Notes

Introduction

1. The term was used to describe American Cold War psychological strategy by C.D. Jackson, Eisenhower’s special adviser for psychological warfare (Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, Kansas (DDE), Jackson Papers, Box 68, Log – 1954 (3), 11 August 1954). 2. The National Archive, formerly the Public Record Office, Kew, UK (NAPRO), FO 953/1191/P10422/15/G, Malcolm to Watson, 16 July 1951, enclosing memorandum, ‘British Propaganda in the Middle East’. 3. Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp.1–2; Coombs, The Fourth Dimension of Foreign Policy (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Inc., 1964). 4. DDE, Ann Whitman File, Administration Series, Box 22, W.H. Jackson mem- orandum, ‘The fourth area of the national effort in foreign affairs’, undated. 5. DDE, Jackson Committee Records, Box 14, The President’s Committee on International Informational Activities Report to the President, 30 June 1953. 6. DDE, Jackson Committee Papers, Box 1, Discussion between Washburn and Hoopes, undated. 7. United States National Archive, College Park, Maryland (USNA), RG 59 Lot 66D148, Box 128, Panel Report, ‘Psychological aspects of United States strategy’, November 1955. 8. Jowett and O’Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1992), p. 4. 9. Thompson, O. Easily Led. A History of Propaganda (Stroud: Sutton Publishing Limited, 1999), p. 3. 10. Defty, Britain, America and Anti-Communist Propaganda 1945–53. The Information Research Department (London: Routledge, 2004), p. 18. 11. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47 Box 39, Study prepared by Columbia University’s Bureau of Applied Social Research, ‘Communications and public opinion in Jordan’, August 1951. 12. Rawnsley, ‘Introduction’, in Rawnsley (ed.), Cold War Propaganda in the 1950s (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd, 1999), p. 1. 13. Medhurst (ed.), Eisenhower’s War of Words. Rhetoric and Leadership (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University, 1994), p. 1. 14. Lucas, ‘Beyond Diplomacy: Propaganda and the History of the Cold War’, in Rawnsley (ed.), Cold War Propaganda, p. 21. 15. Taylor, Munitions of the Mind, War Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Nuclear Age (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995), p. 266; Taylor, P.M., British Propaganda in the Twentieth Century: Selling Democracy (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999), pp. 228–9, p. 248; Thompson, Easily Led, pp. 287–300. 16. Rawnsley (ed.), ‘The BBC External Services and the Hungarian Uprising, 1956’, in Cold War Propaganda in the 1950s, pp. 165–81. See also Shaw, ‘Eden

250 Notes 251

and the BBC during the Suez crisis: A myth re-examined’, Twentieth Century British History, Vol. 6, No. 3 (1995). 17. Rawnsley, Radio Diplomacy and Propaganda: The BBC and VOA in International Politics (London: Macmillan, 1996); Rawnsley, ‘Overt and Covert: The Voice of Britain and Black Radio Broadcasting in the Suez Crisis, 1956’, Intelligence and National Security, Vol. 11, No. 3, July 1996. 18. Nelson, War of the Black Heavens: The Battles of Western Broadcasting in the Cold War (London: Brassey’s, 1997). 19. Partner, Arab Voices. The BBC Arabic Service 1938–1988 (London: BBC External Services, 1988). 20. Morris, ‘The Labour government’s policy and publicity over Palestine 1945–7’, in Gorst, Johnman and Lucas (eds), Contemporary British History 1931–61 (London: Pinter Publishers Limited, 1991), pp. 179–92; Carruthers, Winning Hearts and Minds. British Governments, the Media and Colonial Counter-Insurgency 1944–1960 (London: Leicester University Press, 1995), pp. 24–61. 21. Defty, Britain, America and Anti-Communist Propaganda 1945–53. 22. Lashmar and Oliver, Britain’s Secret Propaganda War 1948–1977 (Stroud: Phoenix Mill, 1998). 23. Gorst, ‘ “A Modern Major General”: General Sir Gerald Templer, Chief of the Imperial General Staff’, in Kelly and Gorst (eds), Whitehall and the Suez Crisis (London: Frank Cass, 2000), pp. 29–45. 24. Kyle, Suez (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1992); Lucas, Divided We Stand: Britain, the US and the Suez Crisis (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1991). 25. Shaw, Eden, Suez and the Mass Media: Propaganda and Persuasion during the Suez Crisis (London: I.B. Tauris and Co. Ltd., 1996). 26. Aldrich, The Hidden Hand: Britain, America and Cold War Secret Intelligence (London: John Murray, 2001); Dorril, MI6: Fifty Years of Special Operations (London: Fourth Estate, 2000). 27. Lucas, Freedom’s War: The US Crusade against the Soviet Union (New York: New York University Press, 1999); Parry-Giles, The Rhetorical Presidency, Propaganda, and the Cold War, 1945–1955 (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2002); Osgood, ‘Form Before Substance: Eisenhower’s Commitment to Psychological Warfare and Negotiations with the Enemy’, Diplomatic History, Vol. 24, No. 3, Summer 2000, pp. 405–33. 28. Saunders, Who Paid the Piper? (London: Granta, 1999); Lucas, Freedom’s War; Wilford, The CIA, the British Left and the Cold War: Calling the Tune? (London: Frank Cass, 2003). 29. Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas, pp. 113–80; Wagnleiter, Coca-Colonization and the Cold War (Chapel Hill, WC: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Hixson, Parting the Curtain. Propaganda, Culture and the Cold War, 1945–1961 (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd, 1997); Haddow, Pavilions of Plenty. Exhibiting American Culture Abroad in the 1950s (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997); Caute, The Dancer Defects: The Struggle for Cultural Supremacy during the Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003); Richmond, Cultural Exchange and the Cold War (Philadelphia, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003); Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World. Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004). 252 Notes

30. See, in particular, the collections of essays in Gienow-Hecht and Schumacher (eds), Culture and International History (New York: Berghahn Books, 2003) and Scott-Smith and Krabbendam (eds) The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe 1945–1960 (London: Frank Cass, 2003). 31. Dizard, The Strategy of Truth: The Story of the U.S. Information Service (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1961); Whitton (ed.) Propaganda and the Cold War (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1963); Sorensen, The Word War. The Story of American Propaganda (New York: Harper & Row, 1968); Henderson, The United States Information Agency (New York: Praeger, 1969); Pirsein, The Voice of America. An History of the International Broadcasting Activities of the United States (New York: Arno Press, 1979); Dizard, Inventing Public Diplomacy. The Story of the U.S. Information Agency (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2004). 32. Gregg, ‘The Rhetoric of Distancing: Eisenhower’s Suez Crisis Speech, 31 October 1956’, in Medhurst (ed.), Eisenhower’s War of Words: Rhetoric and Leadership (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 1994), pp. 157–87. 33. Lesch Syria and the United States (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992); Alteras, Eisenhower and Israel (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 1993); Gendzier, Notes From the Minefield (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999); Gasiorowski, U.S. Foreign Policy and the Shah (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), pp. 126–9. 34. Connelly, ‘Taking Off the Cold War Lens: Visions of North–South Conflict during the Algerian War for Independence’, American Historical Review, Vol. 105, No. 3 ( June 2000), p. 739. For examples of the approach Connelly comments upon, see McAlister, Epic Encounters: Culture, Media and U.S. Interests in the Middle East, 1945–2000 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001) and Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–61 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003). An important exception to this trend is Von Eschen’s Satchmo Blows Up the World (2004), which successfully weds the ‘cultural turn’ to a detailed discussion of high-level policy. 35. National Security Archive, George Washington University (NSAGWU), www2.gwu/edu/~nsarchiv/index.html#mesa, ‘U.S. Propaganda in the Middle East’ (accessed December 2004). 36. Marett, Through the Back Door. An Inside View of Britain’s Overseas Information Services (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1968); Mayhew, A War of Words. A Cold War Witness (London: I.B. Tauris, 1998); Clark, The Central Office of Information (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1970); Dodds-Parker, Political Eunuch (Ascot: Springwood Books, 1986), pp. 102–3; Fergusson, The Trumpet in the Hall, 1930–1958 (London: Collins, 1970). 37. Ferrell (ed.), The Diary of James C. Hagerty. Eisenhower in Mid-Course, 1954–55 (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1983); Hughes, The Ordeal of Power: A Political Memoir of the Eisenhower Years (New York: Atheneum Publishers, 1962); Eveland, Ropes of Sand: America’s Failure in the Middle East (London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1980). 38. Abdel-Kader Hatem, Information and the Arab Cause (London: Longman Group Ltd, 1974). 39. See, for example: Watt, Succeeding John Bull: America in Britain’s Place, 1900–1975 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975); Beloff, ‘The End Notes 253

of the British Empire and the Assumption of World-Wide Commitments by the United States’, in Louis and Bull (eds), The ‘Special Relationship’. Anglo- American Relations since 1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), pp. 249–60; Freiberger, Dawn Over Suez: The Rise of American Power in the Middle East (Chicago, IL: Ivan R. Dee, 1992); Charmley, Churchill’s Grand Alliance: The Anglo-American Special Relationship 1940–57 (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1995). 40. Louis, ‘American Anti-Colonialism and the Dissolution of the British Empire’, in Louis and Bull (eds), The ‘Special Relationship’, pp. 261–83. 41. See for example, Hahn, The United States, Great Britain, and Egypt, 1945–1956 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1991); Ashton, Eisenhower, Macmillan and the Problem of Nasser (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd, 1996); Ovendale, Britain, the United States and the Transfer of Power in the Middle East, 1945–62 (London: Leicester University Press, 1996); Petersen, The Middle East Between the Great Powers. Anglo-American Conflict and Cooperation, 1952–7 (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd, 2000); Tayekh, The Origins of the Eisenhower Doctrine. The US, Britain and Nasser’s Egypt, 1953–57 (Houndmills, Bansingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd, 2000); Citino, From Arab Nationalism to OPEC. Eisenhower, King Saud, and the Making of U.S.-Saudi Relations (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2002); Yaqub, Containing Arab Nationalism. The Eisenhower Doctrine and the Middle East (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2004). 42. Defty, Britain, America and Anti-Communist Propaganda, p. 11.

1 ‘The Men and Machinery’

1. United States National Archives, College Park, Maryland (USNA), RG 59, Lot 188, Box 121, Benton to Byrnes, 26 December 1945. 2. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 12, Address by George Allen to the first meet- ing of the US Advisory Commission on Information, 7 October 1948. 3. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 152, Benton to Tuck, 8 February 1946. 4. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 12, Pat Allen to Stone, 29 September 1948. 5. Lucas, Freedom’s War, p. 12. 6. Dizard, Inventing Public Diplomacy, p. 45. 7. The National Archive, formerly Public Record Office, Kew, UK (NAPRO), FO 371/61570/E11708, British Embassy (Washington) to Eastern Department, 5 December 1947. 8. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 12, Allen to the US Advisory Commission, 7 October 1948. 9. NAPRO, FO 1110/128/PR865. Warner memorandum, 6 October 1948. 10. Parry-Giles, The Rhetorical Presidency, pp. 47–103. 11. USNA, RG 59, Box 2237, 501/1-2953, Office memo enclosing circular airgram No. 341, 4 February 1953. 12. Rosenberg, ‘U.S. cultural history’ in May, E. (ed.), American Cold War Strategy: Interpreting NSC 68 (New York: Bedford Books, 1993), p. 163. 13. Brecker, ‘Truth as a weapon of the free world’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 278 (November 1951), p. 4. 254 Notes

14. See Lucas, ‘Campaigns of truth: The psychological strategy board and American ideology, 1951–53’, The International History Review, Vol. XVIII, No. 2 (May 1996), pp. 279–302. 15. USNA, RG 59, Lot 62D333, Box 7, Marshall to Nitze, 3 April 1952. 16. Parry-Giles, The Rhetorical Presidency, p. 136. 17. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, Kansas (DDE), Jackson Committee Records, Box 14, Report to the President, 30 June 1953. 18. Ibid., pp. 129–40; see also Guth, ‘From OWI to USIA: The Jackson Committee’s search for the real “Voice” of America’, American Journalism, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Winter 2002). 19. Sorensen, The Word War, pp. 81–2; Dyer, ‘The potentialities of American psy- chological statecraft’, in Whitton (ed.), Propaganda and the Cold War, p. 35. 20. Dizard, Inventing Public Diplomacy, pp. 68–9. 21. USNA, RG 306, Special ‘S’ Reports of the Office of Research 1953–63, Box 7, S-27-54, ‘A Study of USIA Operating Assumptions’, December 1954. 22. Dizard, Inventing Public Diplomacy, p. 66. 23. Ibid., pp. 63–4. 24. USNA, RG 306, Office of Research and Intelligence 1955–59: General Records, Box 1, Folder: Administration Policy Direction 1954–55, Berding to Johnson, 3 August 1954. 25. DDE, Sprague Committee Records, 1959–61, Box 19, USIA(2), ‘The US Information Program Since July 1953’, undated. 26. Parry-Giles, The Rhetorical Presidency, p. 130. 27. DDE, White House Office, Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Series, Status of Projects Subseries, Box 5, NSC 5509(7), 17 February 1955. 28. DDE, White House Office, Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Series, Status of Projects Subseries, Box 7, #35 NSC 5611, 30 June 1956. 29. DDE, Oral History Transcripts, OH-153, Streibert interview, 10 December 1970. 30. NAPRO, PREM 8/322, C.P.(45)168, Memorandum by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 13 September 1945. 31. NAPRO, PREM 8/322, Report for the Prime Minister by the Lord President of the Council, 23 November 1945, Annex III, ‘Note by the Minister of Information’, 13 November 1945. 32. NAPRO, PREM 8/322, Extract: C.M.(45) 60th Conclusions, 6 December 1945. 33. USNA, RG 59, Lot 188, Box 120, Biddle to Stone, 20 October 1947. 34. The new information agencies were: American, Eastern Europe, Far Eastern, Middle Eastern, Latin American, Western Europe and the Information Policy Department (IPD; see, Defty, Britain, America and Anti-Communist Propaganda 1945–53, pp. 29, 55, fn. 22). Middle East Information Department (MEID), dismissed by BBC officials as ‘an uninspiring collection of dugouts’ (Partner, Arab Voices. The BBC Arabic Service, 1938–1988, p. 79), was absorbed into IPD in 1949. 35. The Foreign Office’s Information Research Department (IRD) believed that the Central Office of Information (COI) had been penetrated by Soviet intel- ligence. Given that IRD had once counted Guy Burgess among its employ- ees, it would perhaps have been better advised to concentrate on its own security. Notes 255

36. Although Britain’s economic difficulties eventually led to Treasury demands for savings and, despite the pressure of rising costs, the available finances for the official information services remained stagnant at around £9000,000–10,000,000 per annum in the mid-1950s. 37. USNA, ’RG 59, Lot 188, Box 122, Office of International Information and Cultural Affairs (OIC), ‘Appendix B’ attached to letter from Kirkpatrick to Benton, 6 November 1946. 38. There is a growing literature on the IRD. See, for example: Smith, ‘Covert British Propaganda: The Information Research Department 1947–1977’, Millennium, Vol. 9, No. 1 (1980), pp. 67–83; Fletcher, ‘British Propaganda since World War II: A Case Study’, Media, Culture and Society, Vol. 4, No. 2 (1982), Lucas and Morris, ‘A Very British Crusade: The Information Research Department and the Beginning of the Cold War’, in Aldrich (ed.), British Intelligence, Strategy and the Cold War, 1945–51 (London: Routledge, 1991); Wilford, ‘The Information Research Department: Britain’s Secret Cold War Weapon Revealed’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 24, No. 3 (1998), pp. 353–69; Lashmar and Oliver, Britain’s Secret Propaganda War; Vaughan, ‘Cloak Without Dagger’: How the Information Research Department Fought Britain’s Cold War in the Middle East, 1948–56’, Cold War History, Vol. 4, No. 3 (April 2004), pp. 56–84; Defty, Britain, America and Anti-Communist Propaganda 1945–53. 39. NAPRO, FO 1110/11/PR497/G, Warner to Balfour, 24 June 1948. 40. Mayhew, A War of Words, pp. 121–22. Mayhew has himself been quoted as saying that the ‘social democracy’ angle was little more than a device to make the idea of IRD more palatable to the Labour left (Lashmar and Oliver, Britain’s Secret Propaganda War, p. 27). The less conspiratorially minded might argue that IRD simply decided that ‘projection of Britain’ material was more properly the work of IPD and the British Council. 41. NAPRO, FO 1110/460/PR126/5G, Peck memorandum, ‘Anti-Communist Propaganda Operations’, 24 July 1951. 42. NAPRO, FO 1110/716/PR10111/31/G, IRD memorandum, ‘The Use of IRD material’, 6 June 1955. 43. NAPRO, FO 1110/460/PR126/5G, ‘Anti-Communist Propaganda Operations’, 24 July 1951. 44. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 3, US Advisory Commission on Information Semi-Annual Report to Congress, April 1951. 45. Black, Organising the Propaganda Instrument: The British Experience (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1975), p. 92. 46. Marett, Through the Back Door, pp. 172–3. 47. FO 953/61/PME1499/G, Kirkpatrick minute, 30 September 1946. 48. NAPRO, FO 953/389/PME114, Marsack to Pollock, 28 January 1948, enclosing memorandum, ‘The Present Set-Up and Functions of B.I.S.M.E.’, 18 December 1947. 49. NAPRO, FO 953/392/PME142, MEID Monthly Report, 30 September 1948. 50. NAPRO, FO 1110/815/PR1080/8, Fouracres to Glass, 9 November 1955. 51. NAPRO, FO 1110/700/PR1093/6, Information Department, Baghdad to IRD, 2 March 1954. 52. NAPRO, FO 1110/565/PRG16/11, J.Murray to IRD, 19 June 1953. 53. NAPRO, FO 1110/697/PR1089/17, Press Attaché, Damascus to Foreign Office (received) 16 December 1954. 256 Notes

54. NAPRO, FO 1110/700/PR1093/1/G, Information Department, Baghdad to IRD, 12 January 1954. 55. NAPRO, FO 1110/700/PR1093/6, Information Department, Baghdad to IRD, 2 March 1954. 56. NAPRO, FO 1110/700/PR1093/1/G, Information Department, Baghdad to IRD, 12 January 1954. 57. NAPRO, FO 1110/616/PRG104/49/G, Peck to Glass, 16 July 1953. 58. USNA, RG 59, Lot File 62D333, Box 2, PSB D-22, PSB Program for the Middle East, 6 February 1953. 59. NAPRO, FO 953/367/PME145, Pubsec Cairo to MEID (received) 4 February 1948. 60. NAPRO, FO 953/367/PME428, Pubsec Cairo to MEID, 7 May 1948. 61. NAPRO, FO 953/952/PME145, Haigh to MEID, 8 February 1949. 62. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 171, Patterson to Marshall, A-462, 8 August 1947. 63. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 171, Enclosure to Cairo to State Department Despatch No. 2533, 19 May 1947, ‘Report on Trip through Palestine, Lebanon and Syria’. 64. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D365, Box 53, Bowman to Hulten, 13 November 1950. 65. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 195, Evans to State Department, 24 August 1948. 66. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 196, USIS–OIE Cairo Report of Activities, September 1948. 67. Frances Stonor Saunders, Scott Lucas and Hugh Wilford have been at the forefront of recent historical research into the Cold War’s state-private net- works. See Saunders, F. Who Paid the Piper (1999); Lucas, Freedom’s War (1999); Lucas, ‘ “Total Culture” and the State-Private Network’, in Gienow- Hecht and Schumacher (eds), Culture and International History (2003); Lucas, ‘Revealing the Parameters of Opinion: An Interview with Frances Stonor Saunders’; Lucas, ‘Beyond Freedom, Beyond Control: Approaches to Culture and the State-Private Network in the Cold War’, in Scott-Smith and Krabbendam (eds), The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe (2003); Wilford, ‘Calling the Tune? The CIA, the British Left and the Cold War’ (2003). See also essays by Wilford, Aldrich, Kotek and Gienow-Hecht in the Scott-Smith and Krabbendam volume. 68. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 12, Address by George Allen to the first meet- ing of the US Advisory Commission on Information, 7 October 1948. 69. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D266, Box 187, Paper circulated at the Beirut Conference of Public Affairs Officers, 17 February 1952, No. 17, Proposed Statement on Private Enterprise Cooperation Before Appropriations Committee, undated. 70. DDE, Jackson Committee Records, Box 14, Report to the President, 30 June 1953. 71. USNA, RG 59, 511.74/3-2853, United States Information Service (USIS) Country Plan – Egypt, 20 May 1953. 72. NAPRO, FO 953/4D/P147, Kirkpatrick memorandum, 5 November 1946. 73. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D449, Box 1, Begg to Harris, 20 March 1952. 74. DDE, Whitman File: Name Series, Box 19, Howard to Eisenhower, 2 June 1956. Notes 257

