Indigenous : Nahuatl, Quechua, & Maya

A Study of Multilingual Immigrant Students & Their Families

Carlos Pérez

Introduction against discrimination, especially when to shield themselves from discrimination, viewed as a minority within a minority by for social mobility, and for assimilation in This study investigated how immi- the larger Latino community. Peñalosa the United States (Gladwin, 2004; Light, grants from Latin America who speak in- (1986) found that the designation of in- 1995; Peñalosa, 1986). digenous languages perceive and respond digenous identity is not based on racial Although there are known dialects of to social, racial, linguistic, and cultural fac- genetics, but instead based on speaking an the major indigenous languages of Latin tors in the United States. Understanding indigenous . For example, when America, this study uses the term “indig- the experiences of immigrants who speak a speaker of Maya acquires the Spanish enous language” whether the participants an indigenous language may prove benefi- language, he or she may then have the speak an official indigenous language cial for teachers, students, policymakers, option of participating in the larger Latino or dialect. Also, in this study, the terms and others who want to understand the society. Once an indigenous person can “indigenous language,” “native language,” dynamics of the immigration of indigenous communicate in Spanish, he or she may and “” are used inter- persons to the United States and the im- be considered Latino. changeably. pact they have on American communities, Although Maya may not be classified especially the Latino community in the as an , in Southern Methodology United States. California some Mayan immigrants are According to Fernando Peñalosa’s experiencing a loss of their native lan- This study examined the multicultural (1986) Trilingualism in the Barrio: Mayan guage. In some indigenous households, the and multilingual experiences of six partici- Indians in Los Angeles, there has been native language has been endangered or pants, five of whom speak an indigenous an interest in the transitional nature of has been placed at the bottom of the list language. There were three interviews bilingualism, but much less attention has of preferred languages. When a language conducted with three married couples with been focused on populations in which more is lost, some language expressions cannot children. All of the couples indicated they than two languages are in daily use, and be translated, reflections of unique aspects were dealing with the transmission of the whether the differences between bilin- of a culture may be absent, and a family’s indigenous language and culture to their gualism and trilingualism are a matter oral history may never be retold with the children. All of the participant couples of degree or of kind. This study is partly same emphasis (Kwik, 1998). As a result, were married in their home country before based on the research of Peñalosa (1986) in the United States the use of English is immigrating to the United States. The who found that language may serve as a reducing or completely displacing the use three participant families try to preserve vehicle for social mobility. of minority languages (Kwik, 1998). the languages of three major pre-Colom- In general, the research indicates in- According to the work of Gladwin bian empires—Nahuatl from the Aztecs, digenous immigrants from Latin America (2004), Light (1995), and Peñalosa (1986), Quechua from the Incas, and Maya from perceive Spanish as a language of prestige, immigrants who speak an indigenous lan- the Mayan people. a means for social mobility, and as a buffer guage, and who do not transmit it to their The study included interviewing the children, view learning Spanish as benefi- couples, transcribing the interviews, and Carlos Pérez is a doctoral student cial and prestigious. In addition, persons categorizing the responses into various in the College of Educational Studies less sure of their status and identity may be language use categories. The general cat- at Chapman University, reluctant to admit they speak an indigenous egories include: use of indigenous language Orange, California. language. They do this for self-preservation, in small towns or villages; perceptions and

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 22 practices regarding language use; parents’ and language development. The par- brothers and sisters and grandparents.” transmission of language and culture to ticipants described their life experiences Furthermore, Juanita and Lorenzo, who children; acquisition and use of indigenous as well as their values, expectations, are also from small villages in Yucatán, language; and learning and using of Span- and perceptions during the interviews. Mexico indicated that they “speak Maya ish at school. Although the participants were given because it is our language.” Nahuatl, Quechua, and Maya are the options where they could be interviewed, The participants indicated that in indigenous languages spoken by the par- the three participant couples preferred to large cities in their native countries there ticipants of this study. The participants be interviewed in their homes. are fewer speakers of indigenous lan- also speak Spanish and are in the process Each interview ranged from 60 to 90 guages, and when speakers of indigenous of acquiring English. The three husbands, minutes. As a follow up procedure, the languages arrive in a city, they reserve the Gregorio, Cristobal, and Lorenzo, are more participant couples were contacted via use of an indigenous language to familial fluent in Spanish and know more