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Notes Introduction 1. The term was used to describe American Cold War psychological strategy by C.D. Jackson, Eisenhower’s special adviser for psychological warfare (Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, Kansas (DDE), Jackson Papers, Box 68, Log – 1954 (3), 11 August 1954). 2. The National Archive, formerly the Public Record Office, Kew, UK (NAPRO), FO 953/1191/P10422/15/G, Malcolm to Watson, 16 July 1951, enclosing memorandum, ‘British Propaganda in the Middle East’. 3. Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp.1–2; Coombs, The Fourth Dimension of Foreign Policy (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Inc., 1964). 4. DDE, Ann Whitman File, Administration Series, Box 22, W.H. Jackson mem- orandum, ‘The fourth area of the national effort in foreign affairs’, undated. 5. DDE, Jackson Committee Records, Box 14, The President’s Committee on International Informational Activities Report to the President, 30 June 1953. 6. DDE, Jackson Committee Papers, Box 1, Discussion between Washburn and Hoopes, undated. 7. United States National Archive, College Park, Maryland (USNA), RG 59 Lot 66D148, Box 128, Panel Report, ‘Psychological aspects of United States strategy’, November 1955. 8. Jowett and O’Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1992), p. 4. 9. Thompson, O. Easily Led. A History of Propaganda (Stroud: Sutton Publishing Limited, 1999), p. 3. 10. Defty, Britain, America and Anti-Communist Propaganda 1945–53. The Information Research Department (London: Routledge, 2004), p. 18. 11. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47 Box 39, Study prepared by Columbia University’s Bureau of Applied Social Research, ‘Communications and public opinion in Jordan’, August 1951. 12. Rawnsley, ‘Introduction’, in Rawnsley (ed.), Cold War Propaganda in the 1950s (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd, 1999), p. 1. 13. Medhurst (ed.), Eisenhower’s War of Words. Rhetoric and Leadership (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University, 1994), p. 1. 14. Lucas, ‘Beyond Diplomacy: Propaganda and the History of the Cold War’, in Rawnsley (ed.), Cold War Propaganda, p. 21. 15. Taylor, Munitions of the Mind, War Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Nuclear Age (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995), p. 266; Taylor, P.M., British Propaganda in the Twentieth Century: Selling Democracy (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999), pp. 228–9, p. 248; Thompson, Easily Led, pp. 287–300. 16. Rawnsley (ed.), ‘The BBC External Services and the Hungarian Uprising, 1956’, in Cold War Propaganda in the 1950s, pp. 165–81. See also Shaw, ‘Eden 250 Notes 251 and the BBC during the Suez crisis: A myth re-examined’, Twentieth Century British History, Vol. 6, No. 3 (1995). 17. Rawnsley, Radio Diplomacy and Propaganda: The BBC and VOA in International Politics (London: Macmillan, 1996); Rawnsley, ‘Overt and Covert: The Voice of Britain and Black Radio Broadcasting in the Suez Crisis, 1956’, Intelligence and National Security, Vol. 11, No. 3, July 1996. 18. Nelson, War of the Black Heavens: The Battles of Western Broadcasting in the Cold War (London: Brassey’s, 1997). 19. Partner, Arab Voices. The BBC Arabic Service 1938–1988 (London: BBC External Services, 1988). 20. Morris, ‘The Labour government’s policy and publicity over Palestine 1945–7’, in Gorst, Johnman and Lucas (eds), Contemporary British History 1931–61 (London: Pinter Publishers Limited, 1991), pp. 179–92; Carruthers, Winning Hearts and Minds. British Governments, the Media and Colonial Counter-Insurgency 1944–1960 (London: Leicester University Press, 1995), pp. 24–61. 21. Defty, Britain, America and Anti-Communist Propaganda 1945–53. 22. Lashmar and Oliver, Britain’s Secret Propaganda War 1948–1977 (Stroud: Phoenix Mill, 1998). 23. Gorst, ‘ “A Modern Major General”: General Sir Gerald Templer, Chief of the Imperial General Staff’, in Kelly and Gorst (eds), Whitehall and the Suez Crisis (London: Frank Cass, 2000), pp. 29–45. 24. Kyle, Suez (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1992); Lucas, Divided We Stand: Britain, the US and the Suez Crisis (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1991). 25. Shaw, Eden, Suez and the Mass Media: Propaganda and Persuasion during the Suez Crisis (London: I.B. Tauris and Co. Ltd., 1996). 26. Aldrich, The Hidden Hand: Britain, America and Cold War Secret Intelligence (London: John Murray, 2001); Dorril, MI6: Fifty Years of Special Operations (London: Fourth Estate, 2000). 27. Lucas, Freedom’s War: The US Crusade against the Soviet Union (New York: New York University Press, 1999); Parry-Giles, The Rhetorical Presidency, Propaganda, and the Cold War, 1945–1955 (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2002); Osgood, ‘Form Before Substance: Eisenhower’s Commitment to Psychological Warfare and Negotiations with the Enemy’, Diplomatic History, Vol. 24, No. 3, Summer 2000, pp. 405–33. 