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Component-I (A) – Personal details:

Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.

Dr. Krishnendu Ray Dept. of AIHC, University of Calcutta.

Dr. K. Mavali Rajan Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan.

Prof. Bhaskar Reddy Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.

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Component-I (B) – Description of module:

Subject Name Indian Culture

Economic History of (from the Earliest Time Paper Name to 1707 AD)

Economy under the Chalukyas of Kalyana and Module Name/Title Kalachuris

Module Id IC / EHI / 25

Learn the political history and cultural influence of Pre requisites the Chalukyas of Kalyani and Kalachuris of the south Indian dynasties.

The south India under the Kalyani Chalukyas and Kalachuris viewed tremendous economic development. They paid much attention on the agricultural expansion. The majority of the people Objectives lived in villages and worked farming the stable crops paddy. Agriculture based village industry developed. Trade and commerce flourished during the time periods.

Chalukyas / Kalyani / Kalachuris / Agriculture, Keywords Irrigation / Industry / Traders / Taxation

E-Text (Quadrant-I) :

1. Introduction

In south India the period of Kalyani Chalukyas and Kalachuris were important in the field of economic development. They took keen interest in agrarian expansion. They commenced many proposals to the improvement of agricultural and its prosperity. For the enhancement of more agriculture produce they constructed a large number of tanks for the irrigation purpose. They also formed new settlements in villages and granting them as Brahmapuri to the Brahmin functionaries. These economic activities enabled them and enriched them towards the enhancement. These agrarian changes led to the appearance of commercial activities. Eventually these changes in both agriculture and trade and commerce improved the economic condition of the state.

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Map of Chalukya of Kalyani

Map of Kalachuri dynasty

2. Agriculture

2.1. Land Tenure

Land was by far the most important resource of medieval south India, as indeed in all pre- industrial food producing societies. It was played vital role in mobilizing revenue for the state in the form of land tax as well as agriculture produce. The king and the administrator realized the importance of the land and its value, henceforth; many initiatives were undertaken to the survey and measurement of the land. Demarcation of land was also done in proper manner. They tried to bring many forest lands under cultivation. The land grants served as one of the important means of bringing virgin soil under cultivation in Chalukya regions.

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In the Kalyani Chalukya period there was a practice of granting land to the descendants of the heroes who sacrificed their life for cause of the state. They granted lands and villages to the temples and Brahmins. Land grants to the Brahmin priest and mathas we also get it from the records of the Kalachuris. Reference is also made to Brahmapuri, which was the Brahmin settlement. This practice of rewarding plots of land, villages even sometimes the fiscal and administrative rights also granted to the Brahmins and the temples by the kings, queens, feudal lords, private individuals guilds and other institutions, which paved the way for the emergence of powerful landed intermediaries between the king and the people during the Kalyani Chalukyas period. Apart from the service tenure there is also evidence to individual ownership and royal ownership. In royal ownership the king had the right to own private land, which is generally referred to as royal land.

The land tenure of the period was known by in several terms viz. tala-vritti, bhatta-vritti, akkarika-vritti, kumara-vritti, deva-bhoga, (land gifted to Siva temples) etc. The gifts of land to temples for the maintenance of services are designated by the term tala-vritti. The term vritti is usually employed to designate service tenure. The bhatta-vritti is referring to free land donated for the teacher of Sastras. And akkarika-vritti refers to free land for the village teacher who taught morality to the students. The tala-vritti obviously means free land for the maintenance services in the tala shrine, to which the gift is made. There are several instances to the gift of land as tala-vritti. An inscription mentions that a village Suruki was given as tala-vritti by Attimabbe to the Brahma Jinalaya, a Jain basadi. The Sivanur village was made into a tala-vritti for the Siva temple of Nagesvara in Sundi erected by Nagadeva. This donation to Siva temples is also known as deva-bhoga. There is also reference to kumara-vritti, which stands for the land holding of the royal prince.

Generally land was divided into different types as wet, dry and garden lands, grassland, and wasteland and forest land. These divisions of land were based on the condition of soil and cultivation of the crops. The following terms indicates the land division of the Kalyani Chalukyas;

 Key (land under wet cultivation)

 Galde (land under dry cultivation)

 Tonta (garden lands)

 Adakeya-tonta (areca gardens)

 Mane and mane nivesana (houses and house-sites) and some other divisions.

