Platalea leucorodia -- Linnaeus, 1758 ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- -- Common names: Eurasian ; European Spoonbill; Spatule blanche; Spoonbill European Red List Assessment European Red List Status LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN version 3.1) Assessment Information Year published: 2015 Date assessed: 2015-03-31 Assessor(s): BirdLife International Reviewer(s): Symes, A. Compiler(s): Ashpole, J., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Van den Bossche, W., Wheatley, H. & Wright, L. Assessment Rationale European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales this has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27. Occurrence Countries/Territories of Occurrence Native: Albania; Armenia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Belgium; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; France; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Italy; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Malta; Moldova; Montenegro; Netherlands; Portugal; Romania; Russian Federation; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Spain; Switzerland; Turkey; Ukraine; United Kingdom Vagrant: Belarus; Faroe Islands (to DK); Greenland (to DK); Finland; Iceland; Ireland, Rep. of; Latvia; Luxembourg; Norway; Poland; Canary Is. (to ES); Sweden Population The European population is estimated at 10,200-15,200 pairs, which equates to 20,400-30,500 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 6,700-8,800 pairs, which equates to 13,400-17,600 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF. Trend In Europe and the EU27 the population size is estimated to be increasing. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF. Habitats and Ecology Palearctic breeding populations are fully migratory (Matheu et al. 2014) but may only travel short distances (Snow and Perrins 1998). In the north of its range the species breeds in the local spring (e.g. from April). The species usually nests in monospecific colonies or in small monospecific groups amidst mixed-species colonies (Matheu et al. 2014). When not breeding the species forages singly or in small flocks (Matheu et al. 2014) of up to 100 individuals (Hancock et al. 1992) and migrates in flocks of up to 100 individuals (Brown et al. 1982, Snow and Perrins 1998). It is most active during the morning and evening (although in coastal areas it forages at low tide regardless of the time of day) (Hancock et al. 1992), and often roosts communally up to 15 km away from feeding areas (Brown et al. 1982). The species shows a preference for extensive shallow (Matheu et al. 2014) (less than 30 cm deep) wetlands with mud, clay or fine sand substrates, generally avoiding waters with rocky substrates, thick vegetation or swift currents (Hancock et al. 1992). It inhabits either fresh, brackish or saline (Hancock et al. 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) marshes, rivers, lakes and flooded areas, especially those with islands for nesting or dense emergent vegetation (e.g. reedbeds) and scattered trees or shrubs (Matheu et al. 2014) (preferably willow (Salix spp.), oak (Quercus spp.) or poplar (Populus spp.)) (Hancock et al. 1992). It may also frequent sheltered marine habitats during the winter such as deltas, estuaries, tidal creeks and coastal lagoons (Hancock et al. 1992, Matheu et al. 2014). Its diet consists of adult and larval (such as waterbeetles, dragonflies, caddisflies, locusts and flies), molluscs, , worms, leeches, , tadpoles and small fish (Matheu et al. 2014) up to 10–15 cm long (Hancock et al. 1992). It may also take algae or small fragments of aquatic plants (Matheu et al. 2014) (although these are possibly ingested accidentally with matter) (Hancock et al. 1992).

