Medical Journal ثؾٌٍّٗ ثٌطذ١ٗ ثٌْٛهث١ٔٗ Sudan Med J 2017 April;53(2):33-38 Short Communication

On the Centenary of bilharzia cure discovery at Civil Hospital (1907-2017); Jack Christopherson, and modern Sudanese medicine: A re-appraisal of a biography

Tarik Elhadd, MD FRCP FACE

Endocrine Section, Department of Medicine, The National Diabetes & Endocrine Centre Alwakra Hospital, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha – Qatar & Adjunct Professor of Medicine Sudan International University, Khartoum, Sudan.

عهي هبيص يئىيت اول عالج نًشض انبههبسسيب ) 1917 – 2017( دكتىس خبك كشيستىفشسٍ و انطب انحذيث في انسىداٌ. َقىش عهي سيشة راتيه

دٌٚف١ٌْ ؽجًق ػذو ثٌى٠ٌُ ثٌٙو ِؤّْز فّو ثٌطذ١ز، ثٌوٚفز

يهخص ٠ظجهفٙيث ثؼٌجَ ثٌيوٌٜ ثٌّت٠ٛز ٌقوط ؽذِٙ ُٟ فٟ صج٠ًل ثٌطخ ثٌقو٠ظ أال ٛ٘ ثوضشجف أٚي ػمجً ؼٌالػ ٌِع ثٌذٍٙج١ًّج، ٌِوخ " ثالٔضّٟٔٛ١ صجًصج٠ًش "، ٚأٚي ثّضؼّجي ٌٗ فػ ٟٕذٌ ػ 10 فٟ ِْضشفٝ ثٌنٛؽٌَ ثٌٍّىٟ فٟ ثؼٌجَ ٚ ،1917 ٔشٌ ٔضجةؼ ىٌه ثالوضشجف فٚ ًٟلز ١ٍّػز فؾِ ٍٟز ثٌالْٔش ثٌذ٠ٌطج١ٔز ثٌضٟ وجٔش ٚ الصَثي ِٓ ثؾٌّالس ث١ٍّؼٌز ثٌطذ١ز ثٌٌثةور ٚ ثٌٌفؼ١ز. ثالوضشجف وجْ عٌّر ٛٙؽه ١ٕؼِز لجَ دٙج ثٌووضؽ ًٛجن و٠ٌْضٛفٌّٓ، ٛ٘ٚ ِٓ ث١ػًٌٌ ثألٚي ٌألؽذجء ثٌذ٠ٌطج١١ٔٓ، ٚأٚي ِو٠ٌ ٌٍّظٍقز ثٌطذ١ز ثٌْٛهث١ٔز،ٚثٌضٟ ثٔشتش فٟ ثؼٌجَ 1904 فٟ ثؼٌش٠ٌز ثألٌٝٚ ثٌضٟ صٍش ثٌغَٚ ثالَٞ١ٍؾٔ ثٌّظٌْٛ ٌٞهثْ ثٌغًٛر ثٌّٙو٠ز. هوضًٛ و٠ٌْضٛفٌّٓ، ثٌيٚ ٌٞو فػ ٟجَ 1868 فٟ ِمجؼؽز ٛ٠ًوشج٠ٌ فٟ إؾٍٔضٌث، هًُ ثدضوث ًء فؽ ٟجؼِز وجِذٌهػ، عُ أوًّ هًثّز ثٌطخ، ٚصنػٌ ِٓ و١ٍز ؽخ ّجْ دجًعٛ١ٌِٛٛ ثٌضجدؼز ؾٌجؼِز ٌٕوْ فٟ ثؼٌجَ 1893. أصٝ و٠ٌْضٛفٌّٓ إٌٝ ثٌْٛهثْ فٟ ثؼٌجَ 1902 دظفضٗ عجؽ ٟٔذ١خ ِؤٟ دؼو ثٌغػ ٚ ،ًَّٚ فٟ وً ِٓ ثٌنٚ ،َٛؽٌ أَ هًِجْ فضٟ ثؼٌجَ 1919، ف١ٓ ػجه إٌٝ د٠ٌطج١ٔج. وجْ و٠ٌْضٛفٌّٓ ؽذ١ذجً ِجٌ٘ثً، ٚٔطجّجً دجػًجً ؽّغ د١ٓ ٍِىجس ثؾٌٌثؿ ثٌّض١َّ ٚ ثٌذجٟٕؽ ثٌقجىق ٚ ثٌذجفظ ثٌفطٓ، ٚثؼٌذمٌٞ ِضؼوه ثٌّٛث٘خ، ٚ ٔشٌ ِج ٠ٌدٍٝػ ٛ ص١ؼْٓ ٚ ١ٔف ِٓ ثألًٚثق ٚثٌذقٛط ثٌطذ١ز فٟ أ١َِ ثؾٌّالس ٚ ثٌو٠ًٚجس ثٌطذ١ز فٟ ثؼٌمٛه ثالًدؼز ثألٌٝٚ ِٓ ثٌمٌْ ثٌّٕظٌَ. صمجػو و٠ٌْضٛفٌّٓ فٟ ِٕضظف عالع١ٕ١جس ثٌمٌْ ثؼٌش٠ٌٓ فٟ ِٕضؼؾز "أدٛثح ثٌّْجء" فٟ ِمجؼؽز لٍّٛضش١ٌ فٟ ثؾٍٔضٌث فضٚ ٝفجصٗ ف21 ٟ ٛ١ٌٛ٠ 1955. ثٌمظز ثٌىجٍِز ٌيٌه ثالوضشجف ٚث١ٌٌْر ثٌيثص١ز ٌووضٛؽ ًْٛ دٌث٠جْ )ؽجن( و٠ٌْضٛفٌّٓ ٔشٌس لذً ّٕٛثس ػو٠ور ِٓ لذً ثٌىجصذز ثٌىٕو٠ز ٚثٌذ٠ٌطج١ٔز ثألطً ثْ وٌث٠ضْٛ ٘ج٠ًِ، ثٌضٟ ؼ٠ضذٌ و٠ٌْضٛفٌّٓ ؽ ٛ٘و٘ج ثالوذٌ. صضٕجٚي ٘يٖ ثًٌٛلز ٍِنظجً ١ٌٌْر هوضًٛ و٠ٌْضٛفٌّٓ، ثٌيٞ ؼُ٠ ُّو ِٓ أُ٘ ثٌشنظ١جس ثٌضٟ ثًّش هػجةُ ثٌطخ ٚ ثؾٌٌثفز فٟ ثٌْٛهثْ ثٌقو٠ظ.

