Order Number 9105193

Emancipatory technology as liberal art education: A rationale and structure

Rainer, Herber M., Ph.D.

The Ohio State University, 1990

i

UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 EMANCIPATORY TECHNOLOGY AS LIBERAL ART

EDUCATION: A RATIONALE AND STRUCTURE

Dissertation

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

By

Heber M. Ramer, B.S., M.S.

* * * * *

The Ohio State University

1990

Dissertation Committee: Approved by

E . K . B1ankenbaker M. Scott 1 Advisor B. Gordon College of Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I express deep thanks 'to my advisor, Dr. Keith Blankenbaker, for his guidance, suggestions and encouragement, "throughout, the research. Appreciation and thanks go to the other members of my advisory committee,

Drs. Michael Scott and Beverly Gordon for their suggestions and kind words. Gratitude and thanks is expressed to Drs. Rodney Frey, F. Victor Sullivan, John Be11and, James Mininger, Karen Zuga, John Pannabecker, and

Emerson Weins, for the time taken out of their busy schedules to review the Rationale and Structure. It would be impossible to mention all those who were of assistance to me during this project, I can only say thanks! Most importantly, I want to acknowledge my wife and friend, Cheryl Miller Ramer. Your questions have helped to refine my work and your faith in me has helped me grow; thanks.

To my children, Rachelle and Nathan, I thank you for your patience and promise you more of my time in the future. VITA

August 18, 1949 .... Born, Nappanee, Indiana 1978...... B.S., Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas

1979 ...... M.S., Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas

1979-1986 ...... Instructor, Automotive Technology, Agricultural Mechanisation, Hesston College, Hesston Kansas

1986-1988 ...... Graduate Assistant, Industrial Technology Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1988-present ...... Instructor, Automotive Technology Science, Technology, and Society, Hesston College, Hesston Kansas

PUBLICATIONS Book Review: Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligence. Journal of Technology and Society, Volume 1, Issue 1, Winter, 1987.

Christian Relational Theology as a Framework for Assessing the Moral and Social Implications of Technology. XftShnological Literary.__ The Roles of Practical Arts and Vocational Education. The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1987; Co-Author, Arnett, H.

FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field of Study: Education, Industrial Technology, Professor E.K. Blankenbaker.

Studies in: Curriculum Theory, Professor B. Gordon Industrial Design Technology, Professor J . Be11 and i i i LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES PAGE

1 . Technological literacy continuum ...... 16

2 . Model of study procedure ...... 80 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... ii VITA ...... iii

LIST OF FIGURES ...... iv CHAPTER PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Problem Statement ...... 5 Purpose of Study ...... 6 Need for the S t u d y ...... 6 Implications of the Study ...... 8 Assumptions ...... 8 Limitations ...... 9 Definition of Terms ...... 10 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 14

Educational Approaches to Technological Literacy Education ...... 15 The Origins of Teaching Skills in Technology...... 17 Contemporary Approaches to Teaching Skills in Technology ...... 23 Approaches to Education "About Technology” ...... 24 Literature About Technology ..... 27 Approaches to Education Through Technology ...... 29 Technology as Social Control .... 29 Moving Beyond Technology as Social Control ...... 32 The Language of Technology as Liberator ...... 33 Post-liberal Pedagogy as Liberator 38 Bioregionalism as a Liberating Pedagogy ...... 40 Socio-technical Theory as a Basis for Liberation ...... 43 CHAPTER PAGE The Nature of Technology ...... 46 Technology As a Change Agent .... 46 The Structure of Technological Thought ...... 49 Technology Education and the Needs of the Learner ...... 55 The Need for Cognitive Knowledge ...... Affective Educational Needs of the Learner ...... 58 The Need to Belong ...... 66 Summary ...... 69 Personal Observations ...... 70 III. METHODOLOGY ...... 73

Critical and Philosophical Research ... 75 The Dissertation Committee ...... 76 Review of the Rationale and Structure By External Experts ...... 78 Summary of Methodology ...... 78 Procedures ...... 79

IV. RATIONALE and STRUCTURE ...... 83 Industrial Education Must Expand ..... 83 Liberal Arts Education Must Include Technology ...... 85 The Significance of Production .... 87 The Transdiciplinary Nature of Technology ...... 89 A Call for a New Ideology: Emancipatory Technology Education ...... 91 The Nature of Emancipatory Technology Education ...... 93 A Test of the Point of Origin .... 94 A Test of the Relationship Between Knowledge and the Individual .... 97 A Test of the Nature of the Learner ...... 101 The Nature of Instruction in Emancipatory Technology Education ...... 104

v i V. REPORT ON THE F I N D I N G S ...... 112 Report on the Findings of Each Question 113 Report on the Findings of Each Telephone Interview ...... 123 Discussion on the Findings ...... 125 Summary of the Findings ...... 127

VI. CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ...... 128 Evaluation of the Methodology...... 129 Analysis of the Findings ...... 132 Recommendations for Further Research .. 137 Conclusion ...... 138

APPENDICES

A. Cover letter to the External Experts ...... 141 B. Telephone Interview Schedule Form ...... 143 C. Questionnaire ...... 145 D. The External Experts ...... 149 E. Transcripts of Telephone Interviews With the External Experts ...... 152

LIST OF REFERENCES ...... 179 Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

The study of technology has become a necessity; we live in a technological society. The majority of the U.S. population purchases, rather than produces, food, clothing and shelter. Everyday the 20th century human uses an increasing amount of technology, yet some writers say that never before have humans understood so little about their life support systems {Burke, 1978; Winner, 1977). This lack of understanding of the human life support systems (food, fiber, shelter) has many roots; two of which are

(a) the sheer number and complexity of the systems, and (b) the tendency of the twentieth century human to accept uncritically, growth in the technological devices {Angus,

1984; Berger, 1977). Historically, the human has used a combination of action {political and/or technological) and knowledge to gain dominance over a problem in their existence. Until the industrial revolution, the political control of people by the ruling class was readily distinguishable from the technology of a culture. The technology used was manual so that controlling the proletariat was all that was necessary. The working class, if they were to improve their lot in life, needed to improve their craft. The industrial revolution brought a more capital

intensive technology into the life support systems. As it became important for the ruling class to have a working knowledge of technology, the study of engineering was added to their educational preparation. As the standard of living rose for the majority of the people, and as society became increasingly dependent on technology, a new form of education about technology became necessary. In the early 20th century, industrial arts education evolved to teach students in public education about the nature of how society used technology in the social institution called industry (Towers, Lux, &

Kay, 1966; Bennett, 1937). For the greater part of the 1900's, this type of education about technology seemed

adequate because the overwhelming majority of the population was directly involved in the production and distribution of food, fiber, and shelter.

The workplace helped provide literacy in survival skills. During the apex of the industrial revolution, 90% of jobs were directly involved in the production of food,

clothing and/or shelter; however, today the economy is post industrial (informational) and less than 25% of the workforce is involved in the production of food, fiber

and/or shelter (Kriegbaum, 1983). The majority of people, 'then, are not; involved in occupations directly in production and yet, live in an environment that is surrounded by technological systems (Ellul, 1980; Winner, 1977). These technological systems require two types of knowledge: (a) knowledge necessary to be a productive individual in the workplace, and (b) the knowledge necessary to make wise choices on a personal level. The skills necessary for productivity in the workplace seemingly have few direct connections to the individual as a private citizen. Historically, the educational system has divided these wide categories of knowledge requirements into liberal arts education and into useful education (Kimball, 1986). The liberal arts are to cultivate a student's personal life as a citizen with no application to work. Primarily a product of Aristocracy, the liberal arts tradition of study served the ruling class well until the ruling class needed a concept of technology to remain in control.

Useful education, typically for the working class, gained rapid popularity during the industrial revolution. As technological systems became increasingly complex, useful education replaced the liberal arts as the dominant paradigm of education (Bauman, 1987; Kimball, 1986; Hook &

Kahn, 1986). The type of technological literacy that appears to be needed is more than just a study of hardware or a system of hardware as used in the work place or for personal use. Boyer (1985) expresses -this idea:

The issue is not- computers. The issue, rather, is the changing of our society, driven by a technology revolution that is as fully important as the industrial revolution over 100 years ago. (p. 6) The concept of technology education is greater than knowing about and being able to use computers or other hardware; it is more comprehensive than the understanding of engineering methodology. There is a similarity between Boyer's 1985 quote and

John Dewey's ideas of reconstructing an industrial society 85 years earlier. Dewey wrote:

One can hardly believe there has been a revolution in all of history so rapid, so extensive, so complete. Through it the face of the earth is making over, even as to its physical forms, political boundaries are wiped out and moved about, as if they were indeed only lines on a paper map .... That this revolution should not effect education in some other than a formal and superficial fashion is inconceivable. (1900, p. 6) If technology is the dominant source of knowledge used in a culture, then how should an educational system empower its students to function in such a society?

Historically, the liberal arts curriculum dealt with the information advantageous to the dominant culture. Technology is not a part of the historical perspective of the liberal arts; however, there is an avant-garde calling for a new liberal art based on technology. Although many educators agree in principle that education about technology is needed, there are many incomplete and fragmented approaches to this type of education. This study will contribute to the literature that explores how the study of technology can be a liberating process.

Problem Statement

A question many industrial technology educators ask of themselves and of their profession is: "What type of liberal art content can best prepare the future generation with personal survival skills in a technological informational society?" More specifically, what epistemology should be used to build the rationale and structure for these educational experiences? A major sub­ question is: "To what detail do the concepts identified need to be studied in order to insure a technologically emancipated proletariat?" This study will address the research question by developing a rationale and structure for the inclusion of emancipatory (liberal art) technology education in the general education program of study. The rationale and structure will include answers to the following secondary questions: 1. What is the relationship between humans and their technology? 2. What guidelines should be used when choosing concepts for a study of technology? 6 3. How can educators ascertain whether a student educational activity will result in a liberating force in real life?

Purpose of the Study

The fundamental purpose of this study is to enhance the ability of educators to provide experiences for their students that contribute to the students' ability to make

informed choices as consumers of technology. This study hopes to further the knowledge base necessary for the inclusion of technology in the liberal arts education paradigm. Traditionally, technology has been either a political science topic or the study of a specific vocation. Both of these approaches have vocational ends in mind. This fragmentation of knowledge is no longer desirable because

of the human dependency on technological systems and because of the complexity of the systems (Berger, 1977;

Winner, 1977, Kimball, 1987).

Need for the Study

We live in a technological society. Our culture is

so conditioned to having mega technological systems available for use that they are taken for granted until they fail (Winner, 1977; Ellul, 1980; Faban 1971). Since our lives are so dependent on technology, it stands to reason that technology should be a part of our educational studies.

There is considerable debate pertaining to the amount of choice involved in technology. On one extreme are those who see a technological fix for any problem, given time. The other extreme holds that technology is deterministic, and if there are choices to be made, they are limited. This writer contends that since technology

is conceived and fabricated by humans, then it follows that choice is available at some level and in some form.

A need exists to empower people with the ability to make wise technological choices. The human environment can be divided into natural systems (biogeoehemical) and man-made systems. Both of these systems respond to manipulation; however, biogeochemical systems are self-regulating and when left alone, will stabilise themselves through a process of evolution. Human made systems, or artificial systems, also respond to manipulation, but they are not self­ regulating. There is a lack of literature on how educators may teach others to humanely regulate technology. The literature that deals with the production of technology, by in large, fails to deal with the local or global consequences of technology. Seldom do technological consequences and technological production concepts meet in the same literature. A need exists for literat.ure that juxtaposes technological production with the benefits and social/environmental costs.

Implications of the Study

A dialogue about technology as a liberal art will be accepted by many educators as having face validity.

However, the practical implementation of such a course of

study will need to be explored in many contexts and from various perspectives, and the basic thesis of this study will need to be confirmed in order for technological literacy courses to be widely taught.

Further study is needed to ascertain which technological concepts are most effective in a liberal

arts technology course; the information in this study will provide a framework in which such study may begin.

The ratio of reflective thinking to laboratory activities is an important issue that needs the theoretical background of studies like this one in order to be explored. It is a question of whether information can be internalised for later recall in a liberating manner or whether concurrent simulations are necessary.

Assumption;?

The assumptions accepted by the investigator to establish the focus of the study include the following: 9 1. Host, liberal arts curricula do not recognize technology as a content base.

2. Liberal arts is an effective paradigm for educating people in a manner that allows them to make informed choices in their private lives and at the workplace.

3. A review of the current literature will reveal a viable explanation of the paradigm that demonstrates the liberating decision making process. 4. An effective description of technology as a liberal art is possible, although precise measurement is not possible. 5. The science — technology — society model of technological literacy is not fully adequate to provide liberating decisions necessary in a rapidly changing technological culture. 6. An abstract philosophical description of the liberating decision paradigm will aid educators in evaluating whether an experience is potentially liberating. 7. Technology meets the requirements of a discipline, in spite of the popular and ambiguous definitibns of the term technology.

Limitations

The philosophical defense will be limited to the literature supporting a post-modern approach to the understanding of technology. The author is aware of the bias that may result; however, divergent points of view will be used by the triangulation of philosophical literature, the liberation education literature, and the literature describing the needs of the learner. The research articles reviewed for this study were limited to the past ten years. This decision was made due 10 -to the large volumes of information on the topic.

A sharp definitive distinction is not drawn between science and technology. Skolimowski (1966) writes about the division of science and technology: ... observations lead us to a conclusion that perhaps neither scientific nor technological progress can be achieved in its pure form; that in advancing technology we advance science; and in advancing science, we advance technology. This being the case, it should not prevent us from analyzing these two kinds of progress separately, particularly because scientific progress is often treated autonomously and is regarded as the key to an explanation of the growth and nature of science. If we are permitted to divorce scientific progress from technological progress when examining the nature of science, we should be equally permitted to divorce technological progress from scientific progress when examining the nature of technology. (p. 376) Thus, although distinctions between science and technology are possible, they are not deemed necessary for this study. Another limitation in the study is the selection of external judges. Experts were selected who held expertise in the liberal arts arid who want to see students empowered to meet the decisions necessary for liberation in a technological society.

Definition of Terms

The following definitions were used by this investigator to clarify the meaning of words or phrases within the context of this study. Other definitions for these words or phrases may be possible, but they may not 11 be consistent with the usage in this study.

Critical Thought: A careful study of the political, economic, and technological factors affecting an organization. Critical thought is based on the paradigm of critical science research (Geuss, 1981). Engineering: A method of solving given problems; the engineer is not free to change the problem. The knowledge of the engineer is drawn from science and mathematics. It refers to the design of the object, the material to be used to produce the object, and a description of the function of the object. Euthenics: This term denotes a study of the improvement of human functioning and well-being through the adjustment of the environment {The American Heritage Dictionary, 1979). It does not allow for the study of the political nature of the human in conjunction with the changing of the environment. Technological fixes and engineering fixes are synonymous with euthenics.

Experience: An event, either cognitive, psychomotor, or affective occurring in an educational course of study. The educator allows for and plans for experiences to happen, but the experiences cannot be fully predicted or controlled. In this study, experience is used to represent a unit of study or a course activity such as exams, term papers and/or laboratory assignments. General Studies: A course designed to give a student exposure to a discipline; usually considered information essential for the functioning in a culture. General studies lack the integrative, longitudinal emphasis of the liberal arts curriculum. General studies also refer to the course work required of all students in a school. Basic education requirements, core curriculum, and foundation studies are synonyms for general studies. Liberal Arts: A method of teaching that seeks to empower students to gather information, evaluate the quality of the information, and make informed choices about their lives. The liberal art does not have a predetermined end; however, it may be considered useful in that it seeks to enhance the lives of the students. Liberal Arts may be used to represent a course, a curriculum or a teaching methodology. 12 Liberalism: A process of problem-solving that, is linear in nature and based on positivism (Lincoln & Guba, (1985). Authority is within the individual and is not shared. Liberalism does not recognise tradition as a source of truth and seeks solely to supersede tradition. Logical positivism, modernity, and reductionism are used as synonyms in this study.

Liberation: Liberation refers to the ability to make choices governed by a personal knowledge and ideology of technology. Liberation is more of a process than of an arrived-at-state of being free; the process of liberation is to gain control over external choices of technology. Liberation does not denote a political freedom, although technological liberation is political. Technological liberation assumes technological literacy. The New Liberal Art: A course which is interdisciplinary by the combining of a science and/or technology discipline with a humanity discipline for the purpose of liberal education. The New Liberal Art is synonymous with the Science, Technology, Society approach.

Post-modern: In this study post-modern refers to a philosophy that deals with the pluralism of today's world and that accepts truth from both empirical sources and cultural sources. Used in a broad sense in this study; referring to beliefs that emphasize matching the method of inquiry to the problem under investigation. Post-modern, post-liberalism, and post-industrialism are used as synonyms. Science: This term will be used as a referent to a discipline, such as chemistry, biology, or physics. When used in conjunction with a humanities discipline, science will be used to mean the scientific process of experimentation. Strategic Thought: A process of futuristic thinking designed to initiate a problem-solving plan based on accurate information. Strategic thought is built on a critical study of the past and present and is intrinsically focused on the future. 13

Technique: A method of social organization based on the measurement of the psychomotor skills and cognitive knowledge necessary to produce and use a tool. It is that part of technology that is concerned with efficient doing. Technique will be used interchangeability with praxeology (Towers, Lux, & Ray, 1966; Ellul, 1977). Technology: This term will denote several different meanings according to the context used. 1). Technology as a discipline, in the same way that mathematics or sociology are disciplines. "Technology is: the study of the creation and utilization of adaptive systems including tools, machines, materials, techniques and technical means and the relation of the behavior of these elements and systems to human beings, society, and the civilisation process” (DeVore, 1980, p. 4). 2). A branch of philosophy that explains the epistemology of the discipline of technology and the ontology of human produced tools (Mitcham, 1980; Skolimowski, 1966). 3). As a tool or machine or as a combination so as to create a system.

Transdiscinlinarv: An approach to education that maximizes the synergistic effect of the educational process when two or more disciplines are studied at the same time. For example, the study of automation which may include job qualifications and changes, production techniques, and mathematics to calculate costs, may give a student insights in other studies, or help explain why a family member was laid off work. The notion of transdisciplinary is based on Howard Gardner’s (1983) concept of interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences. Gardner posits that intrapersonal intelligence correlates with cognitive knowledge and that interpersonal intelligence correlates with relationships. He further maintains that both must be developed to maximize human potential. In this study, the term transdisciplinary refers to a study that includes both cognitive knowledge and personal growth skills (Truxal, 1985). Vocational Education: A type of education which has a predetermined end. The term will not be used as defined by the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917. The terms vocational, useful, practical, and professional education will be used synonymously in this study. CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Literature relating to liberal arts and its relationship to technology is quite extensive, and is continuing to grow rapidly as researchers and educators explore how the educational system can best prepare people for life in a technological age. The purpose of this review of literature is to explore the conceptual nature of liberating education from a technology education viewpoint.

Liberation is a process that traditionally was seen as a political struggle based on a social class system. Mega technology has changed the nature of liberation.

Today, liberation must include, in addition to politics, the knowledge of technology. This review of literature will follow divergent lines, all of which support a comprehensive understanding of technology as a liberating force. The discipline of engineering and sciences tend to be optimistic about the ability of complex technology to liberate people. Yet, it is the second law of thermodynamics, claimed by science, which is the basis for

14 15 some of 'bhe literature criticizing the ultimate ability of technology to be liberating. Liberal Arts education has historically reflected the dominant values of the ruling class; thus, has perpetuated the optimism for relying on technology to solve all problems, while excluding the direct study of technology. The literature used to support this study is divided into three major areas describing:

1. The present educational approaches in technological literacy education.

2. The nature of technology.

3. The needs of the learner.

Educational Approaches to Technological Literacy Education

Technological literacy is described in several groups < * by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (1984). These are: (a) education in technology, (b) education about technology, and (c)

education through technology. "Technology in education"

is the literature representing the education which proports to teach cognitive and psychomotor skills in technology. The thesis is that the more skills one possesses, the greater one's technological liberation.