The nest is a platform of sticks and vegetation constructed on the ground on islands in lakes and rivers, or alternatively in dense stands of emergent vegetation (e.g. reedbeds) (Matheu et al. 2014), bushes or deciduous trees (such as willow, oak or poplar) (Hancock et al. 1992) up to five metres above the ground (Matheu et al. 2014). The species nests in colonies within which neighbouring nests are usually placed one or two metres apart or touching (Hancock et al. 1992). Breeding colonies are sited within 10–15 km of feeding areas, often much less (although the species may also feed up to 35–40 km away) (Hancock et al. 1992). Habitats & Altitude Habitat (level 1 - level 2) Importance Occurrence Artificial/Aquatic - Irrigated Land (includes irrigation channels) suitable breeding Artificial/Aquatic - Irrigated Land (includes irrigation channels) suitable non-breeding Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Mangrove Vegetation Above High Tide Level suitable breeding Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal Brackish/Saline Lagoons/Marine Lakes suitable breeding Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal Brackish/Saline Lagoons/Marine Lakes suitable non-breeding Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal Freshwater Lakes suitable breeding Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal Freshwater Lakes suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Estuaries suitable breeding Marine Neritic - Estuaries suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Marshes/Pools (under ha) suitable breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Marshes/Pools (under ha) suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls) suitable resident Altitude Occasional altitudinal limits Threats The species is threatened by habitat degradation through drainage and pollution (Matheu et al. 2014) (e.g. chlorinated hydrocarbons) (Hancock et al. 1992), and is especially affected by the disappearance of reed swamps due to agricultural and hydroelectric development (Hancock et al. 1992). Over-fishing and disturbance have caused population declines in Greece (Hancock et al. 1992), and human exploitation of eggs and nestlings for food has threatened the species in the past (Hancock et al. 1992, Matheu et al. 2014). Poaching and collisions with overhead electricity cables are the main non-natural causes of death during migration (Triplet et al. 2008). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses Biological resource Fishing & harvesting Timing Scope Severity Impact use aquatic resources Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact (motivation Declines unknown/ unrecorded) Stresses Ecosystem degradation Biological resource Hunting & trapping Timing Scope Severity Impact use terrestrial Ongoing Minority (<50%) Negligible declines Low Impact (intentional use - species is the target) Stresses Species mortality Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses Climate change & Droughts Timing Scope Severity Impact severe weather Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact Declines Stresses Ecosystem degradation Climate change & Habitat shifting & Timing Scope Severity Impact severe weather alteration Ongoing Minority (<50%) Unknown Unknown Stresses Ecosystem degradation; Indirect ecosystem effects Human intrusions & Recreational Timing Scope Severity Impact disturbance activities Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact Declines Stresses Species disturbance Invasive and other Unspecified species Timing Scope Severity Impact problematic Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact species, genes & Declines diseases Stresses Species mortality Invasive and other Unspecified species Timing Scope Severity Impact problematic Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact species, genes & Declines diseases Stresses Species mortality Natural system Abstraction of Timing Scope Severity Impact modifications surface water Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact (unknown use) Declines Stresses Ecosystem degradation Natural system Other ecosystem Timing Scope Severity Impact modifications modifications Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact Declines Stresses Ecosystem degradation Pollution Herbicides and Timing Scope Severity Impact pesticides Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact Declines Stresses Ecosystem degradation Residential & Commercial & Timing Scope Severity Impact commercial industrial areas Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact development Declines Stresses Ecosystem conversion Conservation Conservation Actions Underway The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES, Annex I of the EU Directive, Annex II of the Bern Convention, Annex II of the Convention on Migratory Species, under which it is covered by the African- Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA). An International Single Species Action Plan for the Conservation of the was published in 2008 (AEWA technical series no 35) (Triplet et al. 2008). An International Species Action Plan is in place and national or regional Special Action Plans and/or specialist working groups are in place in some countries (Netherlands, Spain, Hungary, Romania, Serbia). Systematic monitoring occurs in most countries in Europe, including an international colour ringing scheme. Wetland restoration and management of breeding colonies and feeding sites is in place in France, Spain, Croatia and Slovakia. Conservation Actions Proposed Measures should: Monitor breeding, migrating, wintering numbers, age composition and ecological changes at key sites; Establish non-intrusion zones around colonies; Sustainably manage wetland areas. Bibliography Brown, L.H., Urban, E.K. and Newman, K. 1982. The birds of Africa vol I. Academic Press, London. Hancock, J.A., Kushlan, J.A. and Kahl, M.P. 1992. , and of the world. Academic Press, London. Matheu, E., del Hoyo, J., Christie, D.A., Garcia, E.F.J. and Boesman, P. 2014. Eurasian Spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. and de Juana, E. (eds.) 2014. Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (retrieved from http://www.hbw.com/node/52779 on 14 April 2015). Melville, D.S. and Shortridge, K.F. 2006. Migratory waterbirds and avian influenza in the East Asian- Australasian Flyway with particular reference to the 2003-2004 H5N1 outbreak. In: Boere, G., Galbraith, C. and Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 432-438. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK. Snow, D.W. and Perrins, C.M. 1998. The Birds of the Western Palearctic vol. 1: Non-Passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Triplet, P., Overdijk, O., Smart, M., Nagy, S., Schneider-Jacoby, M., Karauz, E.S., Pigniczki, C., Baha El Din, S., Kralj, J., Sandor, A. and Navedo, J.G. 2008. International Single Species Action Plan for the Conservation of the Eurasian Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia. AEWA Technical Series No. 35. Bonn: Vogelbescherming Nederland (BirdLife Netherlands). Map (see overleaf)