CHAPTER III BASE LINE STUDIES 3.1.1 Physical Characteristica L The

CHAPTER III

BASE LINE STUDIES

3.1.1 Physical Characteristica l

The thinly populated village of Gundbala lies about 14 kms off the coast of Ottar Kannad district of Karnataka. Most inhabitants of the village are illiterate and the average villager seems to be apathetic towards the education of his children.

Gundbala has a total population of around 750 and covers an area of 25 sq.Kms. It has seven hamlets - Marakal, Markaal, Navalse, Kondolli, Santepete, Gudinavalse and Hadinagadde as seen in figure 3.1. The main majare of Gundbala is Marakal which is adjacent to the main road. The village post office and the rural health centre are both located here. The primary school is a two room brick building and has classes upto Y standard. This school known as Gundbala school and has two teachers - the head master and his wife residing in Marakal Itself.

North of Marakal about a kilometer away is Santepete. It is also referred to as Harijan Vasti, since the government has

» "In parts of south India it is usual to distinguish between a gumpu (hamlet), Majare (a small village) and Grama (a large village). The first of these denotes a tiny collection of huts, the second is a larger hamlet and third is a village proper."! •••'• (T'->vv G4 ••^^ -^^ Vi-Vjj

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provided a housing colony for the Harijans of the village. From Santepete, the road leads to Markaal towards the east. Roughly it is 1.5 kms from Hillur which is a better developed village than Gundbala. Hillur has a high school and students from Markaal find it convenient to continue schooling after primary education. Markaal itself has a single room school where classes from first to fourth are taught by a single teacher.

Hadinagadde, Kondolli, Navalse and Gudinavalse are located at higher atitudes than the rest and connected by 'kucha' roads to the main majare, Marakal. They are 3, 1.5,2 and 6 kms from Marakal respectively. Hadinagadde and Kondolli do not have either Anganwadi or lower primary school. Whereas children from Kondolli can manage to attend the Gundbala school and a few children do come fairly regularly, children of Hadinagadde, though enrolled at the Markaal primary school do not attend at all.

Mavalse is approached from Marakaal south-eastwards by a winding pathway leading through the woods. It has a lower primary, single-room, single-teacher school and an anganwadi. Gudinavalse is further uphill eastwards from Navalse and is almost inaccessible. There are no wells, no electicity supply and no schools. This majare is exclusively inhabitated by Marathes.

*3fc The terms Harijans, untouchables and Aagars are used interchangeably in this study. I;--

'i'4- 6B

3.1.2 SoGiQ-economlc Aspects ot ths. Village Community:

People belong to one of these subcastes of the Hindu religion : Havik Brahmin, Goud Saraswat Brahmin, Halakki Vakkal, Desh Bhandari* Nador, Kalavant, Vishwakarma and Songar.

Gaud Saraswats were supposed to have come to Gundbala from Goa in the early 1800s, seven generations ago. They were then the major landowners in the village. With the Land Reform Act the Saraswats were no longer landlords. Most of the present generation has moved to urban areas for employment. The older generation residing in the village are dependent on either agriculture or small-time trade. Table 3.1 Caste Wise Distribution of Families of the Village

Caste Number of percentage families

Brahmins 21 17.2 Marathes 8 6.6 Halakkivakkals & Karivakkals 47 38.5

Nadors & Namdharis 25 20.5 Aagers 16 13.1 * Others 5 4.1 Total 122 100.0

» Includes two families of songars, one of kalavant, one of vlshwakarraas and one of Desh Bhandaris. 67

There is only one well-settled Havik Brahmin family in Gundbala. Havik brahmins are traditionally agriculturists and have a rich cultural background. They are experts in *Yakshagana' a classical dance - drama of karnataka. In Uttar Kannad district they are well known for their coconut and arecanut plantations.

Nadors claim that they are the original inhabitants of the land. (Nadiga in Kannada means the inhabitant of the land) The Land Reform Act made them owners of the land they tilled. Nadors as a caste are meat eaters and very good hunters. The educated youth, unlike Gaud saraswats, do not migrate to urban areas but try to get government employment in their own village or nearby towns. They are generally employed as primary and high school teachers, in police, transport and as clerks. The present generation is well represented in the educational process and is taking up work other than agriculture. Most educated youth nevertheless, try to carry on agriculture along with their salaried jobs.