During the Kalyani Chalukya period land was measured in the units of matter and kammas. There are references to 900 kammas and a matter of seventy six rods (kols) in Chalukyan inscriptions. But the kol (measuring rod) was itself no fixed unit. Numerous types rod occur in inscriptions such as piriya kol, kurita-kunteya kol, bherunda gale, etc. We also find the term rajamana as a royal measurement. The nivartana and khanduga are the other measures of land employed on occasions.

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2.2. Crop Cultivation

Agriculture was the main source of income of state through taxes on land and produce. The majority of the people lived in villages and they cultivated the staple food crops paddy in the wet land. The pulses and cotton cultivated in the dry areas and sugarcane in areas having sufficient rainfall, with areca and betel being the chief cash crops. Besides the cultivation of food grains and pulses, on both wet and dry land intensive cultivation of garden product were also extensively practiced. There are references to the grazing fields in the Chalukyan inscriptions. An inscription at Sitabaldi (Nagpur) belonging to the reign of Vikramaditya VI records that Dandanayaka Vasudeva gave away twelve nivartanas of land for grazing of cows (gopracara) and five more for a sphere (vahaka) who tended the cattle.

Among the cultivable lands the wet lands were the most valuable one, which were irrigated by means of water from a tank, canal, well, etc. With the availability of the irrigation facilities the people cultivated variety of food crops. Inscriptions give us valuable information regarding agricultural and horticultural products of the Kalyani Chalukya period. Paddy was cultivated in larger level. Inscriptions mention the cultivation of other agricultural products like indigo, maize, wheat, sesamum, mustard, castor, colam, etc. Among the garden crops areca nut, betel leafs, tamarind, mangoes, Palmyra, citron and sugar-cane figure predominantly. The root products like turmeric, ginger, kanda, pemdalam, cema, mullamgi, etc. and vegetables like potla-kakara, gummadi, vamga, baccali, nurulli, etc. are also referred in the inscriptional and literary sources.

Irrigation

Cultivation of various crops depended on a good supply of water. The river water is important source of irrigation, which give fertility to the soil of the river belts. During the scarcity of the river water the people stored the river water and rain water in the tank of the common villages. When the rainfall was uneven, cultivator used the tank water for irrigation purpose. The king and other royal families realized the importance of the irrigation, since the agriculture was the main occupation of the people. In the construction of the tank for water storage the king and royal families took special attention and provided their support in construction work. Inscriptions of the Kalyani Chalukya period give information on the support and patronage of the royal families for the promotion of the irrigation facilities. At Mantur in the Bijapur district (in 1041 A.D) certain incomes from taxes and fines were set apart for digging a tank called Rattasamudra after the Ratta governor of the locality. Another instances in 1052 A.D. the Kadamba prince Harikesarin presented to the mahajanas of Nirili (Niralgi in Darwar) the entire house tax of the place for the maintenance of the Piriyakere, the big tank.

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Royal Emblem of Kalachuris

Land was endowed in the same year for the maintenance of a tank Gundiyakere at Talakallu in the Bellary district. An inscription of 1071 A.D. from the Sorab taluk in the Shimoga district speaks about a successful scheme for bringing fresh land under cultivation by the digging of a new tank Settikere, and an endowment for the maintenance of this tank. Some time the entire toll taxes were transferred for the construction and maintenance of the water tank. These information notices that there were general realization of the importance of irrigation in land economy.

3. Village Industries

During the Kalyani Chalukya and Kalachuri periods different village industries were progressed as a controlled industry of the state. Number of agriculture based industries; oil- pressing industry, sugarcane mills, spinning and weaving industries were industries were located in almost all important big town and cities. The oil-presses were licensed by the kings unless they were granted exemption. All the industries had to pay their duty directly to the kings

In industrial activities many artisan community and other professional groups were involved. The artisans like carpenter, potter, black-smith, gold-smith, copper-smith etc. were closely associated with the economic development of the villages. Inscriptions of the Kalyani Chalukyas mentions certain occupational groups like cobbler, washer man, barber, cattle- keepers, various labours of both paid and free labour, etc. and their role in economic development of the country.

Salt manufacturing was important occupation of the state, which was continued to be a state monopoly under the many south Indian dynasties. Wood-work, ivory-work, jewels making, woolen carpets and some other crafts were also displayed extraordinary skill of the craftsmen. These professional groups had to get sanction from the governing authority for their professional vocation. All the professional groups paid their taxes to the state according to their status of the profession.