"Education about technology holds that if a society can predict the impact (assessment) of technology, then liberating decisions can be made. "Education through technology" is the literature which holds that technology 16 is -the content, base by which liberating skills are learned. It represents the heuristics of euthenics and the assessment of technology as it relates to the liberation of the human and its environment.

J. Truxal (1984), in explaining the position of the Council for the Understanding of Technology in Human Affairs (CUTHA), used the concepts of education "in technology" and education "about technology". Truxal's model (fig. 1) places engineering (in technology) and the humanistic social sciences (HSS) (about technology) at opposite ends of a continuum (p. 2).

Engineering HSS I i------h — i i ! Normal STS engineering course course

In technology 1 About technology Figure 1

Truxal*s (1984) Technological Literacy Continuum 17 The model depicts ‘the tension that is present in technological literacy education. The question Truxal raised is critical: At what point does the teacher change the course from one of "in technology" to one of "about technology"? Truxal (1984) interpreted CUTHA's goal for technological literacy: We'd like to be to the left of this line— but not so far that all motivation is lost for the non-engineering students or that the students lose sight of the human and social significance of the technology. (p. 2)

The background of the faculty is the most likely determinant as to where the course will fall on the line

(Truxal, 1984). Truxal suggested two approaches to teaching technology: artifacts and systems analysis. The artifact approach studies singular objects and is aligned closely with science. A more wholistic approach is the use of system analysis, in which a complete technological system is studied. The faculty member must choose the percentage of time spent on artifacts and on systems analysis. This tension between artifact— systems analysis "...i1lustrate(s) that technology is inevitably trans-disciplinary (Truxal, 1984, p. 2).

The Origins of Teaching Skills in Technology Technology in education has its origin in classical

Greek thought. In the Greek culture, technology could not be part of the education of a citizen; it was limited to the working class. The banausic arts (technology) were 18 for -the working class only; knowledge of 'them was not considered necessary for contemplation (Bennett, 1937; Kimball, 1987). As the craftspeople organized apprenticeship programs and developed craft guild, technology became a force the ruling class needed to understand in order for the ruling class to maintain control. During the reformation, Luther began calling for the integration of classical study and trades (technology) in what he called "German schools". He wrote:

My idea is that boys should spend an hour or two a day in school, and the rest of the time at home, learn some trade and do whatever is desired, so that study and work may go together, while children are young and can attend to both. (Black, Lottich & Seekinger, 1972, p. 388)

Luther's 16th century appeal also included education for girls. The combining of work and study placed education in the vernacular, so that the child could learn the proper maintenance of a household and of the community. Throughout the next centuries, educational philosophers such as Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel, expanded the ideas about combining work and study.

By the late 19th century, it was generally accepted by educators that the knowledge and skills needed for citizenship had changed because of the industrial revolution. Kliebard (1986) referred to this period as the time of "curriculum ferment" because some educators wanted to tie curriculum to probable life work. Educators, such as Harris and Finney, saw technological 19 skills as low intelligence skills, and believed they

should be taught to children who had low I.Q. measurements (Kliebard, 1986). During this time of curriculum ferment, the ideas of manual training developed. C. Woodward,

an early champion of manual training saw the study of skills in praxeology as essential for informed citizenry. Manual training ideology sought to find those generic skills that were industry based, yet which had application in the individual's life as a citizen (Bennett, 1937;

Woodward, 1898).

The ideology of literacy through praxeological skills did not change substantially until the 1970's, when some educators realized that the praxeological skills being

taught were outdated and were not applicable in the new

and contemporary information based economy.

Contemporary Approaches to Teaching Skills in Technology

The Jackson's Mill Curriculum Theory (Snyder & Hale, 1981), written by a panel of approximately twenty

curriculum experts in industrial technology education, is

a document calling for the study of human adaptive systems as the basis for education in technology. Jackson's Mill identifies three human adaptive systems: 1. Ideological systems — concerned with values and beliefs. 2. Sociological systems — concerned with patterns of behavior. 20 3. Technological systems — concerned with manipulating the natural environment for survival.

While a system is clearly desirable, the writers of

Jackson's Mill did not attempt to establish mutually exclusive categories, rather, they wrote:

Each of the human adaptive systems interrelate on an individual, group, and institutional basis. In addition, each human adaptive system has an evolutionary development which is ’internally unique'. Yet, the system impacts and influences the other systems in its evolution. (p. 9, 10) The skills needed to teach the essential adaptive concepts of technological systems are based on the following groups of resources from Jackson's Mill:

1. Materials used in the production of artifacts.

2. Energy that comes from sources other than the human. 3. Capital systems needed for production, i.e., tools, buildings, and equipment. 4. Finance system that is used to pay for the inputs to the technological system. Industry and Technology Education (Wright & Sterry, 1983), a model curriculum sponsored by the American

Technical Foundation, was conceived and written by experts

in industrial technology education to serve as an example

of how the Jackson's Mill Curriculum Theory could be implemented in various sized school systems. Industry and

Technology Education falls into the category of education "in technology"; this is supported by two of its basic premises: 21 1. “All students need a basic foundation of knowledge and experience about industry, technology, and their societal context". (p. 11)

2. " The program must include specific experiences in each of the four industrial/technological systems — communication, construction, manufacturing, and transportation". (p. 11) The Introduction to Technology program developed by the state of New York (Hacker, 1987) is based on a transdisciplinary statement of purpose:

Fundamental education in our society should impart an understanding of the possibilities and limitations of technology in order to assist future citizens to make intelligent decisions and to instill in them a sense of environment and social responsibility. The control of technology requires knowledge, awareness, decision making, and leadership. (p. 1) The intended audience for the New York plan is 11-13 year

olds, an age which generally learns best through a variety

of senses. Thus, the actual learning experiences adopted

in the New York plan are cognitive and psychomotor skill oriented.

In the mid-1960's, the Engineering Concepts

Curriculum Project (ECCP) was started and had headquarters

at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. It was

"designed to familiarize students with certain concepts which pervade modem technology" (Liao & Piel, 1970, p. 2) at the senior high school level or/and as a college prep

course for students of average ability. Wiens (1986) places ECCP at the beginning of technological literacy

education, although as early as 1947, William Warner 22 (1965) had writ-ten a prospectus called a Curriculum to

Reflect Technology in which he called for course work that used technology as a content base. Warner's ideas were never directly implemented; whereas, ECCP had 300 high

schools participating in 1970 (Liao & Piel, 1970). The ECCP text has chapters on optimisation, modeling,

systems, patterns of change, feedback, and more. Included

are 60 projects aimed at moving from abstract science to

application. ECCP was also concerned that "students

understand that there is constant interaction among

science, technology, and society;..." (Liao & Piel, 1970).

Cutcliffe (1987) in an analysis of the current status of liberal arts courses in technology, laments that the

tacit purpose of some of the liberal arts courses is to

recruit students for the various departments represented. He lists the following course titles as examples:

1. "Chemistry for the Consumer” — by the Chemistry Department. 2. "The Factory of the Future" — by the Industrial Engineering Department.

3. "Computer Modeling of Our World" — by the Chemical Engineering Department. 4. "Mineral Deposits, Economics, and World Politics" — by The Geological Sciences Department, (p. 39-47)

All of these course titles reflect what Truxal (1985) calls the engineer's approach, implying that a problem or a methodology to be used in answering a problem is given;

"... a general theory only after solving a group of 23 specific problems“ (p. 5).

Approaches to Education ' About, Technology"

Using Truxal's (1984) diagram (Figure 1) as a guide

-to categorize, education about technology courses would fall very close to the Humanities, and Social Sciences (HSS) end, on the right of the diagram. Truxal places most, but not all, of technological literacy courses close to the right end of the continuum. Wien's (1987) findings support Truxal's placement of STS courses close to the HSS side. The works of Wiens (1987) and White (1981) contrast a pure HSS course (on the right of the continuum) to a vocational course (engineering — left of the continuum) in a technical trade. Both Wiens and White suggest that when either extreme is practised, the interconnectedness of the course content is lost; therefore, such an educational process is not liberal. A historical perspective of education about technology. Education about technology grew out of the societal critiques of the I960's. During the 1960's, there was widespread public opposition to the effects of multi-national corporations and the technologies they controlled. The American proletariat became sensitised to the negative impacts of technology and supported the passage of congressional acts, such as the establishment of the Occupations Safety and Health Administration in 1970, the Clean Air Act also in 1970, and the Clean Water 24 Act in 1972.

A number of authors, R. Carson (1962) in Silent Soring. J. K. Galbraith (1967) in The New Industrial

and J. Ellul (1964) in The__Technological Society questioned the benefits of technology and pointed out some negative side effects.

Early college courses studying the impact of technology tended to be taught in engineering colleges and were apt to be anti-establishment (Cutcliffe, 1987; Wiens, 1987; White, 1981). The second wave of courses tended to be interpretive in nature. (Cutcliffe, 1987; Wiens, 1987). Today, technology is not seen as negatively as in the 1960's and early 70's; the focus is more on the positive cultural uses of technology and its logical societal/environmental impact (Cutcliffe, 1987). Literature about technology. Educational courses that focus on technology assessment (about technology) tend to have their roots in the humanities. The New Liberal Art (NLA) came into being in 1980 when the Alfred

P. Sloan Foundation began to fund undergraduate programs to enhance technological literacy (White, 1981). Historically, the Sloan Foundation had funded only curriculum in the sciences or in engineering; the change of emphasis to include the promotion of the NLA represented a significant change. The decision to fund the development of NLA courses was a result of the Sloan 25 Found at-ion's concern for "the student population's lack of understanding of the role of technology in our culture, caused by the specialization of the curriculum (White,

1981). The methodology for bringing about technological literacy interweaves engineering and the humanities (Truxal, 1984).

Critiques of technology assessment range from interpreting technology as deterministic to interpreting technology as an applied science. Caldwell (1986) argues that literacy is brought about through unity of the knowledge. Incompleteness or ignorance (not knowing) are not necessarily signs of disunity; but rather, disunity for Caldwell, is when knowledge is fragmented and cannot logically co-exist. Caldwell wrote that technological literacy occurs when science and engineering are integrated into the ethos of the humanities. Caldwell equated fragmented knowledge to fragmented culture and stated that unless western culture develops an integrative relationship between its disciplines, its demise is eminent.

Curriculum reconceptualists support the use of social critique of technology as the basis for technological literacy. This group of curriculum writers draw heavily on the theories of critical science. Pinar and Grumet

(1981) record the origins of this group of thought as coming out of the scare in U.S. education caused by the 26 Russians launching a sate 1 lit.© in 1957. The critics of the life adjustment curriculums, in vogue in the 1950's, proclaimed that the U.S. education was too soft and called for a scientifically based curriculum. The second event that gave rise to curriculum reconceptualism was the deterioration of the U.S. economy and the resulting decrease in educational funding during the early 1970's

(Pinar & Grumet, 1981). The reconceptualist approach is not prescriptive, rather, it is an approach that seeks to illuminate the:

.. . organized assemblage of meanings and practices the central, effective and dominant system of meanings, values and actions which are lived. (Apple, 1979, p. 5) Pinar and Grumet (1961) describe this approach: Reconceptualism is the effort to name the tension between nature and culture, to discover those parts of culture that are not compelled by laws of nature, and those parts of nature that are not necessary constraints, but are the products of our own doing, and potentially our undoing. (p. 32)

The reconceptualist approach to education, then, is based on a descriptive process; studying the signs of the times and attempting to answer the question of "what can be?" (Pinar & Grumet, 1981). This reconceptualist question correlates with the objectives of the New Liberal

Arts; on Truxal's (1984) model, it falls toward the right end of the spectrum, which is analogous to what DeVore (1980), Mitchum (1980), and Dyrenfurth (1984) consider to be the overarching question of technology. 27

Indus-trial -technology education, whose philosophical pinnings are based on education by doing (education in technology) has within its literature a segment of writings that support the ideas of education about technology. The phrases: integrative education, multi­ disciplinary education (Prataner, 1987), and lifelong learning promoted by interdisciplinary education (Kowal, 1987) are used to describe the aspirations of technological literacy from an industrial technology perspective. The industrial technology educator platform

is calling for education about technology as a long term societal change rather than as an immediate educational change (Dyrenfurth, 1987; Hameed, 1987). Dyrenfurth bases his ideas on a study that tested whether a country's stage of technological development correlated with its understanding of technological literacy. Hameed uses the contextualizabion of technology within a culture as evidence that literacy is long-term. Both Dyrenfurth and

Hameed reflect comprehensive international perspectives.

Industrial technology education literature that has a futurist emphasis also tends to be education about technology. Lauda (1988) is the most prolific of these writers. Lauda advocates using futurology to determine the content in the study of technological literacy. Technological skills for Lauda are being able to "detect 28 problems and determine solutions ... render critical

judgment and offer constructive options" (p. 11). Lauda's approach is proactive; literacy is dependent on detecting possible problems and then considering various thought out solutions. The development of scenarios is the means to the end in Lauda's approach.

Values clarification and social responsibility are the organizing themes in technological literacy education for Zuga <1988) and Wright <1988). By combining social systems, that students perceive as reality, with the disciplines of knowledge, a synergistic education is provided for students.

The interpretation of industry is another approach to education about technology. This concept grew out of the national curriculum projects of the 1960's: the Industrial Arts Curriculum Project

Approaches -bo Education "Through Technology" Literature describing education -through -technology seeks -to i 1 luminate how -technology is -the con-ten-t base used -to -teach social skills , problem solving and/or logical reasoning. Education -through technology follows divergent- traditions; some traditions have as their motive social efficiency (control of the proletariat), whereas others have the goal of liberation (political and/or survival). Historically, technology was described in a pejorative sense by individuals whose ideology sought to refine the human existence; yet, it is technology that provided relief from the hostilities of the natural environment. It is in discussion of this dichotomy that education through technology becomes a wholistic educational pedagogy capable of meeting the educational needs of the twenty-first century. Technology as social control. Attitudes of contempt toward technology can be traced to ancient Greek thought where the "banausic arts" were used to describe the work of trades people, mostly slaves, and were beneath the dignity of a free citizen (Bennett, 1926). A critical aspect of the Greek exclusion of technology in a proper education was the notion that the trades required an inferior intellect (Kimball, 1987; Bennett, 1926). The enlightenment period contributed to social control by emphasizing the power of experimental science and

mathematics. Scientific thought and process provided a methodology by which the human could explain many of the laws of nature applied to technology with empirical

evidence. This practice of accepting only empirical evidence as truth gained acceptance exponentially in academic communities in the eighteenth, nineteenth, and

twentieth centuries. Using empirical evidence as the

single source of authority in truth is the ontology of logical positivism/modem rationality (Berger, 1977; Bowers, 1987; Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

A second significant impetus of technology as a form of social control is the application of Frederich W.

Taylor's scientific management theory. A. G. Wirth

(1983), in a detailed study that compared the nature of

work control in industry to the work control in schools, established that schools were patterned after industrial practice. Wirth argued that scientific management is based on a liberal paradigm of authority, rather than on the assumed traditional/conservative paradigm. Wirth challenges the notion that efficiency at all levels of

society is the basis of freedom and labels Taylor's ideas of efficiency as vulgar efficiency. Like Bowers (1987), Wirth sees an extreme form of individualism (lack of interdependence) as underlying scientific management.

When the various pieces of production are seen in the 31 smallest components possible, efficiency appears benign.

Efficiency concerned only with the bo't'bom line, holds that in the end, profit is necessary for the well-being of all parties and that profit outweighs any negative aspects. Wirth, however, points out that vulgar efficiency is dehumanizing. Dehumanization is a direct result of reducing work into such small components that the worker can perform them without thinking (Wirth, 1983; Bowers, 1987). Wirth cites a General Motors' claim that their "production line is designed so that every task can be learned in fifteen minutes or less" (p. 15). This type of workplace does not allow the worker intellectual involvement in the production process; intellectual involvement would require that workers control the processes being performed, in direct tool control or in the planning of the production process (Wirth, 1983; Schumacher, 1979). Ideally, Schumacher would like to see the worker involved in all process steps, from the raw material to the delivered product. Contrary to the popular opinion that robots and other forms of automation reduce the drudgery of the workplace,

Wirth (1983) and Cooley (1980) maintain that automation is another step in the dehumanization of the workplace. Automation places the control of a process within the machine itself, thus requiring less cognitive effort on 32 -the human.

Moving beyond -technology as social control. The use of -technology as a form of social control is very effective in maintaining an elite social class and a working class. Cultures that value human dignity, however, seek ways to minimize social control by a ruling class and seek to implement policies that develop the potential of each person.

Language is a powerful determinant in how a culture views technology. Scientific management of the workplace and of schools is not based on technology, but rather on technicism (Wirth, 1983; Bowers, 1987}. Technicism is a strict adherence to a single authority source; it is logical and linear. The problem with scientific management, argue Wirth, Bowers, Freire (1971), and Stanley (1978), is that people are non-linear. Providing for the necessities of life is only one function of the workplace; others listed are socialization and personal identity. Cooley (1980) states that people identify more with their work than with their avocations. Human cognition has also been demonstrated to be non-linear. Gagne's (1985) description of learning coupled with

Gardner's (1983) theory of multiple intelligences (both described earlier) reinforce Cooley's observation. The nature of technology is also non-linear (DeVore,

1980; Burke, 1978; Mitcham, 1980). One invention does not 33 necessarily lead to another invention within the same technology; for example, a device used to check for methane gas in a brewery was the basis for the spark plug in the internal combustion engine; the player piano was the basis for the Jaquard loom (Burke, 1978). When social control is achieved through the use of technology, several problems are inherent. The crux of one aspect is the reliance on the exclusive use of logical positivism in a non-linear world. The reductionism required in scientific management is effective in segregating production into minute tasks, but in the final analysis, becomes a form of production oriented tyranny. Equating technicism with technology is a second problem. Technicism is linear, whereas technology advances in unpredictable ways. Both issues involve the lack of shared authority (source of knowledge), resulting in socio-ecological problems that are interdependent in nature and that single knowledge sources are unable to solve. Educators, managers, and others who wish to develop a learning or work environment conducive to the development of human potential have been correctly critical of "technicism", and its use as a means of social control, but have not recognised the liberating potential of "technology".

The language of technology as liberator. Language is widely accepted as the hub of any educational and/or political process. Educators who adhere to a liberation pedagogy, such as Freire (1971), and Bowers (1987), see language as the sole determinant of the liberating process. The problem that Bowers points out, is that

"special languages" develop and these languages become a form of truth in and of themselves, making the issues obscure for practitioners. Freire (1971) and Dewey (1916) use the concept of critical acceptance of culture; Bowers calls for the same process of reflecting about the influences that control a people, except Bowers refers to it as "implicit and explicit" acceptance of culture. The terms, uncritical or implicit, imply a passive acceptance of culture; the terms, critical or explicit acceptance, imply volition in the acceptance of culture.

Freire's (1971) pedagogy involves naming and documenting a culture for the purpose of critical reflection. A space-time framework is required for the process of naming to occur; “as reality is transformed and these situations are superseded, new ones will appear, which in turn will involve new limit situations" (pp. 89- 90). Dewey's (1916) pedagogy parallels Freire, but the language is of modernisation. Dewey advocated firsthand experiences, occupations, as the medium of instruction and employed the scientific approach to validate the problem­ solving methods. Dewey defined the scientific method to be a systematic process, and not exclusively an 35 experiment. Both Dewey and Freire believe that authority

is pinned solely within the individual, resulting in the improvement of the individual and therefore, also in society. Dewey and Freire fail to provide a means for preserving the valid aspects of culture and tradition, which is a vital part of the post-modern view of authority.