When Earth’s last picture is painted and the tubes are twisted and dried, When the oldest colours have faded, and the youngest critic has died, We shall rest, and, faith, we shall need it- lie down for an aeon or two Till the master of All Good Workmen shall put us to work anew And only the Master of shall praise us and only The Master shall blame And no one shall work for money and no one shall work for fame But each for the joy of the working, and each, in the separate star, Shall draw the Thing as he sees it for the God of Things as they are! Rudyard Kipling Summary A landmark feature of the Sudan Medical Dr Jack (John) Christopherson, goes the credit Department (1904−1923) was the historical of researching and then masterminding the contribution of its first director and one of the discovery of the first cure for Bilharziasis. first few civil doctors to work in Sudan. To Bilharzia, at the turn of the twentieth century ______was a major scourge and an ominous medical Corresponding author condition with no cure. The full story and the Tarik Elhadd biography of Jack Christopherson has been Email: [email protected] published some time ago by his great niece,

Sudan Med J 2017 April;53(1) 33

Short Communication Bilharzia cure discovery Tarik Elhadd speculate. Christopherson himself had written upon-Tyne Grammar School, Clifton College, not a dissimilar report entitled ‗Description of Gonvile and later Caius College at Cambridge who spent long and painstaking years before completing his medical training at researching the footsteps of her great uncle, St Bartholomew Hospital in London. He and she managed to place him back on the graduated as MB ChB in 1893, and he then map of medical history. This article highlights held the post of house physician, house a fascinating saga of Sudan medical history. surgeon and anatomy demonstrator at Barts‘ To understand this period better, one has to before obtaining FRCS in 1897. Shortly know more than what was earlier known thereafter, he obtained an MA and MD from about John Brian Christopherson. He could Cambridge in 1898. Between years 1896 to well be the ‗Forefather of modern medicine in 1902 he was on the surgical staff of Albert the Sudan’. Much has surfaced out about Dock and Evelina Hospitals in London before John Brian Christopherson in recent years, joining the medical troops at the Imperial reappraisal of his role in the establishment of Yeomanry Base Hospital at Deelfontein modern medical services in the Sudan, his during the Boer War in 1902. In the same year pioneering discovery of cure to a dreaded he went to the Sudan, initially as private ailment, bilharziasis, and his great physician to the ‘ruling elite‘. Here there is contribution to at large. some confusion as to whom he was actually Christopherson, a brilliant physician and a appointed. Some records mention that he was very fine surgeon, did not get his well ‗Physician to the Governor General, Sir acclaimed and well deserved place in medical ‘(5), while other sources state history and his acclaim for fame and that he came as private physician to Sir recognition, except very lately. His obituary in Rudolph Von Slatin Pasha, the Inspector the British Medical Journal in the July 30th General of Sudan. In this relationship, lies 1955 issue read: ‗Dr JB Christopherson, who some of ‘the boon and the bane‘ of died at his home at Lyden-on-Severn in July Christopherson. Rudolph von Slatin Pasha, an 21st, made some important contribution to the Austrian, who was in the service of the Turco- knowledge of tropical diseases…..‘(1). He was Egyptian Sudan Government before the described in another tribute by Sir Russell Mahdists uprising as Governor of Darfur from Brain in the Presidential Address of the Royal 1878, was later to be captive of Mahdi and a College of Physicians of London as ‗..a prisoner and confidante of his successor, versatile man who turned his mind into many Khalifa Abdullahi from 1884 till 1896. Slatin branches of medicine and served with played a decisive role in the Reconquest of the distinction in tropical medicine…‘(2). It was Sudan following his successful escape to intriguing that JBC was regarded as otherwise Cairo and was among the invading troops led by many of his fellow Britons who were his by Lord Kitchener. Following the defeat of his contemporaries in the Sudan. His early few old foes, the Mahdists, Slatin was appointed years were indeed happy and blissful, but Inspector General of Sudan Government. despite all his qualities, JBC was not a ‗man Christopherson was mentioned to have of politics‘, and as described by Ann become his physician, close friend and Crichton-Harris; ‘as a man who would rashly confidante. On the other hand, Rudolph Slatin speak out his mind‘(3). So, he would suffer was to be the saviour of Christopherson greatly. He was labeled by his administrative following his capture by the Austrians in British seniors, Sir Reginald Wingate, and Sir Serbia during the Great War. The life and time Peter Phipps ‗after a good spell of of Christopherson in the Sudan was to be full ‗honeymoon period‘, as a ‗trouble-maker‘ (4). of events, turmoil, personality clashes and John Brian Christopherson was born in sound medical achievements. He was to be a Batley, West Yorkshire in 1868, the son of foe and a friend to many of his native Britons, Cannon Brian Christopherson, Rector of both medical and non-medical. He was Falmouth. He was educated at Newcastle- labelled as ‗trouble maker‘ by some senior Sudan Med J 2017 April;53(1) 34