Namdharis in the caste heirarchy fall on the same level as Nadors and are also meat eaters. Namdharis are also known as idigas. The term denotes that they were old-infantry or foot soldiers as some of them were being enlisted in the armies. Together Nadors and Namdharis constitute a little over 20 per cent of the families in Gundbala. Almost all families are agriculturists. 68

The Halakkivakkal and Karivakkals have been grouped as backward tribes. They constitute an agricultural caste, work mostly as cultivators and agricultural labourers. They are also fishermen and hunters and live mostly In thatched huts. They have a strong caste organization. They speak a dialect of Kannada called Halakkl Kannada.

Marathes are a backward caste and in Gundbala who live isolated at Gudinavalse. Their main occupation is agriculture and cultivation. They are also adept at cane work.

Harljans here are refered to as Agaers and are still treated as 'untouchables'. They live in a colony at Santepete where they have been provided government housing.

Desh Bhandarls are among the lower caste acting as 'poojaris' for them.

Kalavants come under Group B of backward classes. Vishwakarmas and Songars belong to the class of artisans. They have been grouped as backward classes under group C. The latter four castes are represented in Gundbala by a total of five families. (Table 3.1) The major peasant castes, Halakkivakkal, Karivakkal Nadors and Namdharis form the bulk of th^ population and make up for 59 per cent of the same.

ill Occupation' The main occupation of the people of the village is agriculture and as such 86 per cent of the families either 6.9 cultivate their own land or serve as agricultural labourers (Table 3.2). In addition, most people also engage themselves in a host of other gainful activities like cane weaving, fishing, mango-gathering and small time trade like selling firewood and other forest produce. These subsidiary occupations assume importance especially during summers when there is no significant agricultural employment.

liill Literacy:

Of the total adult population of 405, 230 were males and 175 females. Total adult literacy with atleast a year's schooling was 41 per cent. Male literacy was higher (50 per cent) than female literacy (29 per cent). That Gundbala is an underveloped village is elaborated in the following account: The population consists of mainly backward castes, while the dominant peasant castes of Karnataka like Vokkaligas and lingayats are totally absent.

Part of the economy is dominated by Gaud saraswats who are of relatively recent arrival in the village area. Agricultural technology is primitive with farmers depending mostly on rains for their cultivation and using no modern implements. Most of the required tools are either brought from nearby towns or made in the village itself. 70

TABLE 3.2 Distribution of Families according to Family Occupation

Occupation Number of Percentage Families

Agriculturist 81 66.4 Agricultural Labour 24 19.7 Trade 7 5.7 Service 4 3.3 Others 6 4.9 Total 122 100.0

Includes three family heads, are dependent on old age pension, and two others dependent on either trade or salaried job.

TABLE 3.3 Hale and Female (adult) Literacy percentage

Adults above 18 years

Gender Literates Illiterates Total Percentage

Males 117 113 230 66.79 Females 51 124 175 43.20 Total 168 237 405 100.00 Percentage 41.48 58.51 71

Educational level la low, literacy percentages for male and female being 50 per cent and 25 per cent respectively. These percentages are much lower when compared to the corresponding percentages for the taluka (Ankola) or even the whole of Uttar Kannad district.

3-1-3 Particulars of tha Child Population i.

In Gundbala, the total population in 1985 of boys and girls of the age group zero to 18 was found to be 157 and 171 respectively, making up a total child population of 328.

Schooling age childern (above 5 years to 18 years) totalled to 225 of which only 120 were enrolled in classes I and above. In addition 36 children were enrolled in Anganwadies and fell in the age group 3 to 7 years.

Percentage enrolment in classes I and above was thus only 53. Enrolment decreased with higher stages of schooling. 67.3 per cent of children of age group 6-9 were enrolled. The percentage decreased to 58.3 for the age group 10 to 12 and to 31.6 for the age group, 13 to 18. The low representation of the child population in the educational process can be further explained after analysing the factors affecting enrolment and retention. In the 1985 survey, these factors were established and could be grouped as below :

(a) Prevailing educational facilities (viz.,) availability of school buildings, pupil-teacher ratio, walking

•.:/• 72

distance to schoolf currlculuni, etc), (b) Socio-economic background of the children, (viz., poverty, contributions of children to the economy of a peasant family, parent or adult literacy, caste, traditions, etc.)

3.1.4 Prgvalling Educational gaciiitiea: One of the conditions for better literacy rates is the provision of schooling facilities in accordance with the child population of different age groups. In Gundbala, the school in the main hamlet has classes upto standard V. Two other hamlets Markaal and Navalse have a lower primary school each.

