CONTENTS

AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND VOLUME 30 • NUMBER 3 • 2018 SOCIAL WORK ISSN: 2463-4131 (Online)

1 Editorial 1 Women in social work: Practice, policy and research Liz Beddoe 4 Commentary 4 Feminism and social work: Where next for an engaged theory and practice? Viviene Cree 8 Original Articles 8 Cr eating space for a critical feminist social work pedagogy Sarah B. Epstein, Norah Hosken and Sevi Vassos 19 Mothers as active contributors to post-earthquake recovery in Christchurch Angelina Jennings, Nicky Stanley-Clarke and Polly Yeung 31 An investigation of the nature of termination of pregnancy counselling within the current system of licensed facilities Shelley Kirk, Liz Beddoe and Shirley Ann Chinnery

45 Radical women in social work: A historical perspective from North Americas 57 Surveys, social licence and the Integrated Data Infrastructure Pauline Gulliver, Monique Jonas, Tracey McIntosh, Janet Fanslow and Debbie Waayer 72 Neoliberalism and social work with children and families in the UK: On-going challenges and critical possibilities Steve Rogowski 84 View Point 84 Family violence – through the lens of reflective practice Amitha Krishnamurthi 90 Classic Book Reviews

90 Kris Olsson’s Kilroy was Here —Michele Jarldorn 93 Book Reviews

93 Blame, culture and child protection —Jadwiga Leigh, 2017 96 Research for social workers: An introduction to methods (4th ed.) —Margaret Alston and Wendy Bowles, 2018

VOLUME 30 • NUMBER 3 • 2018 AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND SOCIAL WORK EDITORIAL

Women in social work: Practice, policy and research

This issue of Aotearoa New Zealand Social in the Aotearoa New Zealand social Work begins with a special section of work literature. Many commonly used articles on the theme of women in social Australasian social work texts do not include work. A second selection of articles with chapters on feminist practice. Feminist this focus will appear in a special section in theory and practice is never far from my the first issue of 2019. mind, my first published research article (Beddoe & Weaver, 1988) examined the Stephanie Wahab, Ben Anderson-Nathe, counselling services provides under the 1977 and Christina Gringeri write, in the Contraception, Sterilisation and Abortion introduction to Feminisms in Social Work Act. When writing a lecture recently I Research (2015, p. 1), that “social work as searched for new material and found one a profession and academic discipline has recent Australian book: Contemporary long concerned itself with women and Feminisms in Social Work Practice. The editors issues related to women and their social note in their introduction that, while there conditions” citing reproductive rights, is a wide acceptance of women’s right to labour rights, violence and poverty among equality, in abstract terms the lived reality the areas of concern. In 2018, women in of women’s experiences is not so rosy. Aotearoa and elsewhere still face challenges In both professional and personal life, to reproductive rights, disadvantage in social practices “continue to be framed by work and income, experience of violence unspoken, even unconscious, discourses and sexual harassment while Māori, Pasifika about women, their rights and their and other Indigenous women experience responsibilities, as qualitatively different significant health disparities. Women are from those of men” (Wendt & Moulding, disproportionately high users of social 2016, p. 2). services. They also provide a significant portion of care in their families and These discourses surface in the treatment communities. of rape and intimate partner abuse, in double standards in sexual life, in work- Gendered inequities also impact in the based discrimination, pay inequality world of work. Women in social work are and in community and workplace sexual particularly affected by lack of equal pay harassment and violence. A view of women’s for work of equal value while many enter rights as less important than men’s rights is professional social work with personal implicit in the denial of safe, legal abortion experiences of violence, trauma and poverty. healthcare and the increasingly draconian Women also outnumber men in social work attempts to push back reproductive justice education and in the world of academia seen in the current climate of misogynist bringing with them the impacts of inequality populism. in income, esteem and disproportionate caring responsibilities. The articles in this special issue address some of these issues and are hopefully Social work is a profession in which women the starting point for some renewed disproportionately contribute, and the enthusiasm for feminist writing about concerns of women are often at the heart social work in Aotearoa New Zealand. An of social work practice—yet explicitly invited commentary, “Feminism and social AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND SOCIAL feminist writing has been relatively scarce work: Where next for an engaged theory WORK 30(3), 1–3.

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and practice?”, by Viviene Cree, from practice-near research, Shelley Kirk and her the University of Edinburgh, in Scotland supervisors, Liz Beddoe and Shirley Ann provides a personal view of how feminism Chinnery, report on a study of termination has shaped aspects of practice. Professor of pregnancy service delivery in Aotearoa Cree, whose research includes feminism in New Zealand. This research is very topical social work education, asks the question: “is given the current proposals for abortion law the decision to lay claim to feminism reform being considered (Law Commission, (or not) purely a matter of individual choice, 2018). This article reports on a mixed or is there something about social work that methods study of aspects of the counselling is, or should be, fundamentally feminist?” service for women seeking a termination of This commentary interrogates these pregnancy. Recommendations are made for questions more fully, drawing from research service changes to improve patient-centred on feminism and the lived experience of care. “living and breathing feminism”. Many of the challenges that confront Social work education is the focus of the first contemporary social workers today are not article in the special section. In “Creating new—over the past century, social workers space for a critical feminist social work have addressed poverty, unemployment, pedagogy”, Sarah Epstein, Norah Hosken, threats to peace and the challenges of refugee and Sevi Vassos explore the challenges faced resettlement. It is useful to revisit our by feminist educators within contemporary history of women activists in social work. universities. Drawing on literature the Therese Jennissen and Colleen Lundy, in authors examine the processes that might “Radical women in social work: A historical develop to co-create a critical feminist perspective from North America”, explore pedagogical practice. the issues faced and strategies employed by five radical female social workers. These Social work research post-disaster offers social workers were explicitly interested in new insights on the roles women take in social change that centred on social justice, community recovery. In “Mothers as active women’s rights, anti-racism, international contributors to post-earthquake recovery peace, and they worked closely alongside in Christchurch”, Angelina Jennings, Nicky other progressive groups. Stanley Clark, and Polly Yeung report on a study of the post-disaster experiences In a viewpoint article, “Family Violence— of mothers from the two Christchurch through the lens of reflective practice”, earthquakes in 2010 and 2011. The article Amitha Krishnamurthi shares a practice reports on the factors which both helped reflection. Utilising a case study and her and hindered mothers’ recovery. Resilience, own reflections, she explores family violence a constructive and proactive role in their work and, in particular, the phenomenon community post-disaster and a sense of of victim blaming which, she contends, belonging were found to be key to post- operates as a defence against institutional disaster recovery. anxieties. Krishnamurthi explores this work through her personal lens as a migrant Reproductive health and the right to woman from the Global South. reproductive justice is an important aspect of feminist social work. A significant aspect In this issue’s Classic Book Review, Michele of reproductive rights is found in access Jarldorn reviews Kris Olsson’s “Kilroy was to safe legal abortion (Averitt Taylor, here”. Jarldorn writes that this biography 2014). Abortion services are delivered of an Australian woman, Debbie Kilroy, a within a complex system which is shaped former prisoner who survived the system by various philosophical, political and and who is now a passionate advocate economic discourses. In an example of for prison reform. Jarldorn feels this book

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helped her consolidate the connections Steve Rogowski’s article, “Neoliberalism between theory, practice and experience. and social work with children and families in the UK: On-going challenges and critical Wendt and Moulding (2017) argue that possibilities”, discusses how the welfare feminism provides social workers with a state has gradually been dismantled and sophisticated knowledge base from which become more punitive and market driven, to launch efforts for rights and recognition. and on the way social work has been “de- As battles are being fought for adequate professionalised and transformed into reproductive health care and freedom a narrower, more restricted, role” at the from abuse and violence, I must agree expense of relationship-based practice. that “feminism has perhaps never been so Rogowski, a former children’s social worker, relevant and necessary as it is right now” argues that critical practice is ever more (Wendt & Moulding, 2017, p. 262). necessary and provides examples of what this might encompass. We will continue to explore the themes developed in this issue, in part two of this Liz Beddoe special issue to be published in 2019. The editors of Aotearoa New Zealand Social References Work would be very pleased to receive more Averitt Taylor, J. (2014). Reproductive health policy affecting submissions on the concerns of women in low-income women: Historical precedents and current social work, in particular policy and practice need for social work action. Social Work in Public Health, 29(2), 132–140. doi:10.1080/19371918.2013.775872 research of importance to Māori and Pasifika Beddoe, L., & Weaver, A. (1988). Ten years on: Abortion women, to migrants and resettled asylum counselling services in New Zealand. New Zealand seekers. Social Work, 12(3/4), 23–28. Law Commission. (2018). Alternative approaches to abortion law: Ministerial briefing paper. October 26 2018. General section Wellington, New Zealand: Author. Retrieved from https://www.lawcom.govt.nz/abortion In “Surveys, social licence and the Integrated Wahab, S., Anderson-Nathe, B., Gringeri, C. E., Taylor, Data Infrastructure” Pauline Gulliver, Francis, & Gringeri, C. E. (2015). Feminisms in social Monique Jonas, Tracey McIntosh, Janet work research: Promise and possibilities for justice- Fanslow, and Debbie Waayer examine the based knowledge. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. social licence for including survey data in Wendt, S., & Moulding, N. (Eds.). (2016). Contemporary feminisms in social work practice. Abingdon, Oxon, UK: Statistics New Zealand’s Integrated Data Routledge. Infrastructure (IDI) which is a central Wendt, S., & Moulding, N. (2017). The current state of repository for researchers to access multiple feminism and social work. Australian Social Work, government agency data. The authors 70(3), 261–262. doi:10.1080/0312407X.2017.1314752 recruited two convenience samples: first, participants in one of 10 focus groups; and second, respondents to pilot surveys for the 2018 Aotearoa New Zealand census or a population-based survey on violence experience. Whilst little prior awareness of the IDI existed, participants identified concerns and suggested safeguards that would address concerns. In particular, the authors note that active engagement with Māori is essential given the over- representation of Māori within government agency data, to reduce risks of further stigmatisation and marginalisation.

VOLUME 30 • NUMBER 3 • 2018 AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND SOCIAL WORK 3 COMMENTARY

Feminism and social work: Where next for an engaged theory and practice?

Viviene Cree University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom

Feminism has never been far from the I could think about my parents’ decision not public eye over the last 10 years or so. Love to leave, and what that was about, for my it or loathe it, it has been out there, fighting grandparents and for themselves. What were to be heard, challenging and, some would the repercussions of this decision, at the time argue, reinforcing long-held stereotypes and then years later? And I could consider about what it is to be human and live in the intersections of social class and gender the world. But what does all this mean and ethnicity in my story. However for social work and social workers? Is the I try to make sense of my upbringing, the fact decision to lay claim to feminism (or not) remains. Thanks to my parents, I grew up purely a matter of individual choice, or is believing that we—as girls—should not be there something about social work that is, dependent on a man for our happiness. We or should be, fundamentally feminist? This should stand on our own feet and make our article will interrogate these questions more own successes in life, whatever they might fully, drawing on research undertaken on be. We should also care for others—family, feminism and social work over a number of friends, community—we had a duty to each years and also my experience of living and other (Christian teaching came to the fore breathing feminism for almost the whole of here). And these values were demonstrated my life. I start, as all feminists surely must, and, at the same time, undermined, in all with my personal story. the small and large contradictions and complexities that are inevitably part of The personal is political growing up. I grew up, the middle one of three girls, in Leaving home, I found a language for the an aspiring middle-class family in Scotland’s feelings of injustice that I experienced as fourth-largest city, Dundee. When we were a Scottish, grant-aided, female student small, my parents made the momentous now living and studying at an ancient decision to emigrate to New Zealand – to university. The women’s movement and the leave behind the none-too-warm climate and “broad Left” became my twin passions, and hopefully make a better life in a new land. But although my academic grades were never then my granny became ill, and they were not great, I learned a huge amount about life, willing to leave her, so I never knew the highs love and the world. I went on to become a and lows of emigration. My world remained community worker and later social worker, firmly small-town, East coast Scotland, until taking with me into adult life all the mélange I left home to go to university, with fees paid that had been my life to date. As the popular and a maximum grant, the first in my family feminist slogan reminds us: the personal is to enjoy such a privilege. political.1 AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND SOCIAL There is so much that can be unpicked about Feminism and social work WORK 30(3), 4–7. this story…I could reflect on what it was like to grow up in the 1950s in a family of Social work has had an uneasy relationship three girls, close in age, with all the delights with feminism. In some ways, it has always CORRESPONDENCE TO: Viviene Cree of closeness and competition that were been feminist, in that since its beginnings, it [email protected] inevitably part-and-parcel of that childhood. has been concerned with social justice and

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with the well-being and living conditions of and anti-feminist, there were also many those who have lacked power—and this has social workers at the time who were often meant women and children. So, in the openly feminist; radical social workers late 19th century when social workers began and community workers who sought to to set up settlement houses at universities, bring about change, not only in their work housing projects in poor parts of cities, and with women, but also in social work with visiting charities for the sick and elderly, men. Much of the really innovative work their clients were often women, or women happened in projects designed to support and children. And many of the early social women. But criminal justice social work workers were also women—upper- and also sought to challenge and change men’s middle-class women who found adventure negative behaviours, in group work settings in charity work, escaping the confines of especially. Meanwhile across the world, their constrained lifestyles by engaging in women got together to fight for women’s “good deeds”. But early social work was, in rights, taking on issues such as rape, reality, far from feminist in its aspirations women’s education and, more recently, or value-base. The upper- and middle-class female genital mutilation.3 social workers saw no contradiction in exploiting the working-class women who Student social workers and looked after their households and children feminism while they engaged in “good works”. They also had no qualms about removing children I conducted research on social work from women who could not afford to look students’ views of feminism in Edinburgh, after them in order to give them what they Sydney and Auckland in 2008 and 2009, judged to be a “better life”. 2 and then again at six universities across the UK in 2013, with the help of my PhD This story is a familiar one across the student, Janan Dean. The research showed developed world, but it is the UK history two prevailing attitudes towards feminism I know best. As social work became amongst students: institutionalised through government legislation designed to offer a measure “I’m not a feminist but ...” (“I support of protection and welfare to individuals women’s rights and believe that women and families, so social workers became should be treated fairly etc.”) and “I am increasingly employed within local a feminist but ...” (“I am not anti-men, government agencies. At the same time, new segregationalist etc.”). (Cree & Dean, voluntary agencies sprang up in the 1960s 2015, p. 907) and 1970s, some, like Women’s Aid and Rape Crisis, with an overtly feminist orientation. In reality, there was very little distance It is not surprising that, at this time, social between the two sets of opinions; on the work and social workers came under contrary, there was a lot of agreement about attack, accused by feminist sociologists and the issues (which included the importance psychologists alike of neglecting the needs of women’s rights, equality of opportunity, and rights of women. This was demonstrated challenging gender-based violence, etc.). The in no uncertain terms by the sociologist Mary feminism which students identified with Maynard’s (1985) analysis of social work was a feminism that was very different to the case-files; she identified that social workers “bra-burning” stereotypes of “second-wave” routinely minimised harm, encouraging Women’s Liberation; instead, it was diverse, women to remain in home situations that contradictory, and allowed for individual were often difficult and dangerous. choice. As one 25-year-old woman said: “There are as many feminisms as there are While social work was being accused by women. It’s a really difficult concept to pin some in the 1980s of being anti-woman down” (Cree & Dean, 2015, p. 907).

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Reflecting on this in a journal article published North may have lost its way in a deluge of in 2015, Janan and I acknowledged that identity politics; it has lost sight of what students and faculty members’ experience was, and is, important about feminism. We of feminism may be very different, not least point out that real and persistent inequalities because of differences in age and background. remain, but these can sometimes be obscured We concluded that there was no single way by a policy and practice agenda that seems of being a feminist, just as there was no single to have embraced feminism—when male way of being a woman. We therefore needed politicians from both the political Right to find ways of opening up conversations and Left are willing to wear t-shirts that about feminism, exploring what a feminist declare themselves to be feminists, what understanding might bring to social work hope is there for feminism as a revolutionary theory, policy and practice. We suggested that force? We argue that feminism has been feminism offered opportunities to interrogate co-opted and commodified, at least in the everyday and to ground knowledge in Western democratic contexts. Meanwhile, experience (Harding, 1987); to question the debates within feminism (often expressed taken-for-granted and disrupt “settled ways through social media) threaten to fracture it of thinking”, to borrow a phrase from Connell completely; quarrels within feminism about (1989, p. xii) (Cree & Dean, 2015 p. 918).4 emancipation, intersectionality, free speech, sex work, pornography, trans people’s Recent challenges to feminism rights etc., etc., show no sign of abating. The #metoo movement which came to public Ruth Phillips from the University of Sydney attention in October 2017 and has remained and I have written about feminism more viral ever since is one such manifestation, recently, firstly in a journal article published as women (and some men) highlight in 2014 and then again in a book chapter that sexual harassment and assault while others will come out in 2019. In the first publication, argue that this campaign distracts from we considered the place of “fourth wave” wider issues of power and inequality, and feminism in teaching social work, and did encourages ideas of women’s vulnerability so, firstly, by locating the discussion in our and lack of agency. herstories—our own autobiographies. These highlighted that, in spite of the geographical Ruth and I conclude that it is the global distance between us, our paths were very South that reminds us why feminism similar. We were, without any shadow of remains a vital force today. It is here that doubt, “typical” feminists: white, middle- feminists are engaging on a daily basis class, middle-aged, colonising nation, with the consequences of the history of Western women. We were (so we wrote), colonisation; here racism and sexism go illustrative of “the hegemonic danger of the hand-in-hand and here too we can see the dominant second wave” (Phillips & Cree, emergence of intersectional, anti-racist and 2014, p. 936). And yet, we had both lived our decolonising practices that are, we argue, lives trying to challenge and change both indicative of good social work. We end by ourselves and feminism. We had brought up quoting the work of Saba Mahmood, who sons to be pro-feminist men, we had sought suggests that our scholarly practice should opportunities to work with men and with depart “not from a position of certainty women, we had conducted research with but one of risk, critical engagement and a disadvantaged groups wherever they were willingness to reevaluate one’s own views in located. And in all of this, we had sought to light of the Other’s” (2001, p. 225).5 challenge essentialising discourses (which tell us that “women are x” and “men are y”). Finally, looking ahead Our current book chapter takes this analysis And so we come full circle. I hope I have even further. Here we argue that the global demonstrated throughout this short article

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that, to grasp the potential for a feminist Cree, V. E. (2013). “I’ve always been a feminist but …” [Blog post], ESRC Moral Panic Seminar Series, 2012–2014. social work theory and practice in social Retrieved from https://moralpanicseminarseries.wordpress. work, we must first think about why we com/2013/06/26/ive-always-been-a-feminist-but/ think this is a good idea, and for whom. Cree, V. E., & Dean, J. S. (2015). Exploring social What is it that we seek to challenge and work students’ attitudes to feminism: Opening up conversations. Social Work Education: change, and why? What is it about us—our The International Journal, 34(8), 903–920. personal biographies and backgrounds, our doi:10.1080/02615479.2015.1081884 historical moment in time, our class, gender, Cree, V. E., & Phillips, R. (forthcoming 2019). Feminist age, ethnicity, sexuality—that leads us to contributions to critical social work. In S. A. Webb (Ed.), Routledge handbook of critical social work. London, UK: embrace feminism, whatever we take this to Routledge. mean? And while we are pursuing a feminist Dale, J., & Foster, P. (1986). Feminists and state welfare. agenda, what are we not seeing? Whose London, UK: Routledge and Kegan Paul. stories are ignored or undermined by our Dobash, R. E., & Dobash, R. P. (1979). Violence against analyses? wives: A case against the patriarchy. New York, NY: Free Press. Looking ahead, I believe that we must all Dobash, R. E., & Dobash, R. P. (1992). Women, violence and social change. London, UK: Routledge. use the potential that feminism has to speak Dominelli, L., & McLeod, E. (1989). Feminist social work. truth to power—to campaign for social justice Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan. and equality, to fight for the human rights Hanmer, J., & Statham, D. (1988). Women and social work: of oppressed peoples, and this inevitably Towards a woman centred practice. London, UK: means for the rights of women and children. Macmillan. But in doing so, we must also always ask Harding, S. (1987). Feminism and methodology. Social science issues. Bloomington IN: Indiana University questions about things that we take for Press. granted. In social work terms, this means we Kelly, L. (1987). Surviving sexual violence. Cambridge, must interrogate the very ideas and practices UK: Polity Press. that our profession holds dear, and challenge Langan, M., & Day, L. (1992). Women, oppression and social assumptions, both our own and those of work: Issues in anti-discriminatory practice. London, UK: Routledge. others. This is a great place to start if we are to Mahmood, S. (2001). Feminist theory, embodiment and the co-create a truly feminist social work theory docile agent: Some reflections on the Egyptian Islamic and practice in the future. revival. Cultural Anthropology, 16(2), 202–236. Maynard, M. (1985). The response of social workers to Notes domestic violence. In J. Pahl (Ed.), Private violence and public policy: The needs of battered women and the 1 Another version of this story is told in an online blog response of the public services. London, UK: Routledge posted in 2013. and Kegan Paul. 2 For a fuller account of the various waves of feminism, Phillips, R., & Cree, V. E. (2014). What does the “fourth see Phillips and Cree (2014). wave” mean for teaching feminism in 21st century social work? Social Work Education: The International Journal, 3 The bibliography includes publications that demonstrate 33(7), 930–943. doi:10.1080/02615479.2014.885007 the interest in feminism in social work in the 1980s and 1990s. Phillipson, J. (1992). Practising equality: Women, men and social work. London, UK: Central Council for Education 4 Both research studies are discussed in Cree and Dean and Training in Social Work. (2015). Wilson, E. (1977). Women and the welfare state. London, 5 Our chapter will be published in Webb’s edited UK: Tavistock. collection in 2019.