Short Communication Bilharzia cure discovery Tarik Elhadd officials like Sir P R Phipps, the private Christopherson had joined the service of secretary to the Governor General and at some Sudan Government. Balfour was to ‗reign point was assistant Civil Secretary. Sir supreme‘ in his own ‗Laboratory Kingdom‘, Reginald Wingate was also to write in a and despite that he was appointed as Medical private letter to Phipps expressing his wish for Officer of Health of Khartoum, he was ‗this troublesome doctor to pack up and go working completely independently, but not home‘(4). without tandem, from the rest of his other Christopherson Personality Clashes & medical colleagues. Little is known about the Professional Feuds: professional and the personal relationship The ‗*Appointment Blunder‘ & the Crispin between Balfour and Christopherson for the Affair full decade that lapsed thereafter, but from the There is certainly cloudy information limited information available was that during surrounding the establishment of Sudan the first few years, probably till 1906, their Medical Department in 1904, and the ensuing encounters was more cordial (4). Balfour made conflict and dispute of the appointment of its several comments in praise of first director. What filtered out was conflicting Christopherson‘s contribution to the stories of what described by Ann Crichton flourishing laboratories, and these comments Harris as ‗the appointment blunder’ of the were made in the First Wellcome Report first director of SMD(4). By 1904 Dr published in 1904(6), but not so in the Second Christopherson had been in the Sudan for over Report published in 1906(4). However, the last two years, and his star was rising. Edward two issues in 1908 and 1911 respectively, had Smyth Crispin, who came to Sudan earlier no mention of any contribution from than Christopherson, was approached by the Christopherson. As Crichton-Harris argued, it Principal Medical Officer of the Egyptian was very much open to speculations that Army (? Dr S Lyle Cummins), to take up the Christopherson was the subject to the ‗policy post, totally unaware that Dr Theodore Dyke of exclusion‘ by Balfour and his associates(4). Acland, the medical advisor to the Sirdar had On the other hand, Christopherson medical also approached Dr Christopherson and papers at Durham do contain a substantive offered him the post. Both accepted the offer. collection of articles on the subject of Later, it was felt that Christopherson was ‗Sudanese Medicine & Tribal Customs‘. It more suitable for the post, so Crispin was obvious that Christopherson had made protested and threatened to resign(6). significant efforts to gather as much as Eventually Crispin accepted to take up the possible of material relating to these topics post of Medical Officer for Port Sudan, which using his network of subordinates scattered all was in process of being built as the new over Sudan when he was director of the harbour for the country. In the aftermath, medical department. The response relations between Crispin and Christopherson Christopherson received from a list of many were never mended, and that threw significant Syrian and Egyptian doctors was used to cloud over their working relationship, which compile a paper on the subject by was to last for many years to follow. Christopherson(7). Possibly it was not a sheer Christopherson remained director between coincidence that the same subject was written 1904/1905 till 1908 when he was sacked and in details in the Third Wellcome Report replaced by Colonel Mathias, Principal published in 1908. In that Report, there were 4 Medical Officer of the Egyptian Army. What articles; one from D G Anderson, the second made things more complicated was that from Leonard Bousfield, the third from Dr Crispin was appointed as his Assistant Hassan Zaki, and the last was supplementary Director (6). notes from Rudolph von Slatin Pasha. It was The Rift with Balfour & his circle not clear whether Balfour had commissioned As earlier mentioned, Andrew Balfour arrived then he changed his mind, or whether it was a in Sudan in January 1903, few month after coincidence. One can only speculate. Sudan Med J 2017 April;53(1) 35