Gundbala school has two rooms for five standards resulting in combination of classes. This school has a trained graduate headmaster and an S.S.L.C. trained teacher. The student teacher ratio in this school is around 20.The lower primary school at Navalse has a one room building and a single teacher who resides at Ankola. Occasionally, however he stays back in Navalse where he has procured help from the villagers and built a one-room house adjacent to the school. A few yards from the school is a stream, that overflows during the monsoons. This makes it quite impossible for the students from the other side to attend school during that season. The students, it is said are very irregular in their school attendance. Markaal has a single room, single teacher school. Children from this area are at a greater advantage for continuing education because Hillur, which has a 73 high school, is only 1.5 kms away.

Of the seven Majares of Gundbala, only children living in Hadinagadde and Gudinavalse do not have schools within walking distances. Children of these hamlets are not represented In the educational process at all. Children living in the other majares have fairly easy access to school at least upto the primary level, despite which they do not exhibit 100 per cent enrolment, as seen earlier.

3-1-5 Socio-Economic Background J.

According to the 1985 survey, it was found that enrolment percentages for schooling age children was the highest (95.5 per cent) for the Brahmins. These reduced for the rest in the order of ^others' (the group of mixed castes, kalavant, vlshwakarmas, songars and Deshbhandaris), Aagers, Nadors and Nandharis, Halakkivakkals and Karivakkals,and marathes. Brahmins also surpassed the other castes in retaining their children in higher classes. Thus they had 29 per cent of their schooling age children enrolled in secondary schools. This percentage was 22 for *others', 13 for Nadors and Namdharis, 6 for Halakkivakkal and Karivakkals and zero for the rest.

Thus Brahmins with their educational background showed greater motivation to educate their children beyond primary level. Aager children have 72.5 per cent enrolment in primary schools and none in secondary school. Wheras the eldest child is generally responsible for looking after younger siblings, the 74 others have enough time to spare for schooling until they are able to work as labourers. The enrolment pattern of the Aager children supported this line of argument. Of the total number o£ children enrolled, 87.5 per cent are in primary schools, 12.5 per cent in middle schools, and none in secondary schools. The better enrolment percentage among the lower castes especially the Aagers could be attributed to the recent social awakening within these castes, in addition to the various socioeconomic and educational government Incentives. The percentage of Aager children can be presumed to increase in the near future.

The percentage enrolment in secondary schools reduces drastically among the other castes. Nadors and Namdharis, Halakkivakkals and Karivakkals, the peasant class of the village, also need their children to help them on the farm and are therefore withdrawn from schools when they grow older.

Most of the children (87.5 per cent) have either agriculture or agricultural labour as their family occupational background. These groups have roughly a little over half of their schooling age children enrolled. These children are required by parents to work either on their own farms or as agricultural labourers in the house. Among children with non- agricultural family occupations, it was noticed that those coming from families having trade as their occupations had 100 percent enrolment.

Educational level of the family head seemed to be a 75 decisive factor in determining the children s schooling status. Children with an illiterate father were the least represented among the students. a^ The Prolect Students j_

3.2.1. Demographic Characteriatics j.

When the total number of students who had participated in the Intervention Programme were considered, the number of Boys (83) and Girls (85) were almost equal. Their distribution with respect to schools, their location and classes is shown in the Tables 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6.

Table 3.4 * Distribution of Students according to Schools

Number of Relative Students Percentages

Gundbala 41 24.4 Navalse 37 22.0 Harkkal 42 25.0 Horalli 46 26.6 Total 166 100.0

« The word student is used to denote the children of the control and experimental groups. Data pertaining to socio-economic aspects has been collected for the three experimental schools only, with the number of students totalling to 120. 76

Table 3.5 Distribution of Project students according to Schools and their Location

Qundbala Havalse Harkaal Total Percentage

Within the Habitation 23 37 31 91 75.8 Approximately IKn. away 13 0 0 Id 10.8 Approximately 2Kffi. away 5 0 11 16 13.4 Total 41 37 42 120 100.0 Percentage 34.2 30.8 35.0 100.0

* Project students are the Experimental group minus the control.

The figures in Table 3.5 indicate that over 75 per cent of school going children have a school within their habitation. Over 10 per cent have to walk about a kilometre to school and over 13 percentage reside about 2 kilometres away from the nearest school. The figures represented by the first column denote the number of children coming to Gundbala school from various distances. It's catchment area appears to be wide. A little over 56 per cent children reside in the locality itself, about 36 per cent live a kilometre away and only 12 per cent approximately at a distance of 2 kilometres. 13 students who come from a kilometre away are probably the Aager children living 77 at Santepete (see Table 3.9). The remaining 5 students staying at a distance of about 2 kilometres away from school are actually those living at Kondolli (see map, fig. 3.1). These students belong to Karivakkal families who are similar to Halakkivakkals in many ways. In Gundbala, their hamlet is not unlike that of Navalse and surrounded by thick forests. The Navalse school has all its students belonging to the class Halakkivakkal, and residing within the habitatation.