75. DDE, Whitman File: Name Series, Box 19, Jackson to Whitman, 27 June 1956. 76. USNA, RG 306, USIA Inspection Reports, Box 6, Jordan, 10 February 1956. 77. DDE, Sprague Committee Records, 1959–61, Box 19, USIA(2), ‘The US Information Program Since July 1953’, undated. 78. Fletcher, ‘British Propaganda Since World War Two’, p. 103. 79. NAPRO, FO 953/386/PME67, Pollock minute, 9 February 1948. Further accounts of Secret Intelligence Service’s (SIS’s) links to the Arab News Agency (ANA) can be found in Lucas, Divided We Stand; Dorril, MI6; Aldrich, The Hidden Hand; Emek, British Intelligence Services: A Short Report (London: Mandala 2 Projects, 1984); West, The Friends (London: Wiedenfeld and Nicolson, 1988). 80. Read, The Power of News. A History of Reuters (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 337. 81. Fletcher, ‘British Propaganda Since World War Two: A Case Study’, p. 104. 82. Read, The Power of News, p. 338. 83. NAPRO, CAB 134/2325/O.I.(O)57(4), FO memorandum, ‘Reuters’, 8 September 1957. 84. NAPRO, FO 953/49/ PME283, Publicity Section, Cairo to MEID, undated (received 28 January 1947). 85. NAPRO, FO 953/370/PME523, Haigh to Pollock, 10 June 1948. 86. NAPRO, FO 953/592/PME145, Haigh to MEID, 8 February 1949. 87. NAPRO, FO 953/61/PME1499/G, Kirkpatrick minute, 30 September 1946. 88. NAPRO, FO 953/385/PME40, Gathorne-Hardy memorandum, 28 June 1948. 89. NAPRO, FO 371/63033/J4813, Bowker to FO, 4 October 1947. 90. NAPRO, FO 953/382/PME507/30, Barclay memorandum, 2 June 1948, ‘Note on the Ikhwan al Hurriya’. 91. Ibid. 92. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 195, Carter memorandum, 10 March 1948. 93. USNA, RG 59, Lot File 62D333, Box 2, PSB D-22, Psychological Strategy Board (PSB) Program for the Middle East, 6 February 1953. 94. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 170, News Review, No. 51, 28 June 1951. 95. NAPRO, FO 371/98247/E10345/2, Makins minute, 20 March 1952. 96. NAPRO, FO 371/98247/E10345/16, Montagu Pollock to Eden, No. 85, 15 May 1952. 97. NAPRO, FO 371/98248/E19345/31, Troutbeck to Eden, No. 74, 28 May 1952. 98. NAPRO, FO 953/1476/P1041/23, Child minute, 8 November 1954. 99. USNA, 511.80/2-454, Sanger to Byroade, 4 February 1954. 100. See Eveland, Ropes of Sand (London: W.W. Norton and Company Inc., 1980), p. 125; Gasiorowski, U.S. Foreign Policy and the Shah, p. 128; Laville and Lucas, ‘The American Way: Edith Sampson, the NAACP, and African American Identity in the Cold War’, Diplomatic History, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Fall 1996), p. 577. 101. NAPRO, FO 953/1241/P10485/58, COI memorandum, ‘The Monthly Arabic Magazine’, 7 November 1952. 102. NAPRO, FO 953/P10485/1239, Barclay minute, 13 May 1952. 103. NAPRO FO 953/1239/P10485/29, Barclay to Watson, 8 May 1952. 258 Notes

104. NAPRO, INF 12/734, COI memorandum, ‘Al Aalam: 1952–1957’, undated. 105. NAPRO, FO 953/1241/P10485/47, Underwood to Barclay, 14 August 1952. 106. NAPRO, INF 12/231, Harrison minute, 7 December 1954. 107. NAPRO, FO 953/1241/P10485/55, Barclay to Edwards, 15 July 1952. See also, INF 12/734, ‘Al Aalam’, Appendix I, ‘Principal contents of the past 12/18 issues of Al Aalam’, 12 August 1957. 108. NAPRO, INF 12/734, COI memorandum, ‘Al Aalam: 1952–1957’, undated. 109. Ibid. 110. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 196, USIS-Cairo Special Report, 24 November 1948. 111. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 195, Amlegation Jidda to PAO, Cairo, 28 August 1948. 112. USNA, RG 306, USIA Inspection Reports, Box 6, Jordan, 10 February 1956. 113. USNA, RG 59, 511.00/4-953, Caffrey to State Department, ‘1954–1955 IIA Prospectus for Egypt’, 9 April 1953. 114. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D449 and 55D251, Box 1, Data for the Jackson Committee on Overt Information and Propaganda by International Information Administration, February 1953; DDE, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers, 1948–61, OCB Central File Series, OCB 091.4. Near East (File #4) (2)(Nov.–Dec. 1956), OCB memo, ‘USIA Informational Programming to the Middle East in Present Crisis’, 10 December 1956. 115. USNA, RG 306, Subject Files of the Office of Administration, Box 1, Folder: Information Centres 1952–53, Harris memorandum 17 January 1952. 116. USNA, RG 306, Subject Files of the Office of Administration, Box 1, Lacy to Compton, 9 June 1952. 117. DDE, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers, 1948–61, OCB Secretariat Papers, Box 1, ‘Report of OCB Working Group on Books, Publications and Libraries’, 10 June 1954. 118. USNA, RG 306, US Advisory Commission on Information, Books Abroad Advisory Committee, 13th meeting, 22 November 1954. 119. Ibid., 18th meeting, 10 February 1956. 120. USNA, RG 84/3253, Box 4, USIA Circular CA-481, 16 September 1955. 121. NAPRO, FO 953/392/PME142, MEID Monthly Report, 31 January 1948. 122. NAPRO, FO 953/592/PME145/21, Haigh to MEID, 8 February 1949. 123. NAPRO, FO 953/1551/P1041/16, Press Office, Cairo to IPD, ‘Reading Rooms’, 20 April 1955. 124. NAPRO, FO 953/1552/P1041/70, Baghdad to IPD, 4 May 1955. 125. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 146, ‘Report on Cultural Relations Activities, November 1945–May 1946’, 21 May 1946. 126. USNA, RG 59, 511.85/3–1653, AmEmbassy Amman to State Department, 16 March 1953. 127. USNA, RG 306, USIA Foreign Service Despatches 1954–65, Box 3, McKee to USIA, CA-311, 23 September 1955. 128. DDE, White House Office, NSC Staff: Papers 1948–61, Executive Secretary’s Subject File Series, Box 7, #35 NSC 5611, 30 June 1956. 129. NAPRO, FO 1110/123/PR846, MacLaren minute, 2 October 1948. 130. NAPRO, FO 953/1715/P1011/26(A), Ministerial Committee on Overseas Information, Stewart minute on ‘Paper by the Central Office of Information’, 28 February 1957. Notes 259

131. NAPRO, FO 953/52/PME1113, Morrison to MEID, 1 May 1947. 132. NAPRO, FO 953/603/PME469, Houstoun-Boswall to Warner, 15 July 1949. 133. NAPRO, FO 953/602/PME108, Hart to MEID, 27 January 1949. 134. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D449, Box 5, Summaries of Semi-Annual Evaluation Reports, Iran, Period Ending 31 May 1952. 135. NSAGWU, US Propaganda Activities in the Middle East – Documents, No. 45, AmEmbassy Tehran to State Department, A-218, 11 December 1951. 136. DDE, Jackson Committee Records, Box 11, Correspondence XYZ(2), Zanuck to William Jackson, 2 March 1953. 137. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/6–1755, ‘Memorandum for the Chairman, OCB Working Group on NSC 5428, Near East,’ 17 June 1955. 138. DDE, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers, 1948–1961, OCB Central File Series, OCB 091.4.Near East (File #4)(2)(Nov.–Dec. 1956), ‘USIA Informational Programming to the Middle East in Present Crisis’, 10 December 1956. 139. DDE, White House Office, Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Series, Status of Projects Subseries, Box 7, NSC 5720(5), 30 June 1957. 140. NAPRO, FO 371/52744/E9717, Stephenson memorandum, ‘The BBC Near East Service’, 5 September 1946. 141. NAPRO, FO 953/1652/PB1041/75, Waterfield to Figg, 25 July 1956. 142. NAPRO, FO 371/52744/E9717, ‘The BBC Near East Service’, 5 September 1946. 143. NAPRO, FO 953/1422/PB1045/42(d), Waterfield to Atkinson Grimshaw, 29 September 1953. 144. BBC Written Archives Centre, Caversham (BBCWAC), E1/631, File 1, 1946–54, Waterfield to Director of External Broadcasting, 6 July 1953. 145. NAPRO, PREM 11/1149/103, Dodds-Parker memorandum, 20 November 1956. 146. NAPRO, FO 953/60/PME1607/G, W.Kirkpatrick to MEID, 10 September 1947. 147. NAPRO, FO 371/81983/E1433/1, Waterfield to Furlonge, 3 February 1950, enclosing Paxton’s ‘Report on Middle East Tour, November–December 1949’. 148. NAPRO, PREM 11/1149/103, Dodds-Parker memorandum, ‘The Near East Arab Broadcasting Station’, 20 November 1956. 149. BBCWAC, E1/1815/1 (2), Watrous memo, ‘Report on the Near East Arab Broadcasting Station, Sharq al-Adna’, 23 October 1956. 150. NAPRO, FO 953/373/PME412/193/993, Information Department, Baghdad to MEID, 22 April 1948. 151. BBCWAC, E1/1815/1 (2), Glass to Marett, 25 February 1955. 152. NAPRO, FO 953/1652/PB1041/73G, Moberly minute, 1 August 1956. 153. BBCWAC, E1/1815/1 (2), Watrous memorandum, 23 October 1956. 154. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 195, Marshall to AmEmbassy Cairo, A-39, 10 February 1948. 155. NAPRO, FO 1110/128/PR901/G, Ruthven–Murray minute, 26 October 1948. 156. NAPRO, FO 953/736/P10430/3, US Embassy (Com’d.), ‘United States Information Service Daily Wireless Bulletin, No. 1166’, 28 December 1949. 157. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D266, Box 187, Proceedings of the Beirut Conference of Public Affairs Officers, February 18–24, 1952. 260 Notes

158. USNA, RG 59, 511.84A4/5–2854, Russell to Department of State, 28 May 1954. 159. NAPRO, FO 953/699/P10167/44, Wardle-Smith to IPD, 29 September 1950. 160. NAPRO, FO 953/699/P10167/49, Bromley to IPD, 26 October 1950. 161. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D266, Box 187, Paper circulated at the Beirut Conference of Public Affairs Officers, 17 February 1952, No. 33, ‘The VOA in the Middle East’. 162. USNA, RG 306, USIA Administration Subject Files, Box 2, Thompson to Streibert, 16 June 1954. 163. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D449, Box 5, Summaries of Semi-Annual Evaluation Reports, Egypt, Period Ending 30 November 1951. 164. USNA, RG 306, Country Project Files: Egypt, EG5301: Radio Listening, February/March 1953. 165. USNA, RG 59, 511.834/5–2854, Moose to Department of State, 28 May 1954. 166. USNA, RG 84/3253, Box 4, Nevins to USIA, No. 8, 8 August 1956. 167. USNA, RG 59, Lot 60D605, Box 56, Sanger to Damon, 28 December 1954. 168. DDE, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers, 1948–61, OCB Central File Series, OCB 000.77(8), OCB memorandum by Dale Smith, 3 August 1954. 169. DDE, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers, 1948–61, OCB Central File Series, Box 4, OCB 000.77(File #5)(12)(August–November 1954), Report of the NSC 169 Study: An Estimate of the Effectiveness of US International Broadcasting. 170. NAPRO, FO 953/49/PME283, Quarterly Report on the Activities of the Publicity Section, British Embassy, April–June 1947. 171. NAPRO, FO 953/60/PME1421/6, Kinross to Pollock, 8 August 1947. 172. NAPRO, FO 953/49/PME283, Quarterly Report on the Activities of the Publicity Section, British Embassy, April–June 1947. 173. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 153, Evans to Patterson, ‘Radio Broadcasting Report for October, 1946’; See also RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 153, Allen report, 21 August 1946. 174. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52–367, Box 139, Macy to Begg, 18 January 1947. 175. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 41, United States Information and Educational Exchange Program (USIE) Country Paper for Egypt, August 1950. 176. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D266, Box 187, Beirut Conference of Public Affairs Officers, Paper No. 50, Report of Radio Committee, 21 February 1952. 177. USNA, RG 306, USIA Foreign Service Despatches 1954–65, Box 3, Weathersby to USIA, ‘Semi-Annual USIS Report for Egypt,’ 4 August 1955; USNA, RG 59, 511.744/4-1954, AmEmbasy Cairo to Department of State, No. 2506, 19 April 1954. 178. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, p. 103. 179. NAPRO, FO 953/373/PME592, Information Department, Baghdad to MEID, 23 July 1948. 180. NAPRO, FO 953/594/PME606, Trevelyan to Warner, 30 September 1949. 181. USNA, RG 84, Baghdad Legation and Embassy General Records 1936–49, Box 107, Baghdad USIS Narrative Report for January, February and March 1946. 182. USNA, RG 59, 511.87/4–2053, ‘1954–1955 IIA Prospectus for Iraq,’ April 20, 1953. Notes 261

183. USNA, RG 84, Baghdad USIS General Records 1956–58, Box 9, Cook to Newsom 28 December 1954, enclosing Inspection Report for USIS Iraq, 1–15 October 1954. 184. DDE, John Foster Dulles Papers, Subject Series, Box 5, Folder: File received from Mr. Herbert Hoover Jr’s office(1), ‘United States policy in the Near East’, 28 March 1956. 185. DDE, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers, 1948–61, OCB 091.4 Middle East (12–17–56), Ad Hoc Committee on Middle Eastern Informational Activities, first meeting, 13 November 1956. 186. NAPRO, FO 953/1463/P1011/88, Butler to IPD, 12 June 1954; NAPRO, FO 953/1422/PB1045/30, Chancery to Middle East Secretariat, 9 June 1953; and FO 953/1421/PB1045/23, Chapman Andrews to Malcolm, 20 May 1953; NAPRO, INF 6/808, COI memorandum, Local Broadcasting as a Publicity Outlet (undated; based on reports from overseas posts received between July 1952 and June 1953). 187. NAPRO, FO 953/61/PME1499/G, Kirkpatrick minute, 30 September 1946. 188. The British Council also appears to have accepted money from private cor- porations and there is evidence to suggest that its activities in Venezuela, were financially supported by the Shell oil company. 189. NAPRO, PREM 8/1506, C.P.(51)231, ‘Future of the British Council’, 26 July 1951. 190. The Council was consistently on the receiving end of attacks from Beaverbrook newspapers, which repeatedly caricatured Council representa- tives as long-haired effete, effeminate and ineffectual money-wasters. It is this campaign that led Frances Donaldson, in her ‘official biography’ of the Council, to label Beaverbrook ‘one of the few deliberately wicked men in British history’ (Donaldson, The British Council. The First Fifty Years (London: Jonathan Cape Ltd, 1984), p. 63). 191. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D84, Box 197, Wilson report, ‘Information and Cultural Services in the Arab Near East’, March 1946. 192. USNA, Lot 60D669, Box 18, McCardle to Murphy, 13 October 1954. 193. NAPRO, FO 371/61558/E9559/G, ‘Briefs for Anglo-US Talks on Middle East’, 14 October 1947. 194. Defty, ‘Close and Continuous Liaison: British Anti-Communist Propaganda and Cooperation with the United States, 1950–51’, Intelligence and National Security, Vol. 17, No. 4 (Winter 2002), pp. 100–30. 195. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D48, Box 110, Barrett memorandum, 6 October 1950. 196. USNA, RG 59, Lot 54D202, Box 6, Schwinn memorandum, 24 June 1949. 197. USNA, RG 59, Lot 54D202, Box 6, Schwinn memorandum, 24 June 1949. 198. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 4, Block to Schwinn, 27 September 1949. 199. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 12, Stone to Joyce, 10 April 1950. 200. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D48, Box 110, Barrett memorandum, 6 October 1950. 201. Defty, Britain, America and Anti-Communist Propaganda, p. 149. 202. NAPRO, FO 1110/327/PR58/37/G, Speaight minute, 16 June 1950. 203. Jones, ‘The ‘Preferred Plan’: The Anglo-American Working Group Report on Covert Action in Syria, 1957’, Intelligence and National Security, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Autumn 2004), p. 405. 204. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy Top Secret Records 1944–54, Box 2, Douglas to State Department, A-1053, 12 May 1948. 262 Notes

205. NAPRO, FO 1110/11/PR497/G, Warner to Balfour, 24 June 1948. 206. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy Top Secret Records 1944–54, Box 2, Devine to Patterson, 5 July 1948. 207. USNA, RG 59, 741.5274/5-550, Martindale to State Department, No. 995, 5 May 1950. 208. USNA, RG 59, 741.5200/6-550, Ford to State Department, No. 343, 5 June 1950. 209. USNA, RG 59, 741.5287/5-2050, Crocker to State Department, No. 624, 22 April 1950. 210. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D365, Box 6, Bowman memorandum, ‘First US–UK Information Committee Meeting held Oct. 17’, 18 October 1950. 211. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D365, Box 62, Southworth to Barrett, 27 April 1951. 212. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D365, Box 62, Memorandum of Conversation between Hamilton and Watson, 10 May 1951. 213. Defty, ‘Close and Continuous Liaison’, p. 122. 214. NAPRO, FO 953/1077/PB1046/1, Warner to Barrett, 17 March 1951. 215. NAPRO, FO 953/1077/PB1046/11, ‘Voice of America Broadcasts from Kuwait (Agreed Anglo-U.S. Record)’, 24 May 1951. 216. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D365, Box 62, Memorandum of Conversation between MacKnight and Watson, 31 March 1951. 217. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D365, Box 62, Kohler to Sargeant, 24 May 1951. 218. NAPRO, FO 953/1190/P10422/12, Watson to Malcolm, 7 June 1951. 219. USNA, RG 59, Lot 58D753, Box 2, Memorandum of Conversation, 9 September 1952. 220. NAPRO, FO 371/104258/E10345/31, Powell-Jones minute, 3 June 1953. 221. NAPRO, FO 371/104258/E10345/49, Falla minute, 21 August 1953. 222. NAPRO, FO 371/104190/E1022/6, Fellowes minute, 6 July 1953. 223. NAPRO, FO 371/104258/E10345/36, Kirkbride minute, 3 July 1953. 224. NAPRO, FO 371/104258/E10345/31, Allen minute, undated. 225. NAPRO, FO 371/104258/E10345/49, Falla minute, 21 August 1953. 226. NAPRO, FO 371/104258/E10345/41, Chapman Andrews to Bowker, 3 July 1953. 227. NAPRO, FO 1110/662/PR1016/171G, Chancery, Cairo to IRD, 23 July 1954. 228. NAPRO, FO 371/104258/E10345/41, Chapman Andrews to Bowker, 3 July 1953. 229. NAPRO, FO 1110/662/PR1016/171G, Chancery, Cairo to IRD, 23 July 1954. 230. USNA, RG 59, 511.00/8-2454, Joint State–USIA circular, CA-1369, 24 August 1954. 231. USNA, RG 59, Lot 62D136, Box 82, Joint State–USIA to NEA posts, CA-5587, 25 February 1955. 232. NAPRO, FO 953/1529/PG14517/37, Watson to Nicholls, 31 August 1954.