Bibliography

Brook, E., & Davis A. (Eds.). (1985). Women: The family and social work. London, UK: Tavistock. Cavanagh, K., & Cree, V. E. (Eds.). (1996). Working with men. Feminism and social work. London, UK: Routledge. Connell, R. W. (1989). Cool guys, wimps and swots, the interplay of masculinity and education, Oxford Review of Education, 15(3), 291–303.

VOLUME 30 • NUMBER 3 • 2018 AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND SOCIAL WORK 7 ORIGINAL ARTICLE THEORETICAL RESEARCH

Creating space for a critical feminist social work pedagogy

Sarah B. Epstein, Norah Hosken and Sevi Vassos, School of Health and Social Development, Deakin University, Australia.

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION: The practice and teaching of western social work is shaped within the institutional context of a predominately managerial higher education sector and neoliberal societal context that valorises the individual. Critical feminist social work educators face constraints and challenges when trying to imagine, co-construct, enact and improve ways to engage in the communal relationality of critical feminist pedagogy.

APPROACH: In this article, the authors draw upon the literature and use a reflective, inductive approach to explore and analyse observations made about efforts to engage with a subversive pedagogy whilst surviving in the neoliberal academy.

CONCLUSION: While the article draws on experiences of social work teaching and research in a regional Australian university, the matters explored are likely to have resonance for social work education in other parts of the world. A tentative outline for thinking about the processes involved in co-creating a critical feminist pedagogical practice is offered.

KEYWORDS: critical feminist pedagogy; intersectionality; social work education; critical hope; imagination

Social work is a profession with a stated and enact socially just practice. However, commitment to the principles and goals the practice and teaching of social work is of social justice and human rights. Critical not context-free, therefore, the profession at social workers take up these principles large is conditioned by the “social structures, by casting a lens on the way that power is discourses and systems in which it is placed” constructed, used and reproduced. Critical (Macfarlane, 2016, p. 326). As such, the feminist social workers foreground women’s current and dominant context in which diverse experiences of personal, cultural and social work education is conditioned are structural injustice, aiming to make visible the standardising outcome-based measures women’s diverse lived experiences to form of the neoliberal university system. The the core knowledge base from which to neoliberal paradigm regulates difference AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND SOCIAL work towards socially just practice. Critical (Burke, 2015), obscures the particular and WORK 30(3), 8–18. feminist social work pedagogy, shaped by devalues process. These impacts leave social these ideas of what social work is, commits work education at risk of being complicit in to circulating knowledge about the effects a system that is not capable of accounting for CORRESPONDENCE TO: of power. The goal is to enable an ongoing, the multiplicity of knowledge and diversity Sarah B. Epstein sarah.epstein@ mutual (re)construction and sharing of the of lived experience, let alone the nuances deakin.edu.au knowledge and skills required to imagine of the pedagogical process. This article

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represents an attempt at non-compliance we commit to practise ongoing critical with neoliberal hegemony. We (the authors) reflexivity aiming to recognise, examine and choose to highlight the particulars of a understand how our own social locations critical feminist social work pedagogy that can influence the construction of knowledge aims to make visible the relations of power (Hesse-Biber, 2014). that condition the lived experiences of educators, students and service users. As the three authors of this article, we locate ourselves within our contexts to provide Based on an examination of relevant the reader with this information in order literature and use of a reflective, inductive to consider its relevance to our discussion approach, we explore and analyse and the arguments we make. We share observations made about efforts to engage some similarities: being non-Indigenous, with a subversive pedagogy whilst Euro settler-background, middle-aged, surviving in the neoliberal academy. The mothers and social work educators who are aim is to provide a way of thinking about living, teaching and learning on the lands the processes involved in co-creating a of the first nation peoples of Australia, community of learning and practice situated the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in critical feminist social work pedagogy. peoples. The article is structured as follows. First, we introduce and locate ourselves as the Following significant periods of direct collaborative authors of this article. Second, service work, we each completed PhDs as we situate the aims of this article within mature-aged students and became social Australian and international critical feminist work educators. An interest in critical social social work pedagogy and the ideology work, feminisms, difference, collaboration, and practices of neoliberalism within the situatedness, relationality, complementarity, higher education context. We draw on and survival in the university system, anecdotal and structured observations from brought us together. We are curious and our learning and practice throughout the constantly seek to learn more about our article to elucidate understandings of the differences across lived experiences of constraints and challenges we have routinely religion, spirituality, ethnicity, class, sexual faced in imagining, co-constructing, enacting orientation, health, socialisation, personality, and improving ways to engage in the knowledge and skill sets. communal relationality of critical feminist pedagogy. In the next section, we situate the purpose of this article, developing a tentative Acknowledging and exploring the outline for thinking about the processes benefits of intersectionality involved in co-creating a critical feminist pedagogical practice within an examination In positivist, scientific epistemology there of relevant national and international is an emphasis on the importance of a literature. Following Wickramasinghe neutral, objective stance as a method to (2009, p. 112), the engagement with the eliminate subjective interpretations from the literature is presented as a “distinctly pursuit of knowledge. In contrast, feminist epistemic project … a subjective process of researchers, writers and academics generally knowledge production and meaning-making contest the assumption that an objectivity … reliant on the [authors’] …subjectivity free of social context is possible. Further, and standpoint”, rather than an account of feminists assert this claim to objectivity often all available scholarly research on the topics. serves to conceal a privileged, dominant, Each discussion of a section of the literature white masculine bias (Smith, 1987). In line is followed by reflective observations with other feminists, rather than striving explaining how we engage with, and try to for objectivity in this article and our work, enact, the ideas from the literature.

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Social work education within the with the reproduction of “oppressive social neoliberal context arrangements” (Kovacs et al., 2013, p. 234). Feminist pedagogy aims to destabilise Academic life in the neoliberal university the status quo (Crabtree & Sapp, 2003) in is fast paced and every move the academic order to work towards social change. This makes must be tracked, measured and positions both the feminist educator and, capable of fitting into standardised data sets potentially, her students in opposition to and the allocated fields of numerous forms dominant and powerful structures and (Clegg & David, 2006; David, 2015; Hosken, practices. Therefore, it is not in the best 2017; Kovacs, Hutchison, Collins, & Linde, interests of the neoliberal university to 2013; McKusker, 2017; Mountz et al., 2015). support feminist pedagogical goals (Crabtree & The neoliberal paradigm of competency- Sapp, 2003). However, the authors of this based outcomes focuses on measuring article believe it is the responsibility of individual (teacher and student) outputs and feminist social work pedagogy to work out standardising teaching outcomes (Clegg & ways to do so. Asserting the production David, 2006). The pedagogical relationship of knowledges as the core business of between teacher and student, as well as the university education, this article reveals the learning relationships between and among privileging of lived experiences as a core class cohorts, are devalued and diminished critical feminist social work pedagogy. (McKusker, 2017; Mountz et al., 2015). Within this context, it is increasingly difficult Lived experience pays attention to who to make visible a pedagogical process determines which knowledges shape grounded in the way that lived experiences understanding and response in social (of teacher, student and service user) reflect work practice, and whose knowledges are the multiple systems of oppression and reflected in the laws, policies and practices privilege. This is particularly important that restrict the lives of non-dominant for the social work pedagogue who tries to groups including social work service users. embody socially just social work practice. The views from these standpoints of lived experience are not considered as pure Feminist social work pedagogues argue that windows to truth or reality but rather a place the current neoliberal paradigm represents to start investigation (Smith, 1987). Smith’s the antithesis of critical pedagogies, (2005) and Sprague’s (2005, p. 52) reading including feminism. Critical pedagogies of standpoint theory is adopted in this place priority on recognising the role article as that “which builds strategically on that social locations and processes play contrasting social locations” to explore the in the ongoing production of knowledge implications of both material realities and and relations of oppression and privilege fluidities. We aim to take up Collin’s (2009, (Luke, 1996; Macfarlane, 2016; McKusker, p. xi) challenge to “place the social structural 2017; Mountz et al., 2015). This matters and interpretative/narrative approaches to to the teaching of social work practice social reality in dialogue with one another”. because the focus of social work, whether Feminist and Indigenist perspectives it be traditional, radical, progressive, case recognise that, by actively including, indeed management focused or grounded in centring or foregrounding, the experiences critical theory, is that the client must be and knowledges of those who have been considered in light of the social, cultural, marginalised, we generate fuller accounts political, economic context in which they are of knowledge. The greater the involvement positioned (Fook, 2012). of peoples who have been discriminated against, the higher the possibility that Without the ability or incentive to work with pedagogy and curriculum can include lived context, the joint social work and feminist experiences, and other forms of knowledge. goal of transforming society is replaced Pedagogy and curriculum that are inclusive

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of diverse experiences and knowledges sea. We needed the space to think deeply, improve how social work students engage to test ideas, to argue about feminism, in critical self-reflection, learn to work with about social work, about the best ways to others and contribute to democratising the reflect socially just social work practice generation of knowledge (Finn & Jacobsen, inside the academy. We needed time to 2003). identify the social, cultural, political and economic context of the workplace, of the world in which our students lived and Reflection: The need for imagina- where their future clients come from. We tion and community met to make visible the particularities of Collectively our experience in the who we felt we were and who we thought university has taught us that the measure we wanted to become. We needed an of success in the neo-liberal academy is not environment where we could test out our determined by deeply thought through own transformative potential before we pedagogical decision making and practices could justify making these demands of our of the academic. Nor is success measured students. If we were to teach students to by including diverse and collaborative respect the similarities and differences in co-constructions of knowledge. How the lived experiences of clients’ lives, we well a teaching team talks to each other needed to immerse ourselves in a space about what it is they do in the classroom where we bore witness to, and validated, and why they have chosen to do it has no each other’s lives. subject line in a course review. These informal meetings solidified Instead, success in the academic system the impetus to create a space where is determined via individual metrics we could be immersed in context in of performance and achievement of order to work out how to change it, to standardised and universal outcomes. work in ways that foster “critical hope” Attached to this are timelines for (Leonard, 1979, cited in Pease, Goldingay, handing in cohort statistics and tracking Hosken, & Nipperess, 2016) and where percentages that require us to think about we could imagine what collaboration our students and ourselves as measurable looked like. Paying attention to each units. In the meantime, using a calculator other’s lived experiences of working and spreadsheet to account for a whole in the university made us aware of the term of teaching steals time from us. criticality of working out ways to do this not only with ourselves but also with our The entirety of neoliberal policy, students and so we decided to come in procedure and social relations conditions from the margins. This mutual, critical our work selves and our work lives sociological imagination (Mills, 1959) is closing down space for discussion and subversive in countering the ideological critique of the university (Blackmore, rhetoric discourse of “there is no other 2007; Hil, 2012; Hosken, 2017). Formal alternative” to the individualism inherent attempts to speak out about the impacts of in neoliberalism. Now, formally we meet, neoliberalism that preclude the provision discuss, share, and develop teaching of considered, quality teaching have, as and research ideas and we have made elsewhere (Bessant, 2014), been met with ourselves visible as Critical Edge Women disregard, reprimand and ridicule. (CrEW).

We have been working together for over Feminisms three years now and as the pressure built, we began talking, at first informally, off Understanding what feminist pedagogy campus, over food and wine and by the means in the higher education teaching

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and learning context starts with identifying relational positions as critical friends in what feminism means in the 21st century. discussion with a view to supporting Contemporary feminist analysis recognises each other to sharpen our thinking and that gender cannot be the sole analytical improve the depth and quality of our category if we are to truly recognise and work. understand the multiple social locations in which women are positioned (Gray & Collectively we occupy different cultural, Boddy, 2010). However, the personal is class and religious social locations. We political feminist statement remains as have arrived at academia via different salient and useful as ever. This is because theoretical and feminist avenues. Our feminist analysis seeks to understand the social work practice experiences come complex cultural discourses and multiple from health systems, community structural systems that women interact organisations, feminist collectives and with and through which women’s lived the violence against women sector. Some experiences are shaped (Clegg & David, of us work full time and one works part 2006). time. We live regionally and in urban environments. We are all carers with The feminist cause is also about identifying differently aged children in fluid stages opportunities for agency and equality at of love, resentment and hope for the both the individual but also the social and world, our partners, our children and collective levels (Dore, 1994; Clegg & David, our lives. We argue, and we rage, and 2006; Gray & Boddy, 2010). This is a key we rely on our differences to hold each reason why feminist academics consider other accountable to our assumptions, the learning and teaching context as a partial understandings and biases. These viable, legitimate and important location discussions carry through into our wider for activism. The integration of activism interactions, the questions we ask, the in pedagogical activity affords students curriculum choices we make and the opportunities to engage experientially with shape of our interactions with students. the practice of socially just social work with service users. As a social and collective space, CrEW creates opportunities for us to identify potential for agentic activity; that is, Reflection: CrEW as a space for what do we want to change, how are we feminist activism positioned in ways to be able to enact As Critical Edge Women (CrEW) we change and what would this activity meet formally on a regular basis in the look like? The first step was to legitimate university workplace. While gender is collective, formal space to take time back not the sole analytic category we employ and create opportunity for understanding to make sense of our lived experiences and co-construction of knowledge. in the teaching and learning space, the Primarily, CrEW is an attempt to work personal as political is the starting point out all of the ways the university as a for identifying the complex discourses teaching and learning space can be a and structural systems that condition location for our feminist activism. our academic selves. Ensuring that there are regular and substantial amounts Feminisms and social work of time allocated for critical collective discussion provides reprieve from the There is a strong argument for the place of isolated siloing that is a function of the feminism in social work education that is neoliberal paradigm. In this space, we are about more than the disproportionate over- not sole practitioners making teaching representation of women in the profession and learning choices. Instead, we assume and the service user populations (Morley,

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2009; Payne, 2014). Feminist practice in knowledgeable. Ideas were shared for Australian social work was first articulated creating relational spaces with students in the 1970s and was an attempt to address where their lived experiences and the gender blindness of social work (Morley, diverse social locations become part of 2009). Feminism and social work share creating the pedagogy and content of fundamental principles and indeed reflect the subjects we taught. Often, straight shared philosophies and goals (Dore, 1994). after the excitement of sharing ideas, Both the Australian Association of Social we came up against the realisation Workers and the International Federation of that enacting this relational space with Social Workers identify human rights and students would be invisible, unvalued social justice as core values and objectives. and unpaid work in the academy; work Violence against women and girls, economic that often stole time away from us and disadvantage and patriarchal culture and our families. We would oscillate between politics all pose a significant threat to feeling hopeless and feeling critical women’s human rights and obstruct social hope (Leonard, 1979, cited in Pease et justice. Gender equity issues that impact al., 2016). Encouragement and strength on the lives of service users who identify was gained from reading and sharing as female is consequently core business the works of other feminist academics for social work. Further, in the recent about their efforts to resist neoliberalism, compilation of Contemporary Feminism in particularly by the calls for “collectivity” Social Work Practice, the editors assert that and “slow scholarship” (Mountz et al., feminism is indeed fundamental to both 2015). Discussions about the inevitable social work ethics and values but also imperfection of trying to embody the professional identity and practice (Wendt & values and beliefs of feminist social Moulding, 2016). work within the worst of neoliberal times made us sad, but also enabled us to be less judgemental about others and Reflection: Collective nourishment ourselves. Openness about our strategic, to imagine, hope and be imperfect or just exhausted, complicity in neoliberal In the CrEW discussions and space, we organisational values and practices provided and felt the healing protection allowed us to consider the material of loyalty and care in a community. This reality of the dominance of neoliberalism. provided safety, nourishment and the Rather than setting ourselves up as “capacity to imagine something rooted heroic feminist social work activists, in the challenges of the real world yet we allowed ourselves to imagine and capable of giving birth to that which imperfectly try to resist or transform, does not yet exist” (Lederach, 2005, p. often in small ways. Humility came from ix). Inspired by Audre Lorde (2007), we awareness of the privilege of aspects longed for something different: of our own situations. This privilege included having a relatively high wage The possible shapes of what has not generating disposable income and good been before exist only in that back housing as compared to the lives of place where we keep those unnamed, many of our female identifying students, untamed longings for something and the service users they worked with different and beyond what is now on placement, as they lived in poverty, called possible, and to which our juggled demands of caring, and faced understanding can only build roads. discrimination and micro-aggressions (Lorde, 2007, p. 121) without the protections afforded by a secure income. These disadvantages we As we learned and explored more about framed as human rights concerns and each other’s social locations we felt more in the CrEW space we began to map out