4. Coins

Both the Kalyani Chalukyas and the Kalachuris issued coins in their domain. Especially the Kalyani Chalukyas issued many coins in their country, which was mainly used for the commercial transaction. They issued gold and silver coins. We find large number of references to coins, mints, various denominations, the names of the coins in the

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There were many coins minting centre in the Chalukyan region. They minted their state coins at Lokkigunti and Sudi. Numerous references to the mint at the Lokkigunti indicate that it was an important mint during the Kalyani Chalukya period. The inscription of Tribhuvanamalla gives the evidence to the coin mint centre at Sudi. The inscription mentions gifts made by Uttavoja, the gold-smith and mint master of Tribhuvanamalla, to god Kammatesvara at Sudi. The same inscription mentions the word belliyagammata, which shows that silver coins were also minted in addition to gold coins.

Western Chalukya of Kalyani, Coins of the King Somesvara I Trilokamalla (1043-1068 A.D)

There are various terms occurring in the inscriptions of the Chalukyas to gold coins. The term gadyana refer to gold coin of Kalyani Chalukyas. Kondguli inscription of Bhulokamalla (dated 1132 A.D.) mentions some of the gold coins viz. varttaka lokki gadyana, kantaka piya gadyana and kantaka gadyana. Mostly the gold coins of the Kalyani Chalukyas are plated coins as they are of a base-metal core covered or plated with a thin layer of gold. Each design or symbol on the Chalukya coin has been impressed by a separate punch, and like the Kadamba coins the ones of the Chalukyas to assume the form of a concave saucer or cup.

Coins of the Kalyani Chalukya king Somesvara (1181-1189 A.D). Image Garuda depicted in the coin, with prominent beak, running right.

There were many symbols found in the Chalukya coins. The most common device on the obverse of the Chalukya coins is the varaha or boar. Religious symbols such as the lamp, lotus and conch sometimes appear around the boar. On a few rare coins, the sun and moon symbols are depicted above the boar - the moon as a crescent while the sun is shown as a circle or pellet. The varaha, was the royal emblem of the Kalyani Chalukyas.

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Apart from gold and silver coins the Kalyani Chalukyas also issued copper coins in their region. There are epigraphic as well as literary references to the copper coins. These kinds of coins are generally round and punched with various symbols. The Kalyana Chalukyan coins have been found in , Andhra, Tamilnadu and regions. One of the richest collections of the Kalayai Chalukya coins is from the Koduru trove, which is a small village in Nellore district of Andhradesa. The villagers discovered some copper and earthen pots containing gold coins numbering to 15, 462 in the Koduru village, which indicates the richness of the dynasty in minting several gold coins.

The Kalachuris also issued several coins, which is very similar to the coins of the Kalyani Chalukyas. Some of the coins have the punched devices which is also common on the later Chalukyan series. The coins bear the legend Kalache or Kalachera which may be taken to the dynastic name of the Kalachuris. The legend does not give the name of the issuing authority but coins with dynastic name may be referred to the period of Bijjala, the Kalachuri king (1156-1167 A.D.). Some varieties of coins with an ‘anthropoid figure’ and with dynastic name have been found in Kalachuri region. The king Somesvara issued several such type of coins during his reign. The coins of the Kalachuris bear the legend ‘Bhujabala’, which may indicate the title of the Kalachuri rulers.

Silver coin, known as a rupaka, of Krishnaraja Kalachuri (reigned c. 550-575 CE).

5. Merchant Guilds

The organization of corporate bodies became common in the 11th and 12th centuries. Every trader, artisans, and various occupational groups had their own organizations in early period. The merchants like gold merchants, clothe dealers, oil merchants and grain merchants, had their own organizations. Almost all arts and crafts were organized into guilds and work was done on a corporate basis. But inscriptional records do not mention individual artists, sculptors and craftsman. The merchants organized themselves into powerful guilds that transcended political divisions, allowing their operations to be largely unaffected by wars and revolutions. Their only threat was the possibility of theft from brigands when their ships and caravans traveled to distant lands.

Many guild organizations are noticed in the south Indian inscriptional volumes. Among them very powerful South Indian merchant guilds were included the Manigramam, the Nagarattar and Anjuvannam. Local guilds were called nagaram, while the Nanadesis were traders from neighbouring kingdoms who perhaps mixed business with pleasure. There is reference to Bananju merchants, the nanadesi, manevarata and jourupa in Kalachuri inscriptions.

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There were some classes among the merchant guilds of the Kalyani Chalukya period. Among them the Sixteen (settis) of the eight nads was most prominent, who used as carriers asses and buffalos. Many other classes of merchants and soldiers, viz. gavares, settis, settiguttas, ankakaras, biras, gandigas, gavundas, gavundasvamis, etc are noticed in inscriptions. In some Chalukya inscriptions we find mention the names of the guilds like 500 Vira Balanjiya, sixteen of eight nads and 500 svamis of Ayyavole in 1074 A.D from Holal. We also find the Nanadesis with a brief prasasti in 1127 A.D at Ragimasala vada. All these records came from the modern Bellary district.