2 ‘Western Voices, Arab Minds’

1. Rotter, ‘Saidism without Said: Orientalism and U.S. diplomatic history’, American Historical Review, Vol. 105, No. 4. (October 2000), p. 1205. 2. Patai, The Arab Mind (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1983), p. ix. 3. Pryce-Jones, The Closed Circle. An Interpretation of the Arabs (London: Wiedenfeld and Nicolson, 1989), p. 313. Notes 263

4. Lewis, ‘The Question of Orientalism’, New York Review of Books (June 24, 1982). See also Rodinson, Europe and the Mystique of Islam (London: I.B. Tauris,1988), pp. 130–1. 5. Prakash, ‘Orientalism Now’, History and Theory, Vol. 34, No. 3 (October 1995), p. 202. 6. Said, Covering Islam (Revised edition, London: Vintage, 1997), p. 4. 7. Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1978), p. 3. 8. Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation (London: I.B. Tauris, 2nd ed. 1999), p. 200. 9. Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1978), p. 3. 10. Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation, pp. 205–6. 11. Ibid., p. 203. 12. Raphael Patai devoted an entire chapter to ‘The question of Arab stagnation’, in The Arab Mind (Revised edition, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1983), pp. 247–67. 13. Said, Orientalism, pp. 296–307. 14. Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation, p. 208. 15. Patai, The Arab Mind, pp. 143–4. 16. See, for example, Shaheen, Reel Bad Arabs. How Hollywood Vilifies A People (New York: Olive Branch Press, 2001); Ghareeb (ed.), Split Vision: The Portrayal of Arabs in the American Media (Washington, DC: The American-Arab Affairs Council, 1983). 17. Mart, ‘Tough guys and American Cold War policy: images of Israel, 1948–1960’, Diplomatic History, Vol. 20, No. 3 (1996), pp. 379–80. 18. Heiss, Empire and Nationhood (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), p. 4. 19. Ibid. pp. 229–31. 20. Hahn, Caught in the Middle East (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), p. 28. 21. Little, American Orientalism (London: I.B. Tauris, 2003), pp. 9–11. 22. Citino, From Arab Nationalism to OPEC. Eisenhower, King Saud and the Making of U.S.–Saudi Relations (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2002), p. 96. 23. Ibid., p. 88. 24. Ibid., p. 97. 25. Yaqub, Containing Arab Nationalism. The Eisenhower Doctrine and the Middle East (Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 2004), p. 274. 26. Ibid., p. 11. 27. Frankel, British Foreign Policy, 1945–73 (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), cited in Curtis, The Ambiguities of Power. British Foreign Policy Since 1945 (London: Zed Books, 1995), pp. 51–2. 28. Connelly, ‘Taking off the Cold War lens’, pp. 740–1. 29. Glubb, Britain and the Arabs, p. 401. 30. See for example, Bolt, Victorian Attitudes to Race (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971). 31. Glubb, Britain and the Arabs, p. 389. 32. National Archive, formerly Public Record Office, Kew, UK (NAPRO), FO 371/ 52310/E769, Glubb memorandum, ‘The New Relationship’, 1 July 1945. 33. Connelly, ‘Taking off the Cold War lens’, p. 744. 34. Eisenhower, on the other hand, was quick to identify and challenge such views in his encounters with ‘old school’ British imperialists. In November 264 Notes

1954, for example, the President wrote to NATO commander, Alfred Gruenther, bemoaning Churchill’s resistance to his own argument that ‘In this day and time, no so-called “dependent people” can, by force, be kept indefinitely in that position.’ Churchill, Eisenhower complained, remained ‘completely Victorian in this regard’ Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, Kansas (DDE), Whitman File, DDE Diary Series, Box 8, Nov. 1954(1), Eisenhower to Gruenther, 30 November 1954. 35. Nutting, The Arabs (New York: Mentor Books, 1964), p. 388. 36. NAPRO, FO 371/52459/ E5857, Stonehewer Bird to Bevin, No. 224, 15 June 1946. 37. NAPRO, FO 371/68385/ E24371/G, Pollock minute, 24 March 1948. 38. United States National Archive, College Park, Maryland (USNA), RG 59, Lot 62D333, Box 2, PSB D-22, PSB Program for the Middle East, 6 February 1953. 39. Dorril, MI6, p. 569. 40. NAPRO, FO 953/49/PME283, Publicity Section (Cairo) to FO (received) 28 January 1947. 41. NAPRO, FO 371/98244,/E1026/1, Fellowes memorandum, ‘Nationalism and Policy in the Middle East’, 2 March 1952. 42. Connelly, ‘Taking off the Cold War lens’, p. 754. 43. DDE, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers 1948–61, Executive Secretary’s Subject File Series, Box 7, #35 NSC 5611, ‘The USIA Program as of June 30, 1956’, undated. 44. USNA, RG 59, 611.74/4-1153, Caffery to Department of State, Desp. No. 2113, 11 April 1953. 45. USNA, RG 59, 611.80, 12-755, Allen to Dulles, 7 December 1955, enclosing draft of NSC 5428, ‘United States Objectives and Policies With Respect to the Near East’. 46. NAPRO, FO 953/1563/PB1041/1, Waterfield to Lambert, 21 December 1954, enclosing ‘Broadcasting in Arabic’ (paper read by Waterfield at a Franco- British-American Conference on the Middle East and North Africa, December 1953). 47. Cromer, Modern Egypt (New York: Macmillan, 1908), pp. 146–7, cited in Said, Orientalism, p. 38. 48. NAPRO, FO 953/1563/PB1041/1, ‘Broadcasting in Arabic’. 49. Ibid. 50. NAPRO, FO 371/98244,/E1026/1, FO minute, 20 March 1952. 51. NAPRO, FO 371/98251/E1054/2, FO minute, 8 March 1952. 52. USNA, RG 59, 611.80, 12-755, Allen to Dulles, 7 December 1955, enclosing draft of NSC 5428. 53. USNA, RG 59, Lot 62D333, Box 2, PSB D-22, 6 February 1953. 54. DDE, C.D. Jackson Records, 1953–54,Box 1, PSB – Miscellaneous Memos, PSB E-8, Members of PSB Panels and Agency Points of Contact, 28 April 1953. 55. USNA, RG 59, Lot 62D333, Box 2, PSB D-22, 6 February 1953. 56. Ibid. 57. NAPRO, FO 371/68386/5347/103/65/G, Troutbeck to Bevin, 21 April 1948. 58. NAPRO, FO 371/98244,/E1026/1, FO minute, 20 March 1952. 59. NAPRO, FO 371/52459/ E5857, Stonehewer Bird to Bevin, No. 224, 15 June 1946. 60. USNA, RG 59, Lot 62D333, Box 2, PSB D-22, 6 February 1953. Notes 265

61. Ibid. 62. Citino, From Arab Nationalism to OPEC, p. 96. 63. NAPRO, FO 1110/700/PR10104/143/G, Lewen to Glass, 1 November 1954. 64. USNA, RG 306, USIA Intelligence Memoranda of the Office of Research 1954–56, Box 3, IM-122-55, ‘Notes on talk by Bernard Lewis’, 19 December 1955. 65. Ibid. 66. USNA, RG 59, Lot 62D333, Box 2, PSB D-22, 6 February 1953. 67. Glubb, Britain and the Arabs, p. 384. 68. NAPRO, FO 371/68385/ E24371/G, Burrows memorandum, ‘The failure of the Iraq Treaty and Arab Nationalist Movements’, undated [1948]. 69. USNA, RG 59, Lot File 66D148, Box 128, Operations Co-ordinating Board (OCB) Memorandum, 1 April 1954. 70. NAPRO, FO 953/49/PME283, Quarterly Report on the Situation in Egypt and the Activities of the Publicity Section, British Embassy, April–June 1947. 71. NAPRO, FO 1110/316/PR43/8/G, ‘Anti-Communist Propaganda in Egypt’, 18 February 1950. 72. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D266, Box 188, State Department Transcript of Proceedings, Working Group on Special Materials for Arab and Other Moslem Countries, 1 April 1952. 73. NAPRO, FO 1110/PRG104/75/G, Chapman Andrews to Bowker, 23 September 1953. 74. USNA, RG 59, Lot 62D333, Box 2, PSB D-22, 6 February 1953. 75. Ibid. 76. Ibid. 77. Frankel, British Foreign Policy, 1945–73 cited in Curtis, The Ambiguities of Power, pp. 51–52. 78. NAPRO, FO 953/594/PME606, Trevelyan to Warner, 30 September 1949. 79. USNA, RG 59, Lot 62D333, Box 2, PSB D-22, 6 February 1953. 80. NAPRO, FO 371/68385/E5274/103/65/G, Le Rougetel to Bevin, No. 131, 20 April 1948. 81. USNA, RG 59, Lot 62D 333, Box 2, Folder PSB D-22. 82. NAPRO, FO 371/75067/E8752, ‘Sir William Strang’s Tour in the Middle East (21st May–18th June, 1949), Report to the Secretary of State’, 9 July 1949. Strang’s views contrast markedly with the view of Consul General Dow that ‘The Jews are a Western-looking rather than an Eastern-looking people, and their whole economy depends on the flow of capital from the West, and on technical progress and development on Western lines’ (NAPRO, FO 371/75054/E2478, Dow to Bevin, No. 7, 8 February 1949). 83. NAPRO, FO 371/115825/VR1051/8/G, Nicholls to Shuckburgh, 8 March 1955. 84. NAPRO, FO 953/601/PME501, Pollock minute, 5 August 1949.

3 ‘National Projection’

1. Lee, ‘British Cultural Diplomacy and the Cold War, 1946–61’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, Vol. 9, No. 1 (March 1998), pp. 112–34. 2. See Welch, ‘Cultural propaganda’, in Cull, Culbert and Welch (eds), Propaganda and Mass Persuasion. A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO Inc., 2003), pp. 101–2. 266 Notes

3. Gienow-Hecht, ‘On the Diversity of Knowledge and the Community of Thought: Culture and International History’, in Gienow-Hecht and Schumacher (eds), Culture and International History, pp. 3–4. 4. United States National Archive, College Park, Maryland (USNA), RG 59, Lot 53D84, Box 197, United States Information Services (USIS) Baghdad Report, 1 January–1 July 1946. 5. National Archive, Formerly Public Record Office, Kew, UK (NAPRO), FO 371/52459/ E5857, Stonehewer Bird to Bevin, No. 224, 15 June 1946. 6. NAPRO, FO 371/98244/E1026/1, Fellowes minute, 2 March 1952, attaching memorandum, ‘Nationalism and Policy in the Middle East’. 7. NAPRO, FO 371/52459/ E5857, Stonehewer Bird to Bevin, No. 224, 15 June 1946. 8. NAPRO, FO 371/52310/E769, Glubb memorandum, 1 July 1945. 9. NAPRO, FO 953/1317/PG1162/1, Creswell to Eden, No. 152, 24 June 1952. 10. NAPRO, FO 371/61544/E6379, McClelland to British Embassy, Washington, 8 July 1947. 11. NAPRO, FO 953/49/PME283, Publicity Section (Cairo) to FO (received) 28 Jan. 1947. 12. NAPRO, FO 1110/820/PR1088/3/G, Chapman Andrews to Grey, 2 May 1955. 13. NAPRO, BW 1/98, British Council memorandum, ‘Suggestions for British Council Expansion in the Middle East 1956–59,’ 1 November 1956. 14. NAPRO, FO 953/1317/PG1162/1, Creswell to Eden, No. 152, 24 June 1952. 15. NAPRO, BW 1/98, British Council memorandum, ‘Expansion in the Near and Middle East,’ 8 May 1956. 16. NAPRO, FO 953/58/PME1342, Wheeler to FO, 12 June 1947. 17. NAPRO, BW 39/11, British Council minute by the Controller, Overseas ‘B’ Department, 23 February 1953. 18. NAPRO, BW 39/11, ‘Report of a Visit to Iraq by the Overseas Inspector, Education Division’, August 1954. 19. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D84, Box 197, USIS Baghdad Report, 1 January–1 July 1946. 20. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D84, Box 197, Report by J.A. Wilson, ‘American Colleges in the Near East’, March 1946. 21. NAPRO, FO 371/98276/E11345/7, FO minute, 25 January 1952, enclosing memorandum, ‘United States Economic and Social Interests in the Middle East’. 22. USNA, RG 59, Lot 62D430, Box 2, Operations Co-ordinating Board (OCB) meeting, 19 October 1956. 23. NAPRO, FO 371/98276/E11345/7, ‘United States Economic and Social Interests in the Middle East’. 24. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 41, US Information and Educational Exchange Program (USIE) Country Paper for Syria, August 1950. 25. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 41, USIE Country Paper for Iraq, August 1950. 26. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D449 and 55D251, Box 1, Data for the Jackson Committee on Overt Information and Propaganda by International Information Administration, February 1953. 27. NAPRO, FO 953/1346/PG1932/1, Beeley to Eden, No. 85, 26 June 1952. 28. USNA, RG 59, Lot 66D449, Box 222, United States Educational Foundation (USEF) to State Department, No. 186, 8 November 1956. Notes 267

29. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 153, USIS–OIC Cairo Report for September 1946. 30. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, Kansas (DDE), Whitman File: NSC series, Box 5, 193rd meeting, 12 April 1955. 31. USNA, RG 306, United States Information Agency (USIA) Intelligence Bulletins of the Office of Research 1954–56, IB-53-55, ‘Near East Students at US Colleges and Universities 1950–55,’ 27 September 1955. 32. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 170, News Review, No. 37, 10 September 1953. 33. National Security Archive, George Washington University (NSAGWU), ‘U.S. Propaganda in the Middle East’, Doc. 93, Damon to Hadsel, 30 April 1953. 34. Ibid., Doc. 90, Dodge to Sanger, 2 February 1953. 35. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 170, News Review, No. 16, 16 April 1953; RG 59, 511.00/4–853, State Department Infoguide Bulletin 328, 8 April 1953. 36. NAPRO, FO 953/1316/PG1161/12, Chancery, Cairo to IPD, 7 October 1952. 37. NAPRO, FO 953/1216/P1011/1, Nicholls to Bass, 4 January 1952, enclosing memorandum, ‘The Projection of Britain’ (1946 text). 38. NAPRO, FO 953/1216/P1011/1, Nicholls to Bass, 4 January 1952, enclosing memorandum, ‘The Projection of Britain’ (1952 text). 39. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 153, Tuck to Byrnes, No. 635, 14 April 1946. 40. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 171, Tuck to Benton, 17 April 1947. In early 1948 United States Information Service (USIS) staff in Cairo reported that ‘official French sources’ were issuing press material that ‘damned America by snickers and the light touch … leading the reader to conclude that Americans are feather-minded … love their meals above their fellowmen … are far more interested in political advantage than world affairs’ (USNA RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 196, USIS–OIE Cairo Report of Activities, January 1948). 41. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 4, Report on OII Output for June 1951. 42. USNA, RG 306 USIA Publications, Box 170, News Review, No. 60, 30 July 1951. 43. NAPRO, FO 371/52310/E769, Glubb memorandum, 1 July 1945. 44. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 172, News Review, No.7, 17 February 1955. 45. See Carruthers, ‘ “Not just washed but dry-cleaned”: Korea and the “Brainwashing” scare of the 1950s’, in Rawnsley, Cold War Propaganda in the 1950s, pp. 47–66. 46. USNA, RG 59, Box 2237, 501/5–2853, H. Minor to Department of State, No. 685, 28 May 1953. 47. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 170, News Review, No. 27, 2 July 1953. 48. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D387, Box 120, NEA News Guidance, No. 2, 24 January 1952. 49. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 170, News Review, No. 26, 25 June 1953. 50. Ibid., Box 171, News Review, No. 30, 29 July 1954. 51. Ibid., News Review, No. 2, 14 January 1954. 268 Notes

52. Ibid., News Review, No. 30, 29 July 1954. 53. NAPRO, FO 953/379/PME20, Progress Report of Information Activities in the Middle East for the period December 1946–December 1947. 54. NAPRO, INF 12/734, Central Office of Information (COI) memorandum, ‘Al Aalam’, 12 October 1957. 55. Ibid. 56. NAPRO, FO 953/1216/P1011/1, ‘The Projection of Britain’ (1946 text). 57. NAPRO, FO 953/49/PME1969, Publicity Section, Cairo, to Middle East Information Department (MEID), 8 November 1947. 58. NAPRO, FO 953/395/PME358/254, Morrison to FO, 1 April 1948. 59. NAPRO, FO 953/52/PME510, Information Department, Baghdad to MEID, 3 February 1947. 60. NAPRO, FO 953/63/PME177, Wheeler to FO, 10 July 1947. 61. NAPRO, FO 953/373/PME412, Information Department, Baghdad, to FO, 22 April 1948. 62. NAPRO, FO 953/592/PME514, Parkes to Pollock, 11 August 1949. 63. NAPRO, FO 953/376/PME397, Howes to Pollock, 22 April 1948. 64. NAPRO, FO 953/603/PME469, Houstoun-Boswall to Warner, 15 July 1949. 65. NAPRO, FO 953/1553/P1041/38, Gallagher to Marett, 25 October 1955. 66. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 172, USIS–OIC Cairo Report, June 1947. 67. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 196, USIS–OIE Cairo Report, December 1948. 68. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 153, USIS–OIE Cairo ‘Films and Recordings Report for October 1946’. 69. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 153, USIS–OIC Cairo, ‘Films and Recordings Report for November 1946’. 70. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 172, USIS–OIC Cairo ‘Films and Recordings Report for July 1947’. 71. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D449 and 55D251, Box 5, Summaries of Semi-Annual Evaluation Reports, Iraq, Period Ending 31 May 1952. 72. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 196, USIS–OIE Cairo Report of Activities, February 1948. 73. DDE, White House Office: Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Series, Status of Projects Subseries, Box 5, NSC 5430(5), Part 7, The USIA Program, 12 August 1954. 74. USNA, RG 59, 511.835/9–954, Strong to Dulles, 9 September 1954. 75. USNA, RG 59, Lot 60D262, Box 93, USIA Fortnightly Guidance for the NEA Area, No. 11, 30 September 1954. 76. DDE, White House Office: Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Series, Status of Projects Subseries, Box 5, NSC 5509(7), Part 6, The USIA Program, 17 February 1955. 77. DDE, Whitman File: Dulles-Herter series, Box 4, Edman to USIA–State, No. 44, 9 September 1954. 78. Ibid., Byroade memorandum, 13 September 1954. 79. DDE, Jackson Committee Records, Box 14, Report to the President, 30 June 1953. 80. DDE, C.D. Jackson Records 1953–54, Box 1, Jackson to Adams, 19 January 1954. Notes 269

81. Dizard, Inventing Public Diplomacy, p. 66. 82. NSAGWU, US Propaganda Activities in the Middle East – Documents, No. 1, Murray to MacLeish, 21 March 1945. 83. See, for example, USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 153, Allen report, 21 August 1946 and Box 153, American Legation, Cairo to State Department, No. 1742, 23 July 1946, Enclosure No. 1. 84. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 153, Allen report, 21 August 1946. 85. USNA, RG 306, Special ‘S’ Reports of the Office of Research 1953–63, Box 3, S-33-53, ‘Film Distribution Channels in Egypt’, 30 September 1953. 86. NAPRO, FO 953/373/PME592, Information Department, Baghdad to MEID, 23 July 1948. 87. USNA, RG 59 Lot 53D266, Box 188, Jones to Barrett, 15 January 1951. 88. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 172, USIS–OIC Cairo report for October 1947. 89. DDE, Dulles Papers, Special Assistant’s Chronological Series, Box 3, ‘Summary of Dr Johnson’s Statement’, 8 July 1953. 90. DDE, Jackson Committee Records, Box 14, Report to the President, 30 June 1953. 91. NAPRO, FO 953/740/P10453/1, Samuel to Beaumont, 17 April 1950. 92. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D449, Box 1, Begg to Harris, 20 March 1952. 93. DDE, White House Ofice, Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Series, Briefing Notes Subseries, Box 18, President’s Special International Program, 2nd semi-annual report, 1 January 1957–30 June 1957. 94. Ibid. 95. DDE, White House Office, Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Series, Status of Projects Subseries, Box 5, NSC 5509(7), Part 6, ‘ “The USIA Program”, 17 February 1955. See also, Monod, ‘ “He is a Cripple an” Needs my Love’: Porgy and Bess as Cold War Propaganda’, in Scott-Smith and Krabbendam (eds), The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe 1945–1960, pp. 300–12. 96. USNA, RG 59, Lot 60D262, Box 93, USIA Fortnightly Guidance for the NEA Area, No. 17, 23 December 1954. 97. USNA, RG 84, Baghdad USIS General Records 1956–58, Box 4, American Embassy, Baghdad to State Department, 10 June 1955. 98. USNA, RG 84, Baghdad Legation and Embassy General Records 1936–49, Box 107, ‘USIS Program on Baghdad Radio’, 24 February 1946. 99. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 153, Allen report, 21 August 1946. 100. USNA, RG 306, USIA Intelligence Bulletins, Memoranda and Summaries of the Office of Research, 1954–56, Box 8, IS-38-56, 10 April 1956. 101. DDE, White House Office NSC Staff: Papers 1948–61, Planning Coordination Group Series, Box 2, #9 Bandung, Murphy to Rockefeller, 19 August 1955. 102. DDE, White House Office, Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Series, Status of Projects Subseries, Box 6, NSC 5525(6), Part 6 – The USIA Program, 11 August 1955. 103. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World. Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004). See also Von Eschen, ‘Who’s the real ambassador? exploding Cold War racial ideology’, in Appy (ed.), 270 Notes

Cold War Constructions (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000), pp. 110–31. 104. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World, pp. 31–3. 105. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 171, News Review, No. 15, 16 April 1954. 106. DDE, C.D. Jackson Papers, 1931–67, Box 62, Washburn memorandum, 28 October 1954. 107. Ibid., Washburn memorandum, 11 January 1955. 108. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 170, News Review, No. 31, 15 May 1952. 109. Ibid., No. 5, 17 January 1952. 110. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D238 and 53D254, Box 86, Begg to Barry, 4 February 1952. 111. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 27, NEA News Guidance, Vol. II, No. 7, 29 March 1951. 112. USNA, RG 59, Lot 60D262, Box 93, USIA Fortnightly Guidance for the NEA Area, No. 17, 23 December 1954 and No. 32, 21 July 1955. 113. USNA, RG 84, Baghdad USIS General Records 1956–58, Box 4, State Department Instruction, CA-7722, 7 May 1955. 114. NAPRO, FO 953/592/PME145, Haigh to MEID, 8 February 1949. 115. NAPRO, FO 953/603/PME469/11/988, Houstoun-Boswall to Warner, 15 July 1949. 116. NAPRO, FO 953/382/PME528, Ikhwan al Hurriya Bulletin, No. 313, 17 August 1948. 117. NAPRO, FO 953/592/PME145, Haigh to MEID, 8 February 1949. 118. NAPRO, FO 953/603/PME146/11/988, W. Kirkpatrick to MEID, 10 February 1949. 119. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D84, Box 197, Wilson report, ‘Information and Cultural Services in the Arab Near East’, March 1946. 120. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 12, George Allen address to first meeting of the US Advisory Commission on Information, 7 October 1948. 121. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D84, Box 197, ‘Information and Cultural Services in the Arab Near East’, March 1946. 122. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D84, Box 197, USIS Baghdad Report, 1 January–1 July 1946. 123. NAPRO, FO 371/68385/ E24371/G, Halford minute, 13 February 1948. 124. USNA, RG 59, Lot 188, Box 120, Tyler to Stone, 4 October 1947. 125. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 12, Hunt to Barrett, 21 August 1950. 126. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 168, Dorsz to Marshall, A-413, 18 December 1947. 127. NAPRO, PREM 8/1506, C.P.(51)231, Memorandum by the Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs, Colonies and Commonwealth Relations, ‘Future of the British Council’, 26 July 1951. 128. NAPRO, FO 953/1461/P1011/45, Nutting minute, 13 November 1953. 129. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World, p. 84.