English telephone to clarify interview responses interaction. Peñalosa (1986) also found than the wives, Beatriz, Mary, and Juan- that were unclear. The interviews were similar behavior in his research. ita, respectively. Mary is the only one that conducted in Spanish and recorded on The participants’ use of the indigenous does not speak an indigenous language. audio tapes and subsequently transcribed language was perceived as a means of com- Beatriz and Gregorio have three into English. This study is similar to the munication in immediate relationships, children, Mary and Cristobal have two research conducted by Gladwin (2004) yet Spanish was used primarily outside children, and Juanita and Lorenzo have who sought to determine how immigrant the village community, which corroborates a child. Beatriz and Gregorio have been families who speak indigenous languages the work of Peñalosa (1986) who found in the United States for approximately transmit their language and culture to indigenous language speakers did not use ten years, Mary and Cristobal for ap- their children. the minority language in public discourse. proximately four years, and Juanita and Additional research (Bixar, Pimentel, & Lorenzo for approximately seven years. Findings Juarez, 2008; Helmberger, 2006) indicates Beatriz and Gregorio speak Nahuatl; the implementation of Spanish in everyday Cristobal speaks Quechua; Juanita and Use of Indigenous Language transactions and interactions began when Lorenzo speak Maya. in Small Towns or Villages indigenous language speakers migrated The participants used indigenous lan- to a major city in their and Interview Questions guages more so in small towns as opposed increased when they immigrated to an Table 1 provides information regard- to large cities in their native countries. urban center in the United States. Ulti- ing the interview questions. There were For example, Cristobal who is from Peru, mately, the Spanish language became a 22 questions posed to the participants. stated, “In my village everyone spoke, rite of passage for immigrants who speak speaks, Quechua and even if people know an indigenous language (England, 2003). Design and Procedure how to speak Spanish, everyone speaks All the participants who speak an in Quechua.” Also, Beatriz whose family indigenous language spoke only the The interviews sought to elicit in- is from a small town in central Mexico indigenous language in the home while formation about the participants’ educa- said, “I learned Nahuatl. We only spoke growing up in their home country. Also, in tional experiences and personal history, Nahuatl at home with my parents and their home country, they had few, if any, especially issues of language acquisition formal opportunities to develop indigenous language literacy because indigenous lan- Table 1 guages were not taught in the schools they Personal history Language questions Questions involving attended. questions dealt with: related to: culture included: Home life in small towns and villages contributed to women being less schooled The participants’ birthplace Teaching the native culture The number of people that than the men, although they used the and indigenous language are addressed in Spanish, English, to children and an indigenous language indigenous language more than the men (Peñalosa, 1986). Even after years of at- Childhood and adolescence The children’s perception Language and culture tending adult education courses, the wom- of indigenous language en were less literate and less proficient in and culture Spanish and English than the men. The language they learned Maintaining indigenous Children’s perceptions dealing language and culture with multiculturalism Perceptions and Practices and multilingualism Regarding Language Learning Early language instruction When and where indigenous Differences and similarities between The members of the three households language is used the indigenous language and culture reported learning and using the indigenous to that of the language in the home with both immediate and culture of their home country and extended family. For example, Grego- How living in the United States has rio claimed, “We always spoke Nahuatl in affected their children’s learning of the family and many people in the town the home language, culture, and values spoke in Nahuatl. At home we spoke in Perceptions of the United States’ Nahuatl and with most of my friends we culture spoke in Nahuatl and Spanish.” In recall- ing her family’s language practices during Children’s loss of native culture her childhood, Juanita remembered, “I, and language we, spoke Maya, only Maya” and Lorenzo

FALL 2009 23 recalled, “I learned Maya with my family children honoring parents and grandpar- countrymen is similar to Spanish not be- and I remember we only spoke in Maya ents, greeting elders, helping with chores, ing highly regarded in the United States, when I was a boy . . . . We talked only Maya and appreciating traditional music. In which relegates the indigenous language in the house.” other words, this finding revealed a strong to a third tier status (Lipski, 2005). Juanita shared her views of language association between indigenous language use with family members and with non- and cultural norms. Learning and Use of Spanish at School family members: Beatriz and Gregorio are from central All of the participants who learned Like I said, my husband and I speak only Mexico. They attempt to transmit culture an indigenous language as a first lan- in Maya with each other and with our and their native language similar to how guage and Spanish as a second language son, but sometimes we don’t tell people Juanita and Lorenzo