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the gender equity issues and intersecting Critical social work has been influenced by systems of oppression that faced both our feminist principles and goals (Allan et al., students and their social work clients. 2009). Many critical social workers argue that enacting critical social work practice Critical feminist social work demands consideration of gender inequality and the intersections at which clients Critical social work sits within the tradition who identify as women are positioned of progressive social work and is informed in ongoing ways (Allan, Briskman, & by critical theory. Macfarlane (2016, p. 327) Pease, 2009; Fook, 2012; Pease et al., 2016). defines critical social work as: Critical feminist social work seeks to understand how women’s experiences …A social work lens that acknowledges engage with other systems of oppression and addresses: structural inequalities in order to understand discrimination and and inequitable power dynamics; the disadvantage at the intersections of race, impact of discourse on lived experience; class, culture, age, ability and sexuality the importance of diverse knowledge (Briskin & Coulter, 1992; Shrewsbury, 1998; systems, social work values and ethics; Webber, 2006). Critical feminist social work and critical reflection for progressive takes stock of what gender equality and practice. social justice look like and considers the role that social work can play in achieving In essence, this means that critical social them. work seeks to understand the way that power is constructed, used and reproduced. A critical feminist social work approach Some of the ways that critical social workers suggests there are some unifying principles do this include: questioning assumptions that are used to co-create a critical feminist about truth and knowledge that are taken pedagogy and practice which is informed by, for granted; seeking information from and suited to, the local context. In Australia, multiple sources to deepen understandings critical feminist pedagogy has to be informed of lived experiences; recognising that the by the history and ongoing realities of personal is political and our everyday colonisation, invasion and whiteness, and the actions are political in nature; and need to foreground the works of Aboriginal acknowledging that language is powerful in social work academics. both reflecting and reproducing discourse as well as capable of introducing alternative Reflection: Interrogating the white- discourses. ness of Australian social work and foregrounding the works of Abo- Critical social workers have a longstanding riginal social work academics. interest in the emancipation of the oppressed as well as an interest in the Drawing on the work of Aboriginal ways in which oppressed groups exercise and Torres Strait Islander scholars agency and personal power. More and their allies (Bennett, 2013, 2015; recently, critical social work has turned the Bennett, Green, Gilbert, & Bessarab, 2013; focus on relations of power towards the Bennett, Redfern, & Zubrzycki, 2017; machinations of privilege in order to redress Green & Baldry, 2008, 2013; Land, 2012, and understand the marginalising and 2015; Zubrzycki et al., 2014), we aimed othering effects of objectifying oppressed to learn and prioritise the processes groups, communities, cultures and of problematising and decolonising people (Pease et al., 2016). This attention ourselves and our teaching. Examples to the behaviours of those who benefit of this included contributing to efforts from discrimination aims to re-distribute to increase the diversity of the social responsibility for change. work teaching team to better reflect the

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demographic of social work students Forrest & Rosenberg, 1997; Kovacs et al., and service users. Another example is 2013; McCusker, 2017; Shrewsbury, 1993; situating the works of Aboriginal and Chung, 2016). Gender and its intersections Torres Strait Islander scholars in positions with race, class, culture, age, ability and of prominence in curriculum alerting sexuality, is the core analytic category that students to the cutting-edge nature of distinguishes feminist pedagogy from other this knowledge for social work, rather forms of critical pedagogical theories than Indigenous content being a discrete (Briskin & Coulter, 1992). add-on topic at the end of units of study. We have built on the work of others Feminist pedagogy is complex because it to adapt and develop ways to engage is informed by, and interacts with, theory with students in a process of exploring and practice connected to broader feminist the intersectionality of oppression and struggle, therefore the pedagogical goal is privilege in our lives and social work concerned with contributing to change in practice. gender relations on a societal level. Critical feminist social work pedagogy also bears Critical feminist social work in mind the service users’ own gendered pedagogy positioning. Further, it looks at pedagogical strategies for ensuring accountability to the The teaching of women’s studies, the advent client for the production of knowledge and of self-identified feminist academics and descriptions of her experience that reproduce the articulation of feminist pedagogy is problematic categories of identity. In so doing, approximately 50 years young (David, 2015). feminist critical social work pedagogy works Despite this, feminist academics have been with knowledges that reveal the personal, prolific contributors to both research and cultural and structural contexts within which the scholarship of teaching and learning. the service user is positioned. It also privileges Feminist pedagogy has come to be a priority lived experience in efforts to bring her in from for feminists in the academy (Baiada & the margins and promote social work practice Jensen-Moulton, 2006). However, there is not that does not other her. Critical feminist social one singular approach as feminist pedagogy work pedagogy aligns with the centrality of also reflects the diversity of the feminist women’s lived experiences in “understanding academic cohort (Webber, 2006). and the development of knowledge” (David, 2004, p. 103). This is the hallmark of feminist The feminist scholarship of teaching and pedagogy. learning offers a critique of traditional pedagogy (Cuesta & Witt, 2014). Overall, Reflection: Bridging the gap the feminist pedagogical project focuses through collective action on resistance to phallocentric knowledges (Luke, 1996; Ylostalo & Brunila, 2017) As early career academics, we have often understanding gendered relations of power felt overwhelmed by the publish-or-perish and making these power arrangements culture that permeates the neoliberal visible (Briskin & Coulter, 1992; Webber, academy. Our ideal is to contribute well 2006). Feminist pedagogues argue that to social work scholarship in ways that traditional pedagogy and phallocentric align coherently with our critical feminist knowledges obscure women’s lived social work ethos. Our practical reality experiences, histories, achievements, is the institutional push to continually concerns and entitlements. Feminist demonstrate our value in terms of the pedagogy is a driving force that shifts the number and impact of our research focus of study towards understanding the publications. The credibility gap between lived experiences of women (Borshuk, 2017; our ideal and our reality was often the Cuesta & Witt, 2014; David, 2015; Dore, 1994; main theme in our early discussions as

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the CrEW. Through these discussions, reflection on the development of CrEW as we started to become aware of how we a community of learning situated within had actively committed to a process of a critical feminist social work pedagogy. mutual engagement, at a level that was The second draws together reflections on deeper than the professional relationships how we use critical hope and knowledge we had established in our work in other co-creation as pedagogical strategies groups within the neoliberal academy. to resist and disrupt the neoliberal Most importantly, in line with our critical discourses and regimes of the higher feminist values, we were continually education system. The third is a mixed negotiating issues of power, collegiality, methods study that seeks to deepen competition and trust as part of our understandings of the lived experience mutual engagement. We were starting of social work students with caring to build a shared repertoire of practices, responsibilities on placement. Our aim is language and history that enabled a to co-author all articles and co-lead the collective approach to meaning making. advocacy activities emerging from this Ultimately, we were carving out a space joint work. within which we could start visualising different ways to respond to the neoliberal Conclusion metrics defining our expected work outputs, whilst simultaneously resisting Social workers are in a privileged and unique neoliberal ways of working. position to bear witness to women’s storied lives. Feminist social work pedagogues The next step was to join up our therefore have the opportunity to learn with individual work goals and position and teach each other, and students, about ourselves to capitalise on the power the importance of these stories in order to of collectivity. More specifically, we understand the conditions in which women committed to joining as the CrEW live. In this article, we have engaged with in our research and advocacy work the literature and our own observations to around women and social work sketch out some of the principles and process pedagogy. At the time of making this we are using to co-create practices situated commitment, we were all working on in critical feminist social work pedagogy, different research and writing projects from our social locations in the Australian individually. Although we each had a context. Our work started with conversations basic understanding of each other’s work, that sought to place social structural and it was not until the decision to join up interpretative/narrative approaches to around some of this work that we started social reality whilst also acknowledging and to more fully appreciate the differences exploring the benefits of intersectionality. in our thinking models and approaches These conversations fuelled the desire to to the work in this space. We discovered create a space for community and collective that homogeneity of individual work nourishment to imagine, hope and be goals is not a precondition for achieving imperfect. During our conversations we a joined up approach to our work. continually acknowledged the normality Rather, we experience our differences of oscillation between feeling hopeless as a productive force. It is the ongoing and feeling critical hope in the imperfect process of collective negotiation around process of trying to resist the metrics of these differences that propels our shared individualism within neoliberalism. We also accountability and coherence as a interrogated the whiteness of Australian community of learning. social work and foregrounded the works of Aboriginal social work academics. The work We currently have three projects that we continued by joining up our work goals, are working on. The first project is our collaborating and sharing our work efforts

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ultimately for the benefit of the students and doi:10.1080/17450140600906989 service users we work with. The next step for Collins, P. H. (2009). Foreword: Emerging intersections, building knowledge and transforming institutions. us will be explicitly exploring with students In B. Dill & R. Zambana (Eds.), Emerging intersections: how to improve our attempts at feminist Race, class and Gender in theory, policy and practice pedagogical practice. We share these (pp. VII–XIII). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP. experiences, processes and principles as part Crabtree, R., & Sapp, D. (2003). Theoretical, political, and pedagogical challenges in the feminist classroom: of contribution to a conversation and, in the Our struggles to walk the walk. College Teaching, hope they may have relevance for others to 51(4), 131–140. adapt for other social locations and contexts. Cuesta, M., & Witt, K. (2014). 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Lederach, J. (2005). The moral imagination: The art and Zubrzycki, J., Green, S., Jones, V., Stratton, K., Young, S., & soul of building peace, Vol. 3. New York, NY: Oxford Bessarab, D. (2014). Getting it right: Creating University Press. partnerships for change: Integrating Aboriginal and Lorde, A. (2007). Sister outsider. New York, NY: Crown Torres Strait Islander knowledges in social work Publishing Group. education and practice: Teaching and Learning Framework. Sydney, NSW: Australian Government Luke, C. (1996). Feminist pedagogy theory: Reflections Office for Learning and Teaching. on power and authority. Educational Theory, 46(3), 283–302. Macfarlane, S. (2016). Education for critical social work: Being true to a worthy project. In B. Pease, S. Goldingay, N. Hosken, & S. Nipress (Eds.), Doing critical social work: Transformative practices for social justice. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. McCusker, G. (2017). A feminist teacher’s account of her attempts to achieve the goals of feminist pedagogy, Gender and Education, 29(4), 445–460. doi:10.1080/09540253.2017.1290220 Mills, C. (1959). The sociological imagination. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Morley, C. (2009). Using critical reflection to improve feminist practice. In J. Allan, L. Briskman, & B. Pease (Eds.), Critical social work: Theories and practices for a socially just world (2nd ed., pp. 149–159). Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. Mountz, A., Bonds, A., Mansfield, B., Loyd, J., Hyndman, J., Walton-Roberts, M., … Hamilton, T. (2015). For slow scholarship: A feminist politics of resistance through collective action in the neoliberal university. ACME: An International Journal for Critical Geographies, 14(4), 1235–1259. Payne, M. (2014). Modern social work theory (4th ed.). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Pease, B., Goldingay, S., Hosken, N., & Nipperess, S. (2016). Doing critical social work: Transformative practices for social justice. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. Shrewsbury, C. (1998). What is feminist pedagogy? In M. Rogers (Ed.), Contemporary feminist theory (pp. 167–171). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Smith, D. E. (1987). The everyday world as problematic: A feminist sociology. Toronto, ONT: University of Toronto Press. Smith. D. (2005). Institutional ethnography: A sociology for people. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press. Sprague, J. (2005). Feminist methodologies for critical researchers: Bridging differences. Lanham, MD: AltaMira. Webber, M. (2006). Transgressive pedagogies? Exploring the difficult realities of enacting feminist pedagogies in undergraduate classrooms in a Canadian university. Studies in Higher Education, 31(4), 453–467. doi:10.1080/03075070600800582 Wendt, S., & Moulding, N. (2006). Contemporary feminisms in social work practice. New York, NY: Routledge. Wickramasinghe, M. (2009). Feminist research methodology: Making meanings of meaning-making. London, UK: Routledge. Ylöstalo, H., & Brunila, K. (2017). Exploring the possibilities of gender equality pedagogy in an era of marketization. Gender and Education, 30(7), 917–933. doi:10.1080/09540253.2017.1376042

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Mothers as active contributors to post-earthquake recovery in Christchurch

Angelina Jennings, Nicky Stanley-Clarke and Polly Yeung, Massey University, New Zealand

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION: An understanding of mothers as a subset of women who are active contributors to a recovery effort is crucial to building disaster resilience. This study explored the post-disaster experiences of mothers from the two Christchurch earthquakes in 2010 and 2011 to consider factors which both helped and hindered their recovery.

METHOD: This research was a qualitative study involving semi-structured interviews with six married mothers who were present during the 2010 and 2011 Christchurch earthquakes. Interviews focused on understanding the personal, environmental and psychological impacts of the earthquakes. Data were analysed using thematic analysis.

FINDINGS: Three key findings were established, highlighting: 1) Elements of resilience are essential for recovery; 2) mothers playing a constructive and proactive role in their community post-disaster; and 3) the importance of a sense of belonging to enhance post-disaster recovery.

CONCLUSION: While participants were affected practically and psychologically by the earthquakes, core characteristics of resilience such as positivity, hope, flexibility and adaptability were portrayed in supporting their post-disaster recovery. These mothers played an active role in the recovery of their community and felt a clear sense of belonging which enhanced their recovery.

IMPLICATIONS: Based on the findings of this study, social work skills such as utilising an emancipatory or strengths-based approach to intervention alongside a sound understanding of community participation can harness strengths through a sense of belonging, purpose and opportunity for pro-activity in disaster recovery.

KEYWORDS: mothers; disaster recovery; Christchurch earthquakes; resilience

Introduction The study was a supervised research project completed as part of a master’s degree in This article details the findings from a study AOTEAROA social work. The research found mothers NEW ZEALAND SOCIAL that explored the post-disaster experiences of experienced and recovered from the WORK 30(3), 19–30. mothers after the 2010 and 2011 Christchurch earthquakes in different ways, embodying earthquakes. The study occurred across resilient characteristics including positivity, 2015 and 2016 and considered factors which CORRESPONDENCE TO: hope, flexibility and adaptability. They also Angelina Jennings helped and which hindered the mothers’ identified that belonging and contributing angelinajennings@hotmail. recovery in the aftermath of the earthquakes. to a community after a disaster were very com

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important in rebuilding their wellbeing and rather than returning to a previous state ability to recover post-disaster. The findings and in the process reframing the situation of this study provide new knowledge from a negative experience to a positive about mothers’ experiences and highlight one (Chandler, 2014). Some individuals, opportunities for social workers to work when facing adversity, demonstrate a alongside mothers in ways that further capacity for growth, thriving and building support and enhance their resilience and on their strengths and resources to achieve post-disaster recovery. positive outcomes. These individuals see opportunities for financial, business or Resilience and motherhood in social improvement and work hard with relation to disaster recovery the resources available to them to make this happen (Nicholls, 2012). Resilience is regarded as a key basis for recovery after disasters. It can be an attribute Research has foregrounded women as of individuals, communities or collectives; strong-minded leaders of post-disaster embodied within a process or set of actions recovery (Ariyabandu, 2009). They often and interactions (Gordon, Sutherland, Du take on many roles beyond the home Plessis, & Gibson, 2014). Resilient people environment and may embody strength, assist the recovery effort by having the flexibility and resilience (Ariyabandu, 2009; ability to face reality with determination Islam, Ingham, Hick, & Mancok et al., 2017; and being able to reframe adversity to make McManus, 2015). Women are often the meaning and move on successfully. Those primary caregivers, pre-and post-disaster individuals who have previously managed and, as such, their mental and physical needs adversity successfully learn skills, solutions can get overlooked as the needs of their and routines that allow them to repeat dependants take priority (Enarson, 2009; these actions in the future (Satici, 2016). The Norris & Wind, 2009). Studies have shown characteristics of resilience are protective increased expectations felt by mothers to factors in the aftermath of disaster. These manage themselves and the needs of their characteristics support capacity building children can lead to additional pressure on of people, communities and societies to their mental and physical health as well anticipate, cope and develop from hazardous as difficulties in sustaining recovery long consequences, rebuilding and reconstructing term (Neria, Galea, & Norris, 2009; Norris & their environment and ultimately facilitating Wind, 2009). recovery (Paton & Johnston, 2006). Unsurprisingly, challenges that are With more disasters happening in Aotearoa inherent in motherhood become intensified New Zealand, such as the Christchurch after a natural disaster, which creates earthquakes 2010 and 2011, the Kaikoura additional pressures for women who have earthquake in November 2016, and the responsibility for looking after others’ Port Hill Fires in 2017, it is important needs alongside their own (Ariyabandu, to explore the concept of resilience 2009; Juran & Trivedi, 2015). Together, beyond recovery. Resilience incorporates these studies argue that practical and opportunities to improve upon previous environmental issues impact on a situations, circumstances and environments mother’s ability to provide a stable, secure (Chandler, 2014; van Kessel, Gibbs, & environment for her children and an inability MacDougall, 2015). To thrive in the face to do so would affect her psychological of adversity, individuals must have good wellbeing. After a disaster, a mother’s key problem-solving skills, self-confidence and focus is often to re-establish a sense of self-efficacy. Resilience can involve people normality for her children, gaining a sense progressing towards a situation that has of domestic routine within their family unit psychosocially and physically changed, (Ariyabandu, 2009; Islam et al., 2017). This is

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often hampered by the physical realities of recovery efforts, including formulating the post-disaster environment, for example, community infrastructure and working road and school closures. Crucial to re- together to organise practical support for establishing routines and supporting the vulnerable groups. In doing so, it provides social aspects of recovery is a community’s an opportunity to recover and be successful ability to mobilise resources that aids with in recovery during a future event. adaptive coping (Warchal & Graham, 2011). After the Christchurch earthquakes, A strong sense of attachment after a disaster population movements threatened already can assist in recovery (Shin, Nakakido, established networks which were essential Horie, & Managi, 2016). Aspects of for resiliency and recovery (Paton et al., resilience and sense of attachment to place, 2013). Due to this disruption, familiar bonds social relations and identity underpin a and networks were broken, individuals felt positive outlook to recovery (Chandler, more displaced and in unfamiliar territory. 2014). Literature on social networks post- It is during these challenging times that disaster highlights the importance of strong support is needed the most (McManus, connections and belonging to a community 2015). Women often rely upon informal (McManus, 2015; Paton, Selway, & Mamula- support networks such as friends and family Seadon, 2013). Studies conducted in for childcare, social interaction and peer Christchurch have shown that people who support (Ariyabandu, 2009). The importance could stay in their communities after the of stable, familiar relationships is key to earthquakes described a cohesive, purposeful recovery for women. These women can community with shared objectives (Gawith, then identify and work together with like- 2011; McManus, 2015). Understanding minded individuals to support the recovery a mother’s sense of attachment to their effort (McManus, 2015). The relocation community can offer an insight into how a of close family and friends consequently relationship or connectedness to a location has an impact upon women who become impacts upon their disaster recovery. This isolated by frequent population changes in view is supported by Drolet et al. (2015) who their community. Identifying strengths and stated that mothers who found themselves capacities within a community enhances displaced and subsequently without social its response to the disaster and supports its networks missed having the opportunity to recovery (Gil-Rivas & Kilmer, 2016; Paton & build networks, have a sense of purpose and Johnston, 2006). mingle with likeminded others. Christchurch was flooded with opportunities to engage Methodology and method with talking therapy after the earthquakes; however, it was reported that most Study design women did not feel the need to relive their experiences; rather they wanted to focus on A qualitative study was utilised to surviving and being purposeful (Gordon understand mothers’ perceptions of et al., 2014; McManus, 2015). their post-earthquake experiences. It was guided by interpretive descriptive Research after the Christchurch earthquakes methodology, focusing on understanding stressed the importance of cultivating a the lived experiences and sharing meanings sense of belonging or affiliation to a group of mothers’ everyday realities of the or community to recover successfully earthquakes (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; (Gawith, 2011; Maher & Maidment, 2013; Jackson, Drummond, & Camara, 2007). McManus, 2015). According to research by Congruent with interpretive description, this Phibbs, Kenny, and Solomon (2015), for a study allowed the first author to engage with community to recover from disaster it must mothers who described the phenomenon not stagnate, but be proactive in focusing of the Christchurch earthquakes and