Short Communication Bilharzia cure discovery Tarik Elhadd

Christopherson to deal with the subject and following his return to London in 1919 he was Sudanese native remedies in the Mahdi and not taken in the staff of the London School of Khalifa‘s time in Omdurman‘, including an Tropical Medicine despite him been an account by Khalifa Ahmad Sharfi (a maternal authority on tropical medicine. One may also uncle of the Mahdi)(8). All these contributions only speculate that his bad term with Andrew were never published!. Balfour may have played a role in this. As documented by Ann Crichton-Harris, Christopherson, on the other hand, seemed to Christopherson and Balfour were openly have been in good relationship with Albert involved in a rift on ‗naming a spirochete‘, or Chalmers, the successor of Andrew Balfour, on reporting the ‗first case of relapsing fever with whom he co-authored some papers (11). form the Sudan‘(4). The actual conflict Bilharzia Drug Discovery & the ‗McDonagh between the two men was open to several Case‘ stories but it was so intense to the extent that, During Christopherson‘s time in Sudan, as it filtered later, that Balfour was Bilharzia was very rampant in both Egypt and considering to take a legal action against the Sudan. Prior to the establishment of the Christopherson(4). The rift between Balfour Gezira Scheme, cases were rather sporadic and Christopherson seems to have also with significant proportion of those cases involved, in a ‗silent war‘, some of Balfour occurring actually among the Egyptian troops. friends and associates. Leonard Bousfield who Indeed most cases who were to be treated by was very close to Balfour and who succeeded the newly discovered drug were Egyptian him as Khartoum Medical Officer of Health in soldiers. Sir Leonard Rogers in Calcutta in 1913, never mentioned Christopherson in his 1912 was the first to have started treatment of memoirs; ‘Sudan Doctor’, published in 1954 cases of leishmaniasis effectively by sodium (a year before the death of Christopherson)(9). antimony tartarate. Christopherson would treat Further, despite that it was not clear how close leishamnia cases, and while he was assessing William Byam to Andrew Balfour, but the the effectiveness of this treatment, he realized former in his personal memoirs; ‘The Road to that those patients who were co-infected with Harley Street’ also did not touch at all on ‗bilharziasis‘ did have some intriguing Chrsitopherson despite Byam was the senior findings in their urine. He realized that the medical officer of Khartoum District in 1911, bilharzia ova were rendered sterile with eggs and Christopherson was the director of both no longer hatched when passed into fresh Khartoum and Omdurman Civil Hospitals. water, and even some had dead miracidia. So, The number of the British doctors and the size he decided to try the treatment of tartar emetic of the British Community in Khartoum during in cases of ‗Schistosoma haematobium‘(sic), a that time were relatively small, and you would disease which was then totally incurable. In expect people of the same profession to know his famous Lancet paper published in 1918 each other. Further, when Byam joined the entitled ‗The successful use of antimony in headquarters of Sudan Medical Department in Bilharziasis‘; Christopherson asserted that: 1911, he lived in the same Doctors Mess with ‗after trying and confirming the conclusion Andrew Balfour and his deputy, Robert of previous workers on the use of intravenous Archibald(10). Colonel Byam, as it transpired injection of antimony tartarate (tartar emetic) later from his autobiography, appears to have in cases of Oriental sore, internal leishmanisis been in good term with Balfour and Crispin. and naso-oral leishmaniasis (Espundia) as He was a known close friend of Robert found in the Sudan. Archibald with whom they wrote one of the In May 1917, I commenced at the prominent books at the time on Tropical Khartoum Civil Hospital to treat bilharziasis Medicine, ‗The Practice of Medicine in the (both vesical and rectal) by the same Tropics‘ published in 1923. Furthermore, drug…….The treatment of bilharziasis up to despite Christopherson was one of the earlier the present has been altogether palliative and staff of Albert Dock Hospital in London, unsatisfactory. It has baffled all attempts to Sudan Med J 2017 April;53(1) 36