transmit culture and learned Spanish at school. Also, the level we don’t know that we speak a dialect, language to their children. For example, of Spanish fluency varied according to the unless it is necessary to mention it. With Beatriz suggested, “We try to talk to them individual’s number of years of formal edu- other people I try to talk with them in as much as possible in Nahuatl and we cation. Additionally, professional careers Spanish, with my little Spanish, the best make it a requirement for them to talk to us that I can. could not be achieved in an indigenous in Nahuatl unless they cannot find the cor- language because there were no schools, Moreover, Cristobal commented, rect word in Nahuatl, then they use a word technical institutes, or universities that “I learned Quechua first as a child . . . in Spanish.” Gregorio said, “Yes, we attempt offered programs of study in an indigenous I learned Quechua from my family, my to give them our customs and traditions language. parents, and family members . . . at home because these are the only values we have to For example, Cristobal stated, we mostly spoke in Quechua.” In addition, give them, to teach them . . .” When Beatriz an association to home and family was was asked how her sons view the Nahuatl It was in Lima (capital of Peru) where we used Spanish .... In school, I learned to directly based on the use of the indigenous language and culture she answered, “They read and write in Spanish .... language because it was the first language appear to be fine with the Nahuatl language learned. For example, Cristobal indicated, and customs because I talk to them mostly Lorenzo talked about his experiences in “The first language I learned as a child in Nahuatl . . . . We listen to typical, tradi- school, was Quechua so it has a connection to tional music in Nahuatl . . .” I learned Spanish in school .... The teach- home and family to me.” Gregorio recalled ers taught us different subjects in Span- Acquisition and Use with a similar experience, “When I feel the ish only .... I don’t think the teachers most comfortable talking about my ideas of Indigenous Language knew Maya because we [the students] it is in Nahuatl . . . . Plus, it is part of my The participants were aware that Eng- always talked to the teachers in Spanish memory of family and an important part lish is at the top of the linguistic hierarchy in school. of my childhood, my life, my person.” in the United States, and Spanish is the On the contrary, Juanita did not learn Span- most used language in the local Latino ish because Parents’ Transmission community. In regard to their children, of Language and Culture to Children the participants considered the indigenous I never went to school. In my village there were no schools at that time, so I never language as the language of communica- A finding dealing with parents’ trans- went to school. This is why I did not learn mission of language and culture to their tion with immediate and extended fam- to read or write. children revealed there are various de- ily. Conversely, Spanish is viewed as the grees or levels of transmitting indigenous language of interaction in employment Beatriz attended school until the third language and culture to the children. For settings and for economic survival, and grade and she affirmed, “That’s why I did example, at home Cristobal speaks an English as the language for university not learn how to read and write very well.” indigenous language, Quechua, but he is studies, white-collar professions, and so- She elaborated further when she clarified, not teaching it to his children. Since Mary cial mobility. “I meant to say that I did learn how to read speaks Spanish only, family conversations Although Spanish and English serve and write Spanish in school, but not very are in Spanish despite Cristobal’s desire of as a means of communication with the well, but I never learned how to read or his children learning the indigenous lan- larger society and the world, maintaining write in Nahuatl.” guage. This finding suggests an increased the indigenous language sustains a col- None of the participants of this study probability of indigenous language loss lective cultural bond among its speakers. who spoke an indigenous language could in the home if the mother does not speak However, minority language may serve read or write their native language. For the indigenous language (Gladwin, 2004; to unite those who speak it, but also to example, Juanita did not learn to read Peñalosa, 1986). In other words, the chil- seclude those who opt not to speak it or or write any language, since she did not dren would be inclined to learn and use transmit it to their children (Giles & Pow- attend school as a child. Gladwin (2004) the indigenous language only if the mother esland, 1975; Tajfel, 1974). also found that speakers of indigenous also speaks the language. This study found the participants languages generally are unable to read and The transmission of culture goes primarily used the home as the locale for write their indigenous language. One of the beyond an appreciation of art artifacts to acquiring and maintaining the indigenous participants, Mary, although she knows include the transfer of values, traditions, language. The participants felt the use of how to read and write Spanish, she does norms, ethics, and appropriate behavior indigenous language was not highly re- not speak an indigenous language and, (Gladwin, 2004; Light, 1995; Peñalosa, garded in the larger society, but they knew therefore, her comments were not included 1986). For example, when the participants the use of the native language was instru- in this study. referred to culture they did not mean a mental for effective communication among The five participants who speak an display of artifacts in a museum. For the family members, close family friends, and indigenous language learned it in the participants, transmitting culture included fellow villagers. The realization that the home, but none learned to read it or write indigenous language is not valued by their it. None of the participants learned or

