The Ecology and Population Structure of the Invasive Yellow Crazy Ant Anoplolepis Gracilipes – a Synopsis

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The Ecology and Population Structure of the Invasive Yellow Crazy Ant Anoplolepis Gracilipes – a Synopsis The Ecology and Population structure of the invasive Yellow Crazy Ant Anoplolepis gracilipes Dissertation zur Erlangung des naturwissenschaftlichen Doktorgrades der Julius-Maximillians-Universität Würzburg vorgelegt von Jochen Drescher aus Köln Würzburg 2011 Eingereicht am: Mitglieder des Promotionskolloqiums Vorsitzender: Gutachter: PD Dr. Nico Blüthgen, Julius-Maximillians-Universität Würzburg Gutachter: PD Dr. Thomas Schmitt, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg Tag des Promotionskolloqiums: Doktorurkunde ausgehändigt am: ii Ants are everywhere, but only occasionally noticed. They run much of the terrestrial world as the premier soil turners, channelers of energy, dominatrices of the insect fauna – yet receive only passing mention in textbooks on ecology. [...] The neglect of ants in science and natural history is a shortcoming that should be remedied, for they represent the culmination of insect evolution, in the same sense that human beings represent the summit of vertebrate evolution. Bert Hölldobler & Edward O. Wilson, ‘The Ants’, 1990 iii iv ERKLÄRUNGEN gemäß §4, Abs. 3, S. 3, 5 und 8 der Promotionsordnung vom 15. März 1999 (zuletzt geändert durch Satzung vom 12. August 2009) Hiermit erkläre ich ehrenwörtlich, daß ich die vorliegende Dissertation selbständig angefertigt und keine anderen als die von mir angegebenen Quellen und Hilfsmittel benutzt habe. Die Dissertation hat weder in gleicher noch in ähnlicher Form einem anderen Prüfungsverfahren vorgelegen. Am 04. September 2006 hat mir die Universität Würzburg den akademischen Grad „Diplom- Biologe Univ.“ verliehen. Weitere akademische Grade habe ich weder erworben noch versucht zu erwerben. Würzburg, 18. März 2011 __________________________ Jochen Drescher v This thesis is based on the following manuscripts: Drescher J, Blüthgen N, Feldhaar H (in prep) Mitochondrial DNA diversity of the Yellow Crazy Ant Anoplolepis gracilipes in Southeast Asia and the Indopacific Drescher J, Blüthgen N, Schmitt T, Bühler J, Feldhaar H (2010) Societies drifting apart? Behavioural, genetic and chemical differentiation between supercolonies in the Yellow Crazy Ant Anoplolepis gracilipes . PLoS ONE 5(10): e13581 Drescher J, Blüthgen N, Schmitt T, Bühler J, Babis M, Feldhaar H (in prep) Worker aggression towards allocolonial reproductives facilitates speciation between supercolonies in the Yellow Crazy Ant Anoplolepis gracilipes Drescher J, Feldhaar H, Blüthgen N (2011) Interspecific aggression and resource monopolization of the invasive ant Anoplolepis gracilipes in Malaysian Borneo. Biotropica 43: 93-99 Drescher J, Rinke S, Schmitt T, Feldhaar H, Blüthgen N (in prep) Catch me if you can: Agility of the ant guest Myrmecophilus pallidithorax as a major factor determining survival in colonies of the Yellow Crazy Ant Anoplolepis gracilipes vi TABLE OF CONTENTS I. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 1 II. SUMMARY 5 III. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 9 IV. SYNOPSIS 19 V. MITOCHONDRIAL DNA DIVERSITY OF THE 25 YELLOW CRAZY ANT ANOPLOLEPIS GRACILIPES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE INDOPACIFIC VI. GENETIC AND CHEMICAL DIFFERENTIATION 37 BETWEEN ANOPLOLEPIS GRACILIPES SUPERCOLONIES VII. WORKER AGGRESSION TOWARDS ALLOCOLONIAL 57 MALES AND QUEENS MAY FACILITATE SPECIATION BETWEEN ANOPLOLEPIS GRACILIPES SUPERCOLONIES VIII. ECOLOGICAL DOMINANCE OF ANOPLOLEPIS GRACILIPES 73 IN AN ANT COMMUNITY IN NORTH-EAST BORNEO IX. AGILITY DETERMINES THE SURVIVAL OF THE CLEPTO- 89 PARASITIC CRICKET MYRMECOPHILUS PALLIDITHORAX IN SUPERCOLONIES OF ANOPLOLEPIS GRACILIPES X. REFERENCES 101 XI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 115 XII. CURRICULUM VITAE 117 vii viii I. Zusammenfassung I. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Die anthropogene Verschleppung und anschließende Etablierung invasiver Arten in neuen Habitaten ist einer der Hauptfaktoren des globalen Rückganges biologischer Vielfalt. Invasive Ameisen gehören zu den besonders schädlichen Invasoren und stellen fünf der 100 weltweit problematischsten invasiven Organismen. Ungeachtet einer Vielzahl von Studien über lokale ökologische Konsequenzen invasiver Ameisen sind die Mechanismen, die den Invasionen zugrunde liegen, kaum verstanden und weitestgehend auf die zwei Ameisenarten Linepithema humile und Solenopsis invicta beschränkt. Das Hauptziel der vorliegenden Dissertation war durch Untersuchung der ebenfalls invasiven Ameisenart Anoplolepis gracilipes zu einem besseren Verständnis der Mechanismen biologischer Invasionen und deren ökologischen Konsequenzen beizutragen. Anoplolepis gracilipes ist eine in den Tropen weit verbreitete invasive Ameisenart, die in anthropogen gestörten Habitaten Südostasiens und des indopazifischen Raumes sehr häufig