THE CREATION OF FICTIONAL HISTORY IN THE TEQUILA INDUSTRY Cynthia A. Nichols Thesis Prepared for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS December 2016 APPROVED: Roberto R. Calderón, Major Professor Sandra Mendiola García, Committee Member J. Todd Moye, Committee Member Harold Tanner, Chair of the Department of History David Holdeman, Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences Victor Prybutok, Vice Provost of the Toulouse Graduate School Nichols, Cynthia A. The Creation of Fictional History in the Tequila Industry. Master of Arts (History), December 2016, 87 pp., 7 figures, bibliography, 46 titles. The creation of fictional history in the tequila industry due to changes in government policy, trade agreements and big business. Copyright 2016 by Cynthia A. Nichols ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..iv Chapters I. INTRODUCTION………………………......……………………………………………………………………1 Historiography………………………………………………………………………………………..9 II. THE MYTH OF THE MAGUEY…………………………………………….......………………………28 Mayahuel, Goddess of Agave..............................................................…...29 Los jimadores, the Caretakers of Agave………………………………………….…...38 Lo mexicano and the Spirit of Mexico………………………………………………….44 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………….…...51 III. CREATION OF AN INDUSTRY………………………………….......…………………………………..56 Beginning of an Empire………………………………………………….……………………..62 After the Mexican Revolution……………………………………….……………………...67 Neoliberalism, NAFTA, and Present Day……………………………………………..70 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………….77 IV. CONCLUSION.....................................……………………………………………………………….80 BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………83 iii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page Figure 1: Map of tequila producing states in Mexico………………………....………………………………………3 Figure 2: Gabriel Flores mural at Tequila Sauza………………………………………………………………………..36 Figure 3: Freshly trimmed agave head……………………………………………………………………………………..39 Figure 4: Rare flowering agave plant……………………………………………………………………………….……….41 Figure 5: Chart showing growth of the tequila industry……………………………………………………………61 Figure 6: Chart showing company sizes in the tequila industry………………………………………………..71 Figure 7: Agave fields on the main road to Tequila…………………………………………………………………..74 iv CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Famous comedian George Carlin once said, “One tequila, two tequila, three tequila, floor,” when he discussed the effects of tequila. The pervasion of tequila into the popular culture of the United States since the late 1970’s and early 1980’s shows how intricate the trade relationship between Mexico and the United States grew after the signage of the North American Free Trade Agreement, or NAFTA. NAFTA freed up trade between Canada, Mexico and the United States to an extent that it had never been before. Carlin was not the first celebrity to mention the beverage, or the last. The spirit was found various places in both American and Mexican popular culture. Tequila was also referenced in numerous movies and songs as representative of the spirit of Mexico. Pancho Villa, a revolutionary leader, further promoted the popularity of tequila, as images showed him swigging tequila from a cantina before he rode off to conquer injustice.1 Research showed that the impact of the tequila industry on Mexico was far more profound than popular culture references indicated. The tequila industry created a rich history of Mexican folklore and drastically changed the landscape of the country, but it altered the relationship between Mexico and the United States, as well. The first chapter discusses the historiography of tequila and the industry that surrounded it. This information was presented because it provided a basic knowledge of the 1 Marie Sarita Gaytán. ¡Tequila! Distilling the Spirit of Mexico. California: Stanford University Press, 2014, 43-51. Jeffrey Pilcher. “Jose Cuervo and the Gentrified Worm: Food, Drink, and the Touristic Consumption of Mexico.” Holiday in Mexico: Critical Reflections on Tourism and Tourist Encounters edited by Berger, Diana and Andrew Grant Wood. Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press, 2010, 222. 