Bowers (1987) believes that the learning of special vocabularies should not only allow humans to conceptualize the world, but should also enable humans to recognize the correct context of the vocabulary. Often when the words

"authentic being" or "freedom" are used in language, the reader automatically thinks of liberal ideologies, yet, conservative ideology may hold the same values. How words are used raises the question of whether literacy is only the ability to use language correctly in a technical sense or whether literacy is also the ability to place language into its correct ideological context. Positivist ideology would hold that literacy is quantifiable without a means for contextualization of language. Freire (1971) and Dewey (1916) would argue that literacy is focused on change. Bioregionalists add that literacy must include the ability to name the plants, geography, and animal life of a region in order to be literate. Sustainability of the environment of a specified region is the criterion by which literacy is checked. Sale (1985) suggested that preliterate societies 36

(prior to written language) had a literacy that we must regain for today in order to achieve a sustainable future. Engineers often use language of technology as a liberator. Citing technology's past contributions to the control of famine and disease, engineers express the hope and belief that technology will meet any needs of the future. Barbour (I960) discusses four benefits that technological optimists use to support the claim that technology is a liberator. Higher living standards in the form of medical care, improved nutrition, and increased average life span are used as tangible evidence that technology provides for a better life. The increased opportunity for choice in the form of goods and services is another type of evidence. Barbour and Winner (1977) challenge whether choice is equal to freedom; a point that

Florman (1981) totally rejects. Barbour contends that technology indeed makes choice possible, but concurs with Mitcham (1980) that socioeconomic forces control choice, not the availability of goods and services. Freedom of choice in technology, according to Berger (1977), requires the ability to improvise (the ability to use a technology for more than one use), which is a high form of technological literacy. Barbour (1980) gives increased time for leisure as the third evidence that technology liberates. Automation and cybernetics have reduced physical drudgery of the 37 production processes; however, Wirth (1983) questions if there is a difference between physical drudgery and mental drudgery and suggests that the end effect of automation may be the exchange of physical drudgery for mental drudgery. Improved communications is a fourth category of evidence given by Barbour (1980) for technology as

liberator. Global transportation systems allow personal

visitation of distant places in a matter of several days

instead of several weeks or even months, and electronic technologies provide for global oral and visual communication instantly. Florman (1981) argues that this inherently improves communication; Barbour would caution

that increasing the speed of communication is not

equivalent to improvement in communication. Increasing the speed of communication magnifies the need for cultural

awareness, knowledge of time zones, and accurate translation of language (Cooley, 1980). Historically, technology has contributed to the human's ease of survival; even extreme critics of

technology do not negate this claim. As world population increases, however, unfettered technological optimism is

not able to solve many of the socioeconomic problems of our present world. Societies must develop philosophies

that use technology in a manner that is sensitive to the human and to the environment. Post-liberal, pedagogy as liberator. Advant garde educat-ional theorists are developing pedagogical strategies that seek multiple sources of truth. The integrity of the individual is maintained, but the

individual shares authority with a common or greater cause. These theories as a group are referred to as post­ modern, post-liberal, post-industrial or informational and are significantly different at their starting points than present educational philosophies. A reoccurring concern is the present environmental crisis and whether democratic societies can survive in an age of scarce resources.

Bowers (1987), in building a basis for a post-liberal view of truth sees many socio-ecological problems as a result of liberalism. At the root of Bowers' argument is

logical positivism's inability to deal with legitimate tacit knowledge. Society, today, is based on complex interdependent relationships, ecological and social; and without a methodology to explain the interconnectedness of society, does not have a means to preserve the

legitimate aspects of the culture/environment. The

liberal tradition, without a means to test a new technology, results in a form of rootless individualism.

Authority must include culture and empiricism in order to develop the comprehensive knowledge necessary for socio- ecological stability. Liberalism gained authority because the Western human had abundant natural resources, a lower 39 population, and lacked adequate explanations of the physical world. Today, human knowledge and the

competition for resources do not allow for unchartered expansion. Bowers wrote:

In the past the liberal way of thinking about individualism, rationality, and progress provided a coherent, compelling, and enlightened set of political options. Today, however, the traditional liberal formulation of these beliefs contributes to conceptual uncertainty and increasing strife between contending social groups who attempt to manipulate the policy agenda of government for their own ends. (P. 20-21) The conservative tradition of authority is also

inadequate as the sole basis for authority in Bowers' (1987) description of a post-liberal culture.

Maintenance of explicit (external) forms of authority is the root of Bowers' concept of conservatism. A conservative tradition has the cultural bonding that

liberalism misses; implicit (internal) knowledge is dealt with skeptically. The conservative thinks dialectically, thus giving relationships two meanings, rational and traditional. It is the lack of interdependence between rational and tradition that exemplifies the limitations of

a conservative tradition for authority in a post-modern society.

Bowers (1987) sees both liberalism and conservatism as a means of social control; both traditions seek to explain, predict, and control daily life. Education based on either tradition increases its embeddedness. In 40 reality, maintains Bowers, both traditions happen simultaneously and are dependent on each other. It is the adherence to a single tradition that results in social control.

Bioregionalism as a liberating pedagogy. Bioregionalism is a philosophy which holds that photosynthesis is the basis for true wealth, and consequently, also for authority (Sale, 1985).

Educational, economic, and political boundaries would need to be drawn around major life-sustaining bioregions (for example, the Ohio River Basin, or the forests of

Northwestern U.S.). Although bioregionalism has its roots in the ecology movement, it has recognised the limitations and self-interest of the ecology movement. Bowers (1987) described bioregionalism as being neither conservative nor logical positivism. He wrote:

The model for a culture that involves participation of responsible ecological citisens rather than mastery over nature through rational control is not, according to the bioregionalist, to be found in futuristic thinking that seeks power through science and technology. (p. 160)

The emphasis is on preventing a draw-down of the resource base which could result in a struggle for limited resources and severe disruptions in society (Barbour, 1980; Bowers, 1987; Sale, 1985). Bioregionalism is not a return to "the good old days" and to the nature movement, but rather as Sale states, and effort to achieve a 41 sustainable culture. Sales wrote:

We must try to regain the spirit of the ancient Greeks, who considered that earth as a living creature, which they worshipped with the name of Gaea. We must try to learn that she is, in a real sense, sacred, and that there is therefore a holy way to confront her and her works, a way of awe and admiration and respect and veneration that simply will not permit despoliation or abuse. (p. 24) Bioregionalists do not advocate a regression of today's technology, education and cultural ceremonies, however, their policies are "remarkably similar to premodern cultures that were attuned to the rhythms of the environment" (Bowers, 1987, p. 162). What some persons would call lifestyle regression, bioregionalists would label as progress.

Bioregionalists see alienation as a major problem in today's culture. The liberal concept of individualism, that holds that happiness is freedom, is equated with alienation. Knowing and being responsible for your place in the environment, and coming to terms with the limits imposed by nature is the bioregionalists' basis of freedom. Bowers (1987) sees living with rhythms of nature as a recognition of the interdependence of humans and nature; it must be based on respect, rather than on self- interest. The Native Americans articulated such a relationship of respect for the environment: "Our sacred shrines have been destroyed...Our Mother Earth is raped by the exploitation of coal, uranium, oil, natural gas, and helium....We speak for the winged beings, the four-legged beings, and for -those gone before us and for -the coming generation. We seek no changes in our livelihood because this Natural life is our only known survival and it's our sacred law." (MandlerJ 1981, p. 1) Bioregionalists call for a radical rethinking of social authority in light of pollution problems and the over­ demand on the environment (Sale, 1985; Bowers, 1987; Barbour, 1980). Barbour (1980) endorses many bioregional ideologies, but approaches the human-environment relationship on the basis of resource sustainability and distributive justice.

Humans cannot consume "biological capital" indefinitely; they must learn to live off "biological interest".

Barbour uses the idea of hard choices to address the human-environment tension; humans must choose between preserving the environment and conflicting interests. Citing the biological evidence of the J-curve, Bowers (1983) and Miller (1982) conclusively demonstrated that after demand overshoots supply, there is a die-back period. Wirth states that decentering the individual is critical in addressing sociological problems. The individual must hold authority; however, authority must be shared with the environment and with community (culture). For the educator, bioregionalisrn does not provide a ideological pedagogy, but rather it calls for some critical, unrefutable priorities. Bowers (1983) concluded The task for educational theorists will be to reconcile Black Elk with John Dewey, Confucius with 43 Skinner. This will involve a far more radical discourse 'than one now driven by the variant, forms of educational emancipation. (p. 172} Socio-technical theory as a basis for liberation.

Socio-technical theory is based on the epistemology that

efficiency is a social as well as a technical issue; thus, attacking an efficiency problem solely on scientific management grounds, addresses only a part of the problem

(Wirth, 1983; Schumacher, 1979). Quality of Work Life

(OWL) is synonymous with socio-technical theory and reflects an American flavor (Cooley, 1980). At several points Wirth warns that socio-technical theory could be used to co-opt workers into greater productivity; whereas the purpose of socio-technical theory is to, as Schumacher puts it, do good work, namely developing practices that conserve (protect) the worker and the product being produced. Taylorism, the opposite of the socio-technical philosophy, does not respect worker or product, but rather, it focuses on productivity and ultimately, on profit (Wirth, 1983). The notion that there is only one correct way to efficiency, claimed by Taylorism, is brought into sharp criticism and rejected in socio- technical theory.

Wirth (1983) draws heavily from the work of Pehr. G. Gyllenhammer of Volvo, Sweden; from the Norwegian, Ragnar

Johansen of the Ship Research Group; and from Irving

Bluestone, retired from the United Auto Workers. In each 44 situation, a -troubled work force and management was transformed into a work place practicing integral

efficiency, the goal of socio-technical theory. As the term integral connotes, efficiency comes from within, from

both labor and management. A standardised model of integral efficiency is not possible because each production unit is inherently different (Wirth, 1983;

Cooley, 1980). Gyllenhammer of Volvo says that leadership is the

hardest aspect of socio-technical theory. He stated, “The key quality in the new leader is that he work from

awareness of other people's dignity and their wish to do their best" (Wirth, 1983, p. 37). Such a style of

leadership requires a fundamental rethinking of the purpose of an economic activity. If growth in the GNP is

the purpose, then socio-technical theory will be misused; if the enhancement (democracy) of people is the end, then integral efficiency is applicable (Wirth, 1983; Cooley, 1980; Schumacher, 1979).

Education, often patterned after industry in the

U.S., faces many of the same issues. Although the industries using a socio-technical philosophy have been

successful, Wirth (1983) questions whether corporate America will accept it as a dominant paradigm. In addition to making the scientific management of industry connection to education (a question of values), Wirth 45 demonstrated that socio-technical 'theory is effective as a means to social reform in education. In the simplest terms, socio-technical theory is an updated version of John Dewey's philosophy of education.

Wirth (1983) paralleled the socio-technical process of worker involvement in production decisions with John Dewey's philosophy of using daily activities (occupations) to allow students to experience the intellectual underpinnings in a wholistic manner, thus increasing student involvement in the learning process. The scientific method for Dewey functioned as a unifying agent between the learner and the questions of life; in socio- technical theory the utilization of labor's ideas fosters the democratic process. Both learner and worker have a direct say in the process of study/work and a responsibility in the social environment where the activity takes place. The John Dewey Society endorsed Wirth's theory because of the parallels and extensions of Dewey's philosophy.

Socio-technical theory has been criticized as not being applicable to education; however, the same argument can hold true for Taylorism, yet scientific management is widely used as a basis for educational theory. The evidence is conclusive that when socio-technical theory is adopted, alienation is reduced, the workplace becomes more democratic, and productivity is increased. A 46 significant; question not addressed by socio-technical theory is how it can address issues of scarcity and environmental pollution.

The Nature of Technology

Technology as a discipline of study is being accepted more and more in the educational system. It is beyond the

scope of a single study to fully define what is meant by the term technology; it is possible, however, to describe the nature of technology. A description of technology is

an illustration of the epistemology of technology rather than a qualified critique of which knowledge belongs to the study of technology. This section seeks to review the

literature relating to the questions of, "What can be done technologically?" and "What should be done technologically?" (DeVore, 1980, p. 319).

Technology as a Change Agent

Change is a central concept in many of the works defining technology. Tool usage to help the human survive, and tool usage to make another tool has enabled humans to shape their environment and culture (DeVore, 1980; Winner, 1977; Herrington, 1982). It is the process of developing new ways to do work or to make the

environment less hostile that has caused the acculturation of the notion that a new technology is inherently superior to the old (Berger, 1977: Angus, 1984). Winner (1977) in 47 Autonomous Technology questions whether technology or the human is in charge of change. Winner wrote: On one hand we encounter the idea that technological development goes forward virtually of its own inertia, resists any limitations, and has the character of a self-propelling, self-sustaining, ineluctable flow. On the other hand are arguments to the effect that humans have full, conscious choice in the matter and they are responsible for choices made at each step in the sequence of change. (p. 46) Change has become a system of adaptation of the environment which has had a profound impact on the social and psychological nature of the human. The Industrial

Technology education profession has chosen to group change in three categories:

1. Ideological adaptive systems concerned with the ethos of a culture,

2. Sociological adaptive systems used to explain and study human behavior patterns and organization of a culture, and

3. Technological adaptive systems pertaining to changes caused by the human need for food, fiber, and shelter (Snyder & Hale, 1981). Herrington (1982) concurred with this grouping and concluded that an educational system about technology must include all three because they are intrinsically linked.

He stated that education *' ... provides a system for deliberately transmitting a way of behavior, that is, culture" (p. 44). It also follows that education receives its content from culture. Unless education confronts each adaptive system in light of the others, specialized education results. 48 Specialized knowledge is 'the pin ’that Winner (1977) bases the concept of autonomous technology on. Autonomous technology answers only to itself and does not allow for a contextual critique. The term abstraction is used by

Berger (1977) to describe this distancing of knowledge from its societal context. Technological determinism grows out of a narrow, specialized interpretation of culture. Determinism is not the absence of choice (Winner, 1977), but rather is the inevitability that a technology will be developed and used. He wrote:

Opportunities for willful, conscious choice about social patterns linked to the forces of production never arise. (p. 85)

Thus, the choice of goods and services available are controlled. Winner concluded by saying: This is not to say that changes in technology and society are never chosen, directed or controlled. ... The point is that there are important categories of change that simply do not make sense under the ideas of 1 chosen' or ‘voluntary'. (p. 105, 106) Berger (1977), Schumacher (1973), and Barbour (1980) disagreed with Winner, and concurred that there is a choice, both at the individual level and at a corporate level. Barbour described technology as an instrument of power and does not accept that technology is autonomous.

Technology appears autonomous because humans do not selectively (critically) choose technology for the unique human existence. 49 Education aimed at emancipation must empower people to gain control over technology in the same way that they used technical means to liberate themselves from hunger and the cold (DeVore, 1980}. Angus (1984) supports DeVore's concept of emancipation in stating that a knowledge of technology is necessary in addition to the illumination of the complex social systems affecting freedom. The ideas expressed by Schumacher (1979) in Good

Work give further credence to a liberation that starts at the bottom and goes up. Schumacher would have individuals use only the technology they can control. As more people take control over technology in their lives, large autonomous technologies would change. Those people who want to take charge of the technology in their lives, wrote Schumacher: ... share a concern about the scale in their lives. They want to bring the perimeters in. Operate closer to home. They want to take responsibility for their lives and the effects of their activities both direct and indirect, and hence they tend to direct energy and attention — once they have had the experience of the macrosystems — towards things they can affect directly. This is still far from a conventional political force; many homecomers have digested the experience of what they regard as too many generations too sanguine about the ultimate effectiveness of primary reliance on power and politics. They are only now beginning to find the commonalities among their disparate value systems and the connections they can make. (p. 187)

The Structure of Technological Thought Technological thought is paradoxical; one part of it is linear and appears to be a science, another part is 50 political and zigzags through a society. DeVore <1980) makes the point that various definitions of technological thought are inadequate because they fail to address what he refers to as "a system of knowledge” (p. 224).

Technology's major question is, "what can be?" (DeVore, 1980; Skolimowski, 1966). The very nature of technology is futuristic, it does not ask the question of "what is?" as does science. Skolimowski defends the position that: <1) it is erroneous to consider technology as being an applied science, (2) that technology is not science, (3) that the difference between science and technology can be best grasped by examining the idea of scientific progress and the idea of technological progress. (p. 372)

Technological advances can be independent of the scientific knowledge that explained them; i.e., Watt's steam engine preceded Celsius and Kelvin's explanation of thermodynamics by 75 years. The converse is also true; the theories of nuclear fusion are developed and are waiting for a reactor to contain it. Although science and technology are distinct bodies of knowledge, they are not mutually exclusive (Lauda, 1985; DeVore, 1980; Berger,

1977). Viewing science as the dominant paradigm for explanations of our culture results in fragmentation of knowledge and culture. (Angus, 1984; Berger, 1977). The nature of technological thought is a "system" for

DeVore (1980), an "applied science" (engineering) in Florman's (1976) writing and "post-modern" in the writings 51 of Angus (1984), Berger (1977), Joseph and Ryan (1976), and Winner {1977). In Facing Dp -fco Modernity. Berger (1977) wrote -that, modern -thought, based on the ideas of enlightenment, is unable to explain the problem of a technological society. The consequences of modernity: abstraction, futurity, individuation, liberation, and secularization, are given to illuminate the need for post­ modern thought.

Abstraction is typified by the process of automation in the study of technology. However, positivism and the

Marxist notion of alienation also represent abstraction. Abstraction is a process by which the human and an event are distanced. The abstraction process includes cognition and empiricism, but moves on to show that concrete forms of thought are superseded by the abstract (manual to automation).

Futurity is the human process of focusing primarily on the future. In futurity, the creativity and energy is spent for the future at the expense of the present and of an understanding of the past. Berger (1977) states that futurity sets up a fast paced life that is detrimental to the well-being of the human. In fact, Berger refers to futurity as a form of tyranny because it dehumanizes individuals by hurdling them through life at an unchecked pace. 52 The process of moving from community values -to

individual values is Berger's (1977) concept of

individuation. Individuation is a direct result of the

automation and autonomous learning approach. In a culture that produces food, fiber, and shelter manually, people have an interdependence with others during the process of providing daily sustenance; not so in an autonomous culture.

Liberation is another critical concept to be included

in the study of modernity. Liberation presupposes volition pertaining to technology (abstraction), futurity, and individuation. In the simplest sense, liberation is moving from fate to free (no external restrictions)

choice. It is moving to the point that "... things could

be other than what they have been" (Berger, 1977, p. 77). Liberation in the finest sense is each individual being free to do that which is the ultimate good in a given

context. As contexts change, so does the good that

represents volition. Emancipation is not a matter of

eliminating individuation, but rather is a call for a clarification of the process in order to develop volition. Secularization is the thread that sews the concept of modernity together and serves as a basis to assess morality. The important question here is, "Is modernization possible without secularization?" Secularization is the process of moving from an acceptance 53 of fate as -the will of the gods through individuation to pure empiricism. This does not imply that religion has disappeared, but it does say that secularization affected religion.

In evaluating secularization, one must ask the question, "What is the ultimate good and what shall be the motive?" Issues such as, who is it good for, who gains, who loses, who are the powerful and who are the powerless are at the heart of secularization. The question of motive is equally important; one can do the "good" with poor motives and thus, dehumanize people in the process.

