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Pdf/S the Klang Valley Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 15: 2291–2304, 2015 Copyright © Taiwan Association for Aerosol Research ISSN: 1680-8584 print / 2071-1409 online doi: 10.4209/aaqr.2015.03.0188 A Long Term Study on Characterization and Source Apportionment of Particulate Pollution in Klang Valley, Kuala Lumpur Shamsiah Abdul Rahman1*, Mohd Suhaimi Hamzah1, Md Suhaimi Elias1, Nazaratul Ashifa Abdullah Salim1, Azian Hashim1, Shakirah Shukor1, Wee Boon Siong2, Abdul Khalik Wood3 1 Waste and Environmental Technology Division, Malaysian Nuclear Agency, Bangi, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia 2 Department of Chemistry, Unversity of Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia 3 Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Unversity of Technology MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia ABSTRACT Samples of airborne particulate matter, PM2.5 and PM10–2.5 were collected using a Gent stacked filter sampler at an urban site, Klang Valley, Kuala Lumpur between January 2002–December 2011. The samples were analyzed for their elemental composition and black carbon content by Particle Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) and light absorption, respectively. The –3 annual average for PM2.5, PM10–2.5 and PM10 ranged from 21 to 35, 18 to 26 and 44 to 56 µg m , respectively. Factor analysis method and the Positive Matrix Factorisation (EPA PMF3) technique were also applied to the fine fraction data set in order to identify the possible sources of particulate matter and their contributions to the ambient particulate matter concentrations in the Klang Valley. A five factor PMF solution was found for PM2.5 particulate matter. The sources identified were; motor vehicles, industry, smoke/biomass burning, secondary sulphate and soil. It was found that the primary source of haze air particulate matter was locally generated mostly from vehicular emissions which contribute about 35% of the PM2.5 mass. The Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Intergrated Trajectory (HYSPLT) model was also used to explore possible long range transport of pollution. Smoke trans-boundary events were identified based on fine potassium from the data base in 2004, 2006 and 2008. Keywords: Klang Valley; Elemental composition; Positive Matrix Factorization; Airborne particulate. INTRODUCTION monsoon seasons, the winds are generally light and variable. There are many sources that contribute to the fine and coarse Klang Valley (Fig. 1) is a rapidly growing urban area particles in the area. Potential sources can originate from with the highest growth rate in Malaysia. The area comprises major highways that run throughout the Klang Valley, growth of Kuala Lumpur (lat 3°8′N; long 101°44′E), its suburbs, in population, unplanned and uncontrolled development of and adjoining cities and towns in the state of Selangor. The industrial premises that lead to higher emissions of organic weather is hot and humid with uniform temperatures and inorganic gases, chemicals and dust as well as noise throughout the year from 25°C to 35°C and the humidity is pollution and vibration disturbance. However the sources almost the same throughout the year 70%–80% during the of the pollutants and their contributions not only originate night-time and 50–60% during daytime. There are uniform from local activities to the local factors such as open burning, periodic changes in the wind flow patterns namely, the construction and increasing industrialization programs, but southwest monsoon, northeast monsoon and inter-monsoon also from the foreign activities such as forest fires and land seasons. The southwest monsoon season is usually established clearing in Sumatra and Kalimantan. Emissions from these in the latter half of May or early June and ends in September fires has caused trans-boundary haze pollution events that while the northeast monsoon season usually commences in have affected the entire Southeast Asian region. The haze early November and ends in March. During the two inter- episodes in Malaysia were reported as early as the 1980s followed by a number of haze episodes that were less intense and did not receive as much public attention. The first serious haze event in the country was reported in August * Corresponding author. 