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provided a fundamental source of insight This selection bias may be due to the fact that into experience and resilience. In addition, only 6% of the population living in Selwyn this was insider research, as the first author district were Māori and less than 1% of New was a mother who had experienced the two Zealand’s Māori population usually live in earthquakes. This insider status allowed the Selwyn district (Statistics New Zealand, the first author to relate to her participants 2013). All of the participants reported to have and have an appreciation of the experiences lived in Christchurch and had children who described by the participants. were school age or younger at the time the study was conducted. They were all present Participants and setting in Christchurch during the September and February earthquakes. Four of the Purposive sampling was used to select participants were in paid work at the time of a small group of participants, based on the earthquakes. specific research criteria, to obtain a set of information-rich cases for in-depth analysis Data collection (Patton, 2015). The number of participants and focus of the study was limited by The first author conducted all the face-to- fact that the research was undertaken as face, semi-structured interviews. These a supervised research project as part of a were between 50 to 60 minutes’ duration at master of social work qualification. The a mutually agreed location. All interviews four inclusion criteria for the participants of were digitally recorded with the participants’ this study were: (1) mothers over 18 years prior knowledge and signed consent, and of age; (2) resident in Christchurch during confidentiality was assured. The use of the 2010 and 2011 earthquakes and were semi-structured interviews involved an still currently living in Christchurch; (3) informal, interactive process that utilised mothers who had not been under the care of open-ended comments and questions mental health services in the last 12 months. (Patton, 2015). Open-ended questions were This was to reduce the likelihood of mental deemed the most appropriate in encouraging distress by revisiting their experience of the participant to speak freely about their the earthquakes; and (4) mothers who were experiences from their own perspective. competent in communicating in English. The first author was responsible for Following ethical approval from Massey establishing the research encounter as University Human Ethics Committee a place in which the participants could (#15/43), the first author contacted a local safely describe experiences that mattered school in the Selwyn district of Christchurch, to them and were pertinent to the research. to arrange a meeting with the principal. At The interview schedule was developed the meeting, the principal was provided with guidelines and prompts to initiate with a copy of the information sheet and discussion. Bonner and Tolhurst (2002) interview schedule. The principal agreed for state the interpretive researcher must create the research to be advertised in the following a dialogue between practical concerns week’s school newsletter. Between July and lived experiences through engaged 2015 and February 2016, six mothers were reasoning and imaginative dwelling in the successfully recruited and participated in the immediacy of the participants’ worlds. The individual interviews. questions were formulated by identifying key issues and components that were The six participants were female, married, prevalent in literature about the Christchurch and aged between 25 and 40. Four of the earthquakes. Questions were created to participants self-identified as New Zealand encourage mothers to reflect on their Pākehā and originally from Christchurch, experiences of the earthquakes and to elicit while the other two were from overseas. information about their feelings, experiences

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and beliefs. The objective of each interview especially for those utilising qualitative question was to obtain the participants’ methodologies to make their research thoughts and feelings to understand their credible (Grbich, 2013). As noted previously, experiences of the earthquakes. the first author in this research was an insider due to also being a mother who Data analysis experienced both Christchurch earthquakes. There are advantages and disadvantages to Data were analysed using an interpretive, being an insider during the research process descriptive approach underpinned by depending on the researcher’s role, the aim thematic analysis. In qualitative research, of the research and the type of research data collection and data analysis can occur conducted. While there are a variety of concurrently as the interviewer identifies definitions for insider researchers, generally, similar themes and notes them after an insider researchers are those who choose to interview (Braun & Clarke, 2013). The study a group to which they belong, while benefits of data collection and analysis outsider researchers do not belong to the concurrently allows for exploration of new group under study. Bonner and Tolhurst concepts that emerge across the remaining (2002) identified key advantages of being an interviews. The first author analysed the insider researcher which included having a interview data for patterns and themes, greater understanding of the culture being which assisted them to learn about a specific studied and the ability to understand the group within society after the earthquakes, emotions of those involved. Further, insider namely Christchurch mothers. Data were researchers know how to best approach then coded to illuminate important sections people they wish to study. In general, they of text relevant to the research objectives and have a great deal of knowledge which takes categorised into themes. These themes were an outsider a long time to acquire. Although then linked back to the original research there are various advantages of being an objective regarding understanding mothers’ insider researcher, there are also problems. post-disaster experiences. The first author For example, greater familiarity can lead was conscious to ensure she did not over- to a loss of objectivity. Over-familiarity identify with participants’ experiences and can include unconsciously making wrong assume the shared understanding or feelings assumptions about the research process about the earthquakes as suggested by Ross based on the researcher’s prior knowledge, (2017). To safeguard this, confirmability was which can be considered a bias (DeLyser, achieved by the second and third authors 2001; Hewitt-Taylor, 2002). Any concerns when consensus was reached on the data. regarding bias were addressed though Further to this, the second and third authors discussion with the second and third read the findings to ensure they explicitly authors. represented the data (Tobin & Begley, 2004). Results and key findings Ethical considerations The three main findings that emerged from The research was conducted in accordance the data were: 1) elements of resilience with guidelines set out by Massey including focusing on positive outcomes, University’s code of conduct for research having plans and showing determination with human participants. The rationale for were essential to supporting recovery excluding mothers who had recently been after the earthquakes; 2) mothers played under the care of mental health services was a constructive and proactive role in their to ensure undue mental distress was not community post-disaster; and 3) the mothers caused to anyone by revisiting experiences all placed importance on having a sense of of the earthquakes. It is crucial for social belonging to enhance post-disaster recovery. researchers to clarify their research roles, These key findings offer insights into how

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mothers recover after a disaster. The findings could assist. She said, “I was fearful for provide information about what context, my life, I thought this was it…as soon as I conditions and factors these mothers found knew the kids and my husband were okay most helpful in their recovery, including I went straight to the ambulance area to see what assisted them to re-establish family how I could help.” Mary, who was with her cohesion, manage parenting challenges and children at home in February, threw herself support their own community to return to on top of her children to protect them from ‘normal’. falling debris. While Beth initially could not get hold of her husband due to problems 1. Elements of resilience including: with telecommunication, she had to maintain focusing on positive outcomes, having a calm exterior in front of her son. She said plans and showing determination were it was only after her son went to bed she essential to supporting recovery after the could “have a little cry and discuss my fears earthquakes with my husband.” The findings in this study demonstrate that the participants were Findings from this study revealed that these capable women with innate strength and mothers’ resilience and recovery were built courage, trying to function in a challenging through focusing on positive outcomes, environment despite their fears. having plans and being determined in the days, months and years after the For the participants in this study, there is earthquakes. Initially, disturbed nights little doubt that life changed because of the and lack of infrastructure, including lack earthquakes. Sam and Mary had reframed of power and water, meant the immediate these experiences as finding a new lease priority for most respondents was making of life through making new friendships decisions about their physical environment. and engaging in new opportunities. Both For all participants, getting back to a sense of these mothers said they could do this of normality in the days after the earthquake because they focused on the positives in was essential. Most respondents felt that, to the situation. Two other mothers showed recover quickly, it was their responsibility to the ability to reframe and overcome a plan and develop routines for their families difficult situation when their children’s as quickly as possible. Clare discussed how school was closed. Clare helped facilitate a for her family: “routine was very important. temporary school in her community, whilst I had to show the kids that life goes on Beth travelled long distances to take her and mum and dad still go to work”. This child to school. It appeared that mothers concurs with McManus’s (2015) study on who were focused and positive about the the Christchurch earthquakes and Islam future had recovered beyond their previous et al.’s (2017) research on the Bangladesh psychosocial position and improved their floods, whereby women came together and lives overall. For example, Mary reported formulated plans regarding how best to a better work–life balance; Sam and Mary support their family and their community. learnt new skills, while Beth found a strong cohesive community in a new environment All the mothers interviewed for this study which she had not encountered before the showed strength and resilience during the earthquakes. This concurs with studies that earthquakes, despite the scenes unfolding suggest that to thrive in the face of adversity, around them; for example, Cathy, who was individuals need to be goal oriented, focused at work during the February earthquake, and have good problem-solving skills (Paton ensured the safety of herself and her student & Johnston, 2006). Those who can be positive whilst on the fourth floor of the university during the event can have the opportunity building. Clare’s first thought was for her to thrive in the face of adversity and return family; however, once she knew they were to an improved position prior to the event safe she turned her attention to whom she happening (Greene & Greene, 2009).

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2. Mothers played a constructive and resilience including adaptability, flexibility, proactive role in their community post and optimism and coping skills which disaster supported their recovery. Gordon et al.’s (2014) research highlighted the adaptability A recent study by Gordon et al. (2014) and flexibility of women and they were indicated that post-disaster management in foregrounded as a group actively in charge Christchurch identified women as strong of their own recovery. When a mother has and capable and an important part of the gone through adverse events feels more self- recovery effort, encompassing key roles in confident and shows ability in self-efficacy, fostering and developing resilience within she is more likely to have stronger adaptive communities. While power, water and capacity (Gordon et al., 2014). Alongside sewerage were lost to many Christchurch managing their own difficulties following homes, it was not long before the local the event, many of the mothers had become community and local agencies rallied involved in the community recovery effort to together to support one another (Gordon et help others. al., 2014; McManus, 2015). This study also found that mothers played a constructive 3. The importance of a sense of belonging and proactive role in their community after to enhance post-disaster recovery a disaster. Mothers in the current research engaged in domestic tasks but, in addition, Findings from this research have illustrated were proactive in the wider recovery effort. the constructive and proactive role mothers Sam, Clare and Mary were actively involved play in the community. The importance in supplying food through cooking and of building resilience at individual and baking, organising water supplies and community levels is supported by existing rebuilding community support structures, literature including Islam et al. (2017) who alongside taking care of their own family. states that, being part of a community builds individual confidence, strength, Recognising and harnessing the capabilities cohesion and is essential for post-disaster of women increased their confidence for recovery. For mothers who found themselves dealing with adversity (Ariyabandu, 2009). displaced and subsequently without social Over half of the mothers identified that networks, having the opportunity to build having a sense of purpose within their networks, have a sense of purpose and community was important in their recovery. mingle with others helped to develop social Clare took a lead role in managing recovery capital and resilience (Drolet et al., 2015). The and instigated emergency measures in her innate resilience of individuals fostered and community, which included organising built resilience within communities. The pro- a communal water point, whilst another activity of mothers within their communities participant checked on elderly neighbours. also highlighted important components in Clare identified that she was a key supporter their recovery journey. and contributor in her community during both earthquakes. She said, “I felt because The earthquakes and subsequent damage to I am a nurse that I should be available as a properties and neighbourhoods resulted in primary support person in the community relocation and population change for a large and at work.” Clare reported she was well part of Christchurch. After the February known in the community particularly after 2011 earthquake, many school and preschool the September earthquake and because of facilities were closed or relocated elsewhere this people found it easy to ask for help or and mothers found themselves in unfamiliar talk to her about their concerns. environments, without their usual support networks. Clare explained how she and her Despite extensive impacts, the mothers family found themselves having to manage in this study showed characteristics of on their own very soon after the earthquake

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as her key supports moved away: “my opportunities to identify with her peer group parents and sister moved away straight away to engender support. She talked about the despite what my family might need.” Clare’s informal catch-ups she used to have when experience was not unique and, increasingly, picking her child up from day care which mothers found themselves without social, was no longer an option as it had closed. She psychological, or practical support. Mary said, “I missed the little catch ups we used stated she felt lonely and isolated when to have at drop off and pick up…silly really one of her good friends left for Australia: but you don’t realise how much that social “She said she just couldn’t cope with the contact matters until it’s not there anymore.” earthquakes. I don’t blame her I guess as I Much of the infrastructure including the knew she couldn’t stay, but I still miss her local doctors, dentist and corner shop even after all of this time.” near where Beth lived was closed due to safety concerns and, because she was made Mothers identified that coming from, redundant, she lost contact with colleagues. and belonging to, a community was very Beth described her sadness when she said, important to them. Literature about place “I even had to find a new GP as our surgery attachment discussed the sense of belonging closed. I had been with her for 20 years.” to a location, such as a house or specific area (Shin et al., 2016). Whilst most mothers in Two of the respondents could identify this study reported they had moved away networks they had formed because of the temporarily after the earthquakes, all of earthquakes that had assisted them with their them returned and adapted to the changed recovery. Clare said she had formed “strong environment despite the altered physical relationships with those in her community and social situation. Beth said: “it crossed that stayed after the February earthquakes.” our minds to move away permanently but She explained how the community had until we knew about the house and what worked successfully to set up support was happening with it we couldn’t go….and networks in the area, something which kept then things settled down and we decided to her focused. Cathy was also able to identify stay as my husband had a job and we had new friends and supports she had made with a mortgage here.” Four of the six mothers neighbours who had initially assisted her after felt strong connections to the community in the earthquakes. She explained how they had Christchurch and, as they reported, they had “agreed to check and secure each other’s and not considered relocating elsewhere. Mary other neighbours’ houses” if another event explained that she was born and bred in occurred. Christchurch and: “this is where I’m from. I’m not sure where else I would go.” Implications for social work practice Disaster literature highlights that networks Resilience is an essential capacity for and friendships are significant for women successful recovery post-disaster, such as the in engendering a sense of belonging Christchurch earthquakes (Reivich & Shattẻ, (Ariyabandu, 2009; McManus, 2015). Clare 2002). Findings from this study revealed that and Cathy said that friendships and the resilience is possible when individuals and opportunity to connect with likeminded communities focus on positive outcomes others was an important component to and show determination in the wake their wellbeing. Most of the respondents of tragedy. This is further evidenced in identified that they had been impacted McManus’s (2015) study on the Christchurch negatively by the displacement of their earthquakes and Islam et al.’s (2017) research communities. These impacts included losing on the Bangladesh floods, whereby women their sense of belonging to a community, came together and formulated plans which subsequently resulted in them feeling regarding how best to support their family more isolated. Beth said she now had limited and their community.

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Literature has highlighted the perception issues for the future (Pittaway, Bartolomei, & that mothers have historically been Rees, 2007). considered as vulnerable and in need of additional support post-disaster Historically, the helping profession has (Ariyabandu, 2009; Paton & Johnston, 2006). based intervention on deficits, problems and Findings, in this study, have highlighted disorders associated with identified problem that women are independent, strong and factors (Norris & Wind, 2009). In contrast, autonomous in their approach to recovery other recovery research has suggested despite gender inequality and additional helping professions should consider pressure they face in their parenting psychosocial approaches which identify roles. Social work can make an important and channel resources that exist within and contribution in challenging the inequalities around the individual and their community that exist during and after disasters (Pease, (Saleeby, 2006). By focusing upon a different 2014). This can be achieved by exploring approach based on strengths, help is centred factors which impact on key areas of gender on reducing the negative effects brought and disasters, namely, different impacts about by people moving away, displaced on men and women, male domination in communities and loss of social networks. emergency response and the impact of This, in turn, emphasises individual disasters on gender roles and inequalities. capabilities and encouraging people to get This will provide a broader recognition of on with their lives independently, affirming the structural causes of ecological destruction and developing positive values and and environmental crisis. Knowledge of commitments, as well as making and finding these will allow social workers to address membership in a community (Saleeby, 2006; these factors and support mothers to address Satici, 2016). It is anticipated this approach these inequalities. will assist individuals to recognise their inner capabilities, capacity for strength and The profession of social work with its holistic establish knowledge that can assist them to and often strengths-based approaches has move forward independently if faced with much to offer in disaster recovery. Social adversity in the future. By doing so, they work practice values and ethics are at the can be independent and autonomous in forefront of emergency action (Rowlands, managing their own recovery. 2013). Social workers as advocates for the vulnerable and disadvantaged play an Individuals in the helping profession can important part in challenging the oppression assist people to develop the abilities and and disadvantages women face post-disaster. characteristics that make up resilience Women can be further oppressed in disaster (Reivich & Shattẻ, 2002). Hardship events due to the limited opportunities and and challenge are perceived by some disadvantages associated with their perceived professionals as both a risk factor and an roles (Juran & Trivedi, 2015; McManus, 2015). opportunity for growth. The strengths Research after the 2004 tsunami in Thailand perspective focuses on strengths and identified that multiple factors impacted on capacities of people rather than on crisis women’s recovery including encompassing and disadvantaged societies (Saleeby, 2006). multiple roles within the family, violence Guo and Tsui’s (2010) study established that and sexual exploitation, while financial stress utilising a strengths approach can encourage and relationship issues also had a significant individual resiliency during periods of impact (Norris & Wind, 2009). Consequently, adversity and argued that social workers social workers whose practice is informed by must cultivate and enhance the strengths of feminist, culturally sensitive, emancipatory their service users to enhance resilience. In and anti-oppressive social work principles doing so individuals will be less reliant on are well placed to work in solidarity with government interventions post disaster and women at the local level to address these be able to act autonomously managing their

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own experience and recovery. The objective Utilising a community participatory of strengths-based practice is that people will approach as well as skills in effectively become more resourceful, individually and advocating and navigating systems, collectively, as they begin to discover new- creating potential to support, resource and found confidence after having survived and formalise community initiatives, cementing surmounted these difficulties independently. relationships, and creating continuity and Recognition of individual strengths promotes connectedness for communities in what can individual and community resilience be a chaotic and disconnected environment. and provides a “bottom up” approach to Experiencing a disaster can impact adversity (Chandler, 2014). A change of individuals’ sense of power and control, perspective encouraging self-autonomy social workers have the ability to use the and resilience to manage the after-effects of person-in-situation conceptualisation to help disaster is crucial. rebuild control and develop a sense of safety in their environments (Findley, Pottick, & Social workers operating in the post-disaster Giordano, 2017). Social workers can play phase can also support the opportunity an important part in promoting the role of for women to create formal and informal all women post-disaster and work to lobby, support networks (True, 2013). Participants promote and develop opportunities for the in this study spoke about the importance implementation of appropriate post-disaster of these networks to their immediate guidelines and response mechanisms in and ongoing recovery. The networks partnership with local communities and often occurred spontaneously, driven by women’s organisations (Pittaway et al., community members in response to the 2007). As climate change is intensifying immediate needs of the community, for both weather conditions and increasing the physical resources and emotional connection. frequency of natural disasters across the Women are typically more involved than globe, including in Aotearoa New Zealand, men in caring work around the home. Social planning for safety during a disaster event networks, thus, are critical to their livelihood and post-disaster recovery must be included strategies, as well as to their mental health in core social work practice as social workers and resilience. Research has argued that are well placed to understand risk and safety reducing isolation is a key to unlocking the in relation to those they work with. potential that is to be found in collective power (Drolet et al., 2015). Limitations Social workers can facilitate opportunities The six women who experienced for communication for women to connect both Christchurch earthquakes, while and encourage those around them to build information-rich in relation to the aims social capital. In addition, social workers can of the study, were purposefully sampled offer a community participatory approach and cannot be presumed to generalise to which is in keeping with the social justice the entire population. The scope of the and human rights principles in social sample did not enable information related work. Among other things, these principles to sociodemographic data or ethnicity to be include a commitment to facilitate the considered due to selection bias. The small inclusion of marginalised, socially excluded, sample size limits the generalisability of the dispossessed, vulnerable and at-risk groups findings to only a specific cohort and context, of people and to encourage individuals to namely married mothers’ experiences from engage in advocacy about relevant local, the Christchurch earthquakes and factors national, regional and/or international that impacted on their recovery. concerns (Pittaway et al., 2007). Social workers can work alongside individuals and The use of purposeful sampling meant that communities to build and support networks. the study gathered information only from