Also calling for technology as a post-modern thought, Angus (1984) wrote:

The faith in enlightenment is no longer possible; the contribution of instrumental reason has reversed — formalism in theory and untramelled technique in action issue in a crisis of reason. (p. 16)

DeVore's (1980) systems approach to the nature of technology is the production counterpart of the post­ modern approach. DeVore stated:

... the recognition that the information we receive from our environment is the information we act on; and how we structure or perceive the total system is as important as the individual elements of the system. The nature and character of the information, the tools available for collecting and analyzing the information, and the perspective from which the information is perceived and analyzed will all determine how intelligently choices will be made. (P. 250) Both the post-modern and the systems approach value understanding technology from multiple realities. 54 The nature of technological literacy. A critical problem facing the development of technological literacy is the absence of a comprehensive definition of technology and literacy that is universally accepted. The phrase, universal acceptance, does not connote complete agreement, rather it implies that the definition is the starting point for a defense. Literacy is context dependent. Paulo Freire (1985) stated that a person living in a culture where letters are not part of the culture, cannot be considered illiterate.

Literacy is often referred to as a level of proficiency in reading and writing. If one adheres to a lexiconic definition of literacy, it is very difficult to transpose the idea of literacy to technology.

A common element in the understanding of technology is the idea of production and the human' adaptation of their environment (function). In applying literacy to technology, is literacy the ability to read and write technological concepts at a predetermined criterion level, or is being literate about technology the ability to adapt the environment (production)? Obviously both extremes are not models of a gestalt approach, yet they do represent the typical approaches to technological literacy (Wiens, 1986; Truxal, 1985; and Pfnister, 1985). Barbour (1980) suggests that literacy can be much more than this dichotomy. The solution, posited by Barbour, is to view 55

'technological literacy in the light of inequalities; to be literate is to be able to use technology to reduce inequalities.

Technology JEducation and the Needs of the Learner

The popular press uses phrases such as technological society, information age, or the age of high-technology to describe our present day culture. Often the basic education requirements in mass media articles are discussed and it is suggested that the study of science and technology is of critical importance to citizens in our culture. Education, like technology, tends to be futuristic. The interpretation of the future is based on the knowledge of the present and past; the result is an educational system that projects the knowledge that has been determined necessary onto the student, rather than focusing on the needs of the student.

The Need for Cognitive Knowledge A major advance in a technological system can greatly alter the nature of the education a society imposes on their children. The Russian Sputnik launch in 1957 heralded an end to the progressive life adjustment curriculum and ushered in a more rigorous scientific curriculum (Herrington, 1982; Kliebard, 1986). The Nation at Risk report of 1983 emphasized the need for scientific 56 education; directly equating it to national productivity.

The learner is acculturated into believing the study of science is critical if one is to be a productive citizen.

The need for science knowledge is evident; however, it cannot be ignored that science as a human interpretation of a phenomenon is a socialization process (Keesey, 1986).

Educators who see the educational needs of the learner as being social/political, project more holistic solutions for the needs of the learner. The notion of a society dictating to learners what they need to know is referred to as “technical aid" by Paulo Freire (1973). This one way flow of information into the leaner is what Goldman (1985) refers to as instruction. Instructional curricula are linked in progressive linear sequences to cover a wide body of knowledge. Instruction not only controls what is learned, but also diminishes personal responsibility on the part of the learner. The teacher is responsible for the success or failure of the student's learning. The instructional approach is perpetuated by the idea of B. F. Skinner's teaching machine. Teaching machines are infinitely patient (learning is constant), therefore, students can learn at their own pace (time is the variable) (Johnsen & Taylor, 1988). Instruction flows from the society to the individual; it attempts to shape the individual from the outside (Goldman & Cutcliffe, 1982). The assumption is 57 made that what, the child needs to know is known by the educators.

Our culture's emphasis on cognitive knowledge is reflected by the extensive use of instruction as an educational paradigm. Instruction is seen as an efficient method to cover large volumes of information to keep pace with the knowledge needs of a technological society. (Goldman, 1985; Goldman & Cutcliffe, 1982; Johnsen &

Taylor, 1988). Perhaps* as Kimball (1987) implied, the reason instruction is the dominant educational approach is that it maintains control over what is learned. The antithesis of instruction is study, education which places the responsibility for learning on the student (Johnsen & Taylor, 1988; Goldman, 1985). Study is the ability to critically analyse events in an interpretive manner. It is a process of self-formation that places the teacher in a hortatory role (Johnsen & Taylor, 1988). Freire (1985) sums up study:

The Learners, rather than receive information about this or that fact, analyze aspects of their own existential experience ... (p. 52).

A wholeness is implied in the process of study; educational philosophers often use cognitive, affective, and psychomotor to describe the totality of human learning needs. 58 Study is focused on the individual and is predominantly a personal development task. It must be accepted that study may have unpredicted outcomes

(Goldman & Cutcliffe, 1982). This causes parents, social leaders and religious leaders to lose control over the learning outcomes. The learning outcomes in study are more difficult to assess than the learning outcomes in the convergent process of instruction.

Affective Educational Weeds of the Learner

A quote from Ellul (1964) succinctly describes the tension in our culture between the scientific (cognitive) needs and the affective needs: Today's life is technique. It follows, then, that instruction must above all else be technical ... education ... is becoming oriented toward the specialized end of producing technicians; and,' as a consequence, toward a creation of individuals useful only as members of a technical group, on the basis of the current criteria of utility— individuals who conform to the structure and needs of the technical group. The intelligentsia will no longer be a model, a conscience, or an animating intellectual spirit of the group, even in the sense of performing a critical function. They will be the servants, the most conformist imaginable, of the instruments of technique.... An education will no longer be an unpredictable and exciting adventure in human enlightenment, but an exercise in conformity and an apprenticeship to whatever gadgetry is useful in the technical world. (p. 349)

Freire (1985) suggested that: As teachers, we learn from the process of teaching and we learn with the students for whom we make possible the conditions to learn. We also learn from 59 'the processes ‘that the students are also teaching us. (P. 17) To move away from a conformist form of education (Ellul, 1964) to one in which the learner's needs are addressed requires an understanding of the different skills to be learned. Gagn^ (1985) lists five learned capabilities that individuals need to develop:

1. Intellectual skills

2. Verbal information

3. Cognitive strategies 4. Motor skills

5. Attitudes

Intellectual skills, as defined by Gagne' (1985), are those mental capabilities relating to procedural knowledge that are rule bound. Intellectual skills enable the learner to comprehend concepts, make discriminations, and follow procedure. The use of intellectual skills requires the mastery of prerequisite skills. Gagne (1985) described intellectual skills as consisting of internal and external conditions that interact. When the learner brings to bear a previously learned inner condition on a new external condition, intellectual skill is being exercised.

Gagne's (1985) second listed learned skill capability, verbal information, is the ability to relay 60 to someone or to one's self the information mastered. The learner must have certain linguistic rules available internally for verbal information learning to be expressed.

Cognitive strategies is the most important type of learning in Gagne's (1985) list of learned capabilities. Skills that manage other learning are at the heart of cognitive learning; cognitive strategies seek relationships in a learner's intellect.

Motor skills refer to the skill of executed motor movements. Gagne (1985) suggests that there are many motor skills involved in education, few of which are consciously taught.

Gagne's (1985) final learned capability is attitudes. Attitudes are the forces that influence personal choice. Attitudes have emotional aspects, I cognitive aspects, and behavioral consequences. Gagne wrote:

Attitudes must have some behavioral means of expression; this implies that certain capabilities appropriate to the behavior must be available to the learner. (p. 65)

Attitudes are learned two ways: by the use of intellectual skills and by imitation (modeled after a human). Gagne cautions educators that modeling may be the most powerful way to teach attitudes. 61 There is a great- deal of controversy about what knowledge is learned by formal avenues and what knowledge is learned tacitly. During the past century there has been a strong emphasis to count only learning that can be readily measured as knowledge. Measurement of learning fits well into the model of instruction and perpetuates the growth of technical science (Goldman & Cutcliffe, 1982). This measured learning has become equated with intelligence and serves as the basis for most evaluations in our present educational system.

Howard Gardner (1983) challenged the concept that intelligence can be rank ordered on a paper and pencil test, claiming that IQ tests fail to measure the complete spectrum of human intelligence. In his book, Fr-wmeR of

Mind. Gardner posited seven intellectual competencies. Out of these, Gardner claimed only linguistic, logical- mathematical, and some aspects of special intelligences are measured on standardized IQ tests. Musical, bodily- kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligences are not included in the present testing technology. Gardner conceded that the testing of multiple intelligences cannot be tested efficiently at the present.

Central to Gardner's idea is that different tasks to be learned require different intelligences. Each of the intelligences has a separate lotus of control in the brain, requires abstract thought, and can be developed 62 independently of each other. Gardner's work is based on

brain damaged individuals, control groups, laboratory animals, related theories, and primitive cultures. Gardner (1963) defined intelligence as:

A human intellectual competence must entail a set of skill of problem solving ... and when appropriate, to create an effect product — and there must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems — thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge. (pp. 60-61)

In his book, Gardner brings to bear a wide spectrum of information to explain his posited intelligences.

Linguistic intelligence includes syntax, semantics, and the phonology of a language (Gardner, 1983). Gardner

suggested that poets are the genius of linguistics. The poet must be able to capture the richness of a moment by

the playing lexiconic definitions against the moment being

described. The understanding and use of language symbols in transcending an event is the central factor making

linguistics an autonomous intelligence.

Musical intelligence is divided into skills of performing and skills of composing, An age range is developed when the skills necessary to compose music must

be learned. Gardner used studies of aphasia in individuals to support his distinction of musical intelligence from language intelligence. As is the case throughout his book, Gardner related musical intelligence to his other intelligences. Music draws on mathematical 63 skills, spacial concepts and body language, but refuted the idea that music skills are a subset of the math or linguistic intelligences.

Logical-mathematical intelligence is equated with the manipulation of ordered abstract symbols; however, logical-mathematical competency is treated as an object centered intelligence by Gardner (1983). He wrote: The basis for all logical-mathematical forms of intelligence inheres initially in the handling of objects. (p. 131) As the manipulation of objects becomes internalised, abstract thinking occurs. Gardner differs from Piaget in that Gardner believes formal operations occur continuously, rather than in stages, and at a much earlier age than Piaget theorises. Gardner made the observation that the logical-mathematical intelligence is inward focused. In summing up his view about the inflated importance given to the logical-mathematical intelligences by our culture, Gardner stated:

To my way of thinking, it is far more plausible to think of logical-mathematical skill as one among a set of intelligences— a skill powerfully equipped to handle certain kinds of problems, but one in no sense superior to, or in danger of overwhelming, the others. (p. 167) Spatial intelligence, Gardner's second object related intelligence, is defined by Gardner (1983) as:

the capacities to perceive the visual world accurately, to perform transformations and modifications upon one's initial perceptions, and to 64 be able -to re-create aspects of one's visual experience, even in the absence of relevant physical stimuli. (p. 173)

According to Gardner, spatial intelligence is not limited to the visual realm; Gardner sites clinical studies in vhich congenitally blind people have successfully completed tasks requiring a mastery of spacial skills.

The "language of space", Gardner says, has many uses; one of which is to view an object in three dimensions. Einstein's notion of "gedanken experiments" or experiments carried out in the mind is evidence that spacial intelligence is autonomous (Gardner, 1983). Gardner claims that spacial intelligence is used so much in the other competencies that there is a sense of "gestalt" sensitivity central to spacial intelligence.

At the core of Gardner's (1983) bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the ability to manipulate objects with precision and the ability to control body motions. Skilled craftspeople, dancers, actors, athletes and surgeons exemplify this intelligence, in that the mind knows a set of strategies and the body executes them. The interaction between a body and an object requires a flow of information between the brain and the body; it is this biological flow of information that gives autonomy to bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. In this sense, tool usage becomes a form of abstract thought because it is the 65 result of a sequence of cognitive operations that are interpreted into a continuous flow of action. Tool usage as a bodily-kinesthetic intelligence has both an inward and an outward focus (Gardner, 1983).

The two personal intelligences are the bases by which we gain a sense of who we are and by which we communicate with each other. Although biological and pathological studies support the notion of personal intelligences,

Gardner places acculturation at the center of personal intellectual development. The manner in which a culture's values are learned becomes the basis for Gardner's implications and applications of education. Industrial technology teachers have intuitively applied many of Gardner's theories in their classrooms.

They have used many methods of teaching and have appealed to different forms of learning in their laboratory activities. They have, in essence, drawn upon the variety of intelligences that Gardner postulated and supported. For example, the use of a ruler and the sequencing of operations are of the logical—mathematical intelligence. The development of fine motor skills by the use of various hand tools is an example of bodily- kinesthetic intelligence. The cooperation necessary to operate a laboratory smoothly and the interaction occurring in a mass production unit build on interpersonal intelligence. The industrial technology teacher 66 continually witnesses "the maturation of a student's intrapersonal intelligence as the student experiences -the rewards -that- come with completion of a project. Gardner's theories could be used as a solid defense to include Industrial Technology in the liberal arts curriculum at all levels of learning. Industrial technology curriculum can, perhaps better than any other program and in a practical and economically feasible manner, provide learning that will develop a sense of gestalt in a person's intelligences. A teaching process that incorporates multiple intelligences is an important component of transdisciplinary, liberating education.

The Need To Belong

Few educators dispute the belief that students learn best when they feel loved and have a sense of identity that contributes to an overall positive self-concept, A technological society requires a mobile workforce as people move to jobs that are highly specialised. This mobility has fragmented community; it has socially isolated people (Berger, 1977; Ellul, 1964; Newmann & Oliver, 1980). The solution, suggests Newmann and Oliver, is not to return to the ideologies of yesteryear, but to redefine community and to use the educational system to develop a basic understanding of responsibility and freedom.

Ira Shore's (1986) comprehensive treatment of the political ideology of today's educational system supported 67 Newmann and Oliver's (1980) writings concerning “the loss of community due -to mobility. Shore also contended that information overload causes loss of community because student cannot reflect on the information and put it into a social context. Shore maintained that "cognitive programs as means to restore affective performance" (p. 168) cannot result in an education that raises an individual's sense of fitting into the community.

Shore (1986) proposed five literary skills needed to reduce alienation in today's educational system: 1. “Basic Literacy: the minimal skill of decoding a printed passage and of encoding spoken words into written language" (p. 189). 2. "Functional literacy: The ability to interact with political, legal, commercial, occupational, and social demands in daily life, such as voting, filing tax returns, applying for work, signing leases and contracts, following printed instructions, passing a driver's written exam, balancing a checkbook, comprehending instructions in a phone book or in an employee benefit plan, etc." (p. 189).

3. "Higher-Order Literacy: The ability to work out multi-step problems on your own, to follow complex procedures through a series of operations, to troubleshoot malfunctions of equipment or processes, to start and finish projects on your own with the ability to match unknown data, to do unsupervised research, to look up information in books, catalogues and retrieval systems, etc." (pp. 189-190). 4. "Cultural Literacy: The ability to speak, write, read, and make references within the elite idiom; Standard English, correct usage, lexicons and accents inside the wordworld of high culture. Idioms without such cultivation are signs of social inferiority" (P. 190). 5. "Computer Literacy: Familiarity with digital keyboards and electronic operations; understanding how to follow program commands; recognizing when a 68 system is following or deviating from a program; knowledge of a basic computer language and the special vocabulary referring to hardware, software, etc.” (p. 190).

Shore's (1986) critical literary skills are tied directly to the functioning of the individual in society and in the world of work. The direct linkage of various aspects of an individual's reality in the course of education is the central basis of liberation in Paulo

Freire's (1985) writing. Freire developed direct links between the ability to reflect on one's own knowledge and liberation. Freire wrote:

The learners, rather than receive information about this or that fact, analyse aspects of their own existential experience represented in the codification. (p. 52)

This is the process of how learners begin to understand that literacy is a state of being instead of something that is absolute; the term "state of being" is analogous to Freire's liberation education, reality revealed for both the learner and the teacher. Community and liberation (brotherhood for Freire) grow out of this dialectical process of teacher and learner attempting to bring to consciousness the knowledge required to function in a society (Berger, 1977). We cannot turn back the clock to an era of less complex technology; further, it is impossible to know all the technical knowledge necessary to be literate in all the various branches of technology. Shore (1986) in 69 summarizing "the needs of students, stated that the goal of education should be to " ... make students articulate users of the language they already possess" {p. 191). From this articulation comes the ability to ask questions that seek answers to the needs of the community in a language the individual understands; this, then is liberation.

Summary

The review of literature approached the topic of emancipatory technology education from a post-modern viewpoint. A review of various approaches to technological literacy were discussed. Education in technology is an approach that tends to concentrate on the teaching of skills {psychomotor and cognitive) in technology. Education in technology has been the most common methodology used. During the past fifteen years, education about technology emerged; this approach focuses on the social, environmental, and cognitive thought involved in technology. The nature of technological thought was discussed at length. Technology was discussed as a system of knowing, rather than as a set of absolute truths. Some writers treat technology as being inherently deterministic; evidence was given in this review of literature to support the notion that there is volition in technology. 70 The needs of -bhe learner was the final phase of this review of literature. It was discussed how society often dictates what is to be learned in our educational system through a process called instruction. A more eclectic method of learning is called study. Study is more applicable to a post-modern explanation of our world. Finally, theories that explain the various forms of learning are presented. If post-modern thought is the paradigm used to explain our world, then it follows that there are multiple ways of learning. Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences is presented as evidence that there are different ways of learning.

The review of literature establishes the theoretical groundwork for a structure and rationale in emancipatory technology education. The main constructs of such a rationale and structure would need to be: 1. A socio/political and technical interpretation of our culture,

2. A post-modern description of the nature of technological thought, and

3. The recognition that students learn skills through multiple intelligences .

Personal Observations

The following observations are drawn from the review of literature: 1. Paulo Freire's (1985) concept of liberation comes from his work with technologically literate peasants. The peasants know how to personally maintain the 71 ■technology in -their possession or to barter for the necessary service. These people already exist outside of the dominance of technology. Thus, Freire calls for the ability to articulate what they already know and to develop an understanding of what societal forces control the class structure that keeps them peasants. In the U.S., the working class tends to lack literacy in technology and in social control.

2. Howard Gardner's (1983) concept of multiple intelligences fits into post-modern thought because it describes how an individual learns with multiple realities. Gardner's ideas must be taken seriously if the problem of educating through instruction, which is a single reality, is to be overcome. Moving from instruction to study in education is analogous Freire's idea of "conscientization" (bringing into consciousness).

3. Freire, Schumacher, and IACP approach literacy and emancipation from the bottom up. The idea is that one understands and articulates the world one already knows; as articulation spreads, social structure will be changed. The NLA and other approaches to technology literacy start at the top and go down. One needs to understand the dominant force, the knowledge represented by engineering, science and the humanities, and then, decisions concerning social change can be made. It is also top down because individuals who have the means to procure knowledge at the collegiate level, tend not to be from the working class. 4. Freire's idea of liberation can be accurately seen as a struggle to foster critical thinking about who controls production. Political thought is Freire's medium to liberation, whereas Schumacher uses technology as the medium.

5. Bioregionalism adequately addresses the needs of environmental preservation and defends a radically new basis of authority, whereas logical positivism's policies have not protected the environment or the poor. Photosynthesis as the source of true wealth is a logical argument and must be taken into consideration in a post-modern pedagogy. Bioregionalism does, however, fall short in describing how an urban technological society can reestablish itself with the rhythms of nature. For example, how does a person who has no contact with the soil, plant life, and watershed become attuned to 72 the rhythm of plant life? The relationship between self and plant for the urbanite is abstract, using Berger's (1977) concept of abstraction (distance between humans and their food source). CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Technology is a multi-faceted discipline, the definitions people attach to technology range from the skill of using tools to the study of how technology determines the values in a culture. Part of the enigma surrounding technology is a result of individuals describing technology in narrow, specialised approaches.

Writers from an engineering perspective have tended to deal with technology as a mechanical solution to many human problems. Writers from the humanities have tended to see technology as a social force that creates problems in the process of solving problems. From an extreme point of view, the social-political study of technology holds that technology is deterministic.