1 tequila industry from its conception to current day. It also showed the overview of the changes that occurred in the industry and how it evolved. The historiography showed not only the changes in history, but the changes in the way that researchers studied tequila. Researchers originally studied tequila from strictly a scientific approach, but it gradually switched to its cultural and economic properties. The second chapter encompasses the myths and folklore that accompany tequila. This included stories of the ancient Aztec goddess of the agave plant, Mayahuel, and how with her help, pulque originated as a drink that served people for everyday use as well as ceremonial purposes.2 Ancient tribes produced pulque from the agave plant, and used the beverage for nourishment and ritual purposes. Mexican masculinity in regards to the consumption of tequila also played an important part in its history, and developed partially through Pancho Villa’s legacy as a revolutionary. Villa greatly promoted the popularity of tequila on both sides of the border, despite both Mexico and the United States’ controversial views of him.3 Also discussed in Chapter Two will be the typical misconceptions that non-natives have about the way tequila is consumed in Guadalajara. Guadalajara, located roughly forty-five minutes from the town of Tequila, where tequila is produced, is one of the largest metropolitan centers in the area. Visitors of Guadalajara in the past fifty years found the tequilas considered name brands in the United States, were not necessarily the most popular or easy to find there. While some restaurants featured different brands of José Cuervo, very rarely was that brand a 2 Chantal Martineau. How the Gringos Stole Tequila: The Modern Age of Mexico’s Most Traditional Spirit. Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2015, Location 300 out of 4755. 3 Gaytán. ¡Tequila! Distilling the Spirit of Mexico, 53. 2 “gold” tequila. Average Tapatíos, people from Guadalajara, who preferred tequila usually chose out of the three main categories of aging: silver, reposado, and añejo. Companies marketed tequila as a beverage enjoyed by itself, or mixed in a margarita. Marketing led consumers to believe margaritas were the traditional way Mexicans enjoyed the beverage. Research showed this was not the case, and that marketing strategies in the U.S. differed from the reality in Mexico. Few places featured tequilas that typically grace the bottom shelf of liquor stores in the United States. Instead, the cheaper tequilas on the menu were normally local brands that cannot be found outside of the country. Restaurants also did not feature margaritas prominently their drink menus. Instead, the patron chose their tequila, and it was served with a glass of ice and a bottle of Squirt, which was known as a Paloma. Margaritas were not completely absent, however, and could be found at most tourist spots.4 Figure 1: Map of tequila producing regions in Mexico. 4 Research trip. Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico to visit sites where tequila is produced and consumed. [March 17-20, 2016.] 3 The third chapter of this thesis presents the various changes the tequila industry underwent, it shows how the rapid growth of the industry vastly changed the town of Tequila and the areas surrounding it, and explores how this affected Mexico’s economic relationships with other countries. Tequila is produced from Blue Weber Agave plants which are allowed to grow in five states in Mexico: Jalisco, Nayarit, Guanajuato, Michoacán, and Tamaulipas (as underlined in the map on Figure 1).5 Jimadores were people who cultivated tequila. They passed this occupation down through the generations, but now mainly by day laborers and hired help make up this field.6 A product originally handcrafted by Mexicans for Mexicans is now exported all over the world to 120 countries, and Mexico sends approximately eighty percent of all global exports to the United States. This is twice the amount of tequila that is consumed by Mexicans.7 Some companies, such as Sauza, have brands specifically manufactured for export into the United States. Companies are also aware of the growing amount of United States residents of Mexican descent, and this was evident in their campaigns that boast authenticity and heritage. The third chapter also covered the various marketing strategies of tequila companies. The reputation tequila had in other countries, has not gone unnoticed by marketing executives, who used it to their advantage. Many companies have specific brands designated 5 José Orozco. “Tequila Sauza and the Redemption of Mexico’s Vital Fluids, 1873-1970.” Alcohol in Latin America: A Social and Cultural History. Ed Gretchen Pierce and Áurea Toxqui. University of Arizona Press, 2014, 186. Martineau. How the Gringos Stole Tequila. Location 1256 out of 4755. Ana G. Valenzuela-Zapata and Gary Paul Nabhan. ¡Tequila! A Natural and Cultural History. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. 2004, 46-47. 6 Martineau. How the Gringos Stole Tequila. Location 6 out of 4755. Valenzuela-Zapata and Nabhan. ¡Tequila! A Natural and Cultural History, 43-44. 7 Martineau. How the Gringos Stole Tequila. Location 194 out of 4755. Valenzuela-Zapata and Nabhan. ¡Tequila! A Natural and Cultural History, 63-64. 4 for the party consumer who enjoys the quantity of their liquor over the quality. For example, fifteen million gallons