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 24 studied any subject matter in an indig- findings that serve as the basis of recom- dents and understand that progress with enous language. Therefore, from an early mendations, suggestions, and advice for females may take longer than with males. age the students who spoke an indigenous teachers, administrators, school staff, and Patience is paramount for all teachers, par- language internally linked it to private, researchers who are in positions to im- ticularly for adult literary educators who familial conversation, while Spanish was prove educational programs for indigenous need compassion and empathy for adult used for public, societal communication. immigrant students. learners who did not have the opportunity For example, while considering imple- to acquire literacy in any language. For Discussion mentation of an English-only program, it example, Juanita stated: is vital to understand that for many indig- when I was young there was no school in This study revealed significant con- enous people, speaking Spanish is viewed my village, so we never went to school, not cepts and issues that have relevance for as an immediate asset whereas speaking even a single day. This is why I cannot teachers, administrators, school staff, pub- English may not be. When a teacher is read or write. lic servants, and researchers who desire to monolingual, he or she should consider the The needs, abilities, and attitudes of better serve indigenous individuals and transitional stages indigenous students adult learners are constantly changing. communities. According to Gladwin (2004), experience while becoming trilingual and The adult educator may stimulate growth it is instrumental for educators to appreci- tricultural, which are complicated by the in English literacy, but also cultivate ap- ate indigenous culture and language in the learning of new values, norms, and expec- preciation for the students’ native cultures. United States as it may facilitate academic tations. For example, the Maya perceive It is possible that adult learners’ changes success among immigrant students who speaking Spanish as a means of shielding in environment and aging may prevent speak indigenous languages. To avoid themselves from discrimination within the adults from accepting new or different possible negative academic and cognitive Latino community, but also as a means concepts from what they already have in consequences, in addition to familial alien- to interact with their countrymen who their mindset (Wang, 2003). Therefore, an ation due to diminished levels of loyalty are also their neighbors, coworkers, and important role of adult educators is to un- to traditions and language, developing a classmates. Again, according to Juanita, derstand challenges and potential rewards positive indigenous identity may foster “We would be very isolated if we did not through fostering a collaborative learning academic success (Riegelhaupt, Carrasco, speak Spanish.” & Brandt, 2003). The ability to foster academic success can be enhanced by an educator’s aware- ness of the needs and challenges of persons . . . while considering implementation of an English-only who speak indigenous languages, such program, it is vital to understand that for many indigenous as the desire to transmit the indigenous people, speaking Spanish is viewed as an immediate asset language and culture to their children. The implications for the field of education whereas speaking English may not be. depend on the ability of educators, adminis- trators, school board members, community activists, social workers, and researchers to environment in which all students may re- foster solidarity and equality for students Adult literacy teachers should de- inforce their development who speak indigenous languages. velop and implement lessons that are while nurturing their ethnic identities. According to Peñalosa (1986), immi- collaborative and interactive instead of Elementary and secondary teachers’ grants who speak an indigenous language relying primarily on a top-bottom lecture efforts to help indigenous students develop desire to learn English and are conscious approach. Adult learners not only develop English proficiency would be welcomed by of English being the language most often English skills in the classroom, but also indigenous children who aspire to adopt used in international communication. Nev- listening and speaking skills while con- English. On the contrary, Mayan children ertheless, they recognize it is not practical versing with others (Knowles, 1989; Wang, resist learning and speaking their indig- to not learn and use Spanish in Southern 2003). For example, while speaking about enous language and are more incentivized California. For example, Juanita describes her husband, Juanita indicated, “He can to practice Spanish and English. Accord- the use of Spanish to survive in the Latino communicate with people in English, even ing to Peñalosa (1986), Mayan children community: though he never went to English classes, even if it is not very good English, but he commonly experience transitional stages When my husband and I got this apart- can defend himself.” of developmental