If technology is to be understood as a social system

(DeVore 1980), then a multidimensional approach must be taken in the study of technology. Lincoln and Guba (1985) in describing the requirements of a multi-faceted systematic inquiry, credited Julienne Ford with articulating four meanings of truth. Truth 1, is called metaphysical truth, a belief claim that can not be tested

73 74 against a logical deductive process. Ethical claim. Truth 2, is used to describe a person claiming to act according to a set of rules, such as professional standards. Truth 3 is logical truth, a claim made on the basis of mathematical logic. Truth 4, is the empirical claim of truth based on the test of a hypothesis (p. 14-15). Belief claims are the ultimate test of reality because they represent a personal interpretation of all claims of knowing {Lincoln & Guba 1985) and collectivity form societal value (Berger 1977). Postpositivist thought {Lincoln & Guba ), or post-modern thought (Berger 1977, Winner 1977, Angus 1984) describe the process of how the quality of a truth claim is evaluated when multiple realities are used in the claim to know. Post-modern thought seeks to draw people into dialogue, a concept Freire (1985) advocates as being central to liberation.

The quality of post-modern philosophical research, therefore, is evaluated against the meaning of liberation. This study will use a post-modern approach as a method of validation because the author believes teaching technology as liberating education requires multiple ways of knowing. In this study the claim to truth will be based on three sources of knowledge

1. A critical and philosophical review of the literature that is the basis for a rationale and structure for liberating technology education.

2. A critique of the rationale and structure by the dissertation committee. 75 3. A critical review of the rationale and structure by an external panel of experts.

Critical and Philosophical Research

The rationale and structure for a curricula in technology as liberating education has roots in the philosophy of technology, in the theories of liberation, and in the technical knowledge of technology.

Technology suffers from what Angus (1984) calls a crisis of reason because enlightenment cannot explain the practical and theoretical paradoxes of the twentieth century. Angus found evidence in philosophy, that gives a pragmatic confirmation to the questions of everyday problems in life. A quote from Ludwig Landgrebe summarizes the role of philosophy in the research of knowledge: The task of philosophy is thus no longer merely the grounding of the knowledge of the world by the means of the sciences; it is rather the justification of striving for knowledge. (Angus, 1984, p. 51) The rationale and structure for a course in liberating education will be based on a critical review of the literature relating to the nature of technological literacy and the literature relating to the process of liberation education. Tomazic (1975) used a similar process to develop a model of humanistic technology with positive results. Technical content, derivation. A definitive taxonomy of the technical knowledge of technology is available as a result of the Industrial Arts Curriculum Project (IACP) (Towers et al. 1966). IACP divided the origins of the fabricated world into two mutually exclusive, totally inclusive, and operationally adequate categories: the world of construction and the world of manufacturing. The industrial technology profession has adopted the IACP as a landmark in organising the content of the field of industrial technology. Jackson's Mill Curriculum Theory

(Snyder & Hales 1981) accepted the IACP format and broadened the absoluteness of the IACP content into a study of adaptive systems. Adaptive systems add a sociological aspect to the original IACP ideas. The industrial technology professional has rallied around Jackson's Mill Curriculum Theory as it's content organiser. Therefore, this study will use the technical taxonomy as defined by IACP and the adaptive systems methodology as the basis for the technical content in the rationale and structure of this study.

The Dissertation Committee

The use of the dissertation committee to validate research has been an effective strategy in developmental work. Herrington (1982) used a dissertation committee to 77 perform logic checks on his philosophical work that, determined significant factors in technology education. This work resulted in clear philosophic goals for technology education.

Angus (1984) does not make any reference to validation outside of the dissertation committee. The Center for Advanced Research in Phenomenology, Inc. ,

Washington, DC, found Angus' work of sufficient quality to publish.

A significant advantage to a large research institution is that it has faculty who possess a wide range of expertise. When such a group of faculty meet to discuss a topic, each bringing an unique vantage point to the conversation, the dialogue becomes synergistic.

The proposed validation method will, by triangulating the dissertation committee members' expertise in the areas of industrial technology curriculum development, special needs populations, and reconceptualist curriculum, to effectively validate this work for logic trails for the liberating effect of a learning experience, and will determine if the needs of the learner were met in a wholistic manner. Herrington's (1982) work suggests that the eclecticism of the dissertation committee in conjunction with a dedicated doctoral candidate can indeed be a powerful team. 78 Review of the Rationale and Structure by External Experts

External experts can bring fresh professional insights to a piece of research and impartial naive questions; naive in the sense that assumptions written into the work can be discovered. Hendricks (1986) successfully used an extended dissertation committee for the validation process of a taxonomy. Hendricks concluded that the key to successful reviews is the ability to ask the right people the right questions.

The input from external readers, plus the critique of a demanding advisor and committee, combined with a commitment to quality on the part of the doctoral candidate, can result in a product that meets the objectives of this study.

Summary of Methodology

This chapter began by discussing the different types of truth claims. It was established that a topic that has multiple ways of interpretation must be based on multiple forms of validation. Three ways of validation for this study were discussed: (a) Critical review of philosophical literature, (b) validation by the dissertation committee, and (c) review by external experts.

Critical reviews of literature have been used effectively to develop curriculum models or theories (Herrington, 1982; Hendricks, 1986; Tomazic, 1975). 79 Philosophical literature, although concentrated in large collections, is available to -this researcher with minimal inconveni ence.

Dissertation committees have also demonstrated to be an effective method to validate research. By bringing diverse expertise to a common goal, an eclectic evaluation can result. The conceptual work of Angus is an example of the quality this type of validation can produce.

Review by external experts can further refine and sharpen the precepts of a piece of research. They can add an impartial and universal perspective to the validation procedure.

It is the contention of this researcher that a multi­ dimensional validation procedure is necessary to meet the demands of post-modern thought. Further, this process will add to the literature describing the process of liberating technology education.

Procedures

Based on the proposed validation procedures and on the goals of this study, a detailed plan of research is outlined. Figure 2 graphically depicts the proposed step by step procedure.

The development of the rationale and structure for a curricula in liberating technology education will be derived from a critical review of the literature. Three 80

PROCESS PRODUCT

Step 1

Critical review Rationale and of 1iterature structure for emancipatory technology

t

Step 2

Review by dissertation validation committee

Step 3

Review by Validation of external I--- H rationale and experts structure

Figure 2

Model of Study Procedure main literature bases will be reviewed: the literature describing the nature of technology as a social force, secondly, the literature describing the needs of the learner from a post-modern interpretation of human development, and finally, a review of the liberation

education literature. Technical content will be based on the Industrial Arts Curriculum Project structure and rationale and the Jackson's Mill Curriculum Theory.

Content validation will be achieved by a review by the dissertation committee.

A revised edition, based on the dissertation committee review and a pilot review with two other

individuals, of the rationale and structure will be subjected to a review by external experts. The criteria for the selection of the external experts was as follows:

(a) An expressed interest in technology as a liberal art

Specific skills desired, but not required, include administrative skills in implementing new programs, and an ability to evaluate philosophy. A panel of 6 to 10 experts was determined appropriate for the review process.

In consultation with the dissertation advisor, experts were identified through familiarity with their 82 publications and/or through professional contacts. Fifteen known experts were found to meet the criteria;

seven were willing to participate in the study. These experts are listed in Appendix D.

Experts will be asked to respond with three types of data:

1. A professional judgment of whether the criteria established is effective for liberating activities. Data will be analysed using nominal values and will be used in a formative manner.

2. Written comments about the rationale and structure. Each expert will be mailed two copies of the rationale and structure. On one copy they will be asked to respond directly on the document at the point where they have a question.

3. A Personal telephone interview. Approximately one week after the questionnaire is returned, each expert will be interviewed and the phone conversation transcribed. The time delay is to allow for reflective thought on the concepts espoused in the document. The transcribed interview will be returned to the expert for approval prior to publication. The mailing to external experts will include:

1. Cover letter with instructions 2. Two copies of document, 1 to return, 1 to keep 3. Form to schedule telephone interview 4. Stamped return envelope

This process will produce a rationale and structure that may be used to design courses in liberating technology education, with the confidence that this study has been subjected to a rigorous validation process. CHAPTER IV RATIONAL and STRUCTURE

The -technological age and -the informational age are phrases used to describe our present culture. A great deal of information is available concerning technology, yet few educators are addressing technology as a knowledge base necessary for life in the 21st century. Rapid changes in technology affect all of our lives. Some of the influences of technology have positive effects for humans; however, some of the benefits of technology are dubious. Social critics claim that technology is rampant and unchecked. Technology is, however, a product of human endeavor, and therefore, the human can have volition

concerning technology. The study of technology is a necessity if humans are to have the skill and knowledge to analyse the potential of technology and its effect upon

their lives.

Industri al Educati on _Mus_t. Expand

Historically, industrial technology education {industrial arts), the most common study of technology in the school.system, focused primarily on production at the 83 expense of -the relational aspects of technology.

Technology education has pinned its ontology on the human as homo faber (human as maker of tools) and has excluded the human as homo poeta (human as maker of meanings/values). The vocational education movement has concentrated on job skills for employment in the world of production. In the 1960's, the Industrial Arts Curriculum

Project (IACP) set out to identify the unique body of knowledge of industrial arts. IACP took the stance that any process that causes form utility is to be included in the study of industrial arts (Towers, Lux, & Ray, 1966). The limiting factor of the IACP content definition was that it did not deal adequately with the relational aspect of the fabricated world. The unique body of knowledge studied in the industrial technology curriculum is still necessary for literacy in the 21st century, however, the relationships between production and society must also be studied. The Jackson’s Mill Symposium (Snyder & Hale, 1981) draws a more relational picture of the body of knowledge unique to industrial arts. Jackson's Mill curriculum uses an input process output model as the central organizing paradigm. The industrial technology profession seems to be rallying to the Jackson's Mill industrial technology content divisions of manufacturing, construction, communication, and transportation arid is 85 designing courses in each of -these areas. A problem with this approach is that a neutrality of knowledge is assumed, and environmental and social effects are not addressed. If one accepts the view that knowledge is political and accepts Berger's (1977) description of abstraction, a process of modernity by which humans are removed from actual contact with production, then the curriculums of IACP and Jackson's Mill will not lead to technological emancipation. Emancipation is dependent on knowing both production and abstraction, argues Berger, and in order to understand the production-abstraction struggle, the individual must be cogni2 ar.1t of the social-political- environmental tensions involved. This form of emancipation enables individuals to exercise volition in technological affairs.

Liberal Arts Education Must Include Technology

The Liberal Arts have not recognised the validity and necessity of including technology in its curriculum. By not addressing the technology in our society, Classical Liberal Arts is failing in its goal to liberate.

The Liberal Arts curriculum dates back to Aristotle's idea of what was appropriate for a free citisen. Through contemplation, individuals would be liberated from the banausic, technology based work. An educated person (liberated) did not deal with ideas or things that had

useful applications in everyday life. Contemplation provided the intellectuals with a process of refining

ethics, government participation, and a system of

education. Up to and through the industrial revolution, liberal arts served the ruling classes well. However, the question arises if the Greek definition of liberal and useful curriculum are still adequate descriptors in 20th century education. As the world economy and culture moves from an industrial base to a post-industrial

(informational) base, the bifurcation of useful knowledge and contemplative (classical liberal arts) is no longer desirable or feasible. Life in a post-industrial society requires knowledge of technological systems in all social strata. Survival is no longer dependent on knowing only

how to produce, but also on how to manage the technology.

Life in a post-industrial society also requires a rethinking of the pervasive enlightenment ideology that served the industrial revolution well. A single source of truth, whether contemplative or logical positivism is no longer able to study, explain, and/or predict the problems facing a complex post-industrial society. The positivism ideology serves the needs of individualism well, but is incapable of studying the interconnectedness of 87 individuals (community) and the role of trad it-ion

(culture, values) in making what Bowers (1987) calls "forward living", participation in the decision making process necessary for a sustainable society. Education must expand to accept the multiple reality of truth, which is the epistemological nature of technology. The authority of truth must be based on the recognition of the truth claims appropriate to the issue in question. The inadequacy of the traditional liberal arts curriculum is further magnified in its primary use of critical thought. Critical thought, inherently retrospective, studies the past in order to have information to make decisions for the future; however, the rapid changes in technology make the answers to yesterday's questions inadequate. What is needed is a general liberal arts that expands its scope of problem­ solving skills to include strategic thought. Strategic thinking can naturally grow out of the process of critical reflection and asks questions that are inherently futuristic, seeking ways to implement the ideas from critical thought.

The Signif icance__c?fL Hroduction Literature on technological literacy courses is becoming more prevalent; however, the majority of these courses are a combination of science or engineering 88 content with -the humanities; seeking to liberalize students based on the juxtaposition of knowledge. This method is rapidly becoming known as the Science -

Technology - Society (STS) approach.

STS courses, although interdisciplinary in their content base, do not attempt to include the applicatory dimension of technology. STS courses fall in the category

"about technology"; they inform learners about the impacts, uses, and developments of technology, but fail to include the problem-solving skills that use the psychomotor domain of technology. Technological literacy is dependent on skills in cognitive, psychomotor, and affective areas of technology.

A definitive description of technological literacy plagues all courses concerned with the inclusion of technology in general education; the problem is particularly germane to STS courses. The question arises whether the cognitive and affective knowledge of a particular branch of engineering interfaced with the humanities constitutes technological literacy. It does increase technological awareness, however, literacy requires a more eclectic understanding of technology. Literacy is often referred to as a level of proficiency in reading and writing, but technological literacy is also dependent on context. A common element in the understanding of technology is the idea of production and the humans' adaptation of their environment (function). In applying literacy to technology, is

literacy the ability to read and write technological concepts (STS courses), or is being literate about technology the ability to also adapt the environment (production)? Students can not learn to make technological choices that are sensitive to the human and to the environment unless they can make the connections from the classroom to their home environment. Freedom of choice in technology requires the ability to improvise, a skill learned through the personal acquaintance with tools and machines, and through a focus on change, seeking ways to be timeless. By failing to provide experiences in the processes involved in technology, STS courses leave out an essential aspect of liberation.

The Transdisciolinary Nature of Technology

Pedagogy, built on the specialisation of knowledge

(technical), is incapable of providing the general education experiences necessary for participation in a democratic society in a post-industrial economy. This pedagogy typically recognises only the cognitive skills of

language, mathematics, and a portion of the spatial skills; a wholistic study of technology requires the use of language, mathematics, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, and 90 inter and intra-personal intellectual abilities. A pedagogical methodology built on multiple intelligences and that maximizes the synergism between two or more cognitive skills is necessary for a liberated life in a post-industrial society. Educational curriculum that recognizes only empirical (quantifiable) studies establishes a dichotomous (to use or not use the knowledge) relationship between the learner and the knowledge. Epistemologically, technology is developmental and restrictive at the same time; for example, a hydro electric dam provides needed electricity and concurrently restricts the environment. The problem with an approach that does not critique the context of knowledge is that the participants do not realize the indirect consequences (developmental or restrictive) of the decisions.

Technology education must recognize that one of its unique contributions to education is its utilisation of other disciplines. Further, experiences in each of the human intelligences should be provided to ensure that learners are exposed to their reliance on technology, and to the developmental and restrictive nature of technology.

Technology education that maximizes its transdisciplinary nature and uses the various human intelligences to impart knowledge will greatly enhance the human's ability to recognise the impact of technology on society and on the 91 environment.

A Cell for a New Ideology: Emancipatory Technology Education

We live in a technological society. From airplanes, television, the Stealth Bomber and the cars we drive to home appliances, computers, nuclear power and high-tech medicines, we are surrounded— some would say controlled— by the discoveries and inventions of the last two centuries. This technological growth in the O.S. has been based not only on technological development, but on the availability of initially abundant resources and fuels, and a seemingly boundless and endlessly absorbent environment. We have, however increasingly come to realize that unchartered economic expansion and population growth carries with it certain environmental costs.

Decisions about trade-off between environmental preservation, economic well being, human health, and so on inevitably involve human choices.

The educational system in the U.S. has not developed a curriculum adequate to educate society about the role of technology. Presently education does include an introduction to production technology at the middle and high school levels; these courses are still needed, but their mission must be expanded to all age levels in education and to include the relational nature of 92 'technology.

The knowledge offered by the study of technology is so vital that each person must be literate in its most basic premises. The benefits of being literate in technology are many. Understanding the concepts of production allows the human to evaluate products and make an informed decision about the quality of the products.

Knowing how to change knowledge into action would give a person better survival skills. The learner could predict the impact of a technology when used in a society.

Emancipatory technology education is designed to empower individuals to make informed choices about the issues that arise out of life in a technological society.

It is by design interdisciplinary and seeks to examine the interrelationships of technology, human values, and the environment. Emancipatory technology education will provide experiences in the production/invention of technology, in technological bases for human values and in the interface of technology with the environment.

Emancipatory technology education has four goals that collectively will provide the educational experiences necessary to exercise volition in technological matters: 1. Emancipatory technology education will provide the learner with a better understanding of the ways that technology, individuals, society and the environment interract with each other. 93 2. Emancipatory technology education will give the liberal art student an improved grasp of the workings of

technology, so as to be better able to approach issues relating to technology in a manner that is both sensitive to technology and to human welfare. 3. Emancipatory technology education will empower the

student to make informed choices regarding the issues and procedures involved in making personal and public policy decisions about technology.

4. Emancipatory technology education will develop a vision and the necessary skills to build community in the

21st century that are based on informed choice

(information gathering, information evaluation) including the development of human potential, sustainable ecosystems and values.

The_Hature of Emancipatory Technological Education

Emancipatory technology education must include a style of instruction and a body of knowledge that reflects an understanding of the importance of multiple realities and shared authority in the learning process. Educational content in emancipatory technology education may not appear significantly different from traditional industrial technology education; however, how the content is selected and delivered is radically different. 94 Although the instructional process is the visible critical factor in emancipatory education, some knowledge is more suited to a process style of teaching. It is critical that educators have a comprehensive understanding of content derivation, teaching methodology, and clear philosophical guidelines to aid them in their choice of content for a course in emancipatory technology education.

Three tests for course content in emancipatory technology education are described in the following section, and are followed by a discussion of emancipatory instruction. The tests are epistemological in nature, rather than in the form of a taxonomy because of the contextual nature of technology.

A Test of the Point of Origin of the Knowledge

A test of the origination of the knowledge deals with the cognitive aspect of the knowledge and is the basis of epistemology. Technological artifacts (tools) have their origin in the natural environment with humans giving form utility to materials found in the environment. This concept does not violate the unique body of knowledge of industrial technology as identified by 1ACP (Towers, Lux,

& Ray, 1968) or by Jackson's Mill Curriculum Theory (Snyder, 1981), but rather adds to it in that it specifies a point of origin. This point helps differentiate the study of technology from sociology. Sociology asks the question about human relationships, not about how the 95 human changes the form of materials.

This is a timeless concept, human altering the environment; the human alteration of the environment is accumulative; therefore, the environment changes. As the human's environment changes, so does the perspective of the source of knowledge. The point of origin must match the environment of the learner. The point of origin of the knowledge of an urban student must relate to the systems that urban lifestyle is dependent upon.

The first step in the point of origin question, then, is a definition of the immediate environment of the student and an examination of how human activity gave form utility to the student's environment. In short, this requirement insures that the content of the course has a transcendent quality. This will greatly enhance the instruction process as the knowledge to be studied is visible and real to the student. It will also allow for a wide range of student interests to capture the spirit of the course. The point of origin question also addresses concerns of bioregionalism. Bioregionalism would ask that curriculum start at the photosynthesis level; the problem with this is that for the urban student there are few tangible connections to the plant life. By applying Freire's (1970) concept of naming the environment that the students know tacitly, and then moving to photosynthesis with personal hands on experiences, bioregionalism or 96 Freire's methodology of liberation would not be violated.

