programs Another potential objection is that this such as gaming, electronic arts, animation etc. ethnocomputing concept is already present in rather than a pure computer science major. That computer education in the form of computa- is an empirical question we intend to investigate tional origami. It is true that the computation in future studies. But we would argue that even work on origami does exactly what we intend: if that does turn out to be the case, cSELF is computer scientists take seriously the concept

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies, 8(4), 34-49, October-December 2013 47 that origami is algorithmic (Bern and Hayes better serving up human resources for the com- 1996; Lang 1994; Huffman 1976); they have puting industry, but for improving the ability software that allows movement between virtual of computing as a resource for human needs. and physical instantiations (Balkcom & Mason, 2004; Kasem & Ida, 2008; Mitani, 2009); and they use it in the classroom (cf. Goadrich, 2010). REFERENCES But the association of computational thinking with origami does not challenge the stereotypes Babbitt, B., Lyles, D., & Eglash, R. (2012). From that hold back underrepresented students: ethnomathematics to ethnocomputing: indigenous algorithms in traditional context. In S. Mukhopad- indeed the assumption that Asian students are hyay, & W.-M. Roth (Eds.), Alternative forms of “inherently” better suited for computing careers knowing (in) mathematics (pp. 71–89). Rotterdam, is exactly the kind of damaging myth that The Netherlands: Sense Publishers. doi:10.1007/978- discourages underrepresented students (Wu, 94-6091-921-3_10 2002). The broader ethnocomputing approach Balkcom, D. J., & Mason, M. T. (2004, April 26, May offered by the cSELF program, in contrast, can 1). Introducing robotic origami folding. In Proceed- show this same resource—physical instantia- ings of the 2004 IEEE International Conference on tions of computational thinking in an artistic Robotics and Automation (ICRA ’04). process—based on the cultural heritage and Bern, M., & Hayes, B. (1996). On the complexity of vernacular innovations of underrepresented flat origami. In Proceedings of the 7th ACM-SIAM students. Rather than confirm the stereotypes Symposium on Discrete Algorithms, Atlanta, GA that discourage their participation (Ogbu, 1998; (pp. 175-183). Fordham, 1991; Steele, et al., 2002), cSELF’s Boyce, A., Campbell, A., Pickford, S., Culler, D., approach is seeks to empower underrepresented & Barnes, T. (2011). Experimental evaluation of students to see their cultural “self” as having a BeadLoom game: How adding game elements to an computational heritage. educational tool improves motivation and learning. In Proceedings of the ACM Innovation and Technol- ogy in Computer Science Education Conference, Germany (pp. 243-247). 8. CONCLUSION Bridges, E., & Alford, S. (2013). Comprehensive cSELF is primarily designed for students sex education and academic success. Advocates who may be loath to think of themselves as for Youth. “computing geeks”—students who are more Buxton, C. A. (2006). Creating contextually authen- inclined towards the arts and humanities. Data tic science in a ‘low-performing’ urban elementary on under-represented students suggest that they school. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, may find this approach particularly helpful. By 43(7), 695–721. doi:10.1002/tea.20105 engaging this under-served student population, Deep Water Horizon Study Group. (2013). Final cSELF aims to contribute--in the long run—to report on the investigation of the Macondo well diversifying the discipline of computing. But blowout. Center for Catastrophic Risk Management it would be a mistake to say that the problem UC Berkeley. in the system is completely on the side of the Downey, G. L., & Lucena, J. (1997). Weeding out children. The discipline of computing is itself and hiring in: How engineers succeed. In G. L. far too decontextualize and narrowly conceived Downey, & J. Dumit (Eds.), Cyborgs & citadels: Anthropological interventions in emerging sciences to effectively serve human needs in an increas- and technologies. Santa Fe, NM: School of American ingly interconnected world. Developing forms Research Press. of computing education that can offer new opportunities for social expression and creative Education Trust-West. (2010). Access denied: 2009 API rankings reveal unequal access to California’s engagement is a critical first step: not just in best schools.

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