trilingualism to more ment where we are living now, all of the Adult literacy educators may benefit stable Spanish-English bilingualism talks were in Spanish. The representative (Peñalosa, 1986). of the apartment community spoke Span- from being aware that Mayan immigrant Teachers, administrators, and school ish and almost all of our neighbors speak men may be more apt to acquire English Spanish. Even in the English class here proficiency than women, who are histori- staff may facilitate connections with im- in the community, all the students speak cally less schooled than the men. In ad- migrant students through appreciating, Spanish to each other, and we can talk to dition, Mayan immigrant women use the respecting, and celebrating diversity while the teacher in Spanish. Another example native language more then men and are welcoming their indigenous heritage. is my husband works in construction and less literate and less proficient in Span- Ultimately, teachers’ kindness, love, and all of his coworkers and his managers ish and English than men and children, caring for their students are essential, speak Spanish. We would be very isolated especially for those who are minorities if we did not speak Spanish. although they may have attended adult education courses. within minority groups. The research of Gladwin (2004), the It behooves adult literacy educators Pre-K through twelfth grade teachers work of Light (1995), and the research to be patient with indigenous female stu- and adult literacy educators, while being of Peñalosa (1986) include significant in the vanguard of language policy and

FALL 2009 25 curriculum implementation, could profit foster academic success among such stu- thesis, California State University, Long from assuming a respectful approach to dent population. Beach. language minority groups’ interests, rec- Lipski, J. M. (2005). Code-switching of borrow- ognizing diversity within minority groups, ing? No sé so no puedo decir, you know.In L. References Sayahi & M. Westmoreland (Eds.), Selected valuing their students’ daily life experi- Bixar, M., Pimentel, C., & Juárez, A. (2008). The proceedings of the second workshop on Span- ences, and delivering equitable education International Journal of Language Society ish sociolinguistics (pp. 1-15). Somerville, (Corson, 2001). and Culture, 26, 25-33. MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. Teachers should be aware that stu- Chavajay, P., & Rogoff, B. (2002). Schooling and Peñalosa, F. (1986). Trilingualism in the barrio: dents want to learn English. Spanish- traditional collaborative social organization Mayan Indians in Los Angeles.Language speaking school children most likely will of problem solving by Mayan mothers and Problems & Language Planning, 10, 229- learn English, but they may also be mem- children. Developmental Psychology, 38, 252. bers of an indigenous language speaking 55-66. Riegelhaupt, F., Carrasco, R. L., & Brandtswz, E. (2003). Spanish: A language of indigenous community. In the classroom, indigenous Corson, D. (2001). Social justice, language policy, and English only. Dueñas. peoples of the Americas. In J. Reyhner, O. languages should not be perceived as in- England, N. C. (2003). Mayan language revival Trujillo, R. L. Carrasco, & L. Lockard (Eds.), ferior by the teacher or students. It is still and revitalization politics: Linguistics and Nurturing native languages. Flagstaff, AZ: pivotal for teachers to be respectful of all linguistic ideologies. American Anthropolo- Northern Arizona University. of their students, and willing to celebrate gist, 105, 733-743. Tajfel, H. (1974). Social identity and intergroup their heritage. Giles, H., & Powesland, P. F. (1975). A social behavior. Social Science Information, 13, Lastly, the implications to educational psychological model of speech diversity. In 65-93. policy ultimately rest upon school teachers, H. Giles & P. F. Powesland, (Eds.), Speech Wang, V. C. X. (2003). Principles of adult edu- cation: A guide to optimal performance in administrators, policy makers, community style and social evaluation. New York: Har- court Brace. adult education. Boston: Pearson Custom members, and researchers and their efforts Gladwin, R. F. (2004). Issues of language use Publishing. to identify strategies that will promote among the Guatemalan-Maya of Southeast academic success among language minority Florida. Florida Foreign Language Journal, students. Indeed, it is beneficial for teachers 2, 8-15. to be aware that language minority stu- Helmberger, J. L. (2006). Language and ethnic- dents may be dealing with more than one ity: Multiple literacies in context, language minority language, and that the loss of the education in Guatemala. Bilingual Research language with the least prestige may lead Journal, 30, 65-86. Knowles, M. S. (1970). The modern practice of to academic challenges (Gladwin, 2004). adult education: Andragogy versus pedagogy. Chavajay and Rogoff (2002) found New York: Association Press. that formal schooling contributes to the re- Kwik, J. (1998). The exodus of languages: How shaping of traditional collaborative social the loss of language is much like the loss of a organization among indigenous students. species. In N. J. Anderson (Ed.), Active skills Therefore, acknowledging and addressing for reading (Book 4). Boston: Heinle/Thomp- the cultural and linguistic perspectives, son Corporation. preferences, and practices of immigrants Light, L. (1995). Which way Q’anjob’al? Status of native language survival in a Guatemalan who speak an indigenous language may Maya community of Los Angeles. Master’s

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