The hands-on experiences not only give the student an expanded point of origin, but also bridges the point of origin with its abstract explanation.

A second consideration of the epistemological nature of the content in the study of technology as an emancipatory liberal art asks if the content requires

abstract thinking as well as the psychomotor skills presented in the IACP taxonomy. Emancipatory technology education must supersede technology education and must include a critique of the context of where and how the human alteration of the environment took place. Cognitive learning theories supporting classical

liberal arts exclude psychomotor skills, claiming that P3ychomotor skills do not require abstract thought; however, theories supporting multiple intelligences show that psychomotor skills do indeed require abstract thinking. Advocates of liberation generally do not

advocate psychomotor skills because they tend to be based on a curriculum differentiated by social class. The theories supporting contextual learning require that the praxeology of technology be included in the process of

emancipatory education. The human must identify and describe the basic psychomotor skills (technology) used to alter its environment in order to be free from external domination. When knowledge has a defined point of origin 97 and an understanding of the psychomotor skills necessary to put the knowledge into action, learning is given context.

This first test of knowledge for emancipatory technology education ensures that the knowledge is given context in human experience. The next step clarifies the relationship of the human (society) to the knowledge.

A Test of the Relationship between Knowledge and the

Individual

The second test for content in emancipatory technology education focuses on how society recognises knowledge according to the truth claim used for its basis. Ancient humans basically saw truth as being the will of the gods. The enlightenment (modernity) introduced the notion that truth is based on an experimental test of a hypothesis. The strength of the truth was based on the ability to control the related variables. Truth based on modernity served the industrial revolution well; however, the accumulative nature of technology and the resulting environmental stress, raises questions which can not be investigated using the experimental process. Emancipatory technology education must include knowledge derived from the experiment, but must also go beyond the experiment to help explain behavior that is intuitive, information learned by acculturation.

Technological innovation often occurs before the human has 98 a scientific explanation, thus if humans are to be able to

evaluate the environmental/social impact of a product resulting from intuitive behavior, they must recognize more than one truth. Theorists representing an approach to truth based on multiple realities refer to this concept as post-modern, post-industrial, or informational,or post­ liberal .

A multiple reality approach to truth is imperative to

emancipatory technology education. Berger (1977) uses three descriptors to describe how modern thought can be

adopted as indicators to determine if the knowledge is post-modern. Abstraction is a process by which the human

and an event are distanced. Abstraction is typified by the process of automation in the study of technology. The process of abstraction moves from concrete cognition to the empirical test of knowledge. The post-modern approach would illuminate the abstraction process and show at which point(s) the human exercised choice. The second characteristic of modernity is referred to

as futurity by Berger (1977). Futurity is the human process of focusing primarily on the future; energy is spent on predicting the future and does not include lessons from the past in its assessment of truth. Focusing on a truth to be found in the future results in a form of self-imposed tyranny because meaning (truth) is in the future and the consequences of the present are 99 ignored. The post-modern approach to truth would seek a homeostasis between the lessons of the past, the present, and the promises of the future. Emancipated technology education, by addressing volition, can help reduce futurity in that humans would be informed about technology and about whether or not technological growth should or could be limited or enhanced.

The process of separating collective identities into individual identity is Berger's (1977) concept of individuation. Individuation sees truth in separate identities, rather than in interactive communities of knowledge. Tests of knowledge in discrete, specialized categories is necessary for emancipation, but cannot be allowed to displace the community of knowledge from where they were derived. Dewey (1900) argues that a fact learned out of context is individualistic and leads to the alienation of the learner. H. Gardner (1983) in explaining his theory of multiple intelligences makes the statement that logic oriented studies lead to an intrapersonal intelligence (individualism), whereas logic put into context develops interpersonal intelligence.

Emancipatory technology education is not a matter of eliminating individuation, but is rather a call for a clarification of the process in order to develop volition. Webster's Seventh Collegiate Dictionary defines volition as: "an act of making a choice or decision; the power of 100 choosing or determining". Volition in technological affairs can happen only when the mystery of machines is removed; thus, enabling people to define the quality of a tool system. People would be empowered with the ability to recognize cause and effect trends in technology; therefore, people would be able to make informed choices rather than accept fate.

Emancipation presupposes volition pertaining to technology (abstraction), futurity, and individuation. It is moving to the point that "... things could be other than what they have been" (Berger, 1977, p. 77). Emancipation in the finest sense is each individual being free to do that which is the ultimate good in a given context. An ultimate good reclaims past traditions that were environmentally and humanistically sensitive. As contexts change, so does the good that represents volition. A course to emancipate people must recognize that the source of knowledge is timeless in nature. One of its requirements is the struggle to define modernity. Some writers such as A. Toffler in Future. Shock and The Third Wave imply that modernity is a 20th century phenomenon.

DeVore (1980) and Pytlik et al. (1978) also perpetuate the notion that modernity is an industrial revolution side- effect. A more complete understanding holds that each age is modern to past generations. In 1800, the steam engine was a complex engine; today the steam engine is considered 101 low/simple "technology. Each generation has high

"technology "that with tine becomes common knowledge. This timeless nature of modernity is a fundamental reason why a definition of modernity is so important for emancipation.

Our children will face different technology in their adult lives than we do. The hardware will certainly change, but will the process change? History suggests not.

A Test of the Nature of the Learner The third test a course content must meet for a course in emancipating technology is that it must help explain the nature of the learner. Host definitions of technology include the notion that it is a human activity to produce artifacts (homo faber) (Pytlik et. al., 1978;

DeVore, 1980; Schumacher, 1973; Berger, 1977). If this is f an accepted fact, then it follows that at some point, the technological process is personal. In addition to studying the human as homo faber, emancipatory technology education must study the human as homo poeta, the maker of meaning {Becker, 1978). Homo poeta is human as creative problem solvers, capable of making conscious decisions to enhance the quality of life. A major source of human strength for Becker is the ability to give meaning to existence. The human also has the ability to place value on destructive activities; prevented only by studying concurrently the human as homo faber and as homo poeta. 102

To develop a system of emancipatory technology education to teach technology, we must understand the nature of the learner. The body of knowledge used to study human learning is diverse, however, there are a number of points at which theorists agree. Human development is divided into two areas for study; cognitive dealing with the areas of learned knowledge and aptitudes, and physical development, dealing with how people grow and how psychomotor skills develop. Dewey championed the idea that the human has an innate need to create and that out of the creative act, the doer develops a positive self- concept. Piaget developed a theory of cognitive development of four stages or operations that begin at birth {Woolfoik,

McCune-Nicolich, 1984). Piaget postulated that at each stage a new way of learning is mastered. Each stage builds on the previous stage and changes the way the child processes (learns) information. Erickson also describes personal and social developmental stages {Woolfoik, McCune-Nicolich, 1984).

H. Gardner (1983) differs from Piaget in that Gardner believes formal operations occur continuously, rather than in stages, and at a much earlier age than Piaget theorises. He also believes that different tasks to be

learned require different intelligences. In his book, Frames of Mind. H. Gardner posits the concept that there 103 are seven intellectual competencies; each of these

intelligences has a separate locus of control in the brain, require abstract thought, and can be developed

independently of each other. Out of these seven, only three are measured on standardized IQ tests, the main evaluative criterion in modernity based education. Emancipatory technology recognizes and utilizes each of the intelligences in order to empower students with volition.

Learning theories and human development theories must be used to validate the technological nature of the human. Salomon's (1979) notion of supplantation is a good

example. Supplantation is the way in which an internal thinking process is done externally by a medium. The use of calculators to teach math is a specific example.

Calculators function as a prosthetic device for the brain.

Salomon supports his theory with empirical evidence.

Course activities that are machine based must be

evaluated to ensure congruency with the nature of the learner. This ensures that learning activities can be

internalized by the learner, thus enhancing volition and emancipation.

Gardner's <1983) description of the "idiot savant" person (very learned in one area, incompetent in another), lends support to the notion that there is the need for a balanced intellectual development. Emancipated technology 104 curriculum can, perhaps better than any other program and in a practical and economically feasible manner, provide learning that will develop a sense of gestalt in a person's intelligences. Emancipatory technology education must include with the industrial technology curriculum a critique of the socio-political context.

The Nature of Instruction in Emancipatory Technology

Education

Instruction in emancipatory technology must aim at contextualising in each of the psychomotor, cognitive, and affective learning domains. Emancipatory technology education is not built on a new knowledge, but rather, requires that education use complimentary teaching techniques.

The dominant organisational format of knowledge in the U.S. school system is in units of specialised knowledge, ultimately fragmenting the learner's life. These units build a course of study in a linear fashion and are based on the notion that the human has a one way relationship with knowledge, either to use or not to use knowledge for certain application. The problem with an approach that does not critique the context of knowledge is that the participants do riot realise the indirect consequences (developmental or restrictive) of the decisions. 105

Starting points in curriculum usually match an age level rather than the contextual experiences of the

learner. The nature of human learning is varied (visual, oral, group, individual) and moves from the the known to the unknown. Educational experiences must begin in the known reality and expand into unknown information. New

information is internalised in the learner only when it is given referent in the known, thus enabling the learner to

apply (make use of) new information.

Emancipatory technology education can conceptualise technology by providing studies in the improvisational nature of technology (psychomotor experiences), in the

creative aspect of technology (cognitive experiences), and in the ethical question of technology (affective

experiences). Improvisation is used to describe the psychomotor and production aspects of technology because of the unpredictable element of technology. Creativity,

describing the cognition of technology, includes the

cultivation of the imagination. The individualism resulting from maximising creativity is overcome by the

concurrent study of ethics, the affective domain of technology. Ethics asks what is the ultimate good and

what should be the motive. Instruction needs to focus on both the process of

identifying the transcendent application of technology and on the social context of the technology, thus enabling 106

'the student to reconstruct the implications of a technology from the differing vantage points. Although the instructional themes of improvisation, creativity, and ethics are discussed separately in this paper, they occur simultaneously. Instruction of the improvisation of technology. Improvisation asks questions about the production, invention, and innovation processes that humans engage in, for survival. Improvisation is an adaptive process; it is both knowing how to do and knowing how to do without. In a literal sense, improvisation is how technology is advanced. For life in the 21st century, improvisation might involve skills in purchasing technology and service, as opposed to the development of better tools as it has been historically. Traditionally, production (making) of hardware has not included the idea of improvisation. All technological advances contain an element of unknown effects and historically these unknown side effects are the part of technology that is the most detrimental to the human and to the environment. To be emancipated, the human must be able to recognise, predict, and control the undesired side

effects of technology in order to control technology, rather than to be controlled by technology. Emancipatory technology education requires that the psychomotor skills of technology be studied concurrently 107 with its societal/environmental impact. To be emancipated means to be able to recognize and choose products that are produced humanely and are as environmentally safe as is feasible.

Further supporting improvisation as the basis for teaching the production aspect of technology is the idea of the morality of objects. In accepting production as a mutually exclusive part of technology, objects appear value free. In reality, technology is good and bad at the same time; simultaneously, there is gain and loss from the same technology. Instruction of the creativity of technology. Creativity as a technological tool seeks to explain how humans think during the process of improvisation. An integral part of creativity is the use of the imagination. DeVore (1980) and others have postulated that the

over-arching question that technology asks is, "What could be?1'. Emancipatory education must nurture the imagination

of its participants in order to maximize the improvisation process. Many liberating technologies are a result of people being able to imagine "what if and why not". Often creativity is equated with the engineering aspect of technology, however, creativity is also tied to the self-concept of the creator and to the question of beauty.

Many traditional teachers of technology recognise how the self-concept of a learner is enhanced through the process 108 of making a product-. Schumacher (1973, 1979), and Barbour (1980) support this in their explanations of how people find their work personally rewarding even when they are creating technology intended for destructive purposes. Instruction in emancipatory technology education must cultivate the imagination both in terms of how technology cam solve problems and in terms of how technology enslaves humans; the balance is determined by a society's values.

Traditional education has missed the synergism that occurs when the human imagination is encouraged to be part of the learning process. Creativity and improvisation must allow for student controlled (divergent) outcomes, as opposed to predetermined (convergent) answers provided by the teacher. This is not to rule out the fact that there are rules, and/or established absolutes that a student must learn; however, the process of teaching the information must allow for the student to discover, to be part of the process. The absolutes are not approached as the end goal, but rather as a means for further discovery. For example, the rules of measurement can be embedded in the process of making an object, whether through art, cooking, woodworking, arid so forth. The teacher's role is to be hortative. Creativity and improvisation, by nature, are individualistic processes. To foster sensitivity to society's needs (human and/or environmental), creativity 109 and improvisation must be studied concurrently with ethics. Without ethos technology education, education becomes self-serving. Instruction of ethics in technology. Ethics, the affective domain of emancipatory technology education, focuses on both motive and deed. It seeks to find the ultimate good for all humans and for the spaceship earth on which they live.

The study of ethics must start on a personal level and move to a global level with the same goals of goodness applied to each level. Faban (1971), a futurist, described the process of technological ethics as a reexamination of the basic needs of food, fiber, and shelter. Ethics for Faban is not the ability to make a right or wrong moral decision, but rather the ability to describe who gains and who or what loses. The second law of thermodynamics would support this. Paraphrased, it states that there are no free lunches; somebody pays. The study of ethics ensures that students in the course understand the cliche, "when something is gained, something is lost". The use of the J-curve would be the starting point in the instruction of ethics. The J-curve depicts a time of slow growth, a period of exponential growth, a die-back time, and a time of homeostasis. The concept can be applied to a wide range of human conditions, including 110 -technology. Technology advancement, has often had a period of seemingly no large developments, then the accumulative effect of the small developments accelerate into a revolutionary advancement. In relating to the J-curve, an understanding of the die-back time would promote the study of the consequences of exponential growth and the exploration of ways to maintain homeostasis. Methods of delivery. Often curriculum theories do not include methods of delivery for the course; the instructor is expected to be creative and to arrive at a format and methodology. However, to experience volition in technology, certain hardware experiences are necessary to reinforce and to maximize the internalization of learning. An experience with an automatic machine juxtaposed with the same process performed manually is imperative. This process allows the participant to experience the feeling of mastery over a complex machine and the demands of a labor intensive task. This experience is then to be analyzed for improvement and for ethical implications.

A study of the complete life cycle of a product must be part of the activity in the course. The planting of beans or peas is an example of this activity. The plants should be grown hydroponically (without soil and all nutrients added) so the input--output cycles could be monitored . The total energy input of growing. Ill -transporting, packaging, retailing, and preparing could be evaluated against the benefits, and then more energy efficient cycles could be developed, A life cycle contains both linear energy flows and cyclical energy flows. This experience too, should be analysed for improvement and for ethical implications; energy flows can be analyzed to determine who controls the supply and who controls the demand.

The final type of experience that should be included in an emancipatory technology course is based on Salomon's

(1979) notion of supplantation. This experience would expose students to the ability of machines to simulate an extension of the human brain; a video experience based on the use of telescopic zoom scenes to experience changes in perception from various vantage points would be ideal. The experience would be analysed for superior vantage points and for a sense of moving through time. Many other activities could be substituted for the examples given. The lack of resources and imagination are the biggest limiting factors. The important consideration is that the course activities meet the requirements of the course goals which are designed for the emancipation of people. Chapter V

REPORT ON THE FINDINGS

In societies that are heavily industrialised and thus dependent on technology for the maintenance of its life-style, the interaction of technology and education is a significant issue in the ability of society to maintain an informed citizenry. This study's purpose is to contribute to the knowledge base that describes the education/technology interaction and how such an interaction can be emancipatory. As a means to this end, the Rationale and Structure for Emancipatory Technology

Education was developed from a review of literature drawing from technology education, the philosophy of technology, curriculum theory, cognitive learning styles, and pedagogy for liberation. The review of literature

(Chapter II) demonstrates that there are logical connections between these diverse bodies of knowledge. These connections form the thesis of the Rationale and

Structure of Emancipatory Technology Education (Chapter

III) . To subject this Rationale and Structure of

Emancipatory Technology Education to a rigorous 112 113 intellectual criticism, 'the researcher's dissertation committee critiqued the work arid then it was mailed to seven individuals with expertise in liberal art education to also critique. A questionnaire (Appendix C) was mailed with the Rationale and Structure to act as an aid in the critique process. Each questionnaire was followed by a telephone conversation to each of the seven educators to clarify and add more detail to their critiques of the

Rationale and Structure.

This chapter reports the written comments of the external experts in a bullet format on a question by question basis, followed by an assemblage of the phone conversations. The chapter concludes with an evaluation of the completed opinionnaire section of the questionnaire.

Report on the Findings of Each Question

Listed below are the individual questions from the questionnaire; below each question are the results and summarisations of the responses.

Question 1. Technology education/Industrial Arts historically focused on the human as homo faber (tool maker). Do you believe this approach is still adequate to explain and/or solve the issues confronting today's people? Comments:

1. One comment stated that the homo faber

approach to technology education never was 114 adequate. One comment simply said "no".

2. Four responses stated that the "tool maker" approach is necessary in technology education and

is an important basis for a partial understanding

of human activity. One expert added the comment that technology education must shift from tool maker and a monetary reward emphasis to an

improvement of life emphasis. 3. Three responses said the issues confronting

today's people are too complex to be addressed by

technology education. One response expanded this statement by stating that any single

curriculum is inadequate to solve the issues

confronting any people and that any curriculum seeking to confront the issues of today's people

must be designed for a specific context. Question 2. The concept of multiple intelligences is a central condition in the thesis of technology education as an emancipatory liberal art.

a. Is the author's discussion of multiple intelligences understandable? YES NO b. Should the explanation be more detailed? YES NO Comments on "a" & *‘b" above: c. Assuming the reader agrees that there are intelligences not recognised in our present school systems (e.g., spatial, bodily- kinesthetic), then would it follow that, as the author states, technology education can provide a format that balances the intellectual growth through the development of the various intelligences? YES NO Explain your answer: Part A. Four “yes" responses. Three "no" responses. Part B. Three "yes" responses. Four "no" responses. 115 Comments:

1. One reviewer stated that if multiple intelligence is a "central condition", then a

higher profile is recommended.

2. One response asked for a sharper focus, deal only in spatial and bodily-kinesthic intel1igences.

Part C: Seven "yes" responses. O "no" responses. Comments:

1. Six comments stated that technology education

can address intelligences not currently valued in our present schools. Three of these responses

indicated that only one intelligence can be

developed at a time.

2. One comment stated that one discipline cannot provide the balance the Rationale and Structure

is developing. 3. Two comments stated that emancipatory

technology education can not make its impact in

isolation therefore, it {technology education) must be in balance with other disciplines. 4. Three comments indicated that the uniqueness

of technology education is directly related to production and that educators must guard against

losing the production aspect because of its

unique contribution in the education of youth. 116

Question 3. Is "the need for a post-modern approach to technology education established in the Rationale and Structure? YES, the need is established. HO, the author has failed to address...

_____ YES, however... Three "yes" responses and four "no" responses.

Comments:

1. Three of the "no" responses asked for a more detailed definition of the post-modern approach

to technology education. 2. One “no" response indicated that the definition of post-modernism is complete but that

the paper lacks a discussion of theory put into

implementation. 3. One comment called for a conscious historiographical framework for the post-modern thought. 4. One "no" response stated that the knowledge

community idea of post-modernism is developed but

the idea of nonimposition is lacking. Question 4. The Rationale and Structure seeks to triangulate social authority between the individual, the environment, and the community, necessitating the need to study and clarify values concurrently with any technology education course. Will educators reading the rationale and structure have a clear understanding of the author's belief that human values (homo poeta) must be included in a technology course? YES NO If no, explain. If yes, how can this argument be strengthened? 117 Six "yes" responses and one "no" response. Comments:

1. Two conuaents suggested that the treatment of ethics is too weak in the Technology Education

profession and offered encouragement to bring in outside sources from philosophy and religion to add a more serious treatment of ethics,

2. The one "no" response stated that the social

authority argument is not appropriate or necessary.