Short Communication Bilharzia cure discovery Tarik Elhadd find a satisfactory remedy’. He would go on to Dr Hassan Effendi Zaki, he paid tribute to state: ‗There is no doubt that antimony given ‗Christo‘ for all his good contribution to the as intravenous injection of tartar emetic welfare of his Sudanese patients and considerably interferes with bilharzias and friends(13). suspend its activities, even when it does not Christopherson, following his return to Britain actually kills. My own opinion, based on the in 1919 worked as a consultant at London cases treated during the last year, is that Chest Hospital, Victoria Park. Further, from antimony (antimony tartarate) is a definite his fame and authority in treating Bilharziasis, cure for bilharziasis, and that intravenous he founded and ran a ‗Bilharzia Clinic‘ at injection of tartar emetic kill the shistosoma Ministry of Pension which dealt with many haematobium and render it harmless…..These British service men who contracted the observations were based on 13 cases of disease overseas. He became a Fellow of the schistosoma haematobium, more than 13, Royal College of Surgeons of England, and of however, were treated by the method’(12). the Royal College of Physicians of London. Christopherson later compiled details of 70 For a while he was examiner at the London cases he treated at Khartoum Civil Hospital School of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. He (KCH)l. In that paper he acknowledged the was awarded the CBE (Comrade of British efforts and help of his colleague, Dr V S Empire) in 1919. He also received the Order Hodson, Senior Medical Inspector at Atbara, of The Nile (Third Class) from Sultan of who had treated several cases at KCH during Egypt(14). Christopherson retired for the last his leave absence in 1917, and also twenty years of his life to a country home in subsequently treated some cases successfully Lydney-on-Severn in Gloucestershire, which at Atbara Hospital. He also acknowledged the he called ‗Heaven‘s Gate‘. He died aged 87 on help of his subordinates, Dr Mustafa Izzedin July 21st 1955. A close friend would write (? an Egyptian or may be a ? Syrian doctor), word of tribute following his death in 1955: and Mr. John Newlove. Such achievement ‘Christo, a name by which he was known by was destined not to pass peacefully into fame his many friends in Khartoum, was most and recognition, and yet another ‗cloud was to popular with the Sudanese who worked with stand over the portrait‘. After Christopherson him in his researches, but had little time for published his famous Lancet paper, another the social life in the British Community, by British doctor, Dr JER McDonagh had whom he was much admired. He was very claimed that he had cured three cases of humble and retiring never seeking any high urinary bilharziasis three years before honour which he richly deserved. He was well Christopherson(4). A long feud then ensued known for his many selfless kindness to his which left its shadows on Christopherson patients and would often ask me to visit some achievement, and his deserved acclaim to special patient in whom he was interested’(15). fame and recognition was never to occur Sir Philip Manson Bahr, wrote in during his lifetime. Christopherson obituary in the BMJ (July 30th In Sudan, Christopherson was very popular 1955), words of praise, appreciation and among his non-British colleagues, patients, tribute: and subordinates. He was famous as ‘Christo’. ‘Christo to his friends- has passed on at age Several records denote that he was very much of 87. His name is but a memory to the present beloved even by some notable Sudanese generation, for he had been living in public and religious figures. Documents kept retirement in his country home appropriately at the Sudan Archives in Durham document named ’Heaven’s Gate’ for nearly twenty that he had a long friendship with Syed Al- years, yet his fame is known to all students of Shareef Yusuf Mohamed Al-Ameen al-Hindi, tropical medicine. To Christopherson is a notable religious Sudanese leader(4). In a undoubtedly due the modern treatment of letter sent to Christopherson by one of his schistosomiasis with antimony: he was the long Sudanese subordinates and confidante, first to put this method on a proper basis. It is Sudan Med J 2017 April;53(1) 37