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those who had not been overly affected by hope, flexibility and adaptability coped with the earthquakes due to their willingness to the challenges the event presented. Strong revisit the topic. The sample cohort therefore social networks supported their resilience might exhibit more positive attitudes and alongside opportunities to be involved readiness in resilience than a different across all spectrums of the recovery effort cohort. Research has reported that disaster were significant for many. This research risk and recovery are known to be socially has implications for social workers working patterned and disproportionately prevalent within a post-disaster context including in disadvantaged communities (Chou et al., utilising an emancipatory or strengths-based 2004; Hemingway & Priestley, 2014). The approach to intervention alongside a sound intersection of factors such as age, gender, understanding of community participation. disability, and income with social isolation These approaches support harnessing the has been found to increase vulnerability, strengths of women through a sense of and impede response, to natural disasters belonging, purpose and opportunity for (Howard, Agllias, Bevis, & Blakemore, pro-activity in disaster recovery within their 2018). Therefore, it has been suggested communities. that national campaigns involving public education to raise awareness of disaster risk, References preparation and recovery should consider Ariyabandu, M. (2009). Sex, gender and gender relations in disasters. In E. Enarson & P. G. Chakrabarti (Eds.), specific audiences and their needs to Women, gender and disaster (pp. 5–17). New Delhi, reduce inequity and become more effective India: Sage. to strengthen community resilience than Bonner, A., & Tolhurst, G. (2002). Insider–outsider focusing on individual behaviour as the perspectives of participant observation. Nurse Researcher, 9(4), 7–19. target of intervention (Phibbs, Kenney, Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2013). Successful qualitative Severinsen, Mitchell, & Hughes, 2016). research: A practical guide for beginners. Los Angeles, Despite some of these limitations, the CA: SAGE. strengths of the research include discovering Chandler, D. (2014). Resilience. The governance of key resilience characteristics of women and complexity. New York, NY: Routledge. the methods used have arguably mitigated Chou, Y. J., Huang, H., Lee, C. H., Tsai, S. L., Chen, L. S., & Chang, H. J. (2004). Who is at risk of death in an these limitations and offered insight into the earthquake? American Journal of Epidemiology, 160(7), important role women play post-disaster. 688–695. Davis, I., & Alexander, D. (2016). Recovery from disaster. London, UK: Routledge. Conclusion DeLyser, D. (2001). “Do you really live here?” Thoughts on insider research. Geographical Review, 91(1), 441–453. Mothers were affected, practically and Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2011). The Sage handbook of psychologically, after the Christchurch qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. earthquakes and additional responsibilities Drolet, J., Dominelli, L., Alston, M., Ersing, R., Mathbor, G., & associated with their parenting roles created Wu, H. (2015). Women rebuilding lives post-disaster: further challenges for their recovery. Innovative community practices for building resilience and promoting sustainable development. Gender & Despite these factors, this study found Development, 23(3), 433–448. that mothers focused on ensuring the Enarson, E. (2009). Gendering disaster risk reduction: safety of their children and others in the 57 steps from words to action. In E. Enarson & immediate aftermath of the event and re- P. G. Chakrabarti (Eds.), Women, gender and disaster (pp. 320–336). New Delhi, India: Sage. established routines as quickly as possible. Findley, P. A., Pottick, K. J., & Giordano, S. (2017). Educating All the mothers in this study portrayed graduate social work students in disaster response: A characteristics of resilience and most real-time case study. Clinical Social Work, 45(2), 159–167. preferred to be actively involved in the Gawith, L. (2011). How communities in Christchurch have recovery effort rather than utilise talking been coping with their earthquake. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 40(4), 121–130. strategies to manage stress. This study Gil-Rivas, V., & Kilmer, R. (2016). Building community found that mothers who embodied the capacity and fostering disaster resilience. Journal of characteristics of resilience such as positivity, Clinical Psychology, 72(12), 1318–1332.

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Gordon, L., Sutherland, J., DuPlessis, R., & Gibson, H. Pease, B. (2014) Hegemonic masculinity and the gendering (2014). Movers and shakers: Women’s stories from of men in disaster management: Implications for social the Christchurch earthquakes. National Council of work education. Advances in Social Work and Welfare Women of New Zealand. Retrieved from http://www. Education, 16(2), 60–72. communityresearch.org.nz/research/movers-and- Phibbs, S., Kenney, C., Severinsen, C., Mitchell, J., & shakers-womens-stories-from-the-christchurch- Hughes, R. (2016). Synergising public health concepts earthquakes-final-version/ with the Sendai framework for disaster risk reduction: Grbich, C. (2013). Qualitative data analysis: An introduction. A conceptual glossary. International Journal of London, UK: SAGE. Environmental Research & Public Health, 13, 1241–1262. Greene, R., & Greene, D. (2009). Resilience in the face Phibbs, S., Kenney, C. M., & Solomon, M. (2015). Nga¯ of disasters: Bridging micro-and macro-perspectives. mo¯waho: An analysis of Ma¯ori responses to the Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, Christchurch earthquakes. Ko¯tuitui: New Zealand 19(8), 1010–1024. Journal of Social Sciences Online, 10(2), 72–82. Guo, W., & Tsui, M. (2010). From resilience to resistance: a Pittaway, E., Bartolomei, L., & Rees, S. (2007). Gendered reconstruction of the strengths perspective in social work dimensions of the 2004 tsunami and a potential social practice. International Social Work, 53(2), 233–245. work response in post-disaster situations. International Hemingway, L., & Priestley, M. (2014). Natural hazards, Social Work, 50(3), 307–319. human vulnerability and disabling societies. A disaster Reivich, K., & Shattẻ , A. (2002). The resilience factor. for disabled people? Review of Disability Studies, 2, New York, NY: Broadway. 57–67. Ross, L. E. (2017). An account from the inside: Examining Hewitt-Taylor, J. (2002). Insider knowledge: Issues in insider the emotional impact of qualitative research through the research. Nursing Standard, 16(46), 33–35. lens of “insider” research. Qualitative Psychology, 4(3), Howard, A., Agllias, K., Bevis. M., & Blakemore, T. (2018). 326–337. How social isolation affects disaster preparedness Rowlands, A. (2013) Social work training curriculum in and response in Australia: Implications for social work. disaster management. Journal of Social Work in Australian Social Work, 71(4), 392–404. Disability & Rehabilitation, 12(1–2), 130–144. Islam, M., Ingham., Hicks., J., & Mancok, I. (2017). The Saleeby, D. (2006). The strengths perspective in social work changing role of women in resilience, recovery and practice. Milwaukee, WI: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. economic development at the intersection of recurrent Satici, S. (2016). Psychological vulnerability, resilience, disaster: A case study from Sirjgana, Bangladesh. and subjective well-being: The mediating role of hope. Journal of Asian & African Studies, 52(1), 50–67. Personality & Individual Differences, 102, 68–73. Jackson, R. L., Drummond, D. K., & Camara, S. (2007). What Shin, K. J., Nakakido, R., Horie, S., & Managi, S. (2016). is qualitative research? Qualitative Research Reports in The effects of community attachment and information Communication, 8(1), 21–28. seeking on displaced disaster victims’ decision making. Juran, L., & Trivedi, J. (2015). Women, gender norms, and PLoS One, 11(3), e0151928. natural disasters in Bangladesh. The Geographical Statistics New Zealand. (2013). 2013 Census quickstats Review, 4, 601–611. about a place: Selwyn district. Retrieved from http:// Maher, P., & Maidment, J. (2013). Social work disaster archive.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census/profile- emergency response within a hospital setting. Aotearoa and-summary-reports/quickstats-about-a-place. New Zealand Social Work Review, 25(2), 69–77. aspx?request_value=14888&tabname=Populationandd McManus, R. (2015). Women’s voices: Solace and social wellings innovation in the aftermath of the 2010 Christchurch Tobin, G. A., & Begley, C. M. (2004). Methodological rigour earthquakes. Women's Studies Journal, 29(2), 22–41. within a qualitative framework. Journal of Advanced Neria, Y., Galea, S., & Norris, F. H. (2009). Mental health and Nursing, 48(4), 388–396. disasters. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. True, J., (2013). Gendered violence in natural disaster: Nicholls, S. (2012). The resilient community and Learning from New Orleans, Haiti and Christchurch. communication practice. Australian Journal of Aotearoa New Zealand Social Work, 25(2), 78–89. Emergency Management, 27(1), 46–51. van Kessel, G., Gibbs, L., & MacDougall, C. (2015). Norris, F., & Wind, L. (2009). The experience of disaster: Strategies to enhance resilience post-natural disaster: Trauma, loss adversities, and community effects. In A qualitative study of experiences with Australian floods Y. Neria, S. Galea, & F. Norris (Eds.), Mental health and fires. Journal of Public Health, 37(2), 328–336. and disasters (pp. 29–46). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Warchal, J., & Graham, L. (2011). Promoting positive University Press. adaptation in adult survivors of natural disasters. Paton, D., & Johnston, D. (2006). Disaster resilience: An Adultspan Journal, 10(1), 34–51. integrated approach. Springfield, IL: Thomas. Paton, D., Selway, K. L., & Mamula-Seadon, L. (2013). Community resilience in Christchurch: adaptive responses and capacities during earthquake recovery. Retrieved from https://www.gns.cri.nz/static/ pubs/2013/SR%202013-037.pdf Patton, M. (2015). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. (4th Ed). London, UK: Sage

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An investigation of the nature of termination of pregnancy counselling within the current system of licensed facilities

Shelley Kirk1, Liz Beddoe2 and Shirley Ann Chinnery2

1 Lakes District Health ABSTRACT Board 2 University of Auckland INTRODUCTION: Termination of pregnancy (ToP) service delivery in Aotearoa New Zealand occurs within a multi-dimensional system which is influenced and shaped by various philosophical, political and economic discourses, and is comprised of interconnected components. One component is the provision of counselling for women seeking a termination of pregnancy. This study aimed to explore how service managers and social work practitioners perceived how ToP services, particularly the counselling component therein, were being delivered nationally.

METHODS: A concurrent, multi-level, mixed-methods research design was employed in the study. Two purposively selected sample groups comprising: 1) service managers responsible for the oversight of ToP service delivery; and 2) ToP counselling practitioners were recruited from 19 District Health Boards (DHBs) across Aotearoa New Zealand. Service managers (20) participated in interviews with a focus on capturing information about operational systems that supported or hindered the delivery of ToP and counselling services, while 26 social work and counselling practitioners participated in an electronic survey questionnaire. Qualitative data were thematically analysed and quantitative data were descriptively analysed using descriptive statistics.

FINDINGS: Results from this mixed-methods study were integrated at the level of interpretation and linkage between the methods showed that practice within ToP licensed facilities varied markedly. Specifically, nine practice and systemic variations were identified that had implications for women receiving ToP services. Existing variations across licensed facilities were signalled as disconnects between components of the service delivery system.

CONCLUSIONS: Recommendations that address variations and systemic disconnects are offered to the New Zealand Abortion Supervisory Committee and Ministry of Health. Further research is suggested to obtain the perspective of service users as this was one limitation of this small exploratory study.

AOTEAROA KEYWORDS: Abortion; termination of pregnancy; counselling; social work NEW ZEALAND SOCIAL WORK 30(3), 31–44.

CORRESPONDENCE TO: Elective abortion is one of the most common Supervisory Committee (ASC) states Shelley Kirk medical procedures experienced by women “[i]nduced abortion … affects about one third Shelley.Kirk@ in Aotearoa New Zealand. The Abortion of women in their lifetime” (ASC, 2009, p. 1). lakesdhb.govt.nz

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The history of elective abortion in supportive services are to be delivered, and Aotearoa New Zealand and associated by whom. Their functions are regulated moral and political discourses have been separately by the ASC which operates under well documented by Sparrow (2010) and the funding arm of the Ministry of Justice and Richdale (2010) and offer background and the legal mandate of the CSA Act (1977). Of impetus to the passing of the Contraception, the 46 sections within the CSA Act (1977) only Sterilisation and Abortion (CSA) Act (1977) ss 31 and 35) directly pertain to the provision and subsequent appointment of the Abortion of counselling. Furthermore, the recording Supervisory committee in 1978 to oversee and reporting requirements outlined in the provision of services under the Act and Act are only concerned with the medical/ report to parliament. While a full account surgical performance of abortions. is precluded by space considerations, a brief outline of the current legal situation is The provision of counselling necessary at this juncture. The provision of counselling services to women seeking an abortion is the focus of Legislation this study. Silva, Ashton, and McNeill (2011) The relevant New Zealand legislation, the note that, “[b]y law, all women, must be CSA Act (1977) and the Crimes Act (1961), offered counselling throughout the process, have largely remained unchanged since although the law does not specify that their inception and have provided the legal women must receive counselling” (p. 20). framework through which current abortion This necessitates that a counselling session services are delivered. In the context of must be made available to women as part this study, elective abortions rather than of the service delivery of abortions. The spontaneous abortion (miscarriage), will be ASC is charged with the responsibility to henceforth referred to as termination of ensure that “sufficient and adequate facilities pregnancy (ToP). The Crimes Act (1961) are available throughout New Zealand for specifies that abortion is unlawful (Crimes counselling women who may seek advice in Act (1961), ss182, 183, 186, 187 & 187a) unless relation to abortion” (ASC, 1998, p. 12). it occurs within the scope of the CSA Act (1977); and provides clear criteria for what The aim of the study was to investigate the constitutes a lawful abortion: current operational systems and processes and counselling practices that underpin and • The pregnancy is not more than 20 support the termination of pregnancy within weeks’ duration; licensed abortion facilities as detailed on • “[T]he continuance of the pregnancy the New Zealand Abortion Services website would result in serious danger (not (www.abortionservices.org.nz). The term being danger normally attendant upon “systems” pertains to operational aspects childbirth) to the life, or to the physical e.g., funding pathways, reporting and or mental health, of the woman or girl” documentation processes (statistical data (Crimes Act (1961) s187a); capture, case notes, file storage and referral • The unborn child is at risk of serious reports); and supportive aspects—training, abnormality; supervision, qualification requirements • The pregnancy is a result of incest; for those providing counselling. The • The pregnancy is a result of sexual overarching aim was further specified by assault that is an offence under the two sub-questions: Crimes Act (1961). • What features of the current systems of The Crimes Act (1961) also provides a ToP counselling service delivery support framework that prescribes the licensing or hinder consistent and quality national of abortion facilities, how medical and services?

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• Who is providing the ToP counselling service delivery. International sources (34) service and what is their experience of the resulted from the foregoing search and these current system within which they operate? related to ToP counselling in Australia, UK and USA. The located sources were derived The findings of this small exploratory study from a variety of professional and academic are explored with reference to integrated care disciplines, for example, psychology, mental pathways, which should be client centred health, sociology, medical, nursing, and and developed from the involvement/ women’s studies. The literature search was integration of all key stakeholders concerned expanded upon because the initial search with services delivery. Variances in both generated only one source that described practice and processes in services suggest all systemic components related to the disconnects, which impact on the quality delivery of ToP services (Family Planning of care. The aim of this article is to provide Association, 2015). an overview of this small-scale, descriptive study and its combined findings. Debates about who should provide ToP counselling were highlighted in the Literature review international literature. Different types of counselling were identified within this A literature review was undertaken which literature as important and comprised: included qualitative and quantitative information giving; implications relating studies, case reports, surveys, reports to decisions; support and therapeutic from New Zealand government and other counselling (Lee, 2011). Variations in organisations, technical reports and cross- counselling were also found and these sectional studies. There is considerable appeared to differ in accordance with the literature, both national and international, practitioner’s role, for instance, provided regarding ToP, however, much of it is by a range of health practitioners and lay aligned to the fields of medicine and nursing counsellors (Illsley & Hall, 1976). Notably, rather than social work or counselling. the literature indicated that many of these practitioners were not specifically trained to Aotearoa New Zealand literature that deliver ToP counselling (Brien & Fairburn, directly related to ToP counselling services 2003). Other commentators (Needle & was found to be extremely sparse and dated. Walker, 2007; Federation of Women’s Relevant material located consisted: of four Health Councils, 1992) firmly placed health articles (Beddoe & Weaver, 1988; Hunton social workers as being “uniquely situated & Spicer, 1979; Leask, 2014; Silva et al., within the medical context …” and as 2011); two reports (Federation of Women’s having the ability/skills to “… traverse the Health Councils, 1992; Nicol, 1987); two dilemma-filled processes of decision-making, ToP procedural guidelines (ASC, 1998; termination and bereavement” of ToP and ASC, 2009); and associated legislation counselling (McCoyd, 2010, p. 147). (CSA Act, 1977; Crimes Act, 1961). Other material of New Zealand origin related to Social work practice is underscored by ToP service delivery in general, funding principles of human rights and social justice and contracting processes, and the historical (International Federation of Social Workers, context of the development of Aotearoa 2015). Central to practice is the view of the New Zealand legislation and ToP services. client in context—the perspective that each The search was expanded to encompass individual exists within a complex system managerial and operational themes such of relationships and interactions that are as workforce development, care pathways, environmental, socio-political, interpersonal models of care, quality improvement, and intrapersonal, and influenced by a integrated care and clinical governance variety of values, beliefs and characteristics to enhance understanding regarding ToP of this multi-dimensional system within

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any given circumstance. The social work (quantitative) methods. The study role in ToP counselling is to provide a employed a purposive sampling strategy client-centred therapeutic approach to of two, multi-level groups within the assist women to negotiate the psycho-social same organisation, namely 20 ToP service aspects of decision-making regarding an managers and 26 counselling practitioners “unwanted” pregnancy. Counselling assists (Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2007). women to explore options, rationalise and minimise emotional discomfort, validate Ethics approval their choice and enables them to determine their own future. This also applies to those The study was undertaken for the fulfilment situations where ToP may be considered of a Master of Social Work degree and ethics due to the pregnant woman’s health being approval was sought from the University at risk or where there is a diagnosis of foetal of Auckland Human Participants Ethics abnormality. From a social work perspective, Committee (ref: 012336). Additionally, ToP counselling is a process comprising Locality Ethics Approval was sought from exploration and normalisation of the client several DHBs upon their request. context, supporting the client’s choice, providing information and preparation Participant recruitment around the client’s choice (whether this be ToP or not), and, additionally, attending Participants were sought from two from a strengths-based perspective to any predefined populations representing contextual issues of social risk, for example, different levels within the same family violence, addictions and planning for organisation: 1) service managers future well-being (Ely, Dulmas, & Akers, identified/elected by individual DHBs as 2010). having oversight of the delivery of ToP services and who could offer an operational The CSA (1977) clearly states that ideally viewpoint; and 2) social workers/lay social workers should provide counselling counsellors providing the counselling for ToPs, however, the only reference to who could offer a practice viewpoint. The specific qualification requirements is found aim was to be inclusive of all potential in the Standards of Practice for the Provision participants: 19 service managers and an of Counselling (ASC, 1998) and these do estimated population of between 50–100 not reflect the contemporary education and counselling practitioners. regulation of social workers, thus are out of date. Recruitment occurred via a formal letter of invitation (including research participant The lack of literature reporting information and consent forms) sent to the relevant research conducted in Aotearoa Chief Executive Officers of each licensed New Zealand, and the lack of any recent facility (19 District Health Boards and three information about the provision of private abortion clinics) requesting consent counselling was the impetus for the study for service managers and ToP counselling reported in this article. practitioners to participate in the study. Service managers were then contacted Methodology directly to arrange interviews; additionally, they were sent a copy of the interview A mixed methods concurrent design was questions and an electronic survey link to be employed to obtain a greater understanding distributed to ToP counselling practitioners. of ToP service delivery and counselling, Participant information regarding the capitalising on the strengths of both research introduced the electronic survey singular methodologies by combining and continuation to complete the survey was inductive (qualitative) with deductive deemed as providing consent.