4 ‘Who Can Be Neutral?’

1. See, for example, Kent, British Imperial Strategy and the Origins of the Cold War 1944–49 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1993). Notes 271

2. Acheson, Present at the Creation. My years at the State Department (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1969), pp. 196–7. 3. United States National Archive, College Park, Maryland (USNA), RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 150, Lyon to Byrnes, No. 1735, 20 July 1946, enclos- ing memorandum by Philip Ireland, ‘Soviet Penetration in the Middle East’, 16 July 1946. 4. Ibid. 5. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 150, Lyon to Byrnes, No. 1735, 20 July 1946. 6. National Archives, formerly Public Record Office, Kew, UK (NAPRO), FO 371/52327/4369/797/65, Shone to Bevin, No. 72, 1 May 1946. 7. NAPRO, FO 371/52310/E3135/96/65, Note by M.L. Fitzgerald, 1 June 1946. 8. NAPRO, FO 953/61/PME1499/G, Kirkpatrick minute, 30 September 1946. 9. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 166, Douglas to Marshall, A-1285, 2 June 1947. 10. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 187, Wadsworth to Marshall, No. 78, 16 April 1948, enclosing Meyer memorandum, U.S. Information Policy as viewed from Iraq, 8 April 1948. 11. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 151, Lyon to Byrnes, No. 1214, 14 July 1946. 12. NAPRO, FO 1110/660/PR1013/5, Fay to IRD, 5 November 1954. 13. NAPRO, CAB 158/15 (Part I), J.I.C.(53)29(Final), Report by the Joint Intelligence Committee ( JIC), ‘Survey of World Communism in 1952’, 28 April 1953. 14. NAPRO, CAB 158/17 (Part I), J.I.C.(54)10(Final), Report by the JIC, ‘Survey of World Communism in 1953’, 1 March 1954. 15. NAPRO, CAB 158/19, J.I.C.(55)10(Final), Report by the JIC, ‘Survey of World Communism in 1954’, 24 March 1955. 16. NAPRO, CAB 158/23, J.I.C.(56)10(Final), Report by the JIC, ‘Survey of World Communism in 1955’, 20 April 1956. 17. See, for example, Golan, Soviet Policies in the Middle East (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 44–5. 18. USNA, RG 59, 511.83A/6-1853, United States Information Services (USIS) Country Plan – Lebanon, 1 June 1953. 19. USNA, RG 59, 511.87/3-3053, USIS Country Plan – Iraq, 30 March 1953. 20. DDE, Jackson Committee Records, Box 14, ‘Report to the President’, 30 June 1953. 21. NAPRO, FO 1110/316/PR43/8/G, Information Department, Cairo to Information Research Department (IRD), 20 March 1950. 22. USNA, RG 306, USIA Administration Subject Files, Box 2, Folder: Committee Area Directors, Minutes of Area Directors Meeting, 18 June 1954. 23. USNA, RG 59, 611.80, 12-755, Allen to Dulles, 7 December 1955, enclosing revised draft of NSC 5428, ‘United States Objectives and Policies With Respect to the Near East’. 24. NAPRO, CAB 158/23, J.I.C.(56)20(Final), Report by the JIC, ‘Factors Affecting Egypt’s Policy in the Middle East and North Africa’, Annex: ‘Soviet Activities and Aims in the Middle East’, 18 April 1956. 25. NAPRO, FO 1110/585/PRG44/8/G, Chancery, Ankara to IRD, 29 June 1953. 26. NAPRO, FO 1110/565/PRG16/13, J.Murray to Peck, 6 July 1953. 27. NAPRO, FO 1110/776/PR1016/2/G, Rennie to Glass, 10 February 1955. 272 Notes

28. NAPRO, FO 1100/600/PRG80/5/G, Chancery, Amman to IRD, 13 July 1956. 29. NAPRO, FO 1110/676/PR1034/5/G, Residency, Bahrain, to IRD, 29 November 1954. 30. NAPRO, FO 1110/823/PR1093/6, Kellas to Grey, 22 July 1955. 31. NAPRO, CAB 159/16, J.I.C. (54) 67th Meeting, Minutes of Meeting held on 29 July 1954. 32. NAPRO, FO 1110/820/PR1099/2/G, Gauntlett to Rennie, 19 April 1955; FO 1110/PR1089/6/G, Gardener to Grey, 3 May 1956. 33. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, Kansas (DDE), Jackson Committee Records, 1950–53, Box 12, ‘Statement of message of US propa- ganda effort in various countries’, 17 March 1953. 34. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy Top Secret Records 1944–54, Box 1, Patterson to Marshall, No. 2661, 23 June 1947. 35. USNA, RG 306, Office of Research Country Project Correspondence, 1952–63, Box 4, Folder: Egypt 1956, Loomis to Weathersby, 27 February 1956. 36. Ibid. 37. USNA, RG 84, Damascus Embassy General USIS 1955–57, Box 4, Weathersby to Near East Regional Service Centre (NERSC) Beirut, 10 March 1956. 38. USNA, RG 59 Lot 54D202, Box 3, Laswell to Benton, 3 October 1946. 39. NAPRO, FO 371/75054/E2478, Dow to Bevin, 8 February 1949. 40. NAPRO, FO 371/52327/E2692, Greenhill minute, 8 April 1946. 41. NAPRO, FO 371/98244/E1026/1, FO minute, 20 March 1952. 42. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 151, Mattison report, 9 May 1946. 43. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 151, Mattison to Byrnes, No. 449, 19 June 1946. 44. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 151, Strategic Services Unit, War Department Intelligence Dissemination No. A-69167, ‘Notes on Hizb al-Qawmi al-Suri (SPP) in Damascus, 23 May 1946. 45. USNA, RG 59 Lot 61D53, Box 80, AmEmbassy Beirut to State Department, 29 May 1953. 46. NAPRO, FO 371/52327/E2692, Greenhill minute, 8 April 1946. 47. NAPRO, FO 953/61/PME1499/G, Kirkpatrick memorandum, 17 October 1946. 48. NAPRO, FO 953/592/PME145, Haigh to Middle East Information Department (MEID); 8 February 1949. 49. NAPRO, FO 953/932/PG1883/1, Warner to Houstoun-Boswall, 21 January 1950. 50. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D365, Box 48, Fisk to Phillips, 19 February 1951. 51. NAPRO, FO 953/367/PME428, Pubsec Cairo to MEID, 7 May 1948. 52. NAPRO, FO 953/367/PME145, Pubsec Cairo to MEID (received) 4 February 1948. 53. NAPRO, FO 953/367/PME428, Pubsec Cairo to MEID, 7 May 1948. 54. NAPRO, FO 371/63033/J2166, Fay memorandum, 29 April 1947. 55. NAPRO, FO 953/380/PME30, Ikhwan al Hurriya Bulletin No. 290, 24 February 1948. 56. NAPRO, FO 371/53327/J53/53/16, Killearn to Bevin, 27 December 1945. 57. NAPRO, FO 1110/316/PR43/8/G, Information Department, Cairo to Information Research Department (IRD), 20 March 1950, ‘Anti-Communist Propaganda in Egypt’, 18 February 1950. Notes 273

58. An Arabic language article entitled ‘WFTU: a Subversive Organisation’ was produced by IRD and RIO Beirut and appeared in the Jordanian press in March 1956 (NAPRO, FO 1110/926, RIO Beirut to IRD, 9 April 1956). 59. NAPRO, FO 953/1481/P10416/2/G, Information Office, Beirut to IRD, 26 April 1954. 60. NAPRO, FO 1110/688/PR1053/5, Chancery, Tel Aviv, to IRD, 16 August 1954. 61. NAPRO, FO 953/1481/P10416/2/G, Information Office, Beirut to IRD, 26 April 1954; FO 1110/821/PR1089/6/G, Kemp minute, 6 June 1955. 62. NAPRO, FO 1110/776/PR1016/10/G, R. Murray to Grey, 18 July 1955. 63. NAPRO, FO 1110/821/PR1089/6/G, Gardener to Grey, 3 May 1955. 64. Ibid., Goodison minute, 9 June 1955. 65. Ibid., Gardener to Grey, 3 May 1955. 66. NAPRO, FO 1110/776/PR1016/10/G, Murray to Grey, 18 July 1955. IRD was less enthusiastic, doubting that a left-wing British journalist could be found to take the job on (‘they are unlikely to do it to please us’) and, even if a candidate could be found, expressing concern about the likely contents of any material such a journalist might publish upon his return to Britain (FO 1110/776/PR1016/10/G, Grey to Murray, 19 September 1955). 67. NAPRO, FO 1110/821/PR1089/6/G, Gardener to Grey, 3 May 1955. 68. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 170, News Review, No. 60, 30 July 1951. 69. NAPRO, FO 371/98276/E11345/7, FO minute, 25 January 1952, enclosing ‘United States Economic and Social Interests in the Middle East’, undated. 70. NAPRO, FO 371/98276/E11345/7, ‘United States Economic and Social Interests in the Middle East’. 71. USNA, RG 59, 511.80/4-1653, Clark to Sanger, 16 April 1953, enclosing ‘Information Policy for the Point IV Program’, 3 March 1953. 72. USNA, RG 306, United States Information Agency (USIA) Publications, Box 170, News Review, No. 18, 3 March 1952. 73. NAPRO, FO 957/132/3, Rapp to Heads of all Middle East Missions, 1 February 1951. 74. NAPRO, FO 371/104258/E10345/49, Falla minute, 21 August 1953. 75. USNA, RG 59, 541.80/10-2654, Weathersby to Joint State-USIA, No. 792, 26 October 1954. 76. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 170, News Review, No. 36, 3 September 1953. 77. NAPRO, FO 1110/823/PR1093/5, Wright to Grey, 8 July 1955. 78. NAPRO, FO 953/58/PME1342, Wheeler to Middle East Information Department (MEID), 12 June 1947. 79. NAPRO, FO 953/49/PME283, Publicity Section, Cairo, to MEID, 28 January 1947. 80. NAPRO, FO 371/52459/E5857, Stonehewer Bird to Bevin, No. 224, 15 June 1946. 81. NAPRO, FO 371/52459/E5857, Buss minute, 2 October 1946. 82. NAPRO, FO 953/1351/PG1881/1, Verney to Barclay, 21 May 1952. 83. USNA, RG 59, Lot 61D53, Box 77, Newsom to MacKnight, 21 April 1954. 84. DDE, White House Office Staff Papers 1948–61, Planning Coordination Group Series, Box 2, Murphy to Rockefeller, 19 August 1955. 85. USNA, RG 59, 674.00/1-954, Caffery to Department of State, No. 1613, 9 January 1954. 274 Notes

86. NAPRO, FO 371/108349/JE1022/3, Stevenson to Eden, 12 January 1954. 87. DDE, White House Office, NSC Staff: Papers 1948–61, Planning Coordination Group Series, Box 2, Murphy to Rockefeller, 19 August 1955. 88. USNA, RG 59, Lot File 66D148, Box 128, ‘Psychological Aspects of US Strategy Panel Report’, November 1955. 89. NAPRO, PREM 11/1079, Makins to Foreign Office, No. 2489, 14 October 1955. 90. Ibid., Millard minute, 18 October 1955. 91. NAPRO, FO 953/1476/P1041/20, Gathorne-Hardy to Marett, 6 August 1954. 92. Russell wrote a short piece, ‘Who Can Be Neutral’, which was translated into Arabic and distributed in the Middle East in early 1953. 93. NAPRO, FO 953/1476/P1041/20, Gathorne-Hardy to Marett, 6 August 1954, and attached minutes. 94. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 172, News Review, No. 13, 1 April 1954. 95. Ibid., No. 37, 16 September 1954. 96. USNA, RG 306, Office of Research and Intelligence General Files 1955–59, Box 7, Global Theme II, 6 July 1954. 97. USNA, Lot 60D262, Box 93, USIA Fortnightly Guidance for the NEA Area, No. 12, 14 October 1954. 98. USNA, RG 306, USIA Feature Packets, Non-Recurring Subjects 1953–58, Box 1, No. 14, ‘Words and Deeds’, undated. 99. Representing an advance of 100,000 on the figure presented in the original research paper, presumably a clerical error. 100. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 172, News Review, No. 19, 12 May 1955. 101. Ibid., Box 170, News Review, No. 8, 19 February 1953. 102. Ibid., Box 172, News Review, No. 18, 5 May 1955. 103. NAPRO, FO 953/62/PME14, Wheeler to MEID, 24 December 1946. 104. NAPRO, FO 953/380/PME30, Ikhwan al Hurriya Bulletin, No. 288, 10 February 1948. 105. NAPRO, INF 12/734, COI memo, ‘Al Aalam’, 12 October 1957. 106. NAPRO, FO 953/1629/P1041/2, Regional Information Office (RIO) Beirut to IPD, 5 January 1956. 107. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 172, News Review, No. 16, 22 April 1954. 108. USNA, RG 59, Lot 5D57, Box 8, ‘Information Program Guidance Special Series: Moral and Religious Factors in the USIE Program’, 22 June 1951. 109. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D266, Box 188, Abiouness to Semmerling, 18 July 1952. 110. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D266, Box 188, Damon to Wadsworth, 9 June 1952. 111. DDE, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers 1948–61, Operations Co-ordinating Board (OCB) Secretariat Series, Box 5, OCB memorandum, ‘Planning and Programming in the Area of Moral and Spiritual Values’, 4 September 1953. 112. USNA, RG 59, 511.74/2-1453, Caffery to State Department, No. 1626, 14 February 1953 (Caffery was rather less keen to draw attention to the Minister’s additional observation that Judaism, like Nazism, was ‘no more than racism’). Notes 275

113. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 170, News Review, No. 18, 30 April 1953. 114. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D449 and 55D251, Box 1, Damon to International Information Administration (IIA) directors, 8 April 1952. 115. USNA, Lot 53D266, Box 188, Damon to Connors, 25 June 1952. 116. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 230, State Department Infoguide Bulletin No. 51, 26 August 1952. 117. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D449 and 55D251, Box 1, Data for the Jackson Committee on Overt Information and Propaganda by International Information Administration, February 1953. 118. USNA, RG 59 Lot Files, 62D430, Box 40, Ad Hoc Working Group on Islam memorandum for OCB, 3 May 1957. 119. NAPRO, FO 953/863/PG1163/15E, Ikhwan al Hurriya Bulletin, No. 410, 15 August 1950. 120. NAPRO, FO 371/53327/J1266/53/16, Bowker to Bevin, 14 March 1946. 121. NAPRO, FO 371/52327/E4369, Shone to Bevin, No. 72, 1 May 1946. 122. NAPRO, FO 371/52459/E5857, Stonehewer Bird to Bevin, No. 224, 15 June 1946. 123. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 150, ‘Soviet Penetration in the Middle East’. 124. NAPRO, CAB 158/18 (Part I), JIC (54) 72 (Final), ‘Political Developments in the Middle East and Their Impact upon Western Interests’, Report by the JIC, 11 November 1954. 125. NAPRO, FO 1110/227/PR2674, Murray to Parkes, 15 November 1949. 126. NAPRO, FO 953/381/PME294, Ikhwan al Hurriya Bulletin, No. 296, 6 April 1948. 127. NAPRO, FO 953/863/PG1163/17C, Ikhwan al Hurriya bulletin, No. 417, 10 October 1950. 128. NAPRO, FO 1110/662/PR1016/17/G, Chancery, Cairo to IRD, 23 July 1954. 129. NAPRO, FO 975/25, IRD Research Report, ‘Communism and Islam’, 31 May 1949. 130. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 170, News Review, No. 23, 22 March 1951. 131. Ibid., No. 34, 26 May 1952. 132. Ibid., No. 6, 5 February 1953. 133. Ibid., No. 15, 9 April 1953. 134. USNA, RG 59, 511.7421/4-2253, Payne to State Department, 22 April 1953. 135. USNA, RG 59, 511.74/3-953, Payne to State Department, No. 1806, 9 March 1953. 136. USNA, RG 59, 511.74/12-3155, Weathersby to State-USIA, No. 720, 31 December 1955. 137. NAPRO, FO 1110/316/PR43/81G, Cairo Information Department to IRD, 20 March 1950, enclosing memorandum, ‘Anti-Communist Propaganda in Egypt’, 18 February 1950. 138. Ibid. 139. NAPRO, FO 1110/609/PRG93/8/G, Mackenzie to IRD, 22 June 1953. 140. Ibid., Horn to Mackenzie, 31 July 1953. 141. NAPRO, FO 953/61/PME1499/G, Kirkpatrick memorandum, 17 October 1946. 276 Notes

142. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy Top Secret Records, 1944–54, Box 1, Patterson to Marshall, No. 2661, 23 June 1947. 143. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 218, Caffery to State Department, No. 1005, 5 May 1950. 144. NAPRO, FO 1110/823/PR1093/6, Kellas to Grey, 27 July 1955. 145. NAPRO, FO 1110/823/PR1093/6, Glass to IRD, 30 July 1955. 146. NAPRO, FO 1110/225/PR472, Carter minute, 11 March 1949. 147. USNA, USIA Publications, Box 170, News Review, No. 34, 26 May 1952. 148. NAPRO, FO 1110/821/PR1089/4, Myers to IRD, 5 March 1955; NAPRO, FO 1110/933/PR1089/10, Press Attaché, Damascus, to IRD (received) 18 June 1956. 149. Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail. Suez through Egyptian Eyes (London: André Deutsch, 1986), p. 53.