The Markaal school has over 75 per cent of its students coming from the locality and the rest from a neighbouring village, Magod.

Table 3.6 lists the class-wise distribution of the children. The striking observation seen here in the reduction in the absolute number of students at each successive stage from Standard I to IV. Table 3.6 Classwise Distribution of Students

Number of Students Relative Percentages

Standard I 85 50.6 Standard II 40 23.8 Standard III 23 13,7 Standard IV 20 11.9 Total 168 100.0

* The words standard, class and grade are used interchangeable. 78

One way of explaining such a situation could be that children drop out from school in the first 2 to 3 years. In the second year itself the student number reduces from 85 to 40 which could mean that a little under 50 per cent drop out after one year of schooling. The class-wise percentage to the total school strength has further dropped to 13.7 for class III and 11,9 for class IV. A similar trend is evident when class-wise figures for each school are studied. It is clear from Table 3.6 that while class I students make up over 50 per cent of the total school strength class IV students make up for only about 12 per cent of the same. Table 3.7 Classwise Distribution of Students among the Four Schools

Gundbala Nav,als e Marakal Moralli Total Percentage

Standard I 18 19 25 23 85 50.6 Standard II 10 11 6 14 40 23.8

Standard III 9 5 & 4 23 13.7 Standard IV 4 2 7 7 20 11.9 Total 41 37 42 48 168 100.0

Chisquare = 10.4357 w:Lt h 9 degrees of freedom

Table 3.8 states the distribution of students in different classes according to their age groups during the period of intervention from March, 1988 to March, 1990. The appropriate age for standard I is between 5 plus to 6 plus, for standard 79

II between 6 plus to 7 plus, for standard III between 7 plus to 8 plus and for standard IV between plus to 9 plus. " The child is noriDally admitted to class I at the age of six and he is expected to complete class V at the age of about eleven years .... "1 Children in Gundbala are normally detained in class I for two successive years as will be seen later. The above statement is corroborated by the figures in Table 3.8. The number of students of the age group above 8 to 9 years is nil for class IV.

From the same Table it can be perceived that while around 60 per cent in class I are of the right age, a little over 40 per cent are above age (some of them are 7 years therefore older for the class). The same holds true for all the classes, under aged children being conspicuous by their small numbers. Students much older for their respective classes were either stagnation and/or non-attending cases. It is also possible that they could have been admitted late.

The age of the child, however, cannot be taken at face value. Data pertaining to students' ages were obtained from the school registers and from their parents. Both were unreliable. Most parents were uncertain about the date of birth of their children and gave approximate ages. Those recorded in the school registers were often based on the teachers' guess. In this regard it was specially interesting to note that in Navalse school the register recorded the date of birth of a large number of students admitted in standard I for a particular year as first of August, )-l 1-4 »-( f^ •C »-l »-t n I— in n S) in

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08 so that by June, the beginning of scholastic year they troul. exactly 6 years, 10 months; the required age for being admitted to class 1 !

3-2.2. Socio-economic Characteriatics ^

The children in the schools come from a similar socio economic background. A large percentage belong to Scheduled and backward castes and scheduled tribes, and a larger percentage depend on agriculture for their livelihood.

The 1985 survey attempted to relate the participation of schooling age children in the educational process to their socio economic status. It showed that 87.5 per cent of these children of Gundbala have either agriculture or agricultural labour as their family occupational background. These groups have roughly a little over half of their schooling age children enrolled in schools. Education level of the family head was seen to be an important factor in determining children's schooling position. When landholdings were considered, it was found that both landless families and those with above six acres of land showed greater enrolment percentages then those who owned between two to six acres of land. In landless families children would be *free' of farm work and at the same time could not be sent as hired labourers until they attained a certain age. Education might also be seen as an opening for employment. In land owning families, when the acreage is small, children are not required to help in fields and are therefore sent to school. 82

They may also be seen, however vaguely, as an investment for future urban employment. As landholdlng size increases, this group of amall landholders who depend upon the domestic unit for labours show an increased need of children to help on farms which necesslates their withdrawal from school. When landholdings increase further, however, enrolment shows a corresponding increase.This may be due to improved economic condition as the people could now well afford hired outside labour.