Short Communication Bilharzia cure discovery Tarik Elhadd only fair to him that the facts should now be schistosomiasis by antimony three years set forth, as they are apt to be forgotten.…..’ I previously…… From this time onwards, I was was fortunate to be able to visit him in April to see a great deal of Christo. He `was a kind, 1919, in Khartoum, where he most considerate soul, with a keen inquisitive look convincingly demonstrated his technique of and an inquiring mind….. He played a great injection and the results he had obtained….It part in the medical history of the Sudan. ….we should be stated that this work of shall all mourn the passing of Christo for a Christopherson was quite original, and it was man of great worth and great attainments, only when the results had been published that who became a guide, philosopher, and a he became aware that JER McDonagh had friend to all who came into contact with claimed to have cured two cases of urinary him’(16). Footnote: Rodulph Carl von Slatin, an Austrian of Jewish held till 1914 when he was compelled to leave on the ancestry, born in Vienna 1857, d 1932. He came to eruption of the Great War being an Austrian citizen. He Sudan in 1874 as an aide to the Austrian Consul and became Baron of Austrian Empire in 1906, Knight and was appointed thereafter by Charles Gordon as commander of St Michael & St George 1898, Knight Governor of Darfur in 1878. He became captive of the Commander of Victorian Order 1908. Mahdi and his successor, Khalifa Abdullahi and On the medical side, Slatin had sound knowledge of managed to escape to Egypt in 1896. His escape as well Sudanese medical practices during the Turkkiya& the as his book ‗Fire & Sword in the Sudan‘ was a major Mahdiyyia. His additional notes to the article written by pretext to the Reconquest operation of the Sudan, and Dr Hassan Effendi Zaki ‗The healing art & practices by the support from the swinging of the public opinion in the dervishes in the Sudan during the rule of the Mahdi London for the Nile Expedition prove very decisive for and the Khalifa‘ was a sound reference to medical the success of the operation. The book was translated practices during that era. from German by Reginald Wingate who was in charge *‗The Appointment Blunder‘; is a descriptive term first of the Intelligence Service of the Egyptian Army. Slatin used by Ann-Crichton Harris, a great niece of JBC was amongst the invading troops led by Kitchener. who researched for eight years the records of her great Following the Reconquest, in 1900 Slatin was uncle and eventually wrote his biography published in appointed as Inspector-General of the Sudan, a post 2009 by Brill entitled ‗Poisons in small measures. which was purposely created for him, and which he Dr Christopherson and the cure of Bilharzia.

References 1. Christopherson JB. Obituary. British 8. SAD 407/6/1-14. (Sudan Archives at Medical Journal July 1955, p. 327. Durham). 2. The Annual Presidential Address of the 9. Bousfield L. C Johnson. Sudan Doctor; Royal College of Physicians of London, London:1954. Monday March 26th 1956. 10. William Byam. The Road to Harley Street. 3. Crichton-Harris A. Undercurrent on the London: Geoffrey Bles;1963.p.83. Nile. J Medical Biography 2006; 11. Christopherson JB, Chalmers AJ. A 14(1):8−16. Sudanese Actinomycosis. Annals of Trop 4. Crichton-Harris A. Poisons in small Med (Section Parasitology) 1916;17:223-82. measures. Dr Christopherson and the cure 12. Christopherson JB. The successful use of for Bilharzia. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill; Antimony in Bilharziasis administered as 2009. intravenous injections of antimonium 5. John B Christopherson. Catalogue of papers, tartaratum (tartar emetic). Lancet 1918; Sudan Archives Durham, GB- 192:325–7. 0033.http://reed.dur.ac.uk/xtf/view?docId=e 13. SAD 407/2/1-25. (Sudan Archives at ad/sad/christoj.xml. (accessed 15th May Durham). 2014)+. 14. SAD 407/6/27 (Sudan Archives at Durham). 6. Squires, HC. Sudan Medical Service, An 15. The London Gazzette, 14 March 1916; experiment in Social Medicine. London: 2782. Heineman;1958. 16. The Sudan Diocesan Review, Autumn 1956, 7. SAD 407/2/1-79. (Sudan Archives at 50/1/248. Durham). Sudan Med J 2017 April;53(1) 38