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Data collection and analysis related sub-themes. These are: funding, reporting, delivery, staff profile and training. A total of 20 semi-structured interviews Quantitative findings from survey with service managers from 14 DHBs were participants were used to describe the conducted in 2016. Two interview processes demographics of the ToP counselling were used (face-to-face and via telephone) workforce. depending on participant preference and geographical location. The interviews were audio-taped for the purpose of transcribing. Funding All interviews were designated a random The funding theme was aimed to describe numerical code to ensure anonymity of data about funding pathways: how much both DHB and individual participants. funding was allocated and utilised within An anonymous electronic survey host on DHBs for ToP services; whether there were SurveyMonkey enabled the participation of variations across DHBs; how contracts 26 social workers/counsellors in the study. linked to funding; and how ToP counselling fitted into the funding stream. Four types Each data set was analysed by the first of funding were identified in the textual author according to its protocol and narrative of the interview respondents. subsequently combined at the level of interpretation. For instance, qualitative data Of the 20 managers interviewed, 50% noted were thematically analysed in accordance that the Ministry of Health (MoH) funds for with Braun and Clarke’s thematic analysis DHBs for ToP services were via price volume approach (2006, 2014). This involved themes schedule as part of the population-based being identified by systematically coding funding system: “… a planned volume is all data with the identification of repetition, set and reviewed by the DHB each year as similarities, difference and significance part of setting the price volume schedule” within the content of coded extracts (Braun (Manager, small DHB). Of others, 15% & Clarke, 2014). Thematic mapping was identified that part of the ToP services utilised to organise themes, which coalesced was contracted to or from other DHBs via around systemic aspects of the ToP services. “inter-district flow”: an exchange of funds Quantitative data were descriptively between DHBs relating to sub-contracted analysed (Onwuegbuzie, Slate, Leech, & services; or (10%) via a “fees-for-service” Collins, 2007). process where services were funded only The data from the two separate methods by the number delivered. Data indicated were analysed separately and then merged that not all funding processes were well in a side-by-side approach (Creswell, 2014). understood by participants. Variances in For example, one area of convergence understanding may have been related to within the data was that the ToP counselling whether the particular role was operational workforce is primarily qualified and management or clinical leadership, or due registered female social workers who are to the nature of how ToP services were employed to undertake this area of work. designed. What was clearly highlighted is Integration of data occurred at an analytical the alignment of funding to contracts (MoH level to create meta-inferences (Leech & service specifications) which outlined service Onwuegbuzie, 2007); and are presented in delivery and accountability mechanisms. the Findings section. The provision of ToP counselling was Findings viewed by half the participants as an element of general social work services delivery, for The qualitative findings from interviews example, “…it’s just part of their general were organised and presented under five work and I’ve never been given an increase (researcher derived) broad themes and in resources to cover that…” (Manager 1,

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large DHB). The generic social work funding across survey participants. Most (73.07%) was described as a normal mechanism for stated they had a secure process for storing ToP counselling in most DHBs; however, client information separate from, or in a there was also a separation of funding sealed section of, the main patient file. dependent on the type of ToP services Almost half (46.15%) reported that only being provided. Terminations of foetal staff providing ToP services had access to abnormalities were funded differently than the client information but noted this was early first or second trimester terminations: also dependent on other staff following “…if they’re a foetal termination then we organisational policies. Variations in fund it out of our secondary service bucket” documentation processes may be attributed (Manager, small DHB). to how individual DHBs manage their clinical information and how information is Reporting transferred between DHBs.

Reporting captured data regarding Delivery how participants understood reporting mechanisms and documentation relating Counselling is only one of the multiple to ToP counselling and how these are components that are designed to interlink to supported within service delivery. Statistical form a process for how ToP services are to be data regarding individual client contacts delivered. Delivery, as a theme, was utilised were of particular importance as these are to encapsulate concepts around how ToP directly aligned to funding matters: price counselling services were provided across volume schedules, service specifications and the 19 DHBs. purchase unit codes and part of reporting processes to MoH. However, 35% of Over half (65%) of interview participants participants indicated that statistical data indicated they provided ToP services on site, capture specific to ToP counselling was the remainder sub-contracted these from poorly understood and not particularly other DHBs. Most (86%) stated they sub- visible with the general ToP services data contracted second-trimester ToP services capture. from other DHBs or private providers. Over half (65%) provided some limited services Variances concerning documentation for foetal abnormality ToP, and those with were noted in the responses of most further advanced gestation were again sub- (86%) of the interview participants, contracted out. There were notable variances although they acknowledged some type across the country with larger DHBs of documentation, usually in the form of providing the whole range of services while counselling reports. Almost half of the smaller DHBs sub-contracted out part or all survey respondents offered further clarity, of the ToP service. During the course of this stating they documented counselling notes study, one DHB separated into two districts. in either the patient clinical file (48%) or a The reasons offered for out-sourcing ToP separate complementary file (40.74%); and services were: lack of medical facilities; that information was conveyed to the ToP shortage of surgical personnel willing to multi-disciplinary team either verbally or provide this service; and diagnostic delays. via a written report. The ASC counselling standards outline that ToP counsellors All DHBs provided pre-decision and post- should “observe, record and accurately termination counselling services. Those report on sessions (verbally and in writing) providing the medical component of ToP what is presented by the client” (1998, p. 10). services also provided counselling on the day of surgery. In contrast, all survey Client information confidentiality, access participants reported providing pre-decision to, and storage of, information also differed counselling, 59.26% provided on the day of

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ToP counselling, and 85.19% provided post- 40 years or older, 42% claimed an advanced ToP counselling. No participants reported level of practice experience (seven or more restrictions within DHB policies on the years) in the field of ToP counselling. Those number of pre-decision counselling sessions who identified as Māori were 7.42%, lower a woman could have, although the general than the national average of 15.6% (Statistics consensus was that between one and three New Zealand, 2015, p. 1). ToP statistics for sessions were acceptable. The ASC Abortion 2013 indicate Māori were the second-highest Services in New Zealand website suggests population group nationally (24.57%) and post-ToP counselling should not exceed six Asian the third highest (17.08%)—neither sessions. of these population groups are adequately represented in the ToP counselling Research by Whitehead and Fanslow (2005) workforce (ASC, 2015). indicates that family violence for Aotearoa New Zealand women seeking terminations Interview participants (70%) reported is common. Routine FV screening of women that their counselling staff held either a over 16 years to ensure early identification counselling or social work qualification. and assistance is a requirement under Survey participants reported (84.61%) as the Ministry of Health Family Violence holding social work qualifications with Intervention Programme (2002). Survey the remainder holding a counselling participants (96.15%) responded that they qualification. Both participant groups routinely screened for family violence during reported that counsellors held professional ToP counselling. Additionally, survey memberships with either the Aotearoa participants stated that there were enough New Zealand Association of Social (55.55%) and generally accessible (69.96%) Workers or the New Zealand Association services in their area to respond to family of Counsellors (NZAC). Most interview violence disclosures. Most (62.96%) felt these participants (76%) reported their staff were services were responsive to family violence registered regardless of their profession. referrals but were not necessarily available In contrast, 92.31% of survey participants 24 hours and seven days per week – the reported they were registered practitioners exception being Women’s Refuge. (either social work or counselling) and 100% reported holding a current annual practising Staff profile certificate. At present, NZAC does not have a statutory registration process; an application Staff profile describes the staff providing for full membership process is carried out as ToP counselling and included concepts a form of self-regulation. regarding: profession; professional requirements; recruitment/employment Interview participants (76%) reported of counselling staff; and whether the recruitment to ToP counselling occurred practitioner’s role was a designated position. via staff already employed, who were interested in this field of practice and had Interview participants reported a national experience. There was variation in how total of 45 practitioners providing ToP experience was determined: both length counselling, with a range from one to five of service and experience in health-related employed depending on the size of the DHB. areas were identified. Additionally, 85% of Survey participants represented (58%) of this interview participants stated ToP counselling workforce. Demographic details obtained via was absorbed into other aspects of social survey participants described the counselling workers’ daily workload. “We don’t have workforce as 100% female, aged between any allocated FTE [staff time] specific to it – it 21 and 60+ years with the majority of the is all done within generic FTE” (Manager, workforce aged between 40 and 59 years, small DHB). Only four DHBs represented and largely European. Of those aged by 30% of interview participants reported

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having FTE designated specifically to ToP In relation to future developments, survey counsellors. participants were asked whether nationally approved ToP counselling training, Training and support standardisation of documentation processes and nationally agreed ToP counselling Training, as a theme, describes concepts resources might enhance ToP counselling regarding ToP counselling training, services. While 88.46% agreed that it would professional development, including be beneficial to have a nationally recognised preparation and support for entry to this ToP training programme, there were some field of practice. reservations about this being too prescribed. Regarding a nationally standardised Four interview participants expressed documentation process, 73.01% felt this concern about the lack of a national training would be beneficial and 73.01% were in programme, however, there was a general favour of having access to a nationally consensus that ToP counselling training approved set of resources that would be occurred internally within individual DHBs utilised within counselling sessions. and was conducted via three primary methods: learning information; use of Discussion resources utilised within ToP counselling sessions; and via a person-to-person As the focus of this study was quite approach. In comparison, 88.89% of survey pragmatic—responding to the need to participants described their training as understand how counselling services were “on-the-job” or “in-house” ranging from perceived by managers and practitioners— some form of orientation/induction, new knowledge derived from this study is coaching/mentoring by a more experienced discussed through the lens of the integrated practitioners to more intensive training care pathway. The integrated pathway is from an experienced practitioner. Intensive defined by Johnson as an “… amalgam of training included reading associated all the anticipated elements of case and material, attending peer presentations, treatment of all members of the multi- role playing and observations of live ToP disciplinary team, for a patient or client counselling sessions. Only 29.63% of survey of a particular case-type or grouping …” participants stated they had been able to (Johnson, 1997, p. 16). Integrated care attend training days organised on a regional pathways are: client centred and developed basis or a national conference. There was no from the involvement/integration of all indication of consistency of training method key stakeholders concerned with services across DHBs which raises questions about delivery; a mechanism to facilitate best how this may impact on the quality of ToP practice; for ensuring continuous quality counselling service delivery. improvement. Problematic variations within the data were identified as disconnects and Support to counsellors was described implications for ToP counselling service by interview participants as provided in delivery were highlighted. For example, the clinical supervision (75%), multi-disciplinary law (CSA Act, 1977) stipulates that GPs and meetings, peer debriefing post ToP clinics, certifying consultants must offer counselling, and regional meetings (bi-annually). it does not include nurses. Nurses employed Continuing professional development was by GP services and family planning centres presumed to be included for discussion are assumed to be potential referrers for within generic annual appraisals and ToP counselling clients. In contrast, the professional development planning. In Standards of Care (ASC, 2009, standard 27, contrast, survey participants (95.15%) stated p. 13) requires those involved “caring for a they receive regular clinical supervision in woman requesting abortion must advise a addition to supports as stated above. woman of her right to seek counselling and

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facilitate her referral to a suitably trained and Legislation should ideally reflect the reality credentialed professional whose counselling of the context in which abortion occurs. It is practice meets the standards of the ASC. This important to note is that since the completion service must be free and easily accessible”. of this study, Andrew Little (Minister of Justice) requested the Law Commission Standard 29 (p.13) states that a counsellor review the criminal aspect of Aotearoa New “a) hold a relevant qualification or have Zealand abortion law. Part of the review is to equivalent training in abortion counselling. consider whether abortion legislation might b) be registered members of their profession, be better aligned to health rather than the e.g., counselling or social work. c) be doing Crimes Act (1961). regular pregnancy counselling for women considering abortion, d) have supervision Workforce implications and peer review”. This signals a disconnect between law and practice, if an appropriate In common with other OCED countries, qualification is not held. Aotearoa New Zealand is faced with an aging workforce—those of retirement age The ToP care pathway differs from (65+ years) are predicted to increase to 23% most other health care pathways in that by 2036 (MoH, 2014). Survey data indicate clients must meet both medical and legal that 70.37% of the ToP counselling workforce requirements to undertake this procedure. are aged between 40–59 years and are also The requirement that counselling must those who have the most experience in this be offered and available (CSA Act, 1977), particular field of practice. The availability acknowledges and legitimates that there is of a suitable ToP workforce dictates how a strong psycho-social element associated to care pathways are developed and may have ToP service delivery. While not all women impacts on accessibility of counselling for seeking termination require counselling women seeking ToPs. Study findings suggest (Marie Stopes International, 2006), it is the that there is no workforce development psycho-social aspects associated with ToPs plan in relation to recruiting either medical that give rise to the need for counselling and or counselling staff to this field. This the politics surrounding abortion (Needle & signals a need to address future workforce Walker, 2007). development and ToP service delivery design. Such a review should include the One disconnect that impacts on ToP service incorporation of consistent and accessible delivery is the need to meet the legal ToP counselling. requirement of lawful access to services on the grounds of serious danger to the DHBs have the scope to develop ToP women’s physical or mental health should services to meet their local/regional needs the pregnancy continue (Crimes Act, 1961, (Ministry of Justice, 2014) and counselling s187a). This perpetuates the discourse that variations are largely influenced by mental illness is directly related to and whether the medical component occurs on an outcome of procuring a ToP, rather site or is outsourced. Those who provide than psychological distress related to an the whole service are likely to provide to unexpected/unplanned or unwanted a large population or catchment and are pregnancy occurring within the context of also likely to have a designated resource the individual’s personal situation. This is for ToP counselling with time allocated to a significant issue given that, in 2014, 97.3% practitioners or a specific allocated role. of abortions performed in Aotearoa New There are few indications from the data that Zealand were for the above-stated grounds any funding is specifically captured for ToP (ASC, 2015, p. 20). Locating abortion within counselling services. Variances concerning the criminal code has implications for co- allocated resource to ToP counselling ordinated policy and service development. identified in this study indicate that this

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specialist role has not been adequately with the goal of ensuring patient safety scoped and may be poorly integrated into (MoH, 2002) and which is supported by the ToP care pathway. national regulatory bodies and professional associations (Health Practitioners The CSA Act (1977) stipulates that GPs/ Competency Assurance Act, 2003; the certifying consultants must offer counselling Social Workers Registration Act, 2003; to women seeking a service; and that New Zealand Association of Counsellors). referrals are to be a “suitably trained The application of this process, however, is and credentialed counsellor” (ASC, 2009, not consistent across all health disciplines standards 27-29). This study reflects that it in relation to ToP services. There are is largely qualified, registered health social expectations within the Standards of Care workers providing the ToP counselling (ASC, 2009) for both nursing and medical service in compliance with the law (CSA practitioners to undertake specialist training Act, 1977); and who are already employed and engage in continuing professional in related care pathways e.g., obstetrics, development. In contrast, this study women’s medical services. There is still a identified national variations in relation to need, however, to differentiate between the role orientation and training being reliant different types of counselling provided by on the broad expertise of more experienced different disciplines in relation to ToP care practitioners in ToP counselling. Both pathway. interview and survey participants expressed a concern about the lack of training specific While other health professionals/lay to ToP counselling. There is a lack of counsellors may be able to identify concerns guidance from the Standards of Practice and provide information about ToP (ASC, 1998) regarding CPD requirements procedures, social workers are also engaged and level of expertise within the field of ToP with non-procedural counselling, for counselling. example, exploration of certainty, emotions, values and beliefs regarding their decision; ToP services are not widely and openly identifying support; attending to contextual advertised and this is likely due to the sources of anxiety, and managing safety and contentious political and moral nature of risk issues that might increase the clients’ abortion. The most common method of likelihood of poor coping. Data indicated accessing information about services, outside that ToP counsellors excelled at routine of GPs and health clinics, is via the internet. enquiry regarding family violence; and Not all DHBs offer information that can be participants responded positively regarding accessed by their websites. This method is general availability, accessibility and also a difficulty for those who live rurally, responsiveness of family violence support have poor internet coverage or where services. Knowledge of these services is of literacy might be a barrier. There is a legal paramount importance in successful referral. requirement that ToP counselling be offered; however, it is unclear whether this service Credentials and professional is promoted in a manner that encourages development engagement. Data indicate national variance regarding ToP counselling services A second disconnect was identified in information via pamphlets or DHB websites. relation to credentialing—recruitment, Survey participants (62.96%) reported that orientation, training and continuing their information pamphlets were largely professional development across health distributed via ToP services rather than at disciplines in relation to ToP services. The the point of referral. Further variations were MoH has a process that assigns clinical reported regarding resources utilised to aid responsibilities to health practitioners based informed decision-making with the likely on training, qualifications and experience implication of inconsistent quality regarding

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written information/decision-making tools funding of (and contracts related to) ToP being used. Both of these concerns signal counselling services, and the features of a a need for some nationally approved and well-articulated integrated care pathway. standardised counselling and information The researchers note that these disconnects resources. undermine the delivery of this important component of the care pathway for ToP; Documentation was considered an issue and signal that this aspect is inadequately of importance in that it is the mechanism imbedded in care pathways for many DHBs. by which ToP service delivery maintains public visibility. Data capture regarding Limitations ToP services was linked significantly with reporting against MoH contracts and While this small study attempted to provide funding accountability; and ASC statistical an exploratory overview of ToP counselling data collection. While social workers are services in Aotearoa New Zealand, there is required to capture statistics in relation one glaring deficit that should be remedied to face-to-face client contacts in respect in future research and that is the voice of reporting against MoH contracts – of service users—this was not possible there is no requirement to differentiate a to explore within the time available to ToP counselling contact from any other complete the project. There is need to obtain client contacts that occur in the course of the perspective of the women utilising the their work. ToP counselling is generally counselling service component of seeking captured generically and is thus often a ToP for, without this, there is risk of undistinguishable as there is no mechanism delivering services that primarily meet the that requires it to be reported to the MoH or needs of the providers. It is suggested that ASC. This signals a significant component of further research be undertaken to obtain the the ToP care pathway remains unreported viewpoints of women who are recipients of nationally and thus invisible. ToP services.