vorzufinden ist. Während detaillierte Informationen bezüglich ihres derzeitigen Verbreitungsgebietes vorliegen, ist ihre geographische Herkunft immer noch unbekannt. Weiterhin ist unklar, in welchem Maße die Sozialstruktur von A. gracilipes zu ihrer ökologischen Dominanz beiträgt und wie sich diese wiederum in einem potentiellen Herkunftsgebiet (Südostasien) darstellt. Mitochondriale DNA-Sequenzen legen nahe, dass die überwiegende Mehrheit der im indopazifischen Raum vorkommenden Kolonien von südostasiatischen Populationen eingeführt wurde. Die südostasiatischen Kolonien entstammen möglicherweise einem bislang unbekanntem Ursprungsgebiet. Verhaltenstests und genetische Analysen ergaben, dass Superkolonien von A. gracilipes aus sehr nah verwandten Individuen bestehen, womit sie stark vergrößerten Varianten monogyner, polydomer Kolonien anderer Ameisenarten ähneln. Ausserdem wiesen sowohl genetische Daten sowie Profile epikutikulärer Kohlenwasserstoffe auf eine erhebliche Differenzierung zwischen verschiedenen Superkolonien hin. Das Ausmaß der genetischen und chemischen Differenzierung deutet darauf hin, dass Genfluss zwischen Superkolonien stark reduziert oder sogar unterbrochen ist. Da die Paarung bei A. gracilipes wahrscheinlich nur im eigenen Nest stattfindet (Hochzeitsflüge wurden bislang noch nicht beobachtet), könnte eine positive Rückkopplung zwischen Aggression, Verwandtschaftsgrad und 1 I. Zusammenfassung epikutikulärer Chemie dazu führen, dass die Differenzierung zwischen Superkolonien durch eine Kombination aus genetischer Drift und neutraler Evolution weiter verstärkt wird. Superkolonien, die nicht durch Genfluss miteinander im Austausch stehen, könnten sich also konsequenterweise in unterschiedliche evolutive Richtungen entwickeln. Eine der Möglichkeiten, durch die Genfluss zwischen verschiedenen Superkolonien aufrecht erhalten werden könnte, wäre deshalb die Einwanderung reproduktiver Individuen (Königinnen und Männchen) in fremde Superkolonien. Meine Untersuchungen ergaben, dass die Migration von Männchen und Königinnen zwische verschiedenen Superkolonien jedoch durch die Arbeiterinnen unterbunden wird, welche in erhöhten Maße aggressiv gegenüber Geschlechtstieren anderer Superkolonien waren. Weiterhin deuteten Kreuzungsexperimente zwischen koloniefremden Männchen und Königinnen darauf hin, dass Superkolonien von A. gracilipes unter Umständen schon reproduktiv isoliert sind, welches konsequenterweise zur Diversifizierung von A. gracilipes in verschiedene Arten führen sollte. Bezüglich ihrer potentiellen ökologischen Dominanz in Nordost-Borneo konnte gezeigt werden, dass A. gracilipes die lokale Ameisenfauna erheblichen beeinflusst. Innerhalb der Superkolonien von A. gracilipes fanden sich sowohl weniger Ameisenarten als auch eine andere Artzusammensetzung als ausserhalb. Die Ergebnisse deuteten darauf hin, dass die ökologische Dominanz von A. gracilipes maßgeblich auf der Monopolisierung von Nahrungsquellen beruht. Diese wird ermöglicht durch eine Kombination aus schneller Rekrutierung von Nestgenossinnen, zahlenmäßiger Überlegenheit und ausgeprägter interspezifischer Aggression. A. gracilipes kommt fast ausschließlich in anthropogen gestörten Habitaten wie Wohngebieten oder landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen vor. Die zunehmende Habitatkonversion in Nordost-Borneo führt zu einem enormen Anstieg der von A. gracilipes besiedelbaren Habitate, so dass mit einem signifikanten Populationswachstum von A. gracilipes zu rechnen sein wird. Ein schnelles Populationswachstum sowie ökologische Dominanz sind jedoch nicht allein auf invasive Arten geprägte Charakteristika, sondern können auch bei nativen Arten zu beobachten sein, welche durch zunehmende Verfügbarkeit anthropogen veränderten Habitats zu Schädlingen werden können. Abschließend wurden mehrere Arten potentieller Sozialparasiten in Nestern von A. gracilipes aufgefunden (mehrheitlich neue, unbeschriebene Arten), von denen die Grille Myrmecophilus pallidithorax eingehender untersucht wurde. Verhaltenstests und die Analyse kutikulärer Kohlenwasserstoffe zeigten, dass M. pallidithorax von ihrem Wirt bei jeder sich bietender 2 I. Zusammenfassung Gelegenheit angegriffen und sogar verzehrt wird. Jedoch kann sie den Aggressionen ihres Wirtes weitestgehend ausweichen dank schneller Fluchtreflexe sowie, möglicherweise, chemischer Tarnung. Die vorliegende Dissertation zeigt, dass lang zurückliegende Invasionen die Unterscheidung zwischen eingeführten oder nativen Schädlingen erschweren, da beide tiefgreifende ökologische Einflüsse auf native Artengemeinschaften haben können. Es wurde weiterhin deutlich, dass die außergewöhnliche Sozialstruktur von invasiven Ameisen wie A. gracilipes ihre ökologische Dominanz begründet. Die Bildung von Superkolonien bei invasiven Ameisen stellt zudem nicht notwendigerweise eine evolutive Sackgasse dar, sondern kann im Gegenzug sogar zur Artbildung führen, begünstigt durch ungewöhnliche Paarungs- und Verbreitungsstrategien.
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