In the present study, information about the socio economic standing was obtained only for those children who were enrolled in the three experimental schools. They have been identified in terms of castes, occupation, education of father, education of mother, education of the highest educated member of the family and landholdings. For a preliminary account the following tables lists the simple fequencies for each of these categories and also correlate them to each other as well as to schools and students.

11 CasLta i Nadors, Naradharis, Halakkivakkals and Karivakkals are the major peasant castes in the village and 78 per cent of students in these schools belong to these four castes (Table 3.9). Where as all castes are represented in Markaal and Gundbala schools, Navalse is exclusively a Halakktvakkal settlement. Moreover since it is isolated and about 2 Kms interior in the forest, children here are less exposed to outside influence. This, along with the low level of parental literacy (see tables 3.13 and 3.14) makes children of the hamlet more disadvantaged in formal schools than 83

those from other hamlets. All children residing in Navalse go to the school in their habitation. They speak a dialect of the Kannada which differs greatly from the standard language. This factor according to the school teacher acts as a great draw back when their performance in formal schools is considered. Table 3.9 Caste Wise Frequencies of Project Students

Number of students Percentages

Aagers 14 11.7 Nadors & Namadharies 28 23.3 Halakkivakkals & Karivakkals 66 55-0 Brahmins 12 10.0 Total 120 100.0

Table 3.10 Caste Wise Frequencies of Project Students according to Schools

Gundbala Navalse Marakaal Total Percentages

Aagers 13 0 1 14 11.7 Nadors & Namadharies 8 0 20 28 23.3 Halakkivakkals & Karivakkals 13 37 16 66 55.0 Brahmins 7 0 5 12 10.0 Total 41 37 42 120 100.0 Chisquare = 66 .7943 with 6 degrees of freedom. P 84

Aagers, as the untouchables in this area are referred are concentrated in Gundbala school. Provlsloin of Government housing facility for them at Santepete from where Gundbala school is the nearest explains this fact.

The seven Brahmin children of Gundbala school are Konkanl speaking Gaud Saraswat Brahmins and five in Markaal school are kannada speaking Havlk Brahmins. The 1985 survey showed that Brahmins made up for only 17.2 per cent of the total number of families in Gundbala.

11) Occupation i. Table 3.11 Distribution of Project Students according to Occupation of Head of the Family

Number of Students Percentages

Agriculture 88 73.3 Agricultural Labour 27 22.5 Others 5 4.2 Total 120 100.0

As can be seen in table 3,11 almost 96 per cent of students have their parental occupational background as agriculture or agricultural labour. Five students who had a non-agricultural parental occupation were all in Gundbala school and these occupations are listed as under: 85

Two pupils have both parents working as teachers, one pupil has his father working in a hotel in Bombay. One pupil has a father who owns a small tea shop in another town. The child stays with his grandparents in Gundbala.

One pupil has her mother as an anganwadi helper, the father having deserted the family.

Hi) Education i.

Table 3.12 Distribution of Project students according to Educational level of Father, Mother and the Highest Educated Member of the Family

Students according to the educational level of Father Mother Highest Educated Member of Family

Absolute per centage Absolute %age Absolute %age No. No. No.

Illiterate 48 40.0 83 69.2 28 23.3 Primary Education 65 54.2 31 25.8 77 64.2 Secondary Education 1.6 2.5 10 8.3 College Education 5 4.2 3 2.5 5 4.2 Total 120 100.0 120 100.0 120 100.0

Table 3.12 reveals that 40 per cent of students have an illiterate father while 54.2 per cent have a father educated upto 86

the primary level. Less than 6 per cent of pupils have a father educated above primary level. Over 69 per cent have an illiterate mother disclosing that the number of students having an illiterate mother is greater than those having an illiterate father. The educational level of the highest educated member of the family does not differ significantly from that of the parents.However as is evident from the above table, the percentage of students with the highest educated member of the family attaining the level of primary education show a considerable increase when compared to that of parents.

Table 3.13 Distribution of Project Students with respect to Schools and Education of Father

Gundbala Navalse Markaal Total Percentage

Illiterate 14 25 9 48 40.0 Primary Education 22 12 31 65 54.2 Secondary Education X 0 1 2 1.7 College Education 4 0 1 5 4.2 Total 41 37 42 120 100.0 Percentage 34. 2 30.8 35. 0 100.0 Chisquare = 23 .0521 with 6 degrees of freedom. (P <.005)

The educational achievement of any member of the family 87 becomes consequential for the education of youngsters especially when the parents are illiterate. It may be presumed that children are inspired to attend schools by such members.