28. Saunders, Who Paid the Piper? (London: Granta, 1999); Lucas, Freedom’s War; Wilford, The CIA, the British Left and the Cold War: Calling the Tune? (London: Frank Cass, 2003). 29. Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas, pp. 113–80; Wagnleiter, Coca-Colonization and the Cold War (Chapel Hill, WC: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Hixson, Parting the Curtain. Propaganda, Culture and the Cold War, 1945–1961 (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd, 1997); Haddow, Pavilions of Plenty. Exhibiting American Culture Abroad in the 1950s (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997); Caute, The Dancer Defects: The Struggle for Cultural Supremacy during the Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003); Richmond, Cultural Exchange and the Cold War (Philadelphia, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003); Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World. Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004). 252 Notes 30. See, in particular, the collections of essays in Gienow-Hecht and Schumacher (eds), Culture and International History (New York: Berghahn Books, 2003) and Scott-Smith and Krabbendam (eds) The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe 1945–1960 (London: Frank Cass, 2003). 31. Dizard, The Strategy of Truth: The Story of the U.S. Information Service (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1961); Whitton (ed.) Propaganda and the Cold War (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1963); Sorensen, The Word War. The Story of American Propaganda (New York: Harper & Row, 1968); Henderson, The United States Information Agency (New York: Praeger, 1969); Pirsein, The Voice of America. An History of the International Broadcasting Activities of the United States (New York: Arno Press, 1979); Dizard, Inventing Public Diplomacy. The Story of the U.S. Information Agency (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2004). 32. Gregg, ‘The Rhetoric of Distancing: Eisenhower’s Suez Crisis Speech, 31 October 1956’, in Medhurst (ed.), Eisenhower’s War of Words: Rhetoric and Leadership (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 1994), pp. 157–87. 33. Lesch Syria and the United States (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992); Alteras, Eisenhower and Israel (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 1993); Gendzier, Notes From the Minefield (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999); Gasiorowski, U.S. Foreign Policy and the Shah (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), pp. 126–9. 34. Connelly, ‘Taking Off the Cold War Lens: Visions of North–South Conflict during the Algerian War for Independence’, American Historical Review, Vol. 105, No. 3 ( June 2000), p. 739. For examples of the approach Connelly comments upon, see McAlister, Epic Encounters: Culture, Media and U.S. Interests in the Middle East, 1945–2000 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001) and Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–61 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003). An important exception to this trend is Von Eschen’s Satchmo Blows Up the World (2004), which successfully weds the ‘cultural turn’ to a detailed discussion of high-level policy. 35. National Security Archive, George Washington University (NSAGWU), www2.gwu/edu/~nsarchiv/index.html#mesa, ‘U.S. Propaganda in the Middle East’ (accessed December 2004). 36. Marett, Through the Back Door. An Inside View of Britain’s Overseas Information Services (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1968); Mayhew, A War of Words. A Cold War Witness (London: I.B. Tauris, 1998); Clark, The Central Office of Information (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1970); Dodds-Parker, Political Eunuch (Ascot: Springwood Books, 1986), pp. 102–3; Fergusson, The Trumpet in the Hall, 1930–1958 (London: Collins, 1970). 37. Ferrell (ed.), The Diary of James C. Hagerty. Eisenhower in Mid-Course, 1954–55 (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1983); Hughes, The Ordeal of Power: A Political Memoir of the Eisenhower Years (New York: Atheneum Publishers, 1962); Eveland, Ropes of Sand: America’s Failure in the Middle East (London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1980). 38. Abdel-Kader Hatem, Information and the Arab Cause (London: Longman Group Ltd, 1974). 39. See, for example: Watt, Succeeding John Bull: America in Britain’s Place, 1900–1975 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975); Beloff, ‘The End Notes 253 of the British Empire and the Assumption of World-Wide Commitments by the United States’, in Louis and Bull (eds), The ‘Special Relationship’. Anglo- American Relations since 1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), pp. 249–60; Freiberger, Dawn Over Suez: The Rise of American Power in the Middle East (Chicago, IL: Ivan R. Dee, 1992); Charmley, Churchill’s Grand Alliance: The Anglo-American Special Relationship
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