Variations were also noted in the way Conclusions individual DHBs utilise their allocated funding for ToP services and that it is Care pathways describe the client journey dependent on availability of clinical in relation to a health event, whilst models expertise, equipment, and effective use of care are concerned with design—the of financial and staffing resources. The underlying philosophies, principles and implication is that ToP care pathways may processes which support the delivery of be planned, developed or improved without the care pathway. “Abortion is more than being understood well by all involved just a medical or surgical procedure. The and without equal consideration given to procedure occurs within the context of all components of services delivery. How a women’s life …” (Gawinski, Bennett, funding processes affect implementation of Rousseau, & Schaff, 2002, p. 440); and service delivery sits at a high managerial ideally, the training of practitioners in level and not necessarily well understood abortion care should be founded on a by the managing staff or staff delivering the biopsychosocial model. service. The method of allocating funding for social work services may not truly reflect the Clinical governance provides the framework range of services or adequately cover the cost under which models of care and care of all aspects of services being delivered. pathways are developed; and should: involve all levels of the organisation; The contribution of this study is to be linked to legislation, government illuminate disconnects noted in the data requirements and professional standards between reporting requirements, the of practice; and include input from service

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users. It should also include systems and of ToP service delivery and those that processes that support service delivery, directly relate to ToP counselling services. notably shared accountability, management ToP services occur within an interconnected, of risk, and quality improvement. Data multi-dimensional environment. from interview participants suggest that few DHBs had recently reviewed their ToP We conclude the article with some services. recommendations for improvement of the counselling services by addressing the The UK’s Family Planning Association systemic concerns identified. (2015) provides a best practice guideline that outlines core principles in commissioning Recommendations ToP services. Some, but not all, of the principles have been adopted by ASC (2009). • The MoH national travel assistance One of the Family Planning Association’s scheme be reviewed to enable all women (2015) recommendations is that workforce seeking ToP services eligibility for development and training, and specialist funded travel. support services such as counselling should • The CSA Act (1977) be reviewed to be incorporated in service specifications. remove the stigma of mental illness and consider psychological distress as a There are a number of variations identified legal requirement for eligibility to ToP within this study that signal disconnects services. between legislation, policies, practice and • The MoH commence a national funding in relation to ToP counselling workforce development plan in relation services. These are: to all health disciplines engaged in the delivery of ToP services. • Funded travel and access to services, as • The ASC and the MoH ensure that highlighted by the Nicol Report (1987), practice guidelines for all components remain an issue for many. of ToP service delivery are aligned to • Legislation that is not reflective of the legislation and reflect best practice. current context for women seeking ToPs • The MoH prescribe equitable (this is now being reviewed by the Law credentialing processes across all Commission). disciplines employed to deliver ToP • Current aging ToP workforce signalling services; and are reflected in ASC the need for a national workforce guidelines. development plan. • Legislation and practice guidelines that Counselling is an important component of require improved alignment. ToP service delivery and the results of this • Inconsistent application of ASC study highlighted disconnects that impact on guidelines in relation to provision of quality and availability. Solutions are offered information to clients. in the following recommendations that: • Lack of national guidelines to ensure consistent documentation in relation to • The ASC develop nationally approved ToP counselling services. set of resources that can be provided to • ToP counselling services not included in clients and utilised in counselling. the national ToP reporting mechanisms. • The ASC develop nationally approved • Unclear funding pathway for, and lack guidelines for documentation processes of inclusion in, ToP contracts regarding in relation to ToP counselling services counselling services. that have flexibility to reflect regional needs. The variations described above represent a • The ASC develop a national reporting disconnect between the systemic components mechanism by which to audit efficacy

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and quality of ToP counselling those more than 22 weeks, a statutory services—ensuring continuous quality test of B would be required. improvement and visibility of this component of ToP services. All options would lead to the repeal of • The MoH develop a funding pathway current grounds in the Crimes Act and via a separate purchase unit code for the need for certifying consultants. Any ToP counselling. legislative development will result in changes to the provision of services, While there are many positives about including counselling and social work the Aotearoa New Zealand termination support. of pregnancy services (Silva et al., 2011), the earlier identified variations in service References delivery suggest that there are some areas Abortion Supervisory Committee. (1998). Standards of of improvement needed to ensure quality practice for the provision of abortion counselling. Wellington, NZ: Government Printer. ToP services delivery, especially that of ToP Abortion Supervisory Committee. (2009). Standards of care counselling. Further research is needed to for women requesting induced abortion in New Zealand gain service user views and inform better [Report of a Standards committee to the Abortion systems for the induction, training and Supervisory Committee]. Wellington, NZ: Ministry of Justice. professional development of social workers Abortion Supervisory Committee. (2015). Report of the providing this important service. Abortion Supervisory Committee. Wellington, NZ: Ministry of Justice. Postscript: At the time of acceptance of Beddoe, L., & Weaver, A. (1988). Ten years on: Abortion this article (October 30, 2018) The Law counselling services in New Zealand. New Zealand Social Work, 12(3/4), 23–28. Commission had published the briefing Brien, J., & Fairburn, I. (2003). Pregnancy and abortion paper Alternative Approaches to Abortion Law counselling. London, United Kingdom: Routledge. (Law Commission, 2018) commissioned by Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in Justice Minister Andrew Little in February psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 2018, which provides three alternative legal 77–101. models for consideration. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2014). Successful qualitative research. London, UK: Sage. Contraception, Sterilisation and Abortion Act, 1977, No 112. • Model A proposes there would be Retrieved from http://www.legislation.govt.nz/public/1977 no specific abortion legislation and Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design. Thousand Oaks, the abortion provisions in the Crimes CA: Sage. Act (1961) and the Contraception, Crimes Act, 1961, No 43. Retrieved from http://www. Sterilisation, and Abortion Act (1977) legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1961 would be repealed. There would be no Ely, G. E., Dulmus, C. N., & Akers, L. S. (2010). An examination of levels of patient satisfaction with their statutory test and the decision to have an abortion counseling experience: A social work practice abortion would be made by a woman in evaluation. Best Practices in Mental Health, 6(2), consultation with a health practitioner. 103–114. • Model B proposes a statutory test in Family Planning Organisation. (2015). Decision-making support within the integrated care pathway for health legislation, rather than under women considering or seeking abortion: Guidance for the Crimes Act. This test would require commissioners on improving access and outcomes for the health practitioner who intends to women. Retrieved from http://www.fpa.org.uk/decision_ making_support_abortion perform the abortion to believe it is Federation of Women’s Health Councils. (1992). Abortion appropriate considering the woman’s services and the health changes. Wellington, NZ: physical and mental health and Ministry of Health. wellbeing. Gawinski, B. A., Bennett, P. A., Rousseau, S. J., & Schaff, E. • Model C combines aspects of A (2002). A biopsychosocial model of training in abortion care. Families, Systems and Health, 20(4), 439–446. and B and focuses on gestation. For Health Practitioners Competency Assurance Act, 2003, pregnancies of not more than 22 weeks’ No 48. Retrieved from www.legislation.govt.nz/act/ gestation, model A would apply. For public/2003/0048

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Hunton, R. B., & Spicer, J. (1979). An evaluation of the Sparrow, M. (2010). Abortion then and now: New Zealand counselling given to patients having a therapeutic abortion stories from 1940 to 1980. Wellington, NZ: abortion. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Victoria University Press. Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 19, 169–173. Statistics New Zealand. (2015). New Zealand in profile: Illsley, R., & Hall, M. (1976). Psychosocial aspects of An overview of New Zealand’s people, economy and abortion. Bulletin of World Health Organisation, 53. environment. Wellington, NZ: Author. United Kingdom: Blackwell. SurveyMonkey Inc. (n.d.). Palo Alto, California, USA. International Federation of Social Workers. (2015). Global Retrieved from www.surveymonkey.com definition of the social work profession. Retrieved from Whitehead, A., & Fanslow, J. (2005). Prevalence of family http://www.ifse.org/policies/definition-of-social-work violence amongst women attending an abortion clinic in Johnson, S. (Ed.). (1997). Pathways of care. Carlton, VIC: New Zealand. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Blackwell Science. Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 45, 321–324. Law Commission. (2018). Alternative approaches to abortion law: Ministerial briefing paper. October 26 2018. Wellington, New Zealand: Author. Retrieved from https:// www.lawcom.govt.nz/abortion Leask, M. (2014). Constructing women as mentally troubled: The political and performative effects of psychological studies on abortion and mental health. Women’s Studies Journal, 28(1), 74–82. Lee, E. (2011). Pregnancy counselling in Britain: A review of literature. Psychology and Reproductive Choice. Retrieved from http://www.prochoiceforum,org.uk McCoyd, J. L. M. (2010). Women in no man’s land: The abortion debate in the USA and women terminating desired pregnancies due to foetal anomaly. British Journal of Social Work, 40, 133–153. Marie Stopes International. (2006). What women want when faced with an unplanned pregnancy. (Websurvey Report), Melbourne, VIC: Author. Ministry of Health. (2002). Family violence intervention guidelines: Child and partner abuse. Wellington, NZ: Author. Ministry of Health. (2014). The role of Health Workforce New Zealand. Wellington, NZ: Author. Ministry of Justice. (2014). Abortion services in New Zealand: DHB responsibilities. Retrieved from http://abortionservices.org.nz/ministry Needle, R., & Walker, L. E. (2007). Abortion counseling: A clinician’s guide to psychology, legislation, politics and competency. New York, NY: Springer Publishing. New Zealand Social Workers Registration Act, 3002, No 17. Retrieved from http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/ public/2003/0017 Nicol, J. (1987). Abortion services in New Zealand. [A report prepared for the women, children and family health programme to aid in planning and policy formulation]. Wellington, NZ: Ministry of Health. Onwuegbuzie, A. J. & Leech, N. L. (2007). Sampling designs in qualitative research: Making the sampling process more public. The Qualitative Report, 12(2), 238–254. Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Slate, J. R., Leech, N. L. & Collins, K. M. T. (2007). Conducting mixed analysis: A general typology. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 1(1), 4–17. Richdale, J. M. (2010). Lifting the veil of silence: Personal abortion narratives in New Zealand, 1919-1937. (Doctoral thesis, University of Auckland). Silva, M., Ashton, T., & McNeill, R. (2011). Improving termination of pregnancy services in New Zealand. The New Zealand Medical Journal, 124(1339), 83–90.

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Radical women in social work: A historical perspective from North America

Therese Jennissen and Colleen Lundy, Carleton University, Ottawa Canada

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION: Many challenges that confront social workers today are similar to problems they have faced over the past century – inequality, poverty, unemployment, militarisation and armed conflict, and the challenges of refugee resettlement, to name a few. It is instructive for contemporary social workers to revisit this history and to determine if there are lessons to inform our current struggles.

METHOD: This paper explores the issues faced and strategies employed by radical, politically active social workers, most of them women. These social workers had visions of social justice and were not afraid to challenge the status quo, often at very high personal costs. The radical social workers were expressly interested in social change that centred on social justice, women’s rights, anti-racism, international peace, and they worked in close alliance and solidarity with other progressive groups.

CONCLUSIONS: This article highlights the work of five radical female social workers. Radical social workers were in the minority but they were extraordinarily active and made important contributions in the face of formidable challenges.

KEYWORDS: history; radical social workers; women; social justice; peace

That the study of history is losing ground historical research in the current competitive at schools of social work in North America job market. This is problematic because much is not a new issue. Over 40 years ago, of social work history has yet to be written. As American social work educators Leslie recently as 2011 the authors of this paper wrote Leighninger and Robert Knickmeyer lamented the first comprehensive history of the social that: “Social work, like many fields, has work profession in English Canada. sometimes suffered from an inadequate and distorted understanding of its own We hope that our article will contribute to history. A profession’s inattention to its a reawakening of interest in social work past is an unfortunate thing” (1976, p. 166). history and a recognition of its importance This sentiment rings true today; few social to the profession. We begin with a brief work programmes have compulsory courses review of the development of the social work AOTEAROA in social work history, and accreditation profession, setting the stage for understanding NEW ZEALAND SOCIAL guidelines do not require it. This is troubling the role of women in it, and particularly the WORK 30(3), 45–56. for a couple of reasons. Social workers are role of left wing, radical women. missing out on important lessons from their CORRESPONDENCE TO: history. And, if history is deemed unimportant, In North America, at the turn of the Colleen Lundy it is unlikely that new scholars will engage in last century industrial expansion was [email protected]

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accompanied by urbanisation, increases in on, before the era of professionalisation, immigration, harsh working environments, notably in the differing orientations of the and deplorable living conditions. Social organised charities and the settlement house work emerged as organised responses to movement. However, it was primarily the those who were poor and unable to care for changing material conditions, the scope themselves. Initially it was in the form of the and magnitude of the devastating problems Charity Organization Societies (COS) which resulting from the Great Depression and regulated, administered and distributed social workers’ exposure to these issues that charity to those who were deemed worthy. created an environment for developing a The Settlement House Movement followed more critical analysis of capitalist society the COS and was based on a different and social work’s role within it. Leighninger philosophy that was influenced by the social and Knickmeyer summarise that “[t]he gospel (that is, the application of Christian depths of the crisis reawakened old debates values to understanding and addressing and introduced new strains of professional social problems). Settlement workers moved thinking” (1976, p. 167). into and lived in impoverished areas of inner cities and worked to improve social Our paper examines the work and struggles and economic conditions, provide language of five eminent women in the profession’s training and child care. The settlement history in Canada and the USA. From the movement often was aligned with labour USA we include: Jane Addams, Mary Abby and other progressive forces. van Kleeck, and Bertha Reynolds; and from Canada: Mary Jennison and Bessie Professionalisation was a watershed moment Touzel. There are many more pioneers in for social work in both the USA and Canada. our profession who have made significant Social workers would take their place contributions but we have selected these alongside nurses, lawyers and doctors. women because of what they represented, Professionalisation meant having a discrete, the issues they focused on, and the defined and recognised area of expertise convictions of their work in the face of that would adhere to specific ethical and extreme challenges imposed by conservative work standards, and university programmes forces and a paranoid state particularly providing accredited degrees. In these early during the Cold War era. Not only were years, social workers in Canada and the USA they activists and leaders but also they were attended the same conferences, read the leading intellectuals and visionaries in social same journals, and often graduated from the work. same universities. For ease of discussion we refer to them From the beginning there were tensions over as “radical social workers”; that is, social the nature and purpose of the profession. workers who held left wing views with The emphasis on professionalisation class-based critiques of capitalism. The presented a dilemma. Some viewed social women in our sample, all educated in social work’s function as primarily assisting the work, were committed feminists, socialists individual to cope in a complex world and, and communists or sympathetic to these underlying this, the notion that individuals causes; their contributions to the profession were to blame for their own circumstances. were informed by Marxist ideas. They An alternative view centred on social work were politically active, and were opposed as a terrain of struggle for social change to class, race, and gender inequality. They through social and political action. Here the understood the importance of waged labour, focus was on examining the socio-economic- unions, political parties and how these political structures in society rather than on structures related to working people. They perceived failings of the individual. Elements were intellectuals and prolific in writings, of this division were manifested early presentations and conference participation;

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they were internationalists committed and citizenship” (Elshtain, 2002, p. xxvii). to peace. Finally, they were extremely Hull House grew to include 26 apartments courageous refusing to shy away from their and 27 rooms and covered two city blocks political convictions in spite of red-baiting, (Trolander, 1975). Addams quickly became a firings, and persecution by the state and prominent social worker and a leader in the conservative forces in society. They all were settlement movement. Hull House was her educated women and worked in central home for 46 years until her death. Canada and the north-eastern United States where the first social work programmes As early as 1910, Addams identified the were established. two groups of social workers which came to represent distinct approaches to the There are two major themes in our paper— profession. radicalism and solidarity. The theme of radicalism highlights the important roles One group who have traditionally been played by radical and highly politicised moved to action by “pity for the poor” women in social work history. These women we call the Charitable; the other, larger were remarkably in touch with the material or smaller in each generation, but always conditions of life of the people they worked fired by the “hatred of injustice” we with and offered clear perspectives for designate as the Radicals. (Addams, social, economic and political change in 1910, p. 1) society. A second theme in this paper is the strong expression and efforts of both the While both approaches focused on radical American (USA) and Canadian social alleviating the hopelessness and suffering workers for working in solidarity with social of people, they engaged different strategies. workers across agencies, common causes, The former spearheaded casework and jobs, and nations. These two themes— the latter was more centred on group and radicalism and solidarity—form the analytic community work. Settlement workers base of our paper. referred to those accessing services as “neighbours in need” rather than clients Radical Social Workers in the USA (Lundblad, 1995). Addams connected with and Canada, 1890s–1960s other progressive leaders who shared her commitment to social equality and social (Laura) Jane Addams (1860–1935) justice and she supported the work of W. E. B. Dubois, a noted Marxist and a renowned Jane Addams was born in a small town of African-American scholar and a civil rights Cedarville, Illinois. Although accepted at activist. In 1910, along with Dubois, Addams Smith College, in 1877 she attended Rockford became a founding member of the American College in Rockford, Illinois, according to Civil Liberties Union, and the National her father’s wishes that she be closer to Association for the Advancement of Colored home. While travelling to England in 1888 People (NAACP), an organisation that still Addams visited and became inspired by exists today (Dubois 1968, pp. 218, 260). the settlement houses such as Toynbee Hall. In 1889, with friend Ellen Gates Starr, she The success of Hull House was noted founded Hull House, a settlement house in internationally. William Lyon Mackenzie Chicago for immigrants. King, Canada’s longest-serving Prime Minister (1921–1926, 1926–1930, 1935–1948), Inspired by the social gospel, activities worked alongside Addams at Hull House were introduced to improve “the quality while completing his graduate studies in of life or immigrants by offering them art, Chicago between 1896 and 1897. As Prime drama, and music as well as public baths, Minister, he introduced unemployment baby care, job training and classes in English insurance and family allowance to

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Canada; he attributed his understanding where she was the Director of Industrial of unemployment and poverty partly to Studies. The Russell Sage Foundation was his experiences at Hull House. As head a privately endowed research institute of the settlement house movement, Jane established in 1907 and several of its studies Addams opposed WWI and was a founding dealt with the labour market, employment member of the Woman’s Peace Party that conditions, immigration, and social would later re-form as the USA section of equality. Van Kleeck centred her research the Women’s International League for Peace on exploring the relationship between and Freedom (WILPF). Addams became workers and employers, democratising the its president and continued to promote workplace, and the relationship between the perspective that peace and social work labour and capital. were inextricable from each other. While her involvement in advocacy for the poor She drafted the War Labour Policies Board was acceptable, entering the realm of peace standards for women’s employment in the advocacy—the political domain of men—was war industry during WWI. She was appointed not (Klosterman & Stratton, 2006). She was head of Women in Industry Service (later vilified in the press and alienated from the called the Women’s Bureau) within the USA profession. Addams stated that she wrote Department of Labour. With the Depression the 1922 book, Peace and Bread in Times of of the 1930s, van Kleeck’s attention turned War, because, for her, peace and bread were to causes of unemployment and the labour inseparable. While politically she tried to be unrest that was spreading across the USA “middle of the road,” she “pushed far toward and Canada. In 1933 she joined the Federal the left on the subject of war” (1983, p. 133). Advisory Council of the USA Employment Services but resigned after only one day During the decade that followed the end of because of her disillusionment over the New WWI and the Russian Revolution, “anti-Red Deal policies. Instead she put her energies hysteria” was prevalent and Jane Addams into critiques of capitalism and its effects on found her name regularly on a list of workers, became a prominent public speaker subversive citizens (Elshtain, 2002, p. xxvii). on these subjects and made frequent trips to But she never wavered from her commitment Canada. She was described as possessing “a to peace and justice. In 1931 she was awarded sharp wit, a powerful speaking voice, strong the Nobel Prize for Peace. Addams was a leadership skills, and a tenacious reform prolific writer—11 books, more than 500 spirit” (Selmi, 2005, p. 413). published essays, speeches and editorials. Jane Addams died at age of 74. Her awareness of the widespread devastation of economic collapse of the 1930s and its Mary Abby van Kleeck (1883–1972) impact on working people led her to be openly critical of capitalism. She became a committed Mary van Kleeck was a prominent social socialist drawing on Marxist analysis for worker, feminist, labour activist and explaining the causes of the Great Depression researcher. As a student at Smith College and the weaknesses of a private market in 1904 she joined the College Settlement economy. Capitalism, she argued, created Association. Her early research focused “intolerable social conditions, condemning on the conditions of women and children millions to poverty, [and] have led oppressed in factories and through the course of her people to revolt” (1961, p. 4). She was working life at the Russell Sage Foundation, dedicated to the rights of workers, encouraging she became a leading expert on employment them to engage social and political critiques in and working conditions. their work (Selmi, 2005, p. 414).