The Nanadesis was a prominent trade guild during the Kalyani Chalukya period, who visited many countries in overseas. In Chalukya inscriptions we find mention of Nanadesi and the Mummuri-dands. The Nanadesis were divided into Cola, Malaya and on the basis of their region and linguistic group. They involved in trade activities, visited all countries, villages, towns, cities and with valuable articles in their bags. They traded in magnificent elephants, horses of the finest breeds, moonstones, pearls, rubies, diamonds, topaz, emerald and other precious articles. They also traded some commercial goods like cloves, sandal, musk, saffron and other species and perfumes. They paid the sunka regularly and filled the royal treasury with gold and jewels.

The wealthiest and most influential and celebrated of all South Indian merchant guilds was the self-styled Ainurruvar. They were also known as the 500 Svamis of Ayyavolepura (Brahmins and Mahajanas of present-day ), who conducted extensive land and sea trade and thereby contributed significantly to the total foreign trade of the empire. It fiercely protected its trade obligations (Vira Bananjudharma or law of the noble merchants) and its members often recorded their achievements in inscriptions (prasasti). Five hundred such excavated Prasasti inscriptions, with their own flag and emblem, the bull, record their pride in their business.

From the early periods these guilds have played a very important part in the support of trade and commerce. They organize themselves and frame their own rules and regulations for the maintenance of unity among the members and regulate its commercial activities. Through their guild unity they presented self government in trade. This federation of trade was most important component in the economic history of the ancient India.

6. Trade and Commerce

6.1. Commercial Centre

The urban economy of the Kalyani Chalukyas was mainly based on the commercial activities of the town and cities. We find several names of the towns in inscriptions and literatures. The big towns were designated as nagara, pattana or pura. Some of the nagara like Aihole and Dambal were called as maha-nagara (big towns), are well known to have been large mercantile settlements.

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In Tamil country the term nagaram was reserved exclusively for mercantile centre and pattanam for sea-ports. We find references to pattanasvamins and nagara settis, who were mostly the inhabitants of the pattanam and nagaram respectively. The general assembly of nagara was called mahajanas, who were very powerful group and controlled landed properties and its resources. The mercantile community of the nagara controlled and regulated matters relating to the trade and commerce of the country. These commercial centre played vital role in the growth of state’s economy and political legitimization of the influential community of the big centre.

6.2. Trade

Rich traders contributed significantly to the king's treasury through paying import and export taxes. The edicts of the Aihole Svamis mention trade ties with Indian kingdom and foreign kingdoms such as the Cheras, Pandyas, Maleya (Malaysia), Magadh, Kaushal, Sourashtra, Kurumba, Kambhoja (Cambodia), Lata (), Parasa (Persia) and Nepal. Travelling both land and sea routes, these merchants traded mostly in precious stones, spices and perfumes, and other specialty items such as camphor. Business flourished in precious stones such as diamonds, lapis, topaz, carbuncles, and emeralds. Commonly traded spices were cardamom, saffron, and cloves, while perfumes included the by-products of sandalwood, musk, civet and rose. These items were sold either in bulk or hawked on streets by local merchants in towns.

6.2.1. Inland Trade

There was a remarkable growth in internal trade in Chalukyan territory. The regular markets had gradually become urban centre. Various commodities were brought from villages to urban markets for sale. There were excellent high ways to transport goods from one place to another and one region to another region. The capital city of the Western Chalukyas had remained an important trading centre. There were other commercial centre emerged as the urban centre in core area of the Chalukya region.

Regarding the commercial activities in inland transaction, every village in south India under the study period had its market. In the village markets the best articles were kept for sale including different kinds of grains. In addition to grains, there were other articles such as: oil, ghee, areca nut, vegetables, flowers, coconuts, sugar, cloth, sandals, etc. were sold in their markets. Every village temple also surrounded by the shops. A license had to be taken to open shops by merchants in certain areas. The license was granted at the request by the royal officers. The interest shown by kings in internal trade is evidenced by such royal support.

In inland transaction, the merchants used roadways both trunk and sub-roads for transport of the merchandise. The internal trade must have been carried by transporting merchandise in carts or on the backs of pack-animals. The merchants moved about in caravans to avoid the risk from robbers. They timed their travel to particular places in accordance with the festivals which took place at the temples of the various localities. Mostly temple festivals were the important marketing place for people of the country.