5 ‘The Less Said the Better’

1. Readers unfamiliar with the topic should consult excellent accounts such as: Cohen, Palestine and the Great Powers (1982); Pappe, Britain and the Arab–Israeli Conflict 1948–51 (1988); Ovendale, Britain, the United States and the End of the Palestine Mandate (1989); Levey, Israel and the Western Powers, 1952–1960 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Hahn, caught in the Middle East. U.S. Policy towards the Arab–Israeli conflict, 1945–1961 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2004). 2. United States National Archive, College Park, Maryland (USNA), RG 59, Lot 53D84, Box 197, United States Information Services (USIS) Baghdad Report, 1 January–1 July 1946. 3. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 150, Tuck to Byrnes, A-52, 2 February 1946. 4. Ibid., Byrnes to Amlegation, Cairo, 4 March 1946. 5. Ibid., White House Press Release, 30 April 1946. 6. National Archive, formerly Public Record Office, Kew, UK (NAPRO), FO 930/433, Ikhwan al Hurriya Bulletin, No. 200, 7 May 1946. 7. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 150, Lyon to Byrnes, 1 July 1946, enclosing report by Philip W. Ireland, 10 June 1946. 8. NAPRO, FO 371/61559/E10018/G, Inverchapel to FO, No. 5928, 25 October 1947. 9. NAPRO, FO 371/61559/E10018/G, Rundall minute, 31 October 1947. 10. Ibid., Box 171, Tuck to Marshall, No. 2533, 19 May 1947. 11. USNA, RG 59, Lot 188, Box 124, Carter to Stone, 5 June 1946. 12. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 187, Memorandum by A.H. Meyer, ‘U.S. Information Policy as Viewed from Iraq’, 8 April 1948. 13. Ibid., Box 196, USIS–OIE Cairo ‘Report of Activities, January 1948’. 14. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D365, Box 48, Fisk to Phillips, 19 February 1951. 15. NAPRO, CO 537/4206, Report by the Public Informations Office, Jerusalem, January–December 1946. 16. Ibid. 17. Morris, ‘The Labour government’s policy and publicity over Palestine 1945–7’, p. 170. Notes 277

18. NAPRO, CO 537/4206, Report by the Public Informations Office, Jerusalem, January–December 1946. 19. Ibid. 20. Morris, ‘The Labour government’s policy and publicity over Palestine 1945–7’, p. 170. 21. NAPRO, FO 953/5J/P1849, FO to His Majesty’s Representative at Cairo, No. 1925, 16 October 1947. 22. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D84, Box 197, USIS, Baghdad Report, 1 January–1 July 1946. 23. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 151, Wadsworth to Byrnes, No. 1266, 10 July 1946. 24. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 151, Mattison report, 9 May 1946. 25. USNA, RG 263, Box 217, No. 277, Sharq al-Adna, 26 March 1948. 26. Ibid., Box 211, No. 243, Sharq al-Adna, 8 February 1948. 27. NAPRO, FO 953/381/PME294, Ikhwan al Hurriya Bulletin, No. 294, 23 March 1948. 28. USNA, RG 263, Box 224, No. 319, Sharq al-Adna, 25 May 1948. 29. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 151, Mattison to Byrnes, No. 449, 19 June 1946. 30. USNA, RG 59, Lot 188, Box 125, Office of International Information (OII) Weekly Guidance Notes, #14, 12 February 1948. 31. NAPRO, FO 953/381/PME294, Ikhwan al Hurriya Bulletin, No. 302, 25 May 1948. 32. NAPRO, FO 371/68386/E6364/103/65, Houstoun-Boswall to FO, No. 357, 16 May 1948. 33. NAPRO, FO 953/375/PME103, Information Department, Beirut, Monthly Review of the Lebanese Press, No. 5, May 1948. 34. NAPRO, FO 953/392/PME142, Middle East Information Department (MEID) Monthly Report, 30 May 1948. 35. NAPRO, FO 371/68386/E8738, Troutbeck to Wright, 18 May 1948. 36. NAPRO, FO 371/68386/E8737/103/65, Houstoun-Boswall to Wright, 9 May 1948. 37. NAPRO, FO 953/380/PME30, Ikhwan al Hurriya Bulletin, No. 282, 30 December 1947. 38. NAPRO, FO 953/5J/P1849, FO to Singapore, No. 41, 22 October 1947. 39. USNA, RG 263, Box 210, No. 239, Sharq al-Adna, 2 February 1948. 40. NAPRO, FO 953/370/PME867, Haigh to Pollock, 24 November 1948. 41. NAPRO, FO 953/381/PME294, Ikhwan al Hurriya Bulletin, No. 292, 9 March 1948. 42. Ibid., No. 296 (indexed 26 April 1948). 43. Ibid., No. 291, Sharq al-Adna, 15 April 1948. 44. NAPRO, FO 953/592/PME145/21/916, Haigh to MEID, 8 February 1949. 45. BBC Written Archives Center, Cauersham (BBCWAC), E1/631, File 1, Tweedy to Waterfield, 1 November 1949. 46. NAPRO, CO 537/3931, Fox-Strangeways to Gutch, 4 February 1948. 47. NAPRO, CO 537/3931, O’Sullivan report, 10 February 1948. 48. USNA, RG 263, Box 216, No. 272, Haganah Radio, 19 March 1948. 49. NAPRO, FO 953/373/PME592/193/993, Information Department, Baghdad to MEID, 23 July 1948. 278 Notes

50. NAPRO, FO 953/361/PME511/2/H, Chapman Andrews to FO, No. 136, 16 August 1948. 51. NAPRO, FO 953/362/PME593, Information Department, Cairo to MEID, 16 July 1948. 52. NAPRO, FO 953/367/PME594, Information Department, Cairo to MEID, 30 July 1948. 53. NAPRO, FO 953/367/PME662, Haigh to Warner, 4 August 1948. 54. NAPRO, FO 953/367/PME594, Information Department, Cairo to MEID, 30 July 1948. 55. USNA, RG 263, Box 249, No. 1, Sharq al-Adna, 1 January 1949. 56. NAPRO, FO 953/383/PME717, Ikhwan al Hurriya Bulletin, No. 317, 14 September 1948. 57. NAPRO, FO 953/383/PME889, Ikhwan al Hurriya Bulletin, No. 329, 14 December 1948. As a result of propaganda of this kind, Britain’s ‘de facto’ recognition of Israel in 1949 came as a shock to many in the Arab world, and prompted a number of resignations from the Ikhwan al Hurriya (NAPRO, FO 371/73469/J2037, Campbell to FO, 8 March 1949). 58. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D335, Box 89, Overnight Guidance No. 11, 16 November 1948. 59. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D84, Box 198, NEA/P to United States Information and Educational Exchange Program (USIE) 22 December 1949. 60. NAPRO, FO 953/370/PME867, Haigh to Pollock, 24 November 1948. 61. NAPRO, FO 953/383/PME717, Ikhwan al Hurriya Bulletin, No. 323, 2 November 1948. 62. USNA, RG 59, Lot 54D202, Box 6, State Department Transcript of Proceedings, Meeting: Information Policy Committee, 15 May 1950. 63. NAPRO, FO 953/373/PME863, Morrison to MEID, 8 November 1948. 64. USNA, RG 84, Egypt Cairo Embassy Top Secret Records 1954–55, Box 4, ‘Detailed Discussion of Need For Early Diplomatic Initiative by U.S. Government Re Arab Refugees and Related Palestine Issues’, 17 August 1953. 65. NAPRO, FO 953/379/PME20/20/965, ‘Progress Report of Information Activities in the Middle East for the Period December 1946 to December 1947’. 66. NAPRO, FO 371/111076/VR1072/282, Sterndale Bennett to Shuckburgh, 13 December 1954. 67. NAPRO, FO 371/75064/E3158, Troutbeck to Wright, 3 March 1949. 68. NAPRO, FO 1110/327/PR58/47/G, Houstoun-Boswall to Murray, 19 August 1950. The ‘moral’ aspect of British pro-Arab sentiment is intelligently dis- sected in Wm. Roger Louis, The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), pp. 114–18. 69. NAPRO, FO 371/75054/E2478, Bevin to Troutbeck, 20 May 1949. 70. NAPRO, FO 371/75054/E2479, Houstoun-Boswall to Bevin, 16 February 1949. 71. NAPRO, FO 371/75054/E2478, Bevin to Troutbeck, 20 May 1949. 72. NAPRO, FO 953/698/P10167/16, British Legation, Tel Aviv, to IPD, 16 September 1950. 73. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 41, USIE Country Paper for Egypt, August 1950. 74. Ibid., United States Information and Educational Exchange Program (USIE) Country Paper for Iraq, August 1950. Notes 279

75. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D266, Box 187, Proceedings of the Beirut Conference of Public Affairs Officers, 18–24 February 1952. 76. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/1-2053, Willard to State Department, 20 January 1953. 77. USNA, Lot 53D266, Box 187, Proceedings of the Beirut Conference of Public Affairs Officers, 18–24 February 1952, Excerpts and Summaries. 78. Morris, Israel’s Border Wars, 1949–1956 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993). 79. NAPRO, FO 371/104789/ER1091/397, Falla minute, 16 October 1953. 80. NAPRO, FO 371/104790/ER1091/428, Fowler to Baker, enclosing correspon- dence with J.Murray, 21 October 1953. 81. NAPRO, FO 371/104789/ER1091/394, FO to Tel Aviv, No. 429, 16 October 1953. 82. USNA, RG 59, 511.00/2-653, State Department Circular, No. 845, 6 February 1953. 83. USNA, RG 59, Lot 60D262, Box 97, State Department Policy Information Statement for USIA (NEA-30), 24 September 1953. 84. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 170, News Review, No. 43, 22 October 1953. 85. USNA, RG 59, Lot 60D262, Box 97, State Department Policy Information Statement for USIA (NEA-44), 23 October 1953. 86. NAPRO, FO 371/111073/VR1072/175, Duke to Shuckburgh, 10 August 1954; FO 371/111074/VR1072/184, Wilson to FO, 6 September 1954. 87. Hansard, Vol. 517, c. 1705, 13 July 1953. 88. NAPRO, FO 371/104784/ER1091/239, Moore to FO, No. 194, 19 June 1953; FO 371/104784/ER1091/244, Makins to FO, No. 1299, 20 June 1953. In fact, despite the initial annoyance with Glubb for causing Britain some discomfi- ture with the Israelis, it was felt by several officials that if Glubb’s comments had secured his position in Jordan, then the temporary souring of relations with Israel was outweighed by the benefits to British interests in the Arab world. 89. NAPRO, FO 371/111073/VR1072/177, Sterndale Bennett to Shuckburgh, 16 August 1954. 90. NAPRO, FO 371/111087/VR1074/91‘A’, Sterndale Bennett to FO, No. 267, 17 April 1954. 91. NAPRO, FO 371/111089/VR1074/168, Sterndale Bennett to FO, No. 308, 13 May 1954. 92. NAPRO, FO 371/111073/VR1072/177, Falla minute, 25 August 1954. 93. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, Kansas (DDE), White House Office, Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, Records, 1952–61, NSC Series, Policy Papers Subseries, Box 5, Progress Report on NSC 155/1, 29 July 1954. 94. USNA, RG 306, USI Publications, Box 171, News Review, No. 19, 13 May 1954 and No. 20, 20 May 1954. 95. NAPRO, FO 371/111092/VR1076/17, Bailey to Brewis, 5 May 1954. 96. USNA, RG 306, United States Information Agency (USIA) Publications, Box 171, News Review, No. 19, 13 May 1954. 97. Ibid., No. 19, 13 May 1954 and No. 20, 20 May 1954. 98. Benny Morris has cited a letter to the State Department from the US consul in Jerusalem which predicted that the Israelis would find the prosecution of their campaign against Hutchison ‘difficult’ on account of his ‘personal popularity’ and his having ‘gained the respect of all who know him by his 280 Notes

intelligence, fairness and impartiality’ (Morris, Israel’s Border Wars, p. 313n.). In turn, the British consul in Jerusalem declared that he did not believe there to be ‘any truth in the suggestion that Bennike has pro-Arab bias’ (NAPRO, FO 371/111078/VR1073/81, Wikeley to Falla, 11 May 1954). Indeed, if anything, British officials tended to condemn Bennike for being too weak and not standing up to the Israelis, and there was a tendency later in the year to regard French members of the UNTSO team as being unacceptably pro-Israeli. 99. NAPRO, FO 371/111078/VR1073/81, Wikeley to Falla, 11 May 1954. 100. NAPRO, FO 371/111078/VR1073/90, Wikeley to Falla, 18 May 1954. 101. NAPRO, FO 371/111080/VR1073/154, Wikeley to Falla, 21 July 1954. 102. NAPRO, FO 371/111078/VR1073/81, Wikeley to Falla, 11 May 1954. 103. NAPRO, FO 371/111079/VR1073/123, Wikeley to Falla, 30 June 1954. 104. DDE, White House Office, Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs: Records 1952–61, NSC Series: Status of Projects Subseries, Box 6, NSC 5525(6), The USIA Program, 11 August 1955. 105. NAPRO, FO 371/111104/VR1091/169, Goodison minute, 10 August 1954. 106. NAPRO, FO 371/110086/VR1074/45, Makins to FO, No. 521, 27 March 1954. 107. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/9-154, State Department Circular, No. 125, 1 September 1955. 108. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/9-454, Hare to Dulles, No. 211, 4 September 1954. 109. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/9-354, Ireland to Dulles, No. 135, 3 September 1954. 110. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/9-454, Strong to Dulles, No. 104, 4 September 1954. 111. NAPRO, FO 371/113676/256/JE1194/256, Scott to FO, No. 742, 6 October 1955. 112. USNA, RG 59, 511.00/10-1255, CA-2907, NEA-123, 11 October 1955. 113. NAPRO, FO 371/113681/JE1194/372, Shuckburgh minute, 19 October 1955. 114. NAPRO, FO 953/1420/P10437/4, Malcolm minute, 24 June 1953. 115. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D266, Box 187, Proceedings of the Beirut Conference of Public Affairs Officers, 18–24 February 1952. 116. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/12-755, NSC 5428 ‘United States Objectives and Policies With Respect to the Near East’, 7 December 1955. 117. NAPRO, FO 371/111095/VR1079/9/G‘A’, Makins to FO, No. 2749, 18 December 1954. 118. NAPRO, FO 371/111069/VR1072/1, Troutbeck to Eden, No. 213, 28 December 1953. 119. NAPRO, FO 371/111095/VR1079/9/G, Jebb to FO, No. 814, 17 December 1954. 120. NAPRO, FO 371/111095/VR1079/10/G, Shuckburgh minute, 15 December 1954. 121. USNA, RG 59, 511.87/11-1653, AmEmbassy Baghdad to State-USIA, No. 33, 16 November 1953. 122. NAPRO, FO 371/115879/VR1076/314/G‘E’, Arthur minute, 17 September 1955. 123. NAPRO, FO 371/115870/VR1076/114/G‘B’, Shuckburgh minute, 15 June 1955. 124. NAPRO, FO 371/115874/VR1076/184/G, FO minute, 24 August 1955. Notes 281

125. DDE, McCardle Papers, Series II, Box 7, Department of State Press Release No. 517, Text of Address by John Foster Dulles before the Council on Foreign Relations, 26 August 1955. 126. NAPRO, FO 371/115872/VR1076/150/G, Sterndale Bennett to FO, No. 300, 3 August 1955. 127. Ibid., Rose to Sterndale Bennett, 15 August 1955. 128. NAPRO, FO 371/115874/VR1076/189/G, FO to Washington, No. 3808, 23 August 1956. 129. NAPRO, FO 371/115875/VR1076/272/G, Graham minute, 29 August 1956. 130. NAPRO, FO 371/115874/VR1076/189/G, Makins to FO, No. 1998, 24 August 1956. 131. NAPRO, FO 371/115879/VR1076/315/G, Policy Information Guidance for USIA, 27 September 1955. 132. USNA, RG 306,USIA Publications, Box 172, News Review, No. 36, 8 September 1955. 133. NAPRO, FO 371/115879/VR1076/315/G, Policy Information Guidance for USIA, 27 September 1955. 134. NAPRO, FO 371/115880/VR1076/331/G, Arthur minute, 4 November 1955. 135. Ibid. 136. NAPRO, FO 371/115880/VR1076/335 ‘B’, FO to Cairo, No. 2587, 9 November 1955. 137. NAPRO, FO 371/115880, VR1076/334/G, Shuckburgh minute, 7 November 1955. 138. NAPRO, FO 371/115880/VR1076/334/G, Shuckburgh minute, 7 November 1955. 139. NAPRO, FO 371/115881/VR1076/381, Arthur minute, 17 November 1955. 140. NAPRO, FO 371/115880/VR1076/343, Nicholls to FO, No. 457, 11 November 1955. 141. Shamir, ‘The Collapse of Project Alpha’, in Owen and Louis (eds), Suez 1956. The Crisis and its Consequences (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 85. 142. NAPRO, FO 371/115880/VR1076/335, FO to Amman, No. 742, 9 November 1955. 143. NAPRO, FO 371/115882/VR1076/396, Arthur minute, 17 November 1955. 144. NAPRO, FO 371/115883/VR1076/414, Arthur minute, 19 November 1955. 145. USNA, RG 263, Box 704, No. 21, Sharq al-Adna, 30 January 1956. 146. Shamir, ‘The Collapse of Project Alpha’, p. 99. 147. Hansard, Vol. 529, c. 18–19, 21 June 1954. 148. USNA, RG 59, Lot 60D605, Box 56, Sanger to Jernegan, 28 December 1954. 149. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/5-1754, Hare to Department of State, No. 725, 17 May 1954. 150. USNA, RG 59, Lot 52D365, Box 48, Fisk to Phillips, 19 February 1951. 151. USNA, RG 59, Lot 54D202, Box 6, Department of State Transcript of Proceedings, Meeting: Information Policy Committee, 15 May 1950. 152. Ibid.

6 ‘Equal Partners’?

1. Louis, The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984) p. 8. 282 Notes

2. National Archive, formerly Public Record Office, Kew, UK (NAPRO), FO 371/52310/E3135, Shaw to Hall, 18 August 1945, enclosing memorandum by Brigadier J.B. Glubb, 1 July 1945. 3. NAPRO, FO 371/52310/E3135, Shaw to Hall, 18 August 1945. 4. NAPRO, FO 371/91182/E1022/10, Franks to Bowker, 19 July 1951. 5. NAPRO, FO 371/98251/E1054/2, FO minute, 8 March 1952. 6. NAPRO, FO 371/68384/E1442/103/65, FO minute, ‘Notes for Secretary of State’s speech in House of Commons debate, January 22nd’, 2 February 1948. 7. NAPRO, FO 371/68385/E24371/103/65/G, Burrows memorandum, ‘The fail- ure of the Iraq Treaty and Arab Nationalist Movements’, 7 April 1948. 8. United States National Archive, College Park, Maryland (USNA), RG 263, FBIS, Box 209, No. 233, Sharq al-Adna, 25 January 1948. 9. Priestland (ed.), The Buraimi Dispute. Contemporary Documents 1950–1961, Vol. 3, 1953 (Archive Editions, 1992), p. 225, FO to Cairo, No. 827, 17 April 1953. 10. Ibid., p. 635, Burrows to FO, No. 1009, 5 December 1953. 11. Priestland (ed.), The Buraimi Dispute, Vol. 5, 1954–55 (Archive Editions, 1992), p. 121, Shuckburgh Minute, 11 June 1954. 12. Ibid., p. 120, Fry minute, 10 June 1954. 13. NAPRO, FO 371/104290/EA1081/434, Blackham minute, 17 April 1953. 14. Priestland, The Buraimi Dispute, Vol. 6, 1955 (Archive Editions, 1992), p. 288, FO to Certain of Her Majesty’s Representatives, 12 July 1955. 15. Ibid., p. 138, Duke to FO, No. 320, 17 June 1954. 16. Ibid., p. 611, Gault to FO, No. 533, 14 July 1955. 17. Ibid., p. 304, FO to Amman, No. 501, 30 July 1955. 18. Ibid., pp. 434–6, Shuckburgh minute, 16 September 1955. 19. Priestland, The Buraimi Dispute, Vol. 6, pp. 466–7, The Times, 5 October 1955. 20. USNA, RG 263, Box 684, No. 193, Sharq al-Adna, 2 October 1955. 21. NAPRO, FO 371/114/623/EA 1081/348(A), Hansard cutting, 26 October 1955. 22. NAPRO, FO 371/114622/EA1081/334, FO to Baghdad, 29 October 1955. 23. Ibid., FO to Baghdad, 25 October 1955. 24. Priestland, The Buraimi Dispute, Vol. 7, 1956 (Archive Editions, 1992), pp. 351–2, FO to Certain of Her Majesty’s Representatives, No. 3, 12 January 1956. 25. NAPRO, FO 953/4G/P900, Draft Note, ‘The Background of Anglo-Egyptian Relations’, 22 May 1947. 26. NAPRO, FO 953/367/PME428, Publicity Section, Cairo to Middle East Information Department (MEID), 7 May 1948. 27. NAPRO, FO 953/48/PME125, FO to Middle East Posts, 7 February 1947. 28. NAPRO, FO 953/49/PME283, Publicity Section, Cairo to MEID, 19 July 1947. 29. NAPRO, FO 953/1108/PG1161/8, Barclay to Waterfield, 20 July 1951. 30. NAPRO, FO 953/1108/PG1161/8, Barclay minute, 27 July 1951. 31. NAPRO, FO 953/1191/P10422/26, Malcolm to Watson, 26 November 1951. 32. NAPRO, FO 371/102773/JE1055/1, Barclay minute, 7 May 1953. 33. Ibid. 34. NAPRO, FO 371/102775/JE/1055/86, Eden minute, 10 November 1953. 35. NAPRO, FO 953/1522/PG1168/8G, Sterndale Bennett to Nicholls, 30 June 1954. 36. USNA, RG 263, Box 654, No. 73, Sharq al-Adna, 13 April 1955. Notes 283

37. USNA, RG 263, Box 659, No. 92, Sharq al-Adna, 11 May 1955. 38. NAPRO, FO 953/868/PG11616/3, Stevenson to Warner, 4 August 1950. 39. NAPRO, FO 953/868/PG11616/4, Stevenson to Troutbeck, 15 November 1950. 40. NAPRO, FO 953/1114/PG11637/76, Parkes to Malcolm, 21 November 1951. 41. NAPRO, FO 953/1319/PG11637/15/G, Stevenson to Nicholls, 7 February 1952. 42. NAPRO, FO 953/1114/PG11637/17, Information Department, Cairo to Information Policy Department (IPD), 27 October 1951. 43. NAPRO, FO 953/1319/PG11637/15/G, Stevenson to Nicholls, 7 February 1952. 44. NAPRO, FO 953/1114/PG11637/17, Information Department, Cairo to IPD, 27 October 1951. 45. NAPRO, FO 953/1115/PG11637/100, J. Murray to Morris, 6 December 1951. 46. NAPRO, FO 953/1319/PG11637/15/G, Stevenson to Nicholls, 7 February 1952. 47. NAPRO, FO 953/1354/PG18837/2, Chapman Andrews to FO, No. 71, 5 February 1952. 48. NAPRO, FO 953/1230/P1041/16, Nutting minute, 16 April 1952. 49. NAPRO, FO 953/1319/PG11637/15/G, Stevenson to Nicholls, 7 February 1952. 50. NAPRO, FO 953/1319/PG11637/24, Parkes to Malcolm, 17 May 1952. 51. NAPRO, FO 371/102847/JE119141/19, Rapp to FO, 10 May 1953. 52. NAPRO, FO 371/102848/JE11914/36, Stevenson to FO, 19 May 1953. 53. USNA, RG 263, Box 533, No. 98, Sharq al-Adna, 21 May 1953. 54. NAPRO, FO 953/1477/P1048/1, Ministry of Defence (MOD) to GHQ Middle East Land Forces, 22 December 1953. 55. NAPRO, FO 953/1477/P1048/2, Sterndale Bennett memorandum, 23 December 1953. 56. Ibid. 57. NAPRO, FO 953/1477/P1048/6, Duke to Marett, 4 February 1954. 58. NAPRO, INF 12/610, Central Office of Information (COI) reference paper, ‘Defence of the Middle East’, 17 September 1954. 59. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/12-755, NSC 5428 ‘United States Objectives and Policies With Respect to the Near East’, 7 December 1955. 60. Eden, Full Circle (London: Cassell, 1960), p. 220. 61. Hansard, vol. 539, col. 379, 30 March 1955. 62. NAPRO, FO 371/115529/V1073/1280, FO to Baghdad, 18 November 1955. 63. NAPRO, FO 371/115496/V1073/424, Hooper to Rose, 8 March 1955. 64. USNA, RG 59, 511.00/1-2556, CA-5571, Policy Information Statement for United States Information Agency (USIA), 25 January 1956. 65. NAPRO, FO 953/1629/P1041/1, Gauntlett to Stewart, 2 January 1956. 66. NAPRO, FO 371/121255/V1073/211, Stevens to Lloyd, 24 April 1956. 67. NAPRO, FO 371/121252/V1073/135G, Baghdad Pact Council Briefs, 11 April 1956. 68. NAPRO, FO 371/121294/V10714/3, Report of the Chairman of the Working Party on Information, 20 June 1956. 69. NAPRO, FO 371/121262/V1073/321, Record of 24th meeting of the Deputies, 23 August 1956. 284 Notes