When the number of school children were tabulated with regard to the educational level of their father (Table 3.13) and mother (Table 3.14), it was ascertained that 40 per cent of them had an illiterate father and almost 70per cent had an Illiterate mother. Merely 5 pupils had a college educated father and 3 a college educated mother. Only half the pupils had a literate father and those with a literate mother were even less (25per cent) in number.

Table 3.14 Distribution of Project Students with Respect to Schools and Education of Mother

Gundbala Navalse Markaal Total Percentage

Illiterate 31 33 19 83 69.2 Primary Education 5 4 22 31 25.8 Secondary Education 2 0 1 3 2.5 College Education 3 0 0 3 2.5 Total 41 37 42 120 100.0 Percentage 34. 2 30.8 36.0 100.0 Chisquare = 31.1454 with 6 degree!5 of freedom (P <.005) 88

From these tables again it is clear that none of the children of Navalse school have a parent educated above the primary level. In general, it can be gathered that the inhabitants of Markaal and Markaal hamlets are better represented in the educated population of Gundbala.

izl LanHhnldings J.

From tables 3.15, 3.16 & 3.17 It can be deduced that most students (61.6 per cent) belong to families with landholdings of above one to six acres. Over 90 per cent of these students come from the peasant castes of Nadors, Namadharis. Halakkivakkals and Karivakkals who are predominantly agriculturists. Among pupils with no family landholdings 46 per cent are Aagers.

Table 3.15 Distribution of Project Students According to Caste and Occupation of Head of the Family

Aagers Nadors & Halakki- Brahmins Total %age Namdh- Vakkals ^ arais & Kari- Vakkals

Agriculture 0 20 60 8 88 73.3 Agricultural Labour 14 6 5 2 27 22.5 Others 0 2 1 2 5 4.2 Total 14 28 66 12 120 100.0 Percentage 11.7 23.3 66.0 10.0 100.0 Chisquare = 64.0271 with 6 degrees of freedom (P< .006) 89

Of the 27 pupils whose parental occupation is agricultural labour (or coolie), about 93 per cent are landless. All Aagers are agricultural labourers and except for one family, they are landless. The landless of other castes are occupied as an anganwadi helper and as agricultural labourers.

Table 3.16 Distribution of Project Students according to Landholdings

Land holdings Number of Students Percentages

Nil 28 23.0 Opto 1 acre 13 10.8 Above 1 to 2 acres 29 24.2 Above 2 to 3 acres 24 20.0 Above 3 to 6 acres 25 17.5 Above 6 acres 5 4.2 Total 120 100.0 90

Table 3.17 Distribution of Project Students According to Caste and Family Landholdings

Aagers Nadors & Halakki- Brahmins Total %age Namdh- Vakkals araies & Kari- Vakkals

Nil 13 5 6 4 28 23.3 Upto 1 acre 0 6 6 1 13 10.8 Above 1 to 2 acres 1 7 20 1 29 24.2 Above 2 to 3 acres 0 7 16 1 24 20.0 Above 3 to 6 acres 0 0 16 2 21 17.5 Above 6 acres 0 0 2 3 5 4.2 Total 14 28 66 12 120 100.0 Percentage 11. r 23.3 55.0 10. 0 100.0 Chisquare = 63.83 with 9 degrees of freedom (P<.005)

Xl Caalfi as. & Variable s_ Caste to some extent dictates the occupation of women in rural house holds. It can be construed from table 3.18 that very few students have mothers as only housewifes ; they also work on family land or as agricultural labourers. Two students have employed mothers, one working as a school teacher is a Nador by caste and the other is a Halakkivakkal. Over 16 per cent students belong to households where the women work as agricultural 91 labourers roost of whom are Aagers. Agricultural labourers are largely landless or have very little land, (see table 3.22). Among the Brahmin students, all of them have mothers who are occupied either with light agricultural work (persumably on their own land) or simply as house wives. Almost half the students have their mothers working on their own farm (heavy agricultural work) and almost all of them belong to the peasant castes. Table 3.18 Distribution of Project Students According to Caste and Occupation of the Mother

Aagers Nadors & Halakki- Brahmins Total %age Namdh- Vakkals arais & Kari- Vakkals

Light Agricul tural work on own farm 1 10 27 22.5 Heavy Agri cultural work on own farm 1 10 48 0 59 49.2