3. One "yes" response stated that the concurrent

study of doing and ethics should be the basis of all courses of study because it is the basis of

liberation. 4. One "yes" response suggested developing

further the decision making process in the paper, demonstrating how triangulation works. Question 5. The author makes the statement that one of the unique contributions of technology education is its utilisation of other disciplines. Does this statement belong in the rationale and structure? YES NO If yes, should the concept have been developed further? How? Five "yes" responses and two "no" responses. Comments:

1. Four of the five "yes" responses and one "no" response objected to the use of the word "unique"; other disciplines can also be 118 inter-d iscipl inary.

2. One "yes" response stated •that- technology education must draw from other disciplines and

methodology. Technology education cannot carry the entire intellectual and academic load. Question 6. Is the need for technology as a liberal art adequately established? YES NO What could or should be added?

Four "yes" responses, two "no" responses, and one

"maybe" response.

Comments: 1. The "maybe" response stated that the case for technology education as general education is made,

but not as a liberal art.

2. One "no" response suggested that the New Liberal Arts, and the Science, Technology and

Society programs need more detailed coverage to show their contributions, because they address some of the same concerns. 3. Two "yes" responses asked for grade level

clarification. Question 7. a. Does the document provide the necessary structure to teach technology as a liberal art course? YES NO Comments:

b. Will the 3 tests of course content enable educators to implement the educational philosophy developed in the R & S? Explain: Six "yes” responses and one "no" response. 119 Part- A Comments:

1. One "yes" response stated that he or she did not agree with the structure.

2. One "no" response questioned if post-modern ideas can be structured. 3. Two of the "yes" responses stated that the

structure is developed at the theoretical level. Part B Comments:

1. Three evaluators advocated that the Rationale

and Structure provided a useful basic format for theoretical discussions about curriculum and recommended that the content and implementation discussion be dropped.

2. Three comments indicated that the tests are a

logical part of the Rationale and Structure but that they should be a separate part (chapter).

3. One evaluator stated that the tests are clear, but that he or she is more committed to other frameworks and structures for course content

selection.

Question 8. What is your overall reaction to the Rationale and Structure?

a. Clarity: b. Organisational format:

c. Content: d. Should the section on instruction be omitted? YES NO 120 e. Concluding Comments, Suggestions and/or Questions: Part A Comments: (Clarity)

1. One evaluator stated that the Rationale and

Structure was good for an informed reader, and lacked only in examples. 2. One evaluator addressed the problem of terminological fussiness, and advocated the addition of a section defining terms.

3. One evaluator expressed that the paper moved too fast and suggested adding detail to slow it down and to add to clarity. 4. One evaluator stated that the paper reflects the clarity problems of discussing new ideas.

Part B Comments: (Organizational format)

1. One evaluator suggested that the definition of emancipation on page 25 (pg. 106 of this document) be moved nearer to the beginning. 2. One evaluator recommended that the researcher systematise headings by using a chapter format within the document.

3. One comment advised that a format for a philosophical work be used. Part C Comments: (Content) 1. One evaluator stated that a convincing review of literature should be included. 2. One evaluator thought, the Rationale and Structure should be referenced. 3. Three responses okayed the content.

Part D Comments: (Instruction be omitted?)

1. All experts responded "no". Comments:

1. Three responses suggested that instruction should be in a second chapter.

2. One response suggested that the instruction

section should be a "for example".

Part E Comments: (Concluding Comments, Suggestions and/or Questions) 1. It was recommended by one evaluator to develop the concept of emancipation and contrast it to ens1avement. 2. One evaluator made the recommendation to develop the relationship between this document and IACP.

3. One evaluator called for the researcher to

state up front what the major influences are in the work.

4. One evaluator stated that the sections on the nature of emancipatory technology needed more breadth and depth.

5. Two statements were made acclaiming the importance of this work in the Technology Education profession. 122 The following opinion questions were asked to give a philosophical description of the experts. A detailed discussion is found in the discussion of findings section. Unsolicited comments on the questions are inserted below the corresponding question and are marked with an asterisk.

Opinionnaire Please check the following. YES NO Do you believe:

7 0 A look at values should be included in a technology course?

6 __1__ There are multiple intelligences?

* Only as clarified by multiple ignorances (expert responded "no" to the question) 5 2 That a central challenge of education is to broaden the social authority base? * There is no homogenous social base in reality.

7 0 The issue of finite resources should be a part of technology education? 6 1 That the human has choice in technology? 5 0 Production must be included in a 2 maybe liberal arts technology course? 6 1_ The study of technology should be included in general education at each level of education? * This does not need to be the same as our current content of Technology Education.

* It is unrealistic to include technology education at each level of education. 123 Report on the Findings of Each Telephone Interview

Each expert was interviewed by telephone seven to ten days after receiving a copy of the Rationale and

Structure and the critique form. Each expert had indicated the optimal time to be interviewed via a return

form enclosed in the mailing. The purpose of the follow-up telephone conversation was to allow the expert to respond to the Rationale and

Structure from their respective areas of expertise outside of the constraints of the critique form. Below is a compilation of the questions, observations, suggestions and comments offered by the individual experts. Because

each conversation followed its own line of questioning, comments are grouped with an indication of how often the observation occurred. Observation 1. The need to sharpen the focus of the

document was mentioned by five of the seven experts.

Specific Suggestions: 1. Develop further the idea of liberal art. How does a liberal art educate for emanc ipati on?

2. A more precise definition of the terms:

emancipation, post-modern, improvisation, and

post-1iberal. 124

3. Sharpen the role the various philosophies play in the formulation of emancipation.

4. Specify what age level emancipatory

technology education is designed for. 5. Add the idea of enslavement to strengthen the need for emancipation. 6. Move the last paragraph on page 24 (pg. 105 in

this document) to the front of the document.

Observation 2. Change to a format more congruent with the typical philosophical literature format.

Specific Suggestions: 1. Use of an "echo", the Rationale being the

speech and the Structure the echo. The echo

would be indented. 2. Embed the structure into the Rationale. Observation 3. Suggestions to strengthen the accuracy

of the text. Specific Suggestions:

1. An anachronism in the enlightenment— logical

positivism— discussion. 2. One expert suggested that post-liberalism was more accurate then post-modernism for this work.

3. Use the term "multiple perceptions of truth" rather than "multiple realities of truth". Observation 4. Suggestions made to improve this type of

research methodology. Specific Suggestions: 1. The request to include an outline of the total research project in the mailing to the outside experts was mentioned twice.

2. Four experts suggested attaching the bibliography to the Rationale and Structure.

3. It was suggested to include an abstract of the research project.

Discussion on the Findings

The function of the discussion section of this

chapter is to develop a contextual framework for the conclusions to be drawn from this research in chapter six,

using the data from the external experts. The criteria used in the selection of the external experts included their interest in technology as a liberal

art, and/or their experience in the traditional liberal arts, and/or their experience in technology education, and their willingness to critically read and reflect on the

concepts being studied. As expected, the type of comments reflected the experts' specialised areas of knowledge arid interest and for the most part the comments lacked consensus. The experts with strong backgrounds in philosophy

called for a more detailed treatment of the work but asked

for fewer points of clarification. None of the experts 126

reported that the Rationale and Structure purports

illogical philosophical claims. There are statements calling for a narrower claim with a tighter focus,

especially as related to the development of multiple intelligences, post-modernism, and the liberal art. Had these experts had access to the review of literature, perhaps many of the concerns would have been abated.

Experts with experience in curriculum implementation

focused their comments on the structural aspect of the work, stating that the Structure is at the theoretical

level. While in agreement with the premise, they called for examples of implementation.

Responses to the opinionnaire portion of the critique

further support the claim that the experts are in agreement with the premises of the Rationale and Structure

and that the criticisms are calling for clarification, not rejection. All the reviewers agreed that the study of values, and the issue of finite resources should be included in technology education. The researcher judges these two questions to be intrinsically involved in the process of emancipatory technology education.

All of the experts indicated that a central challenge of education is to broaden the social authority base, further reinforcing the Rationale and Structure premise that freedom must be shared. 127

Response to the question asking whether humans have choice in technology showed the experts to be evenly divided. The evaluator that indicated that humans do have choice in technology also held that production should be included in the study of technology. Those experts that marked that humans do not have a choice in technology also marked that they thought production was not a necessary part of technology education. The external reviewers all agreed that there are multiple intelligences; two unsolicited written comments repeated the suggestion that the claims about multiple intelligences be more focused.

Summary of the Findings

The overall general response of the external experts was affirmative and encouraged the efforts of the research project. With the exception of one anachronism in the modernism background discussion, the criticisms call for clarification and focus. Chapter six will discuss the possible responses to the findings gathered from the external experts. Given that the experts were not in disagreement with the premise of the Rationale and

Structure, it seems realistic that the Rationale and

Structure can be refined. Chapter VI

CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

The purpose of this study is to enhance the ability of educators to provide experiences for their students that contribute to the student's ability to make informed choices regarding technology. Specifically, the research question was: "What type of liberal art content can best prepare the future generation with personal survival skills in a technological informational society?" The research question was broken down into secondary questions for the researcher to explore; that these asked about the relationship between humans and their technology, asked for guidelines that can be used to choose the concepts to be included in the study of technology, and asked how can educators ascertain whether a student educational activity will result in a liberating force in real life. The methodology used to explore the answers to the research questions consisted of an extensive review of literature that several as the foundation for a "Rationale and Structure on Emancipatory Technology as an Emancipatory Liberal Art Education". After a critical review by the 128 129 dissertation committee, the Rationale and Structure was mailed to seven educators with expertise in the tradition of“ Liberal Arts. A questionnaire was included to expedite the review process by providing a common starting point for the evaluations; it concluded with a brief opinionnaire.

This chapter evaluates the review process findings in context of the entire research project, draws conclusions, and makes recommendations for further research.

Evaluation of the Methodology

External experts were asked to evaluate the Rationale and Structure in isolation from the rest of the document.

Many of the comments, suggestions, and questions made would have been eliminated had the external experts also had access to the first chapter on the need for the study with a definition of terms and to the review of literature in Chapter II. One such example is seen in several of the responses to Question 6, asking if the need for technology as a liberal art was adequately established. Two external experts stated that the Science, Technology and Society

(STS) programs were not fully looked at for its applicatory dimension. The contribution and limitations of the STS approach were discussed, however, in Chapter II and in "The Meed for the Study” in Chapter I. 130

An expert's misunderstanding of the term "liberal arts" used in Question 6 became apparent in the follow-up phone conversation; the external expert's use of the word general education matched the researcher's term liberal arts, defined in Chapter I's "Definition of Terms." One expert called for historical references and others for expansion of key concepts and various philosophies; these can be found in chapter II, "The

Review of Literature."

The decision to omit the first chapters, the bibliography, and the definition of terms from the material sent to the external experts was based on the premise that "Emancipatory Technology Education" must be a complete philosophy in itself. A secondary consideration was that the reading of the review of literature, that served as the basis of the Rationale and Structure, would have been a prohibitively long document to evaluate. The researcher endorses the suggestions of the external experts to include an abstract and bibliography in future research of this type. The researcher also recommends that a glossary be attached; this maintains the goal of having a document that is easier to read and yet would also allow the reader to have a lexiconic referent to the

researcher's words. The questionnaire served the purpose of eliciting information demonstrating the strengths and weaker areas 131 of the Rationale and Structure. The follow-up telephone interview clarified confusion about the questionnaire responses and added material to the evaluation process.

Combining the questionnaire with the phone interview provided credence to the data. The responses to Question 1 addressed issues the researcher had not solicitated and in looking at the question, the researcher realised assumptions were made on material that was addressed in earlier chapters and not available to the external experts, causing them to pick up on the various assumptions. The opinionnaire was helpful as a referent in evaluating the responses to Question 1, and did reveal that the experts were in agreement that the study of values belongs within technology education.

The researcher's purpose in including the opinionnaire was for it to serve as a referent among the external experts' beliefs relating to the basic assumptions of the Rationale and Structure. It allowed the researcher to examine their comments in light of their philosophical biases. Responses to the opinionnaire exposed no dissension between the premises of the Rationale and Structure and the educational beliefs of the external experts; therefore, the researcher concludes that the beliefs of the external experts are compatible with the philosophies of this research project, giving integrity to their critiques and to the research methodology. 132 Analysis of -the Findings

As stated above, many of the external experts' responses were calls for more information, information

included in earlier chapters of this research project. The remaining responses are grouped under common themes and are addressed in this next section. The suggestions of the external experts to add detail

and examples to slow the Rationale and Structure down are well taken, but the intent of the Rationale and Structure was for an informed audience. Adding examples may not have the effect of illuminating on the theories;

Berger (1977) suggests that examples in conceptual work may stifle creative questions because the reader focuses on the example which is more familiar than the theory and, t consequently, neglects the theory. One reviewer stated that the Rationale and Structure reflects the clarity problems of discussing new ideas. Based on the external experts overall comments, the researcher concludes that an

informed reader can comprehend the ideas of the Rationale and Structure. External experts responded to the question of organisation only with editorial comments. The use of systematic headings was suggested as was the use of a philosophical work format. Suggestions on content were

also editorial in nature. One expert suggested that the 133 section on instruction should be a separate chapter. The comments were diverse; reflecting preferences of style

that would not change the essence of the paper.

A substantive comment by an expert that does not affect the philosophy of the Rationale and Structure, but that adds to clarity is to change "multiple reality of

truth" to "multiple perception of truth". The expert stated that multiple reality of truth may lead readers to

believe that truth is relative. The researcher recognises that a more precise way of stating it, to avoid the connotation that there is no truth in the proper sense of the word, is to use the term "multiple perception of truth".

Two terms used in the research had different

connotations for the external exports. The researcher used the term "liberalism" in a research mode, using

Lincoln and Guba (1985) and Bowers’ (1987) definition referring to a linear problem-solving process that does

not recognise truth from tradition. Two of the external

experts reading the Rationale and Structure held that liberalism referred to a political process that recognises

the individual as the basis of social authority. A definition of the researcher’s use of the word is in the definition of terms in chaper I; the concept is discussed in chapter II. 134

Post-modernism is also used in a research tradition

(Lincoln and Guba 1985} and was used interchangeably with post-liberalism. None of the reviewers stated that the

Rationale and Structure misused the concepts of post­ modernism and post-liberalism; however, based on the review, post-liberalism should be used due to its alignment with the derivation of knowledge. Post­ modernism is more compatible with discussions of social structuring not addressed in this work. One external expert wrote that if the theory of multiple intelligence is a central concept in the process of emancipatory education, then it should be given a higher profile. The researcher agrees that in the context of the

Rationale and Structure "central" may be too strong of a term to use in Question 2; however, Chapter II does contain a treatment of multiple intelligences that establishes it as a central part of the human development aspect of Emancipatory Technology Education and as a requirement in the process of learning technology. The researcher concedes that the Rationale and Structure would benefit from a more succinct summary of the role of multiple intelligences as developed in Chapter II. Two other comments regarding multiple intelligences challenged if more than one intelligence can be developed at one time. The researcher maintains the claim that emancipatory education can develop* more than one 135 intelligence at a time, given that the learning experience includes related social impacts. Gardner (1983) and Solomon (1979) posits that intellectual skills do not operate in isolation, rather an intelligence is a skill equipped to handle certain kinds of problems and they supplement each other.

The discourse about multiple intelligences also drew responses stating technology education like other education does not take place in isolation. The researcher concurs with this as indicated by the discussion of social authority and the homo faber— homo poeta idea.

The notion of sharing social authority between humans, the environment, and community was accepted by all but one of the reviewers. One resonse stated that the concurrent study of doing and ethics should be the basis for all courses because it is the basis for liberation. This is a strong affirmation for the call for the concurrent study of doing and ethics as advocated in this study.

In responding to Question V, asking if the statement,

"one of the unique contribution of technology is its utilisation of other disciplines," belongs in the

Rationale and Structure, the external experts indicated yes. They agreed with the notion that technology draws from other disciplines, but added that other disciplines are also interdisciplinary. The researcher appreciates 136 t>heir comments on this, but concludes that while other disciplines may also be interdisciplinary, this does not

invalidate the importance of the multi-disciplinary nature of technology. The study does not suggest nor deny that technology is alone in its ability to draw from other disciplines. The discussion on whether the Rationale and

Structure provided the necessary structure to teach technology as a liberal art brought mixed reviews. One external expert claims post-modern ideas cannot be structured. It is beyond the scope of this study to argue whether post-modern ideas can be structured; however,

Berger (1977), Bowers (1987), and Stanley (1978) suggest that the environment and culture (tradition) structure

ideas and that science (rational thought) cannot remove all. of the structure that the environment and culture

impose, suggesting that post-modernism does have form. In their concluding comments the external experts made specific suggestions that also warrant direct responses. One recommendation was that the notion of emancipation be contrasted with enslavement. The researcher accepts the suggestion, however, had the enslavement concept been developed in this research project using the same format, the discussion would have occurred in the research problem section. 137 The recommendations made by the external experts -bo discuss -the relationships between the Rationale and Structure to the Industrial Arts Curriculum Project (IACP)

and to other major works that influenced the Rationale and Structure, is an issue of format; chapter one arid two discuss these connections. The Rationale and Structure is to process what IACP is to content; more research is

needed for integration of the two.

Two responses indicated that the Rationale and

Structure should specify the targeted age group for

Emancipatory Technology Education. The researcher holds that age is inconsequential in the emancipatory processes.

Friere’s <1971} theory of emancipation supports this position as does Kimball^s (1987} definition of the liberal art methodology.

Recommendations for Further Research

Answers to a question often expose other questions.

Lincoln and Guba (1985} and Bowers (1987} suggest that one

advantage of conceptual/theoretical work is the number of

researchable questions it produces. Berger (1977} makes a

stronger claim by stating that the first generation of ideas raises more areas of question then it answers. This

work is no exception; a number of the calls for clarification by the External Experts are beyond the scope 138 of this work and need further research. Listed below are questions that grow out of this research and need further research. 1. In what tradition of philosophy does the idea of emancipatory technology education belong? 2. How can the theories of multiple intelligences best be transferred into the technology education classroom?

3. A need exists to develop and test a specific course(s) that integrate(s) technology, human values, and environmental considerations.

4. Study the logical connections between content taxonomies such as Industrial Arts Curriculum Project and the process of Emancipatory Technology Education. 5. What psychomotor skill level in production {making technology) must be required before this proficiency empowers the human to make informed choices about technology that involve trade-offs.

6. If social authority is to be shared between humans, the environment, and community then does it follow that education should share content base? For example, should technology education share its content base with biology?

Conclusion

This study makes its contribution to the body of knowledge in technology as an emancipatory liberal art and to the research methodology employed to validate the study. The research methodology consisted of a conceptual work with a descriptive analysis. This process allowed the researcher to develop a theoretical Rationale and Structure and subjected it to academic, as well as

implementation, perspectives. A two pronged research 139 methodology has limits on the claims it can make, it does however, allow a researcher to explore radical ides. This researcher found that the use of a panel of experts to review/evaluate a conceptual work brought a wide range of expertise to the project. An advantage was that any illogical philosophy would have been found, thereby, insuring sound philosophy. A disadvantage was that the responses were diverse, making the analysis laborious.

Experts affirmed overall contents, framework, and purpose of the research. Several issues the researcher deemed important to the process of emancipatory technology education were accepted as logical parts; these are the inclusion of values, multiple intelligences, and the importance of the environment. The researcher concludes that the methodology was a significant factor in the success of this study.