70. Hoopes, The Devil and John Foster Dulles (London: André Deutsch, 1973), p. 322. 71. NAPRO, FO 371/68386/E7453/G, Trott to Bevin, No. 103, 29 May 1948. 72. Charmley, Churchill’s Grand Alliance (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1995); Thorpe, Eden (London: Chatto & Windus, 2003). 73. Priestland, The Buraimi Dispute, Vol. II, p. 289, Trott to Morrison, 2 June 1951. 74. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, Kansas (DDE), Whitman File, International Series, Box 46, Saudi Arabia (2), State Department Memorandum of Conversation, 30 January 1957. 75. NAPRO, FO 371/98247/E10345/17, Shepherd to Bowker, 10 May 1952. 76. NAPRO, FO 371/98247/E10345/17, Bowker to Shepherd, 19 July 1952. 77. USNA, Lot 188, Box 123, Allen to Lovett, 25 June 1948, enclosing memoran- dum, ‘Information Policy for Arab States’. 78. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/1-2053, Willard to State Department, 20 January 1953. 79. DDE, White House Office: Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Series, Policy Papers Subseries, Box 5, NSC 155/1 – Near East (2), NSC Planning Board Report to NSC on US Objectives and Policies with Respect to the Near East, 17 June 1953. 80. USNA, Lot 60D262, Box 93, USIA Fortnightly Guidance for the NEA Area, No. 27, 12 May 1955. 81. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy Top Secret Records 1944–54, Tuck to Henderson, No. 2275, 28 February 1947, enclosing Morde to Tuck, 23 February 1947. 82. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 218, Caffery to State Department, No. 1005, 5 May 1950. 83. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D266, Box 188, State Department Transcript of Proceedings, Working Group on Special Materials for Arab and Other Moslem Countries, 1 April 1952. 84. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/6-1953, Hopkins to Dulles, 19 June 1953 85. NAPRO, FO 953/1476/P1041/23, Information Department, Baghdad to IPD, 11 September 1954, attaching American Friends of the Middle East (AFME) pamphlet, ‘Britain Sees The Light At Last’, 30 July 1954. 86. See McNay, Acheson and Empire. The British Accent in American Foreign Policy (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2001), pp. 178–81. 87. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 228, Acheson to Cairo, Circular 329, 10 October 1951. 88. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 228, Acheson to Cairo, Circular 359, 17 October 1951. 89. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 228, Acheson to Cairo, Circular 408, 31 October 1951. 90. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 228, Acheson to Cairo, Circular 359, 17 October 1951. 91. USNA, Lot 60D262, Box 97, State Department Policy Information Statement (NEA-3), 7 August 1953. 92. PRO, INF 12/610, COI reference paper, ‘Defence of the Middle East’, 17 September 1954. 93. USNA, Lot 60D262, Box 93, USIA Fortnightly Guidance for the NEA Area, No. 9, 5 August 1954. 94. USNA, RG 59, Lot 60D262, Box 97, P.I.S. for USIA, NEA-2, 7 August 1953. 95. Priestland, The Buraimi Dispute, Vol. II, p. 359, Pelham to Eden, 17 December 1952. Notes 285

96. Ibid., Vol. VII, pp. 376–7, Morris to Riches, 21 January 1956. 97. USNA, RG 59, 511.80/11-755, CA-3616, P.I.S. for USIA, NEA-128, 3 November 1955. 98. USNA, RG 59, 511.80/2-156, CA-5778, P.I.S. for USIA, NEA-143, 30 January 1956. 99. DDE, Whitman File, NSC Series, Box 7, 263rd meeting of NSC, 27 October 1955. 100. USNA, RG 59, 611.80, 12-755, Allen to Dulles, 7 December 1955, enclosing draft of NSC 5428. 101. DDE, Whitman File, NSC Series, Box 7, 272nd meeting of NSC, 12 January 1956. 102. DDE, C.D. Jackson Papers, 1931–67, Box 71, Luce to Jackson, 20 April 1956. 103. USNA, Lot 60D262, Box 93, USIA Fortnightly Guidance for the NEA Area No. 38, 1 December 1955. 104. Priestland, The Buraimi Dispute, Vol. VII, p. 537, Riches to Nutting, 2 July 1956. 105. Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 689, FO to Washington, 16 December 1955. 106. Ibid., Vol. V, p. 171, FO Brief for Washington Talks, 13 July 1954. 107. NAPRO, FO 371/104258/E10345/52G, Makins to Eden, 6 November 1953. 108. DDE, Whitman File, NSC Series, Box 8, 289th meeting of NSC, 28 June 1956. 109. USNA, RG 84, Iraq, Baghdad, General Records 1956–58, Box 7, AmEmbassy Baghdad to State Department, No. 43, 17 July 1956. 110. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, pp. 169–70. It is also conceivable that covert meas- ures to undermine Saud were being undertaken by the Egyptians, although this idea may well have been deliberately fostered by Anglo-American pro- pagandists as part of a campaign to sow discord between the Saudis and the Egyptians. 111. NAPRO, FO 371/114624/EA1081/388, Washington to FO, No. 631, 29 October 1955. 112. NAPRO, FO 371/114627/EA1081/466, Makins to FO, 9 November 1955. 113. NAPRO, FO 953/1477/P1048/4, Atkinson-Grimshaw to Glass, 28 January 1954. 114. NAPRO, FO 371/119149/JE14211/1996, Makins to FO, 2 October 1956. 115. Charmley, Churchill’s Grand Alliance, p. 312. 116. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 170, News Review, No. 45, 5 November 1953. 117. Ibid. 118. Ibid., No. 46, 12 November 1953. 119. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/1-1156, AmEmbassy, Cairo to State Department, No. 747, 11 January 1956. 120. Ibid. 121. DDE, Dulles Papers, General Correspondence and Memoranda, Box 2, Lodge to Eisenhower, 26 June 1956. 122. Ibid., Dulles to Lodge, 29 June 1956. 123. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/4-756, Byroade to Dulles, No. 2002, 7 April 1956. 124. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/1-1156, AmEmbassy, Cairo to State Department, No. 747, 11 January 1956. 286 Notes

125. USNA, RG 59, Lot 62D333, Box 2, PSB D-22, 6 February 1953. 126. NAPRO, FO 371/104258/E10345/36, Kirkbride minute, 3 July 1953. 127. DDE, Whitman File, NSC Series, Box 4, 164th meeting, 1 October 1953. 128. NAPRO, FO 371/102731/JE10345/14, Hankey to Bowker, 23 June 1953. 129. NAPRO, FO 953/1419/P1041/25/G, Fitzgerald to British Middle East Office (BMEO), Beirut, 27 July 1953. 130. Ibid., Glass to Fitzgerald, 3 August 1953. 131. British Interests in the Mediterranean and Middle East, A Report by a Study Group of the Royal Institute of International Affairs (London: Oxford University Press, 1958), p. 42.

7 ‘The Last Trump’

1. National Archive, formerly Public Record Office, Kew, UK (NAPRO) FO 371/113675/JE1194/192G, FO to UK Delegation to UN, 30 September 1955. 2. NAPRO, FO 371/113676/JE1194/225, FO to Cairo, No. 2155, 6 October 1955. 3. NAPRO, FO 371/113680/JE1194/356, Bromley minute, 22 October 1955. 4. NAPRO, FO 371/113676/JE1194/225, FO to Cairo, No. 2155, 6 October 1955. 5. NAPRO, FO 371/113677/JE11941/270, Hooper to FO, 5 October 1955. 6. United States National Archive, College Park, Maryland (USNA), RG 59, 511.00/9-3055, CA-2609, P.I.S. for USIA, NEA-122, 30 September 1955. 7. USNA, Lot 60D262, Box 93 United States Information Agency (USIA) Fortnightly Guidance for the NEA Area, No. 36, 18 October 1955. 8. NAPRO, FO 371/113678/JE1194/317(A), Bromley minute, 17 October 1955. 9. USNA, RG 263, Box 683, Vol. 1266, No. 191, Sharq al-Adna, 30 September 1955. 10. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 172, News Review, No. 44, 3 November 1955. 11. NAPRO, FO 371/113676/JE1194/231, Wilton minute, 4 October 1955. 12. NAPRO, FO 371/115489/V1073/179, Sterndale Bennett to Shuckburgh, 2 February 1955. 13. NAPRO, FO 371/115469/V1023/28G, Cairncross to Hancock, 7 December 1955. 14. NAPRO, INF 12/734, ‘Al Aalam: 1952–1957, Principal Contents, May 1956–October 1957’, undated. 15. NAPRO, FO 371/68385/E24371/103/65/G, Fitzgerald minute, 19 March 1948. 16. NAPRO, FO 371/111046/VQ1682/1G, Allen minute, 31 March 1954. 17. NAPRO, FO 371/111046/VQ1682/2G, Mackenzie to Brewis, 2 June 1954. 18. NAPRO, FO 371/121648/VQ1022/3, Rose minute, 17 January 1956. 19. USNA, RG 263, Box 657, Vol. 1213, No. 85, Voice of Free Iraq, April 28–30 1955. 20. USNA, RG 84, Iraq: Baghdad Embassy General Records 1953–54, Box 1, Gallman to Dulles, No. 895, 6 May 1955. 21. USNA, RG 59, 974.40/4-3055, Byroade to Dulles, No. 2049, 30 April 1955. 22. NAPRO, FO 371/98249/E1051/1, Chapman Andrews to Bowker, 19 December 1951. Notes 287

23. NAPRO, FO 371/98249/E1051/1, Bowker to Chapman Andrews, 18 January 1952. Heikal has also claimed that in late 1955, Said Ramadan, a prominent Moslem Brotherhood leader, was acting as an adviser to a clandestine British station based in Cyprus (Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, p. 100). 24. USNA, RG 59, 974.40/4-1255, State Department Instruction, CA-6963, 12 April 1955. 25. NAPRO, FO 953/1495/PG1932/3, Hooper to Grey, 27 April 1955. 26. USNA, RG 59, 974.40/4-3055, Byroade to Dulles, No. 2049, 30 April 1955. 27. USNA, RG 59, 574.85/1-1756, AmEmbassy Amman to State Department, No. 236, 17 January 1956. 28. USNA, RG 263, Box 704, Vol. 1307, No. 19, Voice of the Arabs, 27 January 1956. 29. USNA, RG 59, 574.85/2-2156, Parker to State Department, No. 278, 21 February 1956. 30. USNA, RG 59, 574.85/1-1756, AmEmbassy Amman to State Department, No. 236, 17 January 1956. 31. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene Kansas (DDE) Whitman File, DDE Diary Series, Box 14, Mar. ’56, Miscellaneous, Eden to Eisenhower, 4 March 1956. 32. DDE, Whitman File, DDE Diary Series, Box 13, Mar. ’56 Diary, Memorandum for the President, ‘Near Eastern Policies’, 28 March 1956. 33. USNA, RG 59, 511.74/4-1056, Damon to MacArthur, 10 April 1956. 34. USNA, RG 59, Lot 60D262, Box 93, USIA Fortnightly Guidance for the NEA Area, No. 44, 13 April 1956. 35. DDE, John Foster Dulles Papers, Subject Series, Box 5, File received from Mr. Herbert Hoover Jr’s office(1), ‘United States Policy in the Near East’, 28 March 1956. 36. Ibid. 37. USNA, RG 59, 611.89/5-2456, Bowie to Rountree, 24 May 1956. 38. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, pp. 169–70. 39. USNA, RG 84, London Embassy, Top Secret Subject Files 1956–58, Box 1, Aldrich to Dulles, No. 4138, 22 March 1956. 40. USNA, RG 59 Lot 62D430, Box 2, minutes of Operation Co-ordinating Board (OCB) meeting, 11 April 1956. 41. Ibid., minutes of OCB meeting, 25 April 1956. 42. NAPRO, PREM 11/1450, de Zulueta minute, 25 May 1956. 43. NAPRO, PREM 11/1450, de Zulueta minute, 25 May 1956. 44. NAPRO, PREM 11/1450, Lennox Boyd minute, 30 May 1956. 45. NAPRO, PREM 11/1450, Eden to Lennox Boyd, 4 June 1956. 46. NAPRO, PREM 11/1450, de Zulueta minute, 25 May 1956. 47. NAPRO, PREM 11/1450, Eden to Selwyn Lloyd, 4 May 1956. 48. NAPRO, PREM 11/1450, Selwyn Lloyd to Eden, 12 May 1956. 49. NAPRO, FO 953/1652/PB1041/77G, Stephenson to Rennie, 27 July 1956, enclosing ‘1. Summary of recommendations given to Iraqi Prime Minister’. 50. Ibid., enclosing ‘5. A copy of my contribution to the working party of the Baghdad Pact Counter-Subversion Committee’. 51. Ibid. 52. USNA, Lot 61D53, Box 77, MacKnight to Kretzman, 7 May 1956. 53. Ibid., Payne to USIA, Tousi 396, 8 May 1956. 288 Notes

54. Ibid., MacKnight to Kretzman, 18 May 1956. 55. NAPRO, PREM 11/1450, de Zulueta minute, 25 May 1956. 56. Ibid., Millard memorandum, ‘Propaganda and Broadcasting in the Middle East’, 29 June 1956. 57. Ibid., ‘Note on British Propaganda and Egypt’. 58. Ibid., ‘Propaganda and Broadcasting in the Middle East’, 29 June 1956. 59. Ibid. 60. NAPRO, FO 1110/942/PR10104/54/G, Adams to Grey, 18 April 1956. 61. Lucas, ‘The Missing Link? Patrick Dean, Chairman of the Joint Intelligence Committee’, Kelly & Gorst (eds.), Whitehall and the Suez Crisis (London: Frank Cass, 2000), p. 123. 62. See, in particular, Pearson, Sir Anthony Eden and the Suez Crisis. Reluctant Gamble (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003). 63. Shaw, Eden, Suez and the Mass Media, p. 2. 64. NAPRO, FO 1110/880/PR10131/1/G, Kirkpatrick memorandum, 23 August 1956. 65. NAPRO, CAB 134/1297, Official Committee on the Middle East, ME(O)(56) 3rd meeting, 13 April 1956. 66. NAPRO, FO 1110/942/PR10704/54/G, Grey to Adams, 3 May 1956. 67. Thornhill, ‘Alternatives to Nasser: Humphrey Trevelyan, Ambassador to Egypt’, in Kelly and Gorst, Whitehall and the Suez Crisis, pp. 17–18. 68. Shaw, Eden, Suez and the Mass Media, p. 88. 69. Lashmar & Oliver, Britain’s Secret Propaganda War, p. 70; Aldrich, The Hidden Hand, pp. 482–3. 70. BBC Written Archives Centre, Caversham (BBCWAC), R34/1580/1, BBC minute, Director General’s desk diary, 2 August 1956; NAPRO, FO 1110/948/PR10104/245/G, Grey and Dean minutes, 12 November 1956. 71. NAPRO, AIR 8/1940, C.O.S.(57)220 Chiefs of Staff Committee, 11 October 1957, Part II of General Sir Charles Keightley’s Despatch on Operations in the Eastern Mediterranean, November–December 1956; Fergusson, The Trumpet in the Hall, 1930–1958, p. 259; Gorst, ‘A Modern Major General: General Sir Gerald Templer, Chief of the Imperial General Staff’ in Kelly & Gorst, Whitehall and the Suez Crisis, pp. 37–8. 72. NAPRO, PREM 11/1450, Extract from Record of Conversation, 21 September 1956. 73. BBCWAC, R34/1580/1, Advisory Committee ‘ICE Progress Report’, undated (probably late-September 1956). 74. Rawnsley has unearthed intriguing evidence that the man who later con- fessed to responsibility for the broadcasts from France, Mahmoud Abu Al-Fath, also claimed the initial impetus for the station had come from Nuri Said. This raises the possibility of a link between the French ‘Free Egypt’ in 1956 and the ‘Free Egypt’ broadcasts believed to have been organised by Iraq in 1955 (Rawnsley, ‘Overt and Covert: The Voice of Britain and Black Radio Broadcasting in the Suez Crisis, 1956’, Intelligence and National Security, Vol. 11, No. 3 ( July 1996), p. 514. 75. Dorril, MI6, p. 625. 76. USNA, RG 306, USIA Office of Research, Classified Research Reports, Box 2, ‘Clandestine Anti-Nasir Radio Station Probably French’, 27 August 1956. 77. Aldrich, The Hidden Hand, pp. 484–5. Notes 289

78. Rawnsley, ‘Overt and Covert’, p. 515. 79. Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, pp. 99–100. 80. DDE Library, OCB series, Subject subseries, Box 4, Near East – Radio Broadcasting (1), Draft memo, 22 July 1958. 81. USNA, RG 306, USIA Office of Research, Classified Research Reports, Box 2, ‘Second Anti-Nasir Station may be on Cyprus’, 15 October 1956. 82. BBC Written Archives Centre, Caversham (BBCWAC), E1/1811/1, Whitehead to C.O.S., 24 October 1955. 83. Partner, Arab Voices, p. 101. 84. BBCWAC, E1/1815/1, Watrous memorandum, 23 October 1956. 85. NAPRO, FO 1110/971/PR139/148/G, Grey to Johnston, 10 January 1957. 86. BBCWAC, R34/1580/3, Note of meeting between Sir Ian Jacob and Sir Charles Hill, 8 January 1957. 87. NAPRO, FO 1110/967/PR136/19/G, FO minute, 18 February 1956. 88. NAPRO, CAB 134/1217, E.C.(56)62, Lloyd memorandum, ‘Propaganda and Political Warfare in the Middle East’, 24 October 1956. 89. Ibid. 90. Dodds-Parker, Political Eunuch, pp. 102–3. 91. Hansard, vol. 557, c. 1603. 92. NAPRO, INF 12/717, Central Office of Information (COI) monthly reports: July–August 1956, 14 September 1956. 93. NAPRO, FO 371/119081/JE14211/119, FO to Washington and other posts, No. 3419, 30 July 1956. 94. BBCWAC, R34/1580/1, Ministerial Broadcast by the Prime Minister, 8 August 1956. 95. Eden, Full Circle, pp. 430–2. 96. NAPRO, PREM 11/1098, FO to Washington, No. 3568, 5 August 1956. 97. NAPRO, FO 953/1689/PG11639/10, Information Policy Department (IPD) minute, 11 August 1956. The Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC) produced its own historical analogy, noting that ‘Perhaps the best recent parallel to Nasser is not Hitler but Peron’ (CAB 158/27, J.I.C.(57)12/1, JIC report, ‘The Situation in Egypt as at 8th January, 1957’, 10 January 1957). 98. NAPRO, FO 371/119111/JE14211/888A, Speech by the Selwyn Lloyd, 14 August 1956. 99. NAPRO, FO 1110/880, PR10131/10/G, Drew to Oakeshott, 18 October 1956. 100. DDE, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers 1948–61, Disaster File Series, Box 65, Memorandum for Mr. Gleason, 17 October 1956. 101. BBCWAC, R34/1580/3, Advisory Committee minutes, 11 January 1957. 102. NAPRO, FO 371/119083/JE14211/214, Duke to FO, 2 August 1956. 103. NAPRO, FO 953/1689/PG11639/7, Montgomery-Cuninghame minute, 3 August 1956. 104. USNA, RG 59, 774.00(W)/9-656, AmEmbassy Cairo to State Department, No. 189, 6 September 1956. 105. BBCWAC, R34/1580/1, ‘ICE Progress Report’, undated (probably late- September 1956). 106. Ibid. 107. NAPRO, PREM 11/1149, SCANT No. 44, 25 September 1956. 108. USNA, RG 263, Box 747, Vol. 1395, No. 196, Voice of Justice, 8 October 1956. 290 Notes