House Work 1 0 5 5 11 9.2

Agricultural labour 11 6 3 0 20 16.7 Others 0 2 1 0 3 2.5 Total 14 28 66 12 120 100.0 Percentage 11. 7 23. 3 55. 0 10. 0 100.0 Chisquare = 92.5526 with 12 degrees of freedom (P< .005) 92

Tables 3.19, 3.20 and 3.21 classify the children in schools based on their castes and educational attainment of the father , mother and highest educated member of the family respectively. Among all the Brahmin children in schools none have an illiterate father and only two have an illiterate mother. Students who have their family members represented in higher education (secondary schooling and college) are also in considerable numbers amongst Brahmins followed closely by Nador and Namdharis. It would there fore seem that Brahmin children have a greater educational advantage because of the family's educational background. Children of Nadors and Namdharis having all family members illiterate are in substantial numbers. This could mean that members of these castes who are basically agriculturists are gradually feeling the need to be educated, possibly for salaried Jobs or due to the various Government policies favouring education.

Family heads of Aager students are not portrayed in either college or even secondary education. The tables show that no family members (whether father, mother or any other) of these children have attained an educational level higher than primary schooling. From tables 3.19. 3.20 and 3.21, it can be further deduced that Halakkivakkals and Karivakkals being essentially peasant families, directly involved in cultivation, education for them la not a priority. Only one child has the highest educated member of his family with secondary education. Among all castes 93

children having an educated father (this is true for all educational levels) are greater than those having an educated mother.

Table 3.19 Distribution of Project Students According to Caste and Educational Level of the Family Head

Aagers Nadors & Halakki- Brahmins Total %age Namdh- Vakkals aris & Kari- Vakkals

Illiterate 7 7 34 0 46 40.0 Primary Education 7 19 31 e 65 54.2 Secondary Education 0 0 1 1 2 1.7 College £duca.tioti Q Z Q 3 6 4.2 Total 14 28 66 12 120 100.0 Percentage 11.7 23.3 55.0 10.0 100.0 Chisquare = 31.2416 with 9 degrees of freedom (P<.005) 94

Table 3.20 Distribution of Project Students According to Caste and Educational Level of the Mother

Aagers Madors & Halakkl- Brahmins Total %age Namdh- Vakkals arls & Kari- Vakkals

Illiterate 11 17 53 2 83 69.2 Primary Education 3 6 13 7 31 25.8 Secondary Education 0 1 0 2 3 2.5

College Education 0 2 0 1 3 2.5

Total 14 28 66 12 120 100.0 Percentage 11.7 23.3 56.0 10.0 100.0 Chisquare = 30.2980 with 9 degrees of freedom (P<.005) 95

Table 3.21 Distribution of Project Students According to Caste and Educational Level of the Highest Educated Member of the Family

Aagers Naders & Halakki- Brahmins Total %age Namdh- Vakkals aris & Kari- Vakkals

Illiterate 5 5 18 0 28 23.3 Primary Education 9 16 47 5 77 64.2 Secondary Education 0 5 1 4 10 8.3 College Education 0 2 0 3 5 4.2 Total 14 28 66 12 120 100.0 Percentage 11.7 23.3 55.0 10.0 100.0 Chisquare = 39.5159 with 9 degrees of freedom (P<. 005)

vH Occuoation as a Variable :

From table 3.22 It Is seen that almost all (93 per cent) students having agricultural labour as their family occupational background are landless. Among the students with landholding families owning acreage ranging from less than an acre to above 6 acres, only four have non-agricultural occupations, two in salaried jobs. 96

Table 3.22 Distribution of Project Students According to Occupation of the Family Head and Family Landholdings

Nil Upto Above Above Above Above 1 acre 1 to 2 2 to 3 3 to 6 6 acres Total %age acres acres acres

Agriculture 0 13 28 21 21 5 88 73.3 Agricultural 25 0 1 1 0 0 27 22.6 Labour Others 3 0 0 2 0 0 5 4.2 Total 28 13 29 24 21 5 120 100.0 Percentage 23. 3 10.8 24.2 20.0 17.5 4.2 100.0 Chlsquare = 106. 3629 with 12 degrees of freedom (P<0.005)

Table 3.23 Distribution of Project Students according to Occupation of Family Head and Schools

Gundbala Navalse Markaal Total Percentage

Agriculture 17 35 36 68 73.3 Agricultural Labour 19 2 6 27 22.5 Others 5 0 0 5 4.2 Total 41 37 42 120 100.0 Percentage 34. 2 30.8 35. 0 100.0 97