1991 followed by events in 1994, 1997, 1998, 2002, 2004, Tel.: +603-89112000; Fax: +603-89112179 2005, 2006 and 2009 (Keywood, 2003, Tangang et al., 2010). E-mail address: [email protected] These phenomenon have now become regular features in 2292 Rahman et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 15: 2291–2304, 2015 Fig. 1. Location of sampling site at the Klang Valley (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klang_Valley). Malaysia during the dry seasons in Feb–April and June– total fine mass, chemical composition, and contributions of September. different sources contributing towards the growing air For many years the International Atomic Energy Agency pollution problem in the Klang Valley are reported. The (IAEA) has been supporting IAEA/RCA project on air evidence that smoke from biomass burning being a significant pollution. The objective of the project was to demonstrate aerosol contributor during periods of excessive haze is also the applicability of nuclear and related analytical techniques discussed. (mainly NAA, XRF, PIXE and ICP-MS) in studies of pollution caused by APM (airborne particulate matter) which METHODS is now being recognized as a local, regional and global problem with a serious impact on human health, particularly Sampling for young and older people, on visibility, and on climate Air particulate samples were collected using a Gent stack change. The Malaysian Nuclear Agency has been involved sampler unit (Hopke et al., 1997) provided by the IAEA. in the project since 1998 in which the Klang Valley region The sampler was placed on a rooftop of a two story building has been selected as the study area. The project focused on at the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur the measurement of fine particle (PM2.5), coarse particle campus (3°10′30′′N, 101°43′24′′E) approximately 10 meters (PM10–2.5), black carbon (BC), major and trace elements, as in height. The campus lies between two highways to the north well as source quantification, and identification of long- and south, and is surrounded by busy roads closely linked range transport of fine airborne particulate matter. The to the Kuala Lumpur city center. Samples were collected study of fine particles for the samples collected during the between January 2002 and December 2011. The sampler period from 2000 to 2008 at Klang Valley identified five was programmed to run automatically at an air flow-rate of sources of aerosols in the Klang Valley (Rahman et al., 15 L min–1 to collect two fractions (< 2.5 µm and 2.5–10 2009a, b). These sources included sea spray, motor vehicle, µm aerodynamic diameter particles) of 24 hours duration smoke, industry, soil and unknown source. This paper is samples on 47mm diameter polycarbonate filters (with 0.4 reporting the results of a long term study of fine particles µm and 8 µm pore sizes respectively) at a frequency of a (PM2.5) for the samples collected during the 10 year study week or fortnight. Nearly 400 filters were collected during from 2002 to 2011 at Klang Valley, Kuala Lumpur. The the study period. Rahman et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 15: 2291–2304, 2015 2293 Mass and Black Carbon Measurement starting times throughout the sampling interval. The total mass of each sample was determined by weighing the filter using a microbalance (METTLER Model MT5). RESULT AND DISCUSSION The balance was equipped with a Po-212 (alpha emitter) electrostatic charge eliminator (STATICMASTER) to Particulate Matter Mass Level eliminate the static charge accumulated on the filters before Table 1 below summarises the annual average each weighing. Black carbon concentration on a filter was concentration of PM2.5 and PM10–2.5 as well as PM10 for the measured by a Smoke Stain Reflectometer (EEL model study period of 2002–2011. A total of 382 sample pairs 43D). The method is based on the absorption of light, in (fine and coarse) were collected from the site. The average –3 which the amount of light absorption is proportional to the concentration of PM2.5 is 25 µg m with a maximum of 96 –3 –3 black carbon concentration on the filter. The black carbon µg m and minimum of 2.4 µg m . Estimation of PM10 concentration values were obtained according to the method was made by addition of fine fraction (2.5 µm) to the described by other workers (Edwards et al., 1983; Cohen coarse fraction (2.5–10 µm). There is no Malaysian guidelines et al., 2000; Biswas et al., 2003). or standard for the fine and coarse fractions, but the USEPA National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) fine Elemental Analysis particle goals of 15 µg m–3 annual average with a maximum Elemental analysis was performed by Particle Induced X- of 35 µg m–3 averaged over 24 hour period was adopted for ray Emission (PIXE) (Trompetter et al., 2005) at the National reference. Fig. 2 shows the annual average concentrations of Isotope Centre, GNS Science, New Zealand. X-ray spectra PM2.5 and PM10–2.5 measured from the period of study 2002 to obtained from the PIXE measurements were analyzed with 2011 at Kuala Lumpur, Klang Valley. It was clearly seen that GUPIX software developed by Guelph University (Maxwell during the ten years of study the annual average of PM2.5 at et al., 1989, 1995). Concentration of the following twenty Klang Valley had consistently exceeded the annual standard elements were measured and analyzed for each sample: Al, of USEPA National Ambient Air Quality Standards –3 As, Br, Ca, Cl, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, P, Pb, S, Si, (NAAQS) of 15 µg m . The PM2.5 levels were also found to Ti, V and Zn.
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