109. NAPRO, PREM 11/1149, P.204, ME(O)(56) Conclusions, minute 2, 22 September 1956. 110. NAPRO, PREM 11/1149, Langardge to Bishop, 3 October 1956. 111. USNA, RG 263, Box 751, Vol. 1402, No. 210, Voice of Justice, 25 October 1956. 112. NAPRO, PREM 11/1149, SCANT No. 44, 25 September 1956. 113. USNA, RG 263, Box 750, Vol. 1401, No. 207, Voice of Justice, 19 October 1956. 114. USNA, RG 263, Box 747, Vol. 1395, No. 196, Voice of Justice, 8 October 1956. 115. NAPRO, FO 371/119141/JE14211/1784G, Ministry of Transport minute, 10 September 1956. 116. NAPRO, FO 371/119147/JE14211/1939, Banister to FO, 28 September 1956. 117. DDE, Whitman File, International Series, Box 47, Suez Summary No. 18, 27 September 1956. 118. Hansard, vol. 558, c.1569. 119. NAPRO, FO 953/1607/P10118/41, FO to Tehran, 1 November 1956. 120. NAPRO, PREM 11/1149, Grey minute, 3 November 1956. 121. BBCWAC, E1/1815/1, BBC monitoring, 3 November 1956. 122. USNA, RG 306, Office of Research Classified Research Reports, Box 2, ‘Cyprus Government Seizes Sharq al-Adna Broadcasting Station’, 5 November 1956. 123. BBC, R34/1580/1, File Note, 2 November 1956; and R34/1580/2, Note on visit of Acting Director-General to Monckton, 2 November 1956. 124. BBCWAC, E1/1815/1, Watrous to Assistant Head of the Eastern Service, 6 December 1956. 125. Aldrich, The Hidden Hand, p. 490. 126. Fergusson, The Trumpet in the Hall, pp. 263–8. 127. NAPRO, FO 953/1604/P1011/23G, Grey minute, 22 November 1956. 128. NAPRO, INF 12/732, EPC 55, Editorial and Planning Committee meeting, 5 September 1956. 129. NAPRO, INF 12/717, COI monthly reports: December 1956, 11 January 1957. 130. NAPRO, FO 371/118910/JE1094/178, Dixon to FO, 21 November 1956. 131. NAPRO, INF 6/83, ‘The Facts About Port Said’, text of commentary and cutter’s shot list, undated. 132. NAPRO, PREM 11/1149, Hansard cutting, 10 December 1956. 133. NAPRO, FO 953/1615/P10118/199, Heath minute, 12 December 1956. 134. NAPRO FO 371/119160/JE14211/2279, FO to Certain of Her Majesty’s Representatives, No. 132, 11 November 1956. 135. NAPRO, FO 953/1612/P10118/150, Press Section, Tehran to IPD, 1 December 1956. 136. USNA, RG 263, Box 755, Vol. 1411, No. 227, Voice of Justice, 20 November 1956. 137. USNA, RG 263, Box 763, Vol. 1427, No. 8, Voice of Justice, 10 January 1957. 138. USNA, RG 263, Box 763, Vol. 1428, No. 10, Voice of Justice, 13 January 1957. 139. USNA, RG 263, Box 763, Vol. 1428, No. 10, Voice of Free Egypt, 11 January 1957. Notes 291

140. USNA, RG 263, Box 763, Vol. 1428, No. 10, Voice of Free Egypt, 11 January 1957. 141. NAPRO, FO 953/1612/P10118/150, Speares minute, 1 December 1956. 142. Marret, Through the Back Door, p. 155. 143. NAPRO, FO 953/1714/P1011/3, Dodds-Parker minute, 31 December 1956. 144. USNA, RG 59, 974.7301/7-2756, Byroade to Dulles, No. 157, 27 July 1956. 145. See, for example Charmley, Churchill’s Grand Alliance, p. 331. 146. DDE, Whitman File, Speech Series, Box 16, Suez Canal Report (Dulles) 8/3/56, Snyder Press Release, 3 August 1956. 147. News Review subsequently published an article stressing that it had never been Eisenhower’s intention to claim that ownership of the Canal was inter- national in character, merely its usage (USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 173, News Review, No. 37, 13 September 1956). 148. DDE, Whitman File, Press Conference Series, Box 5, Press Conference, 8 August 1956. 149. Cited in Bowie, ‘Eisenhower, Dulles, and the Suez Crisis’, in Louis and Owen (eds), Suez 1956, p. 200. 150. USNA, RG 59, 511.00/8–1156, CA-1341, P.I.S. for USIA, NEA-168, 16 August 1956. 151. Later USIA output consistently sought to dissociate the question of Aswan Dam funding from the Suez Crisis. 152. USNA, RG 59, 511.00/8–1156, CA-1341, P.I.S. for USIA, NEA-168, 16 August 1956. 153. DDE, McCardle Papers, Series II, Box 7, 1956 Statements by the Secretary, Department of State for the Press, No. 507, 26 September 1956. 154. DDE, Whitman File, Cabinet Series, Cabinet meeting, 27 July 1956. 155. DDE, Dulles Papers, White House Memoranda Series, Box 5, Meetings with the President Aug. thru Dec. 1956 (8), Memorandum of Conversation, 8 August 1956. 156. DDE, Whitman File, Press Conference Series, Box 5, Press Conference, 8 August 1956. 157. USNA, RG 59, 974.7301/8–656, Rubottom to Dulles, 6 August 1956. 158. USNA, RG 59, 511.00/8–1156, CA-1341, P.I.S. for USIA, NEA-168, 16 August 1956. 159. USNA, RG 306, US Advisory Commission on Information, Broadcast Advisory Committee, Meeting 25 January 1957. 160. USNA, RG 306, Office of Research, Field Research Reports 1953–62, Box 33, SY-2–56, United States Information Services (USIS) Baghdad to USIA, No. 38, 27 November 1956. 161. DDE, White House Office, Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Series, Status of Projects Subseries, Box 7, NSC 5720(5), The USIA Program, 30 June 1957. 162. Ibid. 163. Gregg, ‘The Rhetoric of Distancing’, in Medhurst (ed.), Eisenhower’s War of Words, p. 184. 164. DDE, Whitman File, Speech Series, Box 19, TV Report to the Nation 10/31/56, Hagerty Press Release, 31 October 1956. In addition to Gregg’s analysis, Emmet Hughes’s recollection of the process of drafting Eisenhower’s speech contains many useful insights (Hughes, The Ordeal of Power, pp. 187–95). 292 Notes

165. DDE, Jackson Papers, 1931–67, Box 60, Jackson to Hughes, 26 October 1956. 166. DDE, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers: 1948–61, OCB 091.4 Near East (12–10–56), Memo for the Ad Hoc Committee on Middle Eastern Informational Activities, 10 December 1956. 167. Ibid. 168. USNA, RG 306, Office of Research and Intelligence 1955–59 General Records, Box 3, USIA Daily Summary, No. 213, 13 November 1956. 169. USNA, RG 59, 511.00/11-2056, P.I.S. for USIA, NEA-173, 20 November 1956. 170. Ibid. 171. DDE, Jackson Papers 1931–67, Box 40, Jackson to Compton, 26 March 1957. 172. DDE, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers: 1948–61, OCB 091.4 Middle East (11-15-56), Ad Hoc Committee on Middle Eastern Informational Activities, Second meeting, 14 November 1956. 173. Ibid., OCB 091.4 Near East (12-10-56), Memo for the Ad Hoc Committee on Middle Eastern Informational Activities, 10 December 1956. 174. Ibid., Attachment #3, Early Morning Commentary #892, 2 November 1956. 175. NAPRO, FO 953/1632/P1041/65, Malcolm to IPD, 23 July 1956. 176. DDE, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers: 1948–61, OCB 091.4 Middle East (12-17-56), Ad Hoc Committee on Middle Eastern Informational Activities, Eighth meeting, 5 December 1956. 177. The President disliked the name ‘Eisenhower Doctrine’ but, despite his and USIA’s best efforts, the preferred terms (‘American Resolution’ or ‘Middle East Doctrine’) failed to catch the popular imagination. 178. Yaqub, Containing Arab Nationalism, pp. 58–9. 179. DDE, Whitman File, DDE Diary Series, Box 19, Staff Notes No. 46, 28 November 1956. 180. DDE, John Foster Dulles Papers, General Correspondence and Memoranda Series, Box 1, Memorandum of Conversation with Senator Knowland, 9 December 1956. 181. DDE, Whitman File, DDE Diary Series, Box 14, November ’56, Diary-Staff memos, Memorandum of Conference with the President, 21 November 1956. 182. DDE, Dulles Papers, Draft Presidential Correspondence and Speeches Series, Box 3, Middle East Message to Congress 1/5/57, Bowie memorandum, ‘Comments on Middle East Message’, 27 December 1956. 183. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/12-2956, Hare to Dulles, No. 2074, 29 December 1956. 184. DDE, Whitman File, DDE Diary Series, Box 20, December ’56 Phone Calls, ‘Monday, December 31, 1956’ (See also Yaqub, Containing Arab Nationalism, pp. 83–5). 185. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/1-257, Moose to Dulles, No. 1614, 2 January 1957. 186. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/1-257, Mallory to Dulles, No. 700, 2 January 1957. 187. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/1-357, Mallory to Dulles, No. 714, 3 January 1957. 188. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/1-257, Hare to Dulles, No. 2116, 2 January 1957. 189. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/1-457, Mallory to Dulles, No. 721, 4 January 1957. 190. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/1-357, State Department circular No. 574, 3 January 1957. 191. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/1-757, Bohlen to Dulles, No. 1654, 7 January 1957. 192. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/1-1057, Bohlen to Dulles, No. 1683, 10 January 1957. Notes 293

193. USNA, RG 59, Lot 60D370, Box 103, State Department Policy Information Statement, NEA-176, 11 January 1957. 194. USNA, RG 306, USIA Publications, Box 174, News Review, No. 5, 31 January 1957. 195. DDE, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers: 1948–61, OCB 091.4 Middle East, Ad Hoc Committee on Middle Eastern Informational Activities, 11th meeting, 10 January 1957. 196. DDE, White House Office, Staff Research Group, Records 1956–61, Box 21, Boerner to Toner, 16 January 1957. 197. DDE, White House Office, Staff Research Group, Records 1956–61, Box 21, Boerner to Toner, 25 January 1957. 198. DDE, White House Office, Staff Research Group, Records 1956–61, Box 21, Boerner to Toner, 14 March 1957. 199. DDE, White House Office, Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Series, Status of Projects Subseries, Box 7, NSC 5720(5), Part 6 – The USIA Program, 30 June 1957. 200. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/1-1657, AmEmbassy Cairo to State Department, No. 2286, 16 January 1957. 201. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/1-1757, Hart to State Department, No. 2296, 17 January 1957. 202. USNA, RG 59, 611.80/3-1457, Weathersby to USIA, No. 688, 14 March 1957. 203. DDE, White House Office, Staff Research Group, Records 1956–61, Box 21, Boerner to Toner, 15 April 1957. 204. DDE, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers: 1948–61, OCB 091.4 Middle East, Ad Hoc Committee on Middle Eastern Informational Activities, ‘Report on Middle East Informational Activities’, 18 January 1957. 205. USNA, RG 59, Lot 60D370, Box 103, State Department Policy Information Statement, NEA-184, 25 March 1957. 206. DDE, White House Office, Staff Research Group, Records 1956–61, Box 21, Boerner to Toner, 3 July 1957. 207. DDE, White House Office NSC Staff Papers: 1948–61, OCB Central File, Box 77, OCB 091.4.Middle East(6), Washburn to Staats, 24 January 1957, enclosing Newsom memorandum, 22 January 1957. 208. See Rathmell, Secret War in the Middle East: The Covert Struggle For Syria (London: I.B. Tauris, 1996); Little, ‘Cold War and Covert Action: the United States and Syria, 1945–58’, Middle East Journal, Vol. 44, No. 1 (Winter 1990), pp. 51–75; Jones, ‘The “Preferred Plan”: The Anglo-American Working Group Report on Covert Acrion in Syria, 1957’, Intelligence and National Security, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Autumn 2004), pp. 401–15. 209. USNA, RG 59, Lot 60D370, Box 103, State Department Policy Information Statement, NEA-194, 15 August 1957. 210. USNA, RG 59, 611.74/6-557, Weathersby to State Department, 5 June 1957. 211. USNA, RG 59, Lot 60D370, Box 103, State Department Policy Information Statement, NEA-176, 11 January 1957. 212. DDE, White House Office, Office of the Staff Secretary, Box 2, Larson memorandum, 28 September 1957. 213. USNA, RG 59, Lot 60D370, Box 103, State Department Policy Information Statement, NEA-177, 28 January 1957. 214. Yaqub, Containing Arab Nationalism, p. 16. 294 Notes

215. Ibid., pp. 44–5. 216. Ibid., p. 270.

Conclusion

1. United States National Archive, College Park, Maryland (USNA), RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 41, United States Information and Educational Exchange Program (USIE) Country Paper for Iraq, August 1950. 2. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 171, Benton to Tuck, 3 April 1947. 3. USNA, Lot 188, Box 123, Allen to Lovett, 25 June 1948, enclosing memorandum, ‘Information Policy for Arab States’. 4. Abdel-Kader Hatem, Information and the Arab Cause (London: Longman, 1974), p. 184. 5. Aburish, Nasser: The Last Arab (London: Thomas Dunne, 2004), pp. 112–3. 6. National Archive, formerly Public Record Office, Kew, UK (NAPRO), FO 371/52744/E9717, Stephenson memorandum, ‘The BBC Near East Service’, 5 September 1946. 7. NAPRO FO 371/68385/ E24371/G, Pollock minute, 24 March 1948. 8. USNA, RG 84/2410, Box 187, Meyer memorandum, ‘U.S. Information Policy as Viewed from Iraq’, 8 April 1948. 9. USNA, RG 59, Lot53D266, Box 187, Proceedings of the Beirut Conference of Public Affairs Officers, 18–24 February 1952. 10. USNA, RG 59, 511.834/5-2854, Moose to State Department, 28 May 1954. 11. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D47, Box 12, Hunt to Barrett, 21 August 1950. 12. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene Kansas (DDE), Jackson Papers, Box 68, Log – 1954 (3), 11 August 1954. 13. DDE, C.D. Jackson Papers 1931–67, Box 65, Jackson to Lazereff, 22 April 1957. 14. Westad, ‘The new international history of the Cold war: three (possible) per- spectives’, Diplomatic History, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Fall 2000), pp. 561–3. 15. McMahon, ‘Eisenhower and Third World nationalism: a critique of the revisionists’, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 101, No. 3 (1986), pp. 457–8. 16. Ibid., p. 463. 17. Connelly, ‘Taking off the Cold War lens’, pp. 741–2. 18. Allen, ‘Are the Soviets winning the propaganda war?’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 336 ( July 1961), p. 1. 19. Connelly, A Diplomatic Revolution. Algeria’s Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post-Cold War Era (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002). 20. Connelly, ‘Taking off the Cold War lens’, pp. 741, 764. 21. McMahon, ‘Eisenhower and Third World nationalism’, p. 473. 22. USNA, RG 59, Lot 54D202, Box 6, State Department Transcript of Proceedings, Meeting: Information Policy Committee, 15 May 1950. 23. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D266, Box 188, State Department Transcript of Proceedings, Working Group on Special Materials for Arab and Other Moslem Countries, 1 April 1952. 24. USNA, Lot 188, Box 123, Allen to Lovett, 25 June 1948, enclosing memorandum, ‘Information Policy for Arab States’. Notes 295

25. USNA, RG 59, Lot 54D202, Box 6, State Department Transcript of Proceedings, Meeting: Information Policy Committee, 15 May 1950. 26. DDE, Whitman File, Cabinet Series, Cabinet meeting, 18 January 1957. 27. Marett, Through the Back Door, p. 177. 28. Taylor, Selling Democracy, p. 240. 29. Ibid., p. 229. 30. Shaw, Eden, Suez and the Mass Media, p. 1. 31. NAPRO, FO 371/98244/E1026/1, Fellowes minute, 2 March 1952. 32. NAPRO, FO 953/1377/PG1892/1, Samuel to Eden, No. 105, 26 June 1952. 33. NAPRO, FO 953/1346/PG1932/1, Beeley to Eden, No. 85, 26 June 1952. 34. NAPRO, FO 953/1719/P1011/113/G, White Paper on the Overseas Information Services, July 1957. 35. USNA, RG 59, Lot 53D266, Box 188, Damon to Glidden, 25 March 1952. 36. DDE, Sprague Committee Records 1959–61, Box 15, History and Background (1), Nielsen to Boerner, 2 March 1960. 37. USNA, RG 59, Lot 62D333, Box 2, PSB D-22, 6 February 1953. 38. USNA, RG 84, Cairo Embassy 1936–55, Box 218, Martindale to Caffery, No. 1095, 17 May 1950. Bibliography

Unpublished primary sources

BBC Written Archives Centre, Caversham (BBC) E 1 Policy File: Cyprus. E 2 Policy File: Cyprus. R 34 Suez Crisis Files. SWB World Monitoring Service.

Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, Kansas C.D. Jackson Papers, 1931–67. C.D. Jackson Records, 1953–54. Hagerty Papers. Jackson Committee Files. John Foster Dulles Papers. McCardle Papers. Oral History Transcripts. Republican National Committee File. Sprague Committee Files. White House Central File. White House Office Files. Whitman File.

Online resources George Washington University, National Security Archive http://www2.gwu/ edu/~nsarchiv/index.html#mesa ‘U.S. Propaganda in the Middle East’ ‘The Secret CIA History of the Iran Coup’ Truman Library Oral History Interviews http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/ oral_his.htm

Published documents and records Foreign relations of the United States 1952–54, Vol. IX: The Near and Middle East (1986). 1952–54, Vol. X: Iran, 1951–54 (1989). 1955–57, Vol. XII, Near East: Multilateral Relations; Iran; Iraq (1992). 1955–57, Vol. XIII: Near East: Jordan–Yemen (1989). 1955–57, Vol. XIV: The Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1955 (1989). 1955–57, Vol. XV: The Arab-Israeli Dispute, January–July 1956 (1989). 1955–57, Vol. XVI: The Suez Crisis, 26 July–31 December 1956 (1990). Hansard, House of Commons Debates, 1953–57. Priestland, J. (ed.) The Buraimi Dispute, Vols. II–VII (1992).

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Aalam, al, 29–30, 82, 119, 195, 219 Arab News Agency (ANA), 25–26, Abbot and Costello, 87 208, 257 Abdullah, King, 135 Archaeology, 93 Acheson, Dean, 98, 111, 182 Arms supplies, 149–51; see also Adams, Philip, 206 Czech-Egyptian arms deal Adams, Sherman, 86 Armstrong, Louis, 90, 96; see also Jazz Aden, 101, 203, 205, 209 Associated Press (AP), 25 African-Americans, 89–90 Aswan Dam, 200 Ahram, al, 157, 181 Atoms for Peace, 116 Akhbar, al, see News Review/al Akhbar Attlee, Clement, 6, 16, 78–79, 109 Aldrich, Winthrop, 202 Authoritarianism, 63–64, 105–07, 212 Allen, George, 13, 23, 93, 178, 239, Azhar, al, 82, 123–24 243–44 Allen, Sir Roger, 46 Badeau, John, 73 ALPHA, 129, 153–58 Baghdad Pact, 174–77, 195, 196, American Friends of the Middle East 203–04, 230; see also Counter- (AFME), 28–29, 75, 181–82 Subversion Committee American University of Beirut (AUB), Baghdad Radio, 39–40, 89, 138, 154, 49, 75 197, 203–04 Andrews, Chapman, 46–47, 65, 73, Ballet, see Music 110, 197 Bandung Conference, 115, 214 Anglo-American relations, 5, 8, 28, 76; Barclay’s Bank, 24 and anti-colonialism, 178–88; and Barrett, Edward, 42 anti-communism, 100; and Arab Beaverbrook, Lord, 261 nationalism, 185–91; and Beeley, Sir Harold, 70, 76 propaganda co-operation, 9, 42–47 Belgium, 117 Anglo-Arab relations, 160–77 Bell, Gertrude, 121 Anglo-Egyptian Agreement (1954), Ben-Gurion, David, 157 172–74, 182 Bennett, Sir John Sterndale, 140, Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC), 145–46, 154, 168, 195; and British 20, 24 withdrawal from the Suez Canal Anti-Americanism, 46–47, 80, 95, 130, Zone, 172–73 133–35, 188–90, 234–35, 267 Benny, Jack, 87 Anti-Semitism, 68–69, 126, 135–37, Benton, William, 12–13, 238 142, 145, 157, 274 Bevin, Ernest, 16; allegations of Arab American Oil Company anti-Semitism against, 137; and (ARAMCO), 78, 183–84, 237 Anglo-Arab relations, 162, 173; and Arab-Americans, 81–82 the Arab-Israel dispute, 141–42; Arab-Israeli dispute, 10, 69, 126–27, decision to withdraw from 128–59, 244–45 Palestine, 133 Arab League, 137 Black propaganda, see covert Arab Legion, 199 propaganda Arab nationalism, 10, 70, 95, 127, 243 Boerner, Alfred, 233–34