What is noteworthy in the table 3.23 that the only- students who do not have an agricultural background are all In Gundbala school. Gundbala (Markaal) being the main settlement of the village, located on a highway, also has the only non-agricultural families of the area. Women play a significant role in village economy. As can be seen from table 3.24, Gundbala is no exception in this regard. Less than 10 per cent of students' mothers (wife of head of the family) play solely the role of house wife. Others, in addition to the regular house work are also occupied as agricultural labourers (who are predominantly represented in the "landless" category) or engaged in heavy or light agricultural work on their own farms. Only three students (2.5per cent) have their mothers engaged in their occupations other than those mentioned above. A mother of two school children is employed as a primary teacher in Gundbala school and the mother of another student as an anganwadi helper.

Tables 3.25 and 3.26 display schooling children having parents with different occupations according to their educational status. Being a mere literate or having had three to four years of schooling does not seem to make any apparent difference in their occupations.

Students with secondary level educated parents have none of them working as agricultural labourers. A few of those (especially fathers) engaged in agriculture are nonethles educated upto college level. n "0 -1 O >- I> X 0 n I 0 ri- r D ZT fS 0 rt- Of >a 0 D C ro 2 C H- >-- H- T f+ 3- O" T r k^ ai 3 T (Q w Ifl n Ot HI 0 H- ifl 0 rt- < OJ 3- rt- JO (D 1—» T c n flj I C < -*i ^- ri T c 3 tft 1 C 3 T ot H- 0* r+ 1-1 £ 3> T X 3> IT T Oi r+ 0 -+, ai-> iD 3 0 >D 0} ^ E T T T T (5 T 7:r T*u £ H- ?r p- H- It Of 9 0 1 n O I—' 3 0- ^^ 03 C^ o 1 0 u -K o -c KI w i~^ 3 Tl f> W 00 I-* •• Ja 4* O T u z rt- O £ «>J t->. H- ID ID fl- T 3 n •-* c Oi rt- w i^ »-* Q} rt- 3 03 ^ O '>1 O o M %l -^ n o a r+ "1 H a m ID "n 3) ID a tO 3 ID T 3 Si *-• "Xt r+ ID K) w I-* n cr 4k ^ -^ 1-* GO Ch "1 rt- O in Uro) o m o < in [Q r n 0 Of n •+, 3 0 a 1 •h W K (-* at hj :^ 3 a "1 O *> w I-* 1^ W 00 O n) a 3 ro w o < a in o "TJ t-* K I-* u n ^^ %l »-*• K3 0- rt- O n o o O < O tn ID c O a> 01 rt- ^^ H- 0 3 4i 01 o o 1-* ro K3 0

rt- 3- H ID 1-* j-t O O K! w t-» Ul w t+ o O 04 Q H- -0 s 9J b H* o •-* 4i w o N3 o ^0 sO ro k • • k fe • IS O CA ^ w ro u

86 99

Table 3.25 Distribution of Project Students According to Educational Level of Mother and her Occupation

Illiterate Primary Secondary College Total %age Education Education Education

Light Agricul tural work on own farm 11 15 1 0 27 22.5 Heavy Agri cultural work on own farm 47 12 0 0 59 49.2 House Work 6 2 2 1 11 9.2 Agricultural labour 18 2 0 0 20 16.7 Others 1 0 0 2 3 2.5 Total 83 31 3 3 120 100.0 Percentage 69.2 25.8 2. 5 2.5 100. 0 Chisquare = 86 .1299 with 12 degree s of freedom (P<.005) 100

Table 3.26 Distribution of Project Students According to Occupation of Father and his Education ~rVi-"/^^0

Illiterate Primary Secondary College Total %age Education Education Education

Agriculture 33 51 1 3 88 73.3 Agricultural Labour 14 13 0 0 27 22.5 Others 1 1 1 2 5 4.2 Total 48 65 2 5 120 100.0 Percentage 40. 0 54.2 1.7 4.2 100.0 Chisqyare = 30,.413 2 with 6 degrees of freedom (P<0. 005)

Moat students have both parents engaged In agricultural pursuits. From table 3.27 it can be said that a vast majority of students have their mothers working on their own farms« assisting in both heavy and light agricultural work. Heavy agricultural work would include sowing, transplanting, weeding and other Jobs done on the actual field. Chores related to cattle and after harvest could be referred to as light agricultural work.

fh' yS6o 101

Table 3.27 Distribution of Project Students According to Occupation of Father and that of the Mother

Fathers/ Agriculture Agricultural Others Total %age Mothers Labour