A second significant contribution of this study is the finding that emancipation through technology is deemed a sound philosophy. This finding will allow future researchers to explore the questions specific to the various parts of the Rationale arid Structure of Technology as an Emancipatory Liberal Art. Supporting this claim is the absence of errors of logic, affirmation that technology should include the study of finite resources, and that values are involved in making choices relating to the technological systems we use. The researcher concludes "that the Rationale and

Structure for Emancipatory Technology Education is a conceptually and philosophically sound document and provides a theoretical bases for technology education that empowers humans to make choices that enhance individual productivity, understands the environment, and promotes societal well being. The research affirms that the

Rationale and Structure meets the objective of the research questions in Chapter I. APPENDIX A

COVER LETTER TO THE EXTERNAL EXPERTS

141 P.O. Box 3000 Hesston, KS 67062 January 3, 1990

Dear

Thank you in advance for reviewing my rationale and structure for emancipatory technology education. The feedback I gain from you will be used to complete my dissertation at The Ohio State University and hopefully, will also help in the promotion of technology education in the Liberal Arts. The following list contains the steps to your involvement as an external expert in my dissertation process:

1. Complete the response card indicating the time you have scheduled for the follow-up phone conversation. Assume your first choice will be honored unless contacted. A return envelope is enclosed for your convenience.

2. Read the document, complete the enclosed questionnaire, and return the questionnaire to me in the provided envelope. 3. Participate in the scheduled follow-up phone conversation. If you have any questions or concerns about this process, please feel free to contact me at my office number, (316) 327-8125, or at my home number, (316) 327-4087. Again, thank you for your time and effort.

Sincerely,

Heber Ramer

Encl. Phone Follow-up response card with return envelope Rational &. structure document Questionnaire APPENDIX B TELEPHONE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FORM

143 144

FOLLOW-UP PHONE CONSERVATION REGARDING THE "RATIONALE AND STRUCTURE OF EMANCIPATORY TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION"

1. Name:

2. Phone number:

3. Time: 1st. choice Day {s >

2nd choice ______

Day (s ) 4. Time zone (circle one) EST CST MST PST

Special considerations: APPENDIX C

QUESTIONNAIRE

145 146 Rationale & Structure for Emancipatory

Technology Education: A Critique

Based upon your reading of the rationale and structure for emancipatory technology education, please respond to the following items. Thanks!

1. Technology education/industrial Arts historically focused on the human as homo faber (tool maker). Do you believe this approach is still adequate to explain and/or solve the issues confronting today's people?

2. The concept of multiple intelligences is a central condition in the thesis of technology education as an emancipatory liberal art. a. Is the author's discussion of multiple intelligences understandable? YES NO b. Should the explanation be more detailed? YES NO Comments on "a" & “b" above:

c. Assuming the reader agrees that there are intelligences not recognised in our present school systems (e.g., spatial, bodily-kinesthetic), then would it follow that, as the author states, technology education can provide a format that balances the intellectual growth through the development of the various intelligences? YES NO Explain your answer:

3. Is the need for a post-modern approach to technology education established in the rationale and structure? _____ YES, the need is established... _____ NO, the author has failed to address...

YES, however... 147

A Critique 2 4. The Rationale & Structure seeks to triangulate social authority between the individual, the environment, and the community, necessitating the need to study and clarify values concurrently with any technology education course. Will educators reading the rationale and structure have a clear understanding of the author's belief that human values (homo poeta) must be included in a technology course? YES No If no, explain. If yes, how can this argument be strengthened?

5. The author makes the statement that one of the unique contributions of technology education is its utilisation of other disciplines. Does this statement belong in the rationale and structure? YES NO If yes, should the concept have been developed further? How?

6. Is the need for technology as a liberal art adequately established? YES NO What could or should be added?

7. a. Does the document provide the necessary structure to teach technology as a liberal art course? YES NO Comments,; b. Will the 3 tests of course content enable educators to implement the educational philosophy developed in the R&S? Explain: 148 A Critique 3 8. What is your overall reaction to the rational and structure? a. Clarity:

b. Organisational format:

c. Content:

d. Should the section on instruction be omitted? YES WO

e. Concluding Comments, Suggestions and/or Questions:

Please check the following.

. YES WO Do you believe:

The study of values should be included in a technology course?

There are multiple intelligences? That a central challenge of education is to broaden the social authority base?

The issue of finite resources should be a part of technology education?

That the human has choice in technology? Production must be included in a liberal arts technology course? The study of technology should be included in general education at each level of education? APPENDIX D

THE EXTERNAL EXPERTS

149 EXTERNAL EXPERTS

Listed below are the seven educators who reviewed the Rational and Structure for Technology Education as an Emancipatory Liberal Art. Directly below their names is their area of expertise. The name marked with an asterisk did not participate in a follow-up telephone interview due to illness and hospitalisation.

1) Dr. John Belland, Professor Instructional Design Technology The Ohio State University Department of Instructional Design Technology Columbus, OH 43210

2) Dr. Rodney Frey, Professor Technology Education, Liberal Arts Bethel College 300 E. 27th Street N. Newton, KS 67117

3) Dr. James Mininger, Academic Dean History of World Civilisation, Fine Arts, Administration Hesston College 325 S. Main Street, Box 3000 Hesston, KS 67062 4) Dr. John Pannabecker, Professor French Literature (Ph.d), History of Technology in the Middle Ages McPherson College 1600 E. Euclid, Box 1402 McPherson, KS 67460

150 151 5) Dr. F. Victor Sullivan, Dean School of Technology and Applied Science Humanities, Administration, Technology Education Pittsburg State University School of Technology and Applied Science Pittsburg, KS 67062

6) *Dr. Emerson Weins, Associate Professor New Liberal Arts, Industrial Technology Education Illinois State University College of Applied Science and Technology Normal, IL 61761 7) Dr. Karen Zuga, Associate Professor Industrial Technology Education, Human Values in Education The Ohio State University Dept, of Industrial Technology 190 West 19th Street Columbus, OH 43210 APPENDIX E TRANSCRIPTS OF TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS WITH THE EXTERNAL EXPERTS

152 153

Transcript. Of Follow-up Telephone Interview Dr. John Belland The Ohio State University

1:35 AM, February 6, 1990 Subject:

Rationale and Structure for Emancipatory Technology Education 154 Researcher:

The purpose of 'this study is to contribute to the body of knowledge that underpins "liberating" education.

A very basic premise is that liberating education must include technology because we are heavily dependent on Technology.

The Rationale and Structure, the part you read, is based on a detailed review of literature. The review of literature establishes a theoretical basis for the

Rationale and Structure. The Rationale and Structure is in a real sense "the solution" to the question the study asks in the problem statement.

The purpose of the phone interview is to allow you, an external reviewer, to ask direct questions or to make comments about the Rationale and Structure. Belland:

Good, Good. I'm not really of much help on this project. Therefore my comments will tend to be of a general sort.

My overall reaction is that the whole document needs to be more focused, the points made sharper.

Researcher: I understand that. The review process has brought out a number of ways to sharpen the paper. Do you see any philosophical loopholes? 155 Belland

Perhaps the non-impositional idea of post-modernism that I indicated on the critique form, which is really a matter of clarity.

Researcher: Any problems with other formulations of ideas, for example multiple intelligences?

Belland:

No, I like papers that put ideas together. Given the constraints of the work, the philosophies are adequate. Some of the claims are a bit too broad.

Researcher:

Meaning, for example, technology education is only one of the disciplines that can have an emancipatory effect?

Belland:

Yes, all curriculum needs to be redeveloped. Researcher: Any other comments, questions, or suggestions.

Be11and: Not at this point. Transcript Of Follow-up Telephone Interview

Dr. Rod Frey Bethel College 11:10 AM, January 29, 1990 Subject:

Rationale and Structure for Emancipatory Technology Education 157 Researcher:

The purpose of this study is to contribute to the body of knowledge that underpins "liberating" education.

A very basic preraise is that liberating education must include technology because we are heavily dependent on Technology.

The Rationale and Structure, the part you read, is based on a detailed review of literature. The review of literature establishes a theoretical basis for the

Rationale and Structure. The Rationale and Structure is in a real sense "the solution" to the question the study asks in the problem statement. The purpose of the phone interview is to allow you, an external reviewer, to ask direct questions or to make comments about the Rationale and Structure.

Rod:

Which chapter is the Rationale and Structure? Researcher:

Chapter IV. Chapter I is the Problem Statement,

Chapter II is the Review of Literature, Chapter III is Methodology.

Rod: The use of improvisation bothers me a bit. Do you define the term anywhere? 158 Researcher: Yes, a complete list of terms is in chapter I. I use improvisation in the same sense that it is used in the performing arts. It requires a high level of skill, being able to take a tool and make it do something beyond what a novice can make it do. R o d :

I can accept that. It would be helpful if I had a bibliography that showed where you're coming from. There are some general comments I'd make. One is to develop the discussion of the liberal art more thoroughly. Clarify if you are concerned with public school education or collegiate level.

Researcher: At the conceptual level, is there a difference? R o d :

No, but the term liberal arts invokes images of collegiate level curriculum. A suggestion for organisation: the development of the idea of enslavement first, then the development of technology education as a curriculum for emancipation, followed by the rationale. I would suggest that you restrict the idea that Technology Education can develop all areas of intelligence. In theory, I believe your position is logical but that is too heavy a burden to place on any one discipline. Overall, I affirm your work and offer my criticisms and observations in the spirit of formulating a viable contribution to the profession of Technology Education. Transcript- Of Follow-up Telephone Int-ervi

Dr. James Miningerer Hesston College 4:00 PM, February 21, 1990

Subject: Rationale and Structure for Emancipatory Technology Education 161 Researcher:

The purpose of -this study is to contribute to the body of knowledge that underpins "liberating" education.

A very basic premise is that liberating education must include technology because we are heavily dependent on Technology. The Rationale and Structure, the part you read, is based on a detailed review of literature. The review of literature establishes a theoretical basis for the

Rationale and Structure. The Rationale and Structure is in a real sense "the solution" to the question the study a3ks in the problem statement.

The purpose of the phone interview is to allow you, an external reviewer, to ask direct questions or to make comments about the Rationale and Structure. J im :

The words you have chosen to describe the concepts are carefully and deliberately put to use in the work.

Emancipation is a term that has much history attached to it, and I think it is appropriate to use it (emancipation) to describe the problems of being free in a technological worl d. Your insistance on including the various human intelligences is also critical. One reason that humans create technology is to enjoy more of their capabilities. Music is a good example; the storage of music with CD's 162 has enhanced "the quality of reproduced music. The music synthesiser allows a novice to create a wide range of music.

Researcher:

How does one become enslaved to music? Jim:

You must learn the total ability range of a tools ability. After a certain level of skill is acquired, individuals are able to improvise.

Researcher:

One reviewer of this work had difficulty accepting the use of improvisation. How did you zero in on the concept so quickly? Jim:

Because its symbolic of human creativity. I believe improvisation occurs only in the context of freedom. In music, for example, the individual is so much in charge of their skill, they are free to try something new. Researcher:

Does this concept or skill hold true in other areas, as inferred in the paper? Jim:

Very much so. It is the genius of the work. Researcher: What in the document needs work? Where are the loop'holes? 163 Jim:

As a historian I'd like to see a historical sketch of post modern thinking, but that is beyond the scope of this work.

The only major question I raise is one of using the post-modern school of thought and post liberal theories as synonyms. They are very similar but your ideas are closer to the post-liberal side. Researcher:

Is post-modern used improperly? Jim:

Oh no. Post-modern thought in its present state of development is struggling with structuralism, while post­ liberal thought is more directly attacking the questions of whether the scientific experiment is the only appropriate way to develop generaliaable theories. Researcher:

My choice to use the post-modern approach was because the post-modern is very concerned with pluralism in our society. Is this idea weak? Jim:

In the Western World, no. The idea of using the philosophy of technology to emancipate may provide a new clarification in the post-modern— post-liberal arena. 164 Researcher:

Is it important, that a philosophy of technology be involved in a 21st century concept of freedom? Jim:

In the industrialised world, yes. Resparcher:

How about in a Third World country?

Jim:

Economic freedom, definitely. Political freedom is

often obtained by using the technology of war. Researcher: Any other comments?

J i m :

Target the age level of Emancipatory Technology Education. The level at which you are dealing with in this work limits it to college level. Sharpen the argument by adding age level. Transcript. Of Follow-up Telephone Interview Dr. John Pannabecker McPherson College 9:30 AM, January 29, 1990

Subject: Rationale and Structure for Emancipatory Technology Education 166 Researcher:

The purpose of "this study Is to contribute to the body of knowledge that underpins "liberating" education.

A very basic premise is that liberating education must include technology because we are heavily dependent on Technology. The Rationale and Structure, the part you read, is based on a detailed review of literature. The review of literature establishes a theoretical basis for the

Rationale and Structure. The Rationale and Structure is in a real sense "the solution" to the question the study asks in the problem statement.

The purpose of the phone interview is to allow you, an external reviewer, to ask direct questions or to make comments about the Rationale and Structure. John:

That introduction helps put the Rationale and Structure in perspective. It would have been helpful to have a 2-3 page outline of the project. The first comment

I'd make is that the notions of emancipation, volition, arid ethics are so unexplored in our field that I'd like to see them fleshed out. On an organisational note, pull the definition of emancipation up early in the document.

Researcher: These comments are editorial in nature, let me ask if there are philosophical loopholes that also need work. 167 John: I would not call them loopholes. In our field emancipation has not been treated in any systematic way. It seems premature to do both a rationale and structure, when a systematic treatment of the rationale is what is needed.

Researcher:

Are you saying that the rationale needs more work or that the structure is an add-on?

J ohn:

Both, perhaps. The transition from rationale to structure is smooth; both hang together philosophically but its too much new information. Claim the idea of emancipation and stop in this document. Researcher:

I agree and it would have made the dissertation easier, but, my motivation for doing a structure was that there is a strong streak of pragmatism in me. Also I felt our profession would read the work more carefully if there was an example of implementation.

John: That is an acceptable explanation. There is a way to handle this problem that would be more in holding with the traditions that you are drawing from. That would be to use a very formal dialectal "echo" style. At a point when a practical example is appropriate in the rational, 168 use an "echo" exemplifying the theory; the echo could be an indented paragraph, much like a long citation. Researcher:

Is it in essence an extended conversation? John: Exactly. The reason I find this work so interesting is that in our field a "missionary” mentality creeps in and is never developed. You are trying to systematically treat this process and I think its very important. Researcher:

Are you suggesting that the vein of thought that is "missionary" should be strengthened or removed? J o h n :

Neither, I'm not as well acquainted with the U.S.

Marxist literature as I am with the French Marxist literature. The heart of Marxist thinking is radical change, a complete reconceptualisation of social organ i s ati on . Researcher:

Would a devote Marxist be offended that human authority must be in tension, or is in tension with the environment and other cultures? John : I don't know. The pluralism you're asking educational philosophy to address is not developed to my knowledge. What you are asking for is that education 169 recognizes two competing paradigms. Typically we operate in one paradigm at a time. I am also convinced that this project is beginning to put a frame around this question. Transcript- Of Follow-up Telephone Interview

Dr. Vic Sullivan Pittsburg State University

12:00 PM, January 25, 1990

Subject: Rationale and Structure for Emancipatory Technology Education

170 171 Researcher:

The purpose of -this study is to contribute -to -the body of knowledge that underpins "liberating" education. A very basic premise is that liberating education must include technology because we are heavily dependent on Technology.

The Rationale and Structure, the part you read, is based on a detailed review of literature. The review of literature establishes a theoretical basis for the

Rationale and Structure. The Rationale and Structure is in a real sense "the solution" to the question the study asks in the problem statement.

The purpose of the phone interview is to allow you, an external reviewer, to ask direct questions or to make comments about the Rationale and Structure. Vic:

I found myself saying "Amen" over and over again. Researcher: Thanks. Are there any suggestions you would make to strengthen the document? Vic:

Yes, make it three times as long, but then few people would read it. I got so excited about this document that I lost all objectivity. I shared it with a colleague in philosophy and will use his comments in addition to mine in my evaluation. 172 Researcher:

Okay, what, are -those comments? Vic:

Use "multiple perception of truth" instead of

"multiple reality of truth". Multiple reality of truth may lead readers to believe you are espousing the relativity of truth, ie: truth for you, truth for me. If truth is relative then there is not truth in the proper sense of the word.

Researcher:

That is an astute observation, and makes sense. Other comments? Vic:

The comments on the ancient and the enlightenment on page 15 should be omitted. They are not essential to the main thesis and they are not true.

Researcher:

They are not true in what sense? V i c :

Historically, logical positivism followed the enlightenment period. It is a chronological error, and an awkward sentence. The next comment focuses on the ethical/affective discussion on page 23. Some ethical theories associate affective with the ethical; most do not. Since its not essential to the main thesis, why not use another word besides "affective"? 173 Researcher:

That observation will further strengthen the work. Anything else?

Vic:

Several grammatical comments, on page 8. The first complete sentence, delete the word and page 12, the second sentence move "clear philosophical guidelines" to the beginning of the sentence. On page 22 expand the introduction to include the notion of "hopefulness". The last paragraph on page 24 should be moved to the front of the document. That is the extent of my comments. Again I say, bravo to the work. Transcript Of Follow-up Telephone Interview

Dr. Karen Zuga The Ohio State University 2:00 PM, January 23, 1990

Subject: Rationale and Structure for Emancipatory Technology Education 175 Researcher:

The purpose of this study is to contribute to the body of knowledge that underpins "liberating" education.

A very basic premise is that liberating education must include technology because we are heavily dependent on Technology.

The Rationale and Structure, the part you read, is based on a detailed review of literature. The review of literature establishes a theoretical basis for the

Rationale and Structure. The Rationale and Structure is in a real sense "the solution" to the question the study asks in the problem statement.

The purpose of the phone interview is to allow you, an external reviewer, to ask direct questions or to make comments about the Rationale and Structure. Zuga:

Several philosophical tensions appear to me in the work. For example, how can you structure post-modern thought? It would help me if you defined your concept of post-modern i srn. Researcher: A philosophy that attempts to deal with the pluralism in our society; it goes beyond the reductionism of quantitative work. Zuga:

Okay. I see the tension you are drawing from, trying 176 to describe a contraindication both in philosophy and reality. The very essence of liberation in the Marxist literature is anti-structuralism.

Researcher: That is true. Let me approach it from another angle. Is process a form of structure?

Zuga:

The three tests for content are intended to be process not absolutes in and of themselves. The absolutes come in by saying the environment, the individual, and collective society must be preserved. Zuga:

I'm still concerned about the fixed referents. I'm not sure that you're not forcing this into a premature structure. The rationale is what you're doing. To me a philosophical work that p«oints out the interconnectedness of technology and emancipation is adequate. Researcher:

Expand further. Zuga:

We know what Rationales and Structures are. Maybe there is another format that is just as good, but we don’t know it. A tremendous amount of people in our profession are trying to come up with a "best" structure. If we’re going to incorporate critical theory, the liberation literature into our profession, we need to describe the 177 problems, and how "the various philosophies would answer these problems. Researcher:

Let. me paraphrase your evaluation in one sentence.

Focus in on the rationale, sharpen the direction and let the structure develop out of practice, because we're not sure if a structure is consistent with the philosophy in the rationale. Zuga:

That's a good way to put it. It strikes me that the work is using a reductionist format to develop a post­ modern philosophy. Researcher:

Other questions, concerns? Zuga:

It seems odd that the work isn’t referenced. I don't think we should be ashamed of where our ideas come from, if its Marxist, call it Marxist. Researcher:

The decision to omit references was a difficult one between my advisor and myself. Ultimately the ideas are originally based on the review of literature and I thought that it was important to find out what questions people with various types of expertise would ask about such a document. Zuga:

I can accept, that. I’m really excited by the work and believe it is needed by our profession. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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