309 310 Index

Bohlen, Charles, 232 Chaplin, Charlie, 87 Bowie, Robert, 202, 230 Chatham House, 190 Bracken, Brendan, 34 China, 118 Bribery, 21, 164–65, 167, 184 Christianity, 73, 75, 120, 121 Britain: and anti-Americanism, 46; Churchill, Winston, 18, 60, 151, and Arab nationalism, 160–63; and 202, 264 the Baghdad Pact, 174–77; British Cinema, 33–35, 83–88 values and national character, CINERAMA, 85–86 72–74, 114; expenditure on Clandestine radio, see Covert propaganda, 17,255; imperialism propaganda and colonial policy, 79, 119, 177; Cleland, Wendell, 84, 180 relations with Egypt, 166–74, Coca-Cola, 24, 85 193–95; relations with Iraq, 195–96; Cold War, 2, 11, 71, 236; and Arab- relations with Israel, 44, 140–42, Israel dispute, 151, 158–59; and 157, 279; relations with Saudi cultural diplomacy, 93–96; Arabia, 163–66 historiographical developments, British-American Tobacco, 24 4–7; and the Suez Crisis, 227–29; British Broadcasting Corporation and the Third World, 242–44 (BBC), 5, 35–37, 58, 82, 137, Collusion, 217–18; see also Sèvres 202–03, 247–48; comparison with Protocol Voice of America, 36–38; and the Communism, 240; threat to the Suez Crisis, 218 Middle East, 9, 98–103, 242 British Council, 41, 47, 73–74, 83–84, Conservative Party (British), 55, 78–79 247–48, 261; see also Cultural Cooper, Gary, 87 Diplomacy Copeland, Miles, 39 British Information Services Middle Counter-Subversion Committee, East (BISME), 20 176–77, 203–04; see also Baghdad British Middle East Office (BMEO), 20, Pact 61, 79, 112, 140, 145, 168 Covert propaganda, 5, 125, 204–05, Brotherhood of Freedom, see Ikhwan 208–10, 215–17, 221–22, 285, al Hurriya/Brotherhood of Freedom 287, 288 Buraimi dispute, 163–66, 182–85 Cromer, Lord, 59 Burgess, Guy, 254 Crosby, Bing, 87 Burrows, Bernard, 162, 163 Cultural Diplomacy, 6, 41–42, 69, Byroade, Henry, 85–86, 147, 186–87, 70–96, 247–48 196–97, 223 Czech-Egyptian arms deal, 149, 193–94

Caffery, Jefferson, 58, 115, 120 Damascus Fair, 84–86, 102 Cairo Packaging Center, 39 Dam Busters, The, 84 Cairo Radio, 38–39, 219; see also Voice Damon, G. Huntington, 102, 120, of the Arabs 200, 233, 248 Campaign of Truth, 13, 22–23, 125 Dayan, Moshe, 145 Campbell, Sir Ronald, 99 Dean, Patrick, 211 Capitalism, 80 Deir Yassin, 137 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 8, Delmer, Sefton, 208 14, 29, 60, 86, 104, 116, 125, 184, Demille, Cecil B., 86 202, 209, 236 Democracy, 63, 78–79, 114, 249; Central Office of Information (COI), see also Authoritarianism; Social 7, 16–17, 29–30, 254; and the Suez democracy Crisis, 219–20 Democrat Party (US), 15 Index 311

Development, see Economic Eisenhower, Dwight, see also development, Point Four Eisenhower Doctrine: and British Dickens, Charles, 126 imperialism, 263–64; and Disney, Walt, 86, 87 educational exchange programs, 77; Dixon, Pierson, 219, 229 foreign policy speeches, 116; and Dodds-Parker, Douglas, 7, 35, 207, Nasser, 230; religious rhetoric, 119; 211, 221, 222 reorganisation of American Drew, John, 213 propaganda agencies, 14–15; and the Drogheda Committee, 1, 65, 222 Suez Crisis, 223–26, 228, 229, 291 Duke, Sir Charles, 213–14 Evans, Gillespie, 128 Dulles, Allen, 183, 230 Eveland, Wilbur, 8, 39, 185, 202 Dulles, John Foster: and anti- colonialism, 45, 185, 187–88; and Falla, Paul, 146 Arab-Israel dispute, 153, 155–56; Fay, Ronald, 27 and the Baghdad Pact, 195; and the Fellowes, Peregrine, 57, 72 Buraimi dispute, 184–85; and the Fergusson, Bernard, 8, 208, 218–19 Eisenhower Doctrine, 230–31; and Fisher, Hamilton, 148 Nasser, 127, 199; and the Suez Ford Motor Company, 24 Crisis, 223–25 Foreign Office: attitudes towards propaganda agencies, 19–20; Eagle-Lion Films, 83, 92 control of British overseas publicity, Economic development, 79, 82, 102, 16–17, 254 111–13 France, 8, 95, 150, 208–09, 267, Economic propaganda, 215–16, 280, 288 224–25 Franklin Publications Inc., 31–32, Eden, Anthony, 34, 115, 173, 202; and 78, 200 Arab-Israel dispute, 153, 155–57; Franks, Oliver, 161 and the BBC, 203; and clandestine Free Egyptian Broadcasting Station, radio propaganda, 216; relations 208–09, 288 with John Foster Dulles, 153, 156; Free Iraq Radio, 196 and the Sudan dispute, 168; and the Fulbright program, 75–77 Suez Crisis, 211–12, 217, 246; support for British propaganda Gable, Clark, 87 activities, 202–05, 246 Garland, Judy, 87 Education, 41, 65, 71–78, 110 Gaumont, 33 Egypt: American education projects Gaza, 127 in, 73, 76–77, 124; British education General Motors, 24 projects in, 73–74, 110; British Gibb, Hamilton, 59, 62 threat to Nile waters, 216; and Gillespie, Dizzy, 90; see also Jazz communism, 99–105, 125–26; Glass, Leslie, 62, 189–90 neutralism, 115; propaganda Glubb, John Bagot, 1, 54–55, 63, 72, activities of, 35, 196, 219–20, 239; 80, 145, 161, 173, 279 revolution (1952), 104, 124; and the Great Britain, see Britain Suez Canal Zone dispute, 169–73 Greenhill, Denis, 105–06, 107 Egypt Committee, 216 Grey, Paul, 210, 218, 219 Egyptian State Broadcasting, see Cairo Radio; Voice of the Arabs Haganah, 137–38 Eisenhower Doctrine, 52, 192, 229–37, Hagerty, James, 8 292; Arab hostility to, 231–32, Hambro, Sir Charles, 208 234–35, 239 Hare, Raymond, 231 312 Index

Harlem Globetrotters, 92; International Confederaton of Free see also Sports Trade Unions (ICFTU), 110 Hashemite Broadcasting Station, 40; International Information see also Radio Ramallah Administration (IIA), 13, 64, 87, Hawkins, Coleman, 89; see also Jazz 121; sponsorship of Princeton Heikal, Mohamed, 58, 209, 239, 287 University Colloquium on Islamic Helm, Sir Knox, 48 Culture, 77–78 Hill, Charles, 248 Iran, 10, 20, 34, 51, 67, 99, 115, Histadrut, 110 118, 182 Hollywood, 86–88 Iraq: 24, 99, 101, 113, 115, 125; Hoover Jr., Herbert, 230 propaganda activities of, 40, 138, Hope, Bob, 87 195–97, 201, 203; see also Baghdad Hopkins, Garland Evans, 28; Radio see also American Friends of Ireland, Philip, 98–100, 122 the Middle East Irgun, 136 Hourani, Albert, 62 Islam, 50–51, 61–63, 71–72, 77, 237; House Un-American Activities see also Religious propaganda; in Committee, 87; see also McCarthy, America and Britain, 82, 120; and Joseph communism, 119–25 Houstoun-Boswall, William, 135, Israel, 119; border raids, 127, 144–49; 141, 142 international recognition of, Howard, Roy, 25 134–35, 139, 142; national Hughes, Emmet, 8, 226, 291 stereotypes, 51, 67–69, 265; Hungary, 228–29 relations with UN, 146–47, 279–80; Hussein, King, 198, 199 and security guarantee, 149; War of Huxley, Aldous, 238 Independence (1948), 126, 199 Israeli Defence Force (IDF), 143–44 Ikhwan al Hurriya/Brotherhood of Freedom, 27–28, 92, 109, 119; Jackson, Charles (C.D.), 14, 25, 86, on communism and Islam, 184, 188, 208, 241–42, 244, 250; 121–23; and the Palestine and the Suez Crisis, 226–27, 228 crisis, 134–39 Jackson Committee, 2–3, 14, 24, 65, Information Coordination Executive 86, 87, 94, 102, 104, 120, 248 (ICE), 19, 207–08, 210–11, 215 Jackson, William, 2, 14 Information Policy Department (IPD), Jacob, Sir Ian, 210 16–17, 19–20, 245; and Jazz, 87, 89–90, 96 anti-neutralism, 116–17 Jewish Agency, 136–37 Information Research Department Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC): (IRD), 6, 17–19, 30, 100, 208, 273; assessments of communist threat to and Al Azhar university, 124; and Middle East, 101, 103; on Arab nationalism, 207; and bribery, incompatibility of Islam and 21; on communism and Islam, 123; communism, 122; view of contacts with Middle Eastern Nasser, 289 leadership groups, 103–04; JOLT, Operation, 171 contacts with Middle Eastern left Jones, Shepherd, 244 wing groups, 110–11; covert Jordan: anti-communist activity propaganda in Shia communities, in, 104; British intelligence 125; and Soviet intelligence, 254; activities in, 107; radio and the Suez Crisis, 207 broadcasting in, 40 Index 313

Keightley, General Sir Charles, 208 Marshall Plan, 111 Kellas, Arthur, 126 Mason, James, 83 Kennan, George, 98 Mattison, Gordon, 106 Khrushchev, Nikita, 119 Mayhew, Christopher, 7 Kirkbride, Sir Alex, 46, 188 McArdle, Carl, 42 Kirkpatrick, Ivone, 24, 27, 41, 125, McCarthy, Joseph, 87 184, 207 Mecca airlift, 120–21 Kohler, Foy, 44 Meyer, Armin, 131, 240 Korda, Alexander, 83 MGM, 33, 87 Korean War, 81 MI6, see Secret Information Service Kurds, 99 Middle East: definition of, 10 Kuwait, 44–45, 104, 203 Middle East Defence Organisation (MEDO), 45, 175 Labour organisations, 109–11; Middle East Information Department see also trades unions (MEID), 16–17, 56, 69, 240 Labour Party (British), 17–18, 78–79, Millard, Guy, 205 105, 111, 160–61, 222 Miller, Glenn, 89; see also Jazz Lampson, Sir Miles, 109 Ministry of Defence (MOD), 172, 213 Landale Organisation, 26–27 Ministry of Information (MOI), 16, 27 Larson, Arthur, 236, 245 Minor, Harold, 143 Lasswell, Harold, 105 Monckton, Walter, 218 Lawrence, T.E., 121 Moose, James, 240 Lebanon: communist Party in, 99, Morde, Theodore, 180–81 101; British intelligence activities Moscow Radio, 117 in, 106–07; neutralism, 115; radio Mossadeq, Mohammed, 6, 51 broadcasting in, 40 Murray, Ralph, 18, 110, 111, Lennox-Boyd, Alan, 203 122, 208 Lewis, Bernard, 48, 49, 62–63 Music, 40, 88–90, 96, 204 Libraries, 32–33 Muslim Brotherhood, 22, 23, 121, Library of Congress, 77 196–97, 287 Libya, 219; communist threat to, 100–01 Naguib, Muhamed, 172, 202 Lloyd, Selwyn, 158, 203, 208–09; and Naked and the Dead, The, 87 the Suez Crisis, 211–21; and Nasser, Gamal Abdul, 52, 95, 104, 127, collusion with Israel, 217–18 190, 192, 239; and Arab-Israel Lodge, Henry Cabot, 187 dispute, 149–50, 156, 221–22; and Logan, Donald, 211 the Baghdad Pact, 195; and London Press Service (LPS), 17, communism, 104; comparisons 212, 217 with Hitler Mussolini and Peron, Loomis, Henry, 104–05 193, 212–14, 289; co-operation with Lyon, Cecil, 100 American propagandists, 32, 104–05; and Czech-Egypt arms deal, Macmillan, Harold, 174, 193 193–94, 222; denounced as Mailer, Norman, 87 imperialist, 201, 214–15; and the Makins, Roger, 185 Soviet Union, 127 Malcolm, Angus, 1, 167, 229 National Security Council, 14–15; Maltese Falcoln, The, 87 analysis of Middle Eastern Marconi, 38, 203 neutralism, 114–15 Marett, Robert, 7, 11, 19–20, 245–46 NATO, 30, 117, 213 314 Index

Near East Arab Broadcastng Station, Pan-American Airways, 24–25, 78 see Sharq al-Adna Paramount, 33 Near East Regional Service Center Parr, William Grant, 240 (NERSC), Beirut, 23, 118, 227 Peck, John, 18, 20–21 Neutralism, 5, 60, 114–19; see also Pelham, Henry, 160 Bandung Conference Pepsi-Cola, 24 New York Times, 46, 145, 184 PILEUP, Operation, 216–17 News agencies, 25–26, 133; see also Point Four, 111–12, 143 Arab News Agency, Associated Press, Political Warfare Executive (PWE), Reuters, TASS, United Press 207–08 News Department (Foreign Office), 16, Pollock, A.J.C., 25, 56 57, 144, 163–64, 247 Porgy and Bess, 89; see also Music News Review/al Akhbar, 31, 77, 81–82, Portsmouth Treaty (1948), 162, 240 113, 118, 123, 147, 155, 200, 233; Port Said: alleged British atrocities at, and the Suez Crisis, 225–27, 291 219–21 Newsreels, 33–35 Pravda, 134 Newsweek, 183 Princeton University, 77 Nicholls, Jack, 68, 157 Private Enterprise Co-operation, see Non-aligned movement, State-Private network see Neutralism Projection of America, 79–80, 85 NSC 68, 13 Projection of Britain, 78–79, 82–83, Nutting, Anthony, 55–56, 95, 170–71 95, 247 Propaganda: definition of, 3 Office of Information and Cultural Psychological Strategy Board (PSB), Affairs (OIC), 77, 94; and the 13–14, 56, 188, 249; views on the Palestine crisis, 130–31; relations ‘Arab mind’, 60–66 with Congress, 12 Office of War Information (OWI), 12, Qibya raid, 144–46 80, 84–85, 180 Oklahoma, 89 Radio Ramallah, 198–99 Olympic Games, 92–93; see also Rank, J. Arthur, 83 Sports Reading Rooms, see Libraries OMEGA, 40, 169, 199–206, 207, Reddaway, Norman, 207 222–24, 230, 235 Regional Information Office (RIO), Open Skies, 116 Beirut, 21, 62, 119, 126, 189–90, Opera, see Music 206 Operations Co-ordinating Board Religious propaganda, 18, 73, 119–25; (OCB), 14–16, 64, 118, 121, 202 see also Islam Oral propaganda, 26–28 Rennie, Jack, 103–04, 203, 207 Orientalism, 9, 49–69; see also Said, Republican Party (US), 12, 15 Edward Reuters, 25–26, 133 RKO Pictures, 87 Pakistan, 118 Rockefeller, Nelson, 2, 14, 90, 115 Palestine, 5–6, 43, 159, 240, 249; crisis Roosevelt, Franklin, 86–87, 131 of the British Mandate, 95, 129, Roosevelt, Kermit, 104, 125, 183 132–36; Jewish immigration, 130, Rougetel, John Le, 67 133, 135–36; Palestinian refugees, Rountree, William, 230 139–40, 154, 155–56 Royal Air Force (RAF), 170, 219 Panama Canal, 225 Russell, Bertrand, 117, 274 Index 315

Sadaka, al, 31, 124 Special Operations Executive (SOE), Sadat, Anwar, 234 207–08 Said, Edward, 49–52; see also Special Relationship, see Anglo- Orientalism American Relations Said, Nuri, 104, 177, 194–96 Sports, 90–93 Saud, King, 52, 236–37 Stalin, Joseph, 101, 115, 123 Saudi Arabia: and the Buraimi dispute, Stark, Freya, 27–28 163–66; communism in, 101; State Department: loss of reponsibility corruption and bribery, 164–65, for US propaganda, 14, 19; 184, 185, 198; difficulty of opposition to Truman’s policy propaganda work in, 30–31, towards Palestine, 130–31; post-war neutralism, 115 propaganda responsibilities, 12–13; SCANT, 208, 215–16 relations with USIA, 15, 19 Schramm, Wilbur, 38 State-Private Network, 23–29, 42, Secret Information Service 77–78, 83, 256 (SIS/MI6), 25–26, 106–07, Stephenson, Donald, 35, 203–04, 240 185, 257 Stern Gang, 136 Sèvres Protocol, 211 Stevenson, Ralph, 115, 169 Shakespeare, William, 94 Stonehewer Bird, Hugh, 61, 71–72, Sharq al-Adna, 25, 35–36, 88, 121–22 162–63, 198, 209–10; and the STRAGGLE, Operation, 221 Arab-Israel dispute, 157; and the Strang, Sir William, 68 Czech-Egyptian arms deal, 194; Streibert, Theodore, 16, 245 and the Palestine crisis, 134–38; Sudan, 166–69 requisitioned by the British Suez Canal: nationalization of, 193 Government, 210, 218; and the Suez Canal Zone Base, 127, 169–73, Sudan dispute, 169; and the Suez 181–82, 189–90 Canal Zone dispute, 170–72; Suez Crisis, 6, 19, 74, 190, 192–93, and the Voice of Britain, 218 206–29, 241, 246 Sharrett, Moshe, 146 Syria, 221, 247; American intelligence Shaw, Artie, 89; see also Jazz activities in, 236; Ba’ath Party, 111; Shell Oil Company, 24, 261 British intelligence activities in, Shishakli, Adib, 101 106–07; communism in, 99–101; Shuckburgh, Evelyn, 128, 151, 152, neutralism, 115 153, 156, 163, 207 Smith-Mundt Act, 12–13 Tales of Hoffman, The, 84 Social democracy, 18, 78–79, 107–11, TASS, 232 114, 255 The Week In America, 30–31 Soviet Union, 71, 80, 95–96, 194, 242; Thompson, Dorothy, 28; see also alleged anti-Semitism, 126; alleged American Friends of the pro-Israeli bias, 126–27; invasion of Middle East Hungary, 228; ‘peace’ campaign, Three Came Home, 88 115–16; penetration of the Middle Time-Life Inc., 184 East, 98–103, 231, 248; Soviet Times, The, 168 imperialism’, 117–19, 186; standard Trades unions, 95, 109–11; see also of living, 113; and the Suez Crisis, Histadrut, International 227–29; suppresion of Muslims, Confederation of Free Trade Unions, 123–24; and the Third World, 115, World Federation of Trade Unions 243–44 Trades Union Congress (TUC), 110 316 Index

Transjordan, see Jordan 14–16, 19; and the Suez Crisis, Trevelyan, Humphrey, 66 226–29; Wireless File, 23, 40, 234 Tripartite Declaration, 143, 149, 159 United States Information and Troutbeck, Sir John, 61, 135, Educational Exchange Program 140–41, 145 (USIE), 13, 240, 241, 249 Truman, Harry, 12–13, 15, 111, 125; US Advisory Commission on and Palestine crisis, 130–32, 134–35 Information, 23, 93 Tuck, S. Pinckney, 79–80, 130 USSR, see Soviet Union Turner, Lana, 87 TWA, 23–24, 78 Voice of America, 7, 36–38, 44, 88, Twentieth Century Fox, 33–34, 147, 200; and the Eisenhower 87–88, 200 Doctrine, 233; and the Suez Crisis, 226–27 United Nations (UN), 27, 75, 125; and Voice of the Arabs, 39, 202; see also Arab-Israel Dispute, 139, 144–48; Egyptian State Broadcasting Palestine Partition Plan (1947), Voice of Britain, 210, 218 131, 134, 154; and Suez Crisis, 220, Voice of Free Egypt (British), 208–09, 223, 227 221–22 United Press (UP), 25, 133 Voice of Free Egypt (Iraqi), 196–97 United States of America: anti-British Voice of Justice, 209, 215–16, 221 sentiment and anti-colonialism, 8, 28–29, 44–45, 160, 178–85; and Warner Brothers, 86 Arab nationalism, 185–91, 243–44; Warner, Christopher, 17–18, 42, 44, expenditure on propaganda, 12–13, 67, 108, 128 15, 17, 241; relations with Egypt, Washburn, Abbot, 90–91 105, 117; and the Suez Canal Zone Waterfield, Gordon, 58, 137 dispute, 180–82; and the Suez Crisis, Watson, Adam, 42, 44–45, 47 223–29 Welfare State, see Economic United States Educational Foundation development; Social democracy (USEF), 77 West Germany, 67, 79 United States Information Agency Whitman, Ann, 25 (USIA), 7, 245; and Al Azhar W.H. Smith and Sons, 32 university, 124; and the Arab-Israel World Federation of Trade Unions dispute, 144–45, 155; and the (WFTU), 110 Eisenhower Doctrine, 232–34; Wyatt, Woodrow, 145 establishment of, 14; Global Themes, 117; publications Young, George Kennedy, 57 programme, 31–32; racial issues, 58; relations with CIA, 15; relations Zanuck, Daryll, 34, 86 with Congress, 15, 241; role within Zionism, 5, 28, 129, 151, 244 the foreign policy bureaucracy, Zulueta, Philip de, 204–05