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6.2.2. External Trade

The Kalyani Chalukyas controlled most of South India's west coast and by the 10th century they had established extensive trade ties with the Tang Empire of China, the empires of South East Asia and the Abbasid Caliphate in Bhagdad, and by the 12th century Chinese fleets were frequenting Indian ports.

The traders from Chalukya country exported many commercial goods to the China and other foreign counties. They exported textiles, spices, medicinal plants, jewels, ivory, rhino horn, ebony and camphor to Song dynasty of China. The same products also reached ports in the west such as Dhofar and Aden. The final destinations for those trading with the west were Persia, Arabia and Egypt. The Kharepetan plates of Rattaraja (1008 A.D.) mentions the overseas trade of the Kalyani Chalukyas with Malaya archipelago.

The thriving trade center of Siraf, a port on the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf, served an international clientele of merchants including those from the Chalukya Empire who were feasted by wealthy local merchants during business visits. An indicator of the Indian merchants' importance in Siraf comes from records describing dining plates reserved for them. In addition to this, Siraf received aloe wood, perfumes, sandalwood and condiments from south India.

The most expensive import to South India was Arabian horse shipments, this trade being monopolized by Arabs and local Brahmin merchants. Traveller Marco Polo, in the 13th century, recorded that the breeding of horses never succeeded in India due to differing climatic, soil and grassland conditions. The busy trade activities with many overseas territories indicate the very close commercial relationship with those counties.

7. Taxation

We find numerous technical terms of revenue in the inscriptions of the Kalyani Chalukyas. Two kinds of revenue were collected by the state viz. aya and sunka. The term aya which comprised all other terms of income, fell into various kinds.

The most notable kinds of income of the state were siddhaya, pannaya, and dandaya. The term siddhaya stands for the traditional land tax; the pannaya was income from merchandise and the dandaya was income from fines imposed by court or payment for punishment for offences. The term sunka is used for a general income. There were several variety of sunka levy mentioned in Chalukya inscriptions, viz. vadda-ravulada sunka, perjjunka and manneya sunka. Each of these sunka was evidently collected and administered by district agencies of the state.

Land tax assessment was based on frequent surveys evaluating the quality of land and the type of produce. The Kalyani Chalukya records specifically mention black soil and red soil lands in addition to wetland, dry land and wasteland in determining taxation rates. The land tax was called siddhaya in Kalyana Chalukya period.

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Taxes were levied on mining and forest products too. Sometimes additional income was raised through tolls for the use of transportation facilities. The state also collected fees from customs, professional licenses, and judicial fines. Records show horses and salt were taxed. The commercial goods like gold, textiles, perfumes and agricultural produce like black pepper, paddy, spices, betel leaves, palm leaves, coconuts and sugar were taxed by the state.

They collected various professional taxes from the people. Angadi-dere (tax on shops), domba-dere (tax on tumblers), gaana-dere (tax on oil mills), navida-dere (tax on barbers), were some of the professional taxes. House tax (manevana), tax on threshold (hosatilu), and the pandals (hamdara) were property taxes levied by the local bodies. There were commercial taxes collected on merchandise. These commercial taxes were collected from the merchants of the country, those who involve in both inland and overseas trade.

In the villages of the study region many taxes were collected. There were separate officials to look after the village lands and its management. The important village officials is mentioned in inscriptions from rural areas were the Gavundas (officials) or Goudas. The Gavundas belonged to two levels of economic strata, the Praja Gavunda (people's Gavunda) and the Prabhu Gavunda (lord of Gavundas). They served the dual purpose of representing the people before the rulers as well as functioning as state appointees for tax collection and the raising of militias. They are mentioned in inscriptions related to land transactions, irrigation maintenance, village tax collection and village council duties.

8. Summary

The economic condition of the south India during the Kalyani Chalukyas and Kalachuris was agriculture based. They worked for the promotion of agriculture, since it was the main occupation of the majority of state population. They used various kinds of irrigation methods to water their arable lands. Mostly they employed tank irrigation to provide water for wet crop cultivation. The trade and commerce were flourished and the merchants of the period involved in both internal and external trade. Both the Kalyani Chalukyas and Kalachuris imposed several taxes on people. The land holders, merchants, artisans and other professional groups paid their taxes directly to the state, which formed the backbone of its revenue. They also collected some emergency taxes at war times. All these revenue collection filled the state treasury, which led to country’s economic growth and prosperity.

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