Van Kleeck was employed at the Russell In 1935 van Kleeck gave an address in Sage Foundation for 40 years (1908–1948) Toronto, Canada, titled “Social Security

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or What” and spoke of the importance of National Conference of Social Work on class struggle in acquiring social security. “Governmental Intervention in the Labor She described it as a process between the Movement.” She addressed class conflict “conflict of the interests between workers and the importance of workers’ right to who are striving for a higher wage scale strike and safeguard their interests when and employers who are striving to keep employers oppose them; she stated that, the cost of production down and keep up “Unless Labor, in its organization, has civil the profit….” (van Kleeck, 1935a, p. 27). liberties, none of us will have civil liberties” She emphasised that social work fails if it (van Kleeck, 1935c, p. 27). does not grapple with these underlying economic problems. She received applause Van Kleeck was opposed to the USA for denouncing the “red scare” and her entry into WWII. As a peace advocate she comments that its purpose was to suppress argued that “…war creates not wealth radicalism, the struggle of workers, and the but destruction. War, moreover, distorts trade union movement. a nation’s economy, over developing and over-capitalizing some branches of industry Later she addressed the National Co- beyond normal, peace-time needs” (van ordinating Committee of Rank and File Kleeck, 1961, p. 7). By 1941, van Kleeck had Groups of Social Workers in Montreal, witnessed the growth of the social work Canada, noting similarities between the two profession and although she faced many countries, and the great inadequacy of the challenges in her career, she remained relief programme. optimistic about the future of the profession; social work, she argued, has started to We seem year to year to be meeting “question its traditional role as ambulance here in this National Conference of division of a permanently disordered Social Work and facing each year the social structure” (1941, p. 3). She died at same questions on the way in which an the age of 88. economic crisis, an industrial depression, undermines the achievements of social Bertha Reynolds (1887–1978) workers and their efforts. (van Kleeck, 1935b, p. 29) Similar to Mary van Kleeck, Reynolds attended Smith College, graduating in 1908 She urged social workers to be involved with a Bachelor of Social Work degree. She in the labour movement and advocate for obtained a second social work degree from complete racial equality. Responding to Simmons College in 1914. From 1913–1918, a question about Fascism in the USA, she Reynolds worked for the Children’s Aid commented: Society in Boston. Between 1917 and 1918 she studied in the first class of a psychiatric Now what is Fascism? It arises as a social work programme offered at Smith withdrawal of democracy in the interests College in order to assist “shell shocked” of the status quo. It is the recoil from soldiers returning from WWI (Bertha democracy … and limiting, to such an Reynold Papers). For the next five years extent, civil liberties, taking away rights she was Director of Social Services at a state of free speech, disciplining teachers and hospital in Massachusetts followed by three university professors and writers and years at the Division of Mental Hygiene social workers and all who may to-day take in Boston where she worked in a clinic for part in the struggle … these are all Fascist behavioural training of pre-school children. tendencies. (van Kleeck. 1935b, p. 29) In 1925 Reynolds became Associate Director The following day she delivered another of Social Work at Smith College. She taught speech to the Social Action group of the summer courses and supervised students in

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their placements and continued to conduct Reynolds worked as Associate Director research on a range of social issues (National of Social Work at Smith College for 10 Association of Social Work (NASW), years until she became a victim of anti- 2004). Over the years, Reynolds became a communism. Her affiliation with the distinguished practitioner and educator and Communist Party, her efforts to unionise seemed to be able to reconcile her interests college employees and her expressly in Freudian psychology and Marxism with Marxist analysis in courses at the college relative ease. She continued to work at came into conflict with the upper levels Smith College until the late 1930s when her of management and she was forced to principles came into conflict with those in resign in 1938 (Andrews & Reisch, 1997; power. NASW, 2004; Reisch and Andrews 2002). Shortly thereafter she worked briefly for the Reynolds identified the choices for social Maritime Union after which she devoted work in the 1930s: most of her time to writing and public speaking. Social work today is standing at the crossroads. It may go on with its face Bertha Reynolds, alongside her colleague toward the past, bolstering up the Mary van Kleeck, was active in the Rank decaying profit system, having to defend and File Movement, a coalition of groups, what is indefensible for the sake of including radicals and progressives money which pays for its services. On interested in broad structural changes to the other hand it may envision a future in their own conditions as social workers and which professional social services as well changes to the practices of social work. as education, medical services and the The movement grew to a membership of like shall be the unquestioned right of all 15,000 and created its own journal, Social conferred not as a benefit but as society’s Work Today. When the journal went out of only way of maintaining itself. (Reynolds, existence in 1942, Reynolds described the 1963, p. 143) impact of this on her personally:

Reynolds was a frequent speaker in Canada In the early winter of [1943] came the and the USA and her work was published death of Social Work Today about which regularly in Canadian journals. In 1936, in I felt as if it were the loss of a family Child and Family Welfare, she encouraged member. When it was gone a light went social workers to join in solidarity with all out of social work which has never been workers: rekindled. (Reynolds, 1963, p. 240)

The future of social casework is the future Reynolds was committed to peace. And of the right of common men and women while cynics regarded “peace work” as to economic justice and civil liberties, impossible and naïve, the fear of a nuclear including the right to think and to war following WWII was a reality. The participate in the making of their own life intensification of the Cold War and the condition. If common men and women McCarthy witch hunts of the 1950s had fail to achieve those rights, no one will a chilling effect on left-wing activists. have them. Professional people are Peace activists were of particular concern learning that their fate is bound up with because to speak of peace was regarded that of all workers. If they do not stand as supporting the USSR. We cannot courageously for all human rights, they ignore the role that opposition to peace will lose their own, including the right efforts and advocacy to social justice to practice their profession as a high played in targeting social workers and and honourable calling. (Reynolds, suppressing their social work activities and 1936, p. 12) contributions. There were two waves of

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opposition that social workers faced. First, Mary Irick Jennison (1892–1970) the success of the Russian revolution in 1917 Mary Jennison was born in 1892 in Acadia viewed peace and any opposition to WWI Mines, Nova Scotia. In the late 19th and as being subversive and possibly aligned early 20th centuries this was a bustling with communist forces. These sentiments iron ore mining town and one of the first were magnified during the 1940s and 1950s steel-producing centres in eastern Canada. during the depth of the Cold War when Establishing her first career as a teacher, anti-communism seemed to be at its peak. Jennison lived in Toronto where she taught It was a repressive climate fostering fear at a girls’ school. Here she was a teacher of where anyone who was advocating social Dorothy Livesay, one of Canada’s leading justice was suspect. poets. Livesay describes her as an impressive teacher: In 1953, in the context of American involvement in the Korean War, an … she was taking courses in economics escalating atomic reality and the Cold and political science with a view to War, Bertha Reynolds posed the question, becoming a social worker. Her approach “How does the world conflict touch us, as to literature was intensely stimulating, for social workers, and what do we propose she related the novels and poetry to the to do about it?” (Reynolds, 1986, p. 90). world they sprang from. She challenged Although mainstream social workers likely us with questions about atheism and were reluctant to see a relationship between socialism. (Livesay, 1977, p. 20) social work and conflict in Korea, Reynolds’ questions may have caused them to examine In 1927 Jennison entered the Department this connection. Cold War ideology did of Social Sciences at the University of influence the education and practice of Toronto. She soon distinguished herself social work in both the USA and Canada as an academic and student leader. She (Andrews & Reisch, 1997; Reisch & received an alumnae scholarship and Andrews, 2002); Jennissen & Lundy, 2011). became class president in 1927. As a student Rachel Levine, Literary Executor of the Jennison studied with E. J. Urwick, acting Bertha Reynolds papers states that: Director of the Department of Social Science. Urwick came to Canada from the UK with [Reynolds] believed that catastrophes a wealth of experience. He had worked like war, cyclic economic depression, as a poor law guardian, a sub-warden chronic poverty, hunger, and a host of of Toynbee Hall, and Director of Social others, and their effects upon the human Sciences and Administration at the London conditions, and on a global scale, are School of Economics (Canadian Economics but the symptoms of underlying causes Association, 1945). This combination of which are rooted in societal values and work experience and his education in social systems; therefore, the searchlight should theory and philosophy made Urwick a good be beamed on, and work directed to, the candidate for teaching social work students elimination of the causes … But what and he appears to have influenced them. In ‘cooked [Reynolds’] goose,’ to quote 1928 Jennison graduated from the diploma a phrase, was that she used Marxist programme alongside her colleague Bessie ideology as a frame of reference for her Touzel; their paths would continue to cross beliefs and its science of society as the through their work and political activism key to the solution of such widespread throughout their lives. socio-economic-political disasters. And she dared to present her views in public! Following graduation Jennison worked (Levine, cited in West, 2012) for the Social Service Council of Canada as assistant secretary. The Moral and Reynolds died at the age of 90. Social Reform Council of Canada, as it

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was formerly known, was founded in 1907 Civil War in 1937–1938; she supported the and changed its name in 1914 whereby it Committee of Allied Victories in Quebec ….“forged an alliance between churches, and several other activities that were under labour and social reform groups, and began scrutiny by the Royal Canadian Mounted to lobby government and others for its Police (RCMP). These activities placed agenda of social change” (Wills, 1995, p. 18). Jennison on the RCMP’s list of subversive As soon as she received her social work people. The RCMP monitored her activities, credentials, Jennison became active in the intercepted her mail, followed her and newly developed Canadian Association of intruded in her private life from 1939 to 1970; Social Workers (1926) where she was the during this time they amassed 3,171 pages of convener of publicity in the late 1920s and secret files on her (RCMP files). then became the first editor of the CASW’s journal, The Social Worker. The Social Worker After working in Montreal, Jennison moved began as a four-page leaflet but soon became to Hamilton, Ontario, in 1943. Hamilton an established journal and an important was a major industrial centre in Ontario medium for connecting social workers across and played a key role in the construction the country. Jennison regularly contributed of war materials for both world wars. The to the journal. city had two major steel plants, Dofasco and Stelco. With a large population of industrial After working at the Social Service Council workers, Hamilton was a site of major labour of Canada (SSCC), Jennison worked for conflict. In 1946 Stelco workers went on the Federation for Community Services strike for union recognition, a 40-hour work (1929–1937). It was established in 1919 to week, and increased wages. This was the coordinate the funding of the various social context within which Mary Jennison was service organisations. Maurutto describes the operating the Dale Community Centre. federation as a secular organisation designed to streamline the funding efforts of charities “The Dale” served a working class using techniques of budgeting, accounting population and was known for its support and audits in its work. The federation was of unemployed workers and their families. the predecessor of the United Way of Greater Jennison sided with the striking workers Toronto. The “amount of funding given to and she provided them and their families charities would no longer be determined by with a great deal of support. It was not long benefactors who gave money to their favorite after the Stelco strike that rumours began charities; rather, the Federation would base about Jennison’s left-wing political leanings its funding on decisions on an in-depth and concerns that she was using the Dale assessment of anticipated needs” (Maurutto, for political causes. In 1947, the community 2004, p. 2). chest stopped funding the Dale. The board of the Dale fired Jennison although they Jennison moved to Montreal, Quebec, in denied that it was based on her politics. 1943 heading the Central Volunteer Bureau Parents of children who used the Dale, and of Montreal, the first one in Canada. The the community at large, strongly supported bureau promoted volunteerism within the Jennison and the Dale. A petition calling for city’s non-profit community. She continued her reinstatement as Director of the Dale was to be very active in the CASW and became signed by 400 people. This was to no avail. vice-president of the Montreal branch; she continued to write in The Social Worker. It Jennison’s firing in 1947 was well publicised was during these years in Montreal that in the Hamilton and Toronto media Jennison became very involved in left-wing and several organisations, including the political activities. For example, she was Civil Liberties Union and the Congress active in the resettlement of the MacKenzie- of Canadian Women, supported her. The Papineau veterans who fought in the Spanish Toronto Star reported that: “We understand

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that there are no complaints against Miss environment that provided few services for Jennison’s competence or loyalty to the Dale, these people. Touzel was part of a group but that, on the contrary, she has gained of social workers who believed that the Canada-wide distinction as a very competent profession should be more political and professional worker in the field of social that social workers had a responsibility not service and has won a sincere appreciation only in helping the individual to better cope for her services from the people in her but also to work toward effecting political community.” (Jennissen & Lundy, 2011, change (Jennissen & Lundy, 2011). p. 122). At the age of 55, Jennison’s social work career ended. During the Depression, there was a dramatic increase in the number of people requiring The Canadian Association of Social Workers relief and several municipalities could no (CASW), to which Jennison had made major longer carry the economic burden. In 1932, contributions, did not intervene in her case Harry Cassidy, head of the social work except to carry coverage of her story in The programme at the University of Toronto, Social Worker. The CASW simply stated made headlines with his severe critique that social workers need to be careful when of the welfare system in Ontario (Cassidy, they drifted into political work; it was 1932). Eventually municipal governments their personal responsibility. Although she in the larger centres were provided with applied for several jobs, Jennison would government funding and the authority to never work as a social worker again. provide some relief programmes. The City of Ottawa established the Ottawa Welfare From 1947–1953 she worked as the executive Board in 1933 and Bessie Touzel headed it. secretary of the Canadian Peace Congress. Her commitment to the peace movement As supervisor, Touzel hired 40 female kept her RCMP file active. After suffering social workers to assess and dispense a cerebral hemorrhage in 1953 Jennison relief—both in cash and in kind. Touzel was returned to Nova Scotia where she continued compassionate and generous in the delivery to write. In 1959, with Freda Held and Lillian of welfare service and over the next three Henderson she wrote, A Brief History of the years welfare provisions increased. Ottawa Ontario Welfare Council, and in 1970, The became known for its relatively generous Canadian Settlement Movement was made levels of relief and a well-developed public. In 1970 Mary Jennison passed away programme for the poor. Touzel was praised at the age of 77. for her work and in 1935 she received a Jubilee medal for her outstanding work as a Bessie Touzel, 1904–1997 public servant. (Johnstone, 2015, p. 399). But this triumph was short-lived. The city gave Bessie Touzel was a class-mate of Jennison; in to public pressure over the costs of welfare she graduated in 1928. She was a prominent and increased taxes and in a dramatic move socialist, feminist social worker with a 40- it fired all 40 female social workers from the year career in social work. At 22 she enrolled Ottawa Welfare Board replacing them with in the Social Service Diploma Program at the 11 male special police officers. Touzel was University of Toronto, one of only two that outraged and resigned in protest (Jennissen existed in Canada. & Lundy, 2011). Subsequently she became the Assistant Director of the Canadian Touzel was in the early stages of her career Welfare Council where she worked until when the Great Depression occurred and 1940. this event was a catalyst in her political development. The social workers of the In the early 1940s, Bessie Touzel left Ottawa 1930s were faced with the effects of massive for Toronto where she became executive unemployment and impoverishment in an secretary of the Welfare Council of Toronto.

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Touzel again became involved in the issue and, similar to the situation in Ottawa 10 of relief rates. In 1941 the City of Toronto years earlier, Touzel found herself at odds wanted to assess its relief rates and involved with her board of directors over rates of the Welfare Council of Toronto in this relief, and for a second time in a decade, she request. Bessie Touzel led the response resigned in protest. to the city. She conducted a study which identified that the requirements for a healthy Touzel returned to Ottawa once again where diet could not be maintained on the existing she accepted a position at the Canadian rates of relief. The city of Toronto accepted Welfare Council from 1937–1940. Here the report from Touzel and increased relief she was in the forefront of social change rates by 20%. However, the province of providing leadership on social issues that Ontario refused to accept the study and the addressed: the cost of living; minimum Premier commissioned his own research. wage; labour reform for women; child care; Touzel continued to lobby through the and housing. She also chaired the Committee local media for increased rates of social on Public Welfare wherein she conducted assistance and her efforts culminated in research, designed programmes and a short publication, The Cost of Living, presented policy briefs to government. which was widely disseminated and used throughout the province; it was also used by Her activist work at the Canadian unions to support increases in salaries. This Welfare Council drew attention from the publication became known as the Red Book. RCMP. Similar to her classmate, Mary Jennison, Touzel was suspected of being WWII pulled the Canadian economy out of “communistic.” The RCMP records indicate the depression and brought new challenges that her mail was regularly intercepted, as Canadians became involved in the war telephone conversations were monitored, effort. The war was barely under way when neighbours were consulted about her the federal government began to focus on political leanings, and her personal activities the process of postwar social reconstruction, were regularly censored. RCMP agents an ambitious undertaking that centred on noted that she was in the company of developing a social infrastructure that would leftists including communists, that she provide a “cradle to the grave” protection attended meetings of the Ottawa Peace for Canadians, similar to that proposed in Council, and that she was in touch with the UK. The federal government established Mary Jennison. The RCMP files confirm several advisory committees, commissions that the Canadian Welfare Council was and studies to review various aspects of itself regarded as a hotbed of left-wing social welfare and to provide direction and activity and, while concerted efforts were recommendations to government (Jennissen made to place an RCMP agent inside the & Lundy, 2011). One such committee was Canadian Welfare Council, this proved a federally appointed Advisory Committee difficult to do. In one entry an agent laments on Postwar Reconstruction (1941–1944) and the challenges of collecting intelligence on Bessie Touzel assisted Leonard Marsh of Touzel: “Although persistent efforts are McGill University in preparing the Report on being made to obtain good information on Social Security for Canada in 1943, (reprinted Bessie Touzel’s activities, little information in 1975 and again in 2017) that recommended has been forthcoming” (RCMP Ottawa a broad range of programmes and services. Special Section, 14/11/51). In another entry: “...trying to place a contact in the Canadian In 1947 the board of directors of the Toronto Welfare Council” (10/10/51). And in an Welfare Council lobbied against Touzel’s entry on October 2, 1951: “We have been Red Book arguing that it had no mandate to interested for some time in the activities of conduct research and set standards. Touzel Miss Bessie Touzel, a social worker, who has contested this but the board overruled her been connected with communist suspects

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in Ottawa for a number of years. She is By tracing the work of these women and the presently in the employ of the National ideologies upon which their work was based, Welfare Council in Ottawa” (10/2/51). we hope to remind social workers of the Although information of any import to the importance of being visionary; of working in RCMP was not found, it is clear that the civil solidarity with those who seek our services liberties of both Jennison and Touzel were and with other groups (unions, peace regularly violated. groups, social justice groups, anti-poverty organisations, racial minority groups); of Touzel worked at the Canadian Welfare keeping an international perspective in Council for six years before returning to sight; and fulfilling social work’s social Toronto in 1953 to become the executive justice mandate that we still proudly claim. director of the Ontario Welfare Council Paulo Freire addressed social workers at an where she promoted the development of international conference and reminded us social programmes and improving services that we are the agents in making our history: to the underprivileged. Touzel eventually “History is made by us, and as we make it, resigned from the Ontario Welfare Council we are made and remade by it” (1990, p. 7). in 1964. She worked as a UN advisor in But as Karl Marx proclaimed in the Tanzania for two years and in 1966 she began 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte in 1852, teaching at the University of Toronto in the we do not make our history under conditions social work department. Towards the end of our choosing. of her career she received several honours: a Coronation Medal, a Confederation Medal; These early women strived for a social an Order of Ontario; City of Toronto Award work that focused on social justice and of Merit and two social work awards. She social change during two world wars, a passed away in 1997 at the age of 93. devastating economic depression and a Cold War. Their legacy reflects the possibilities Looking backwards to move forward and potential for positive social change when we come together in solidarity to challenge This article has examined the contributions the policies and practices that disadvantage made by left-leaning, radical social work a significant segment of the population. Our women in Canada and the USA. All five ability to fulfil our social justice mandate is women made important contributions to strengthened by learning from our history. the profession often injecting a class-based and an international perspective into social References work debates, writings and practices. Addams, J. (1910). The President’s address, “Charity and social Unfortunately, their contributions to making justice”. Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities social work a more radical, politicised and Corrections, St. Louis, MO: The Archer Printing Co. profession with a direct focus on changing Addams, J. (1983). Peace and bread in times of war. Silver Springs, MD: Reprinted NASW Classic Series. (Original not the individual, but societal structures, work published 1922). have all but been forgotten by contemporary Andrews, J. & Reisch, M. (1997). Social work and anti- social workers and social work educators. communism: A historical analysis of the McCarthy era. But their contributions have particular Journal of Progressive Human Services, 8(2), 29–49. relevance as we see a resurgence in Marxist Canadian Economics Association. (1945, May). Obituaries: Edward Johns Urwick, 1867-1945. The Canadian social work and radical approaches to social Journal of Economics and Political Science/Revue work (Lavalette, 2011; Lundy, 2011) and the Canadienne d’Economique et de Science Politique, launch of the Critical and Radical Social Work 11(2), 265–268. Journal (Ferguson & Lavalette, 2013). We Cassidy, H. (1932). Unemployment and relief in Ontario, 1929–32: A survey and report. Toronto, ONT: J. M. Dent. believe that their pioneering work had and Dubois, W. E. B. (1968). The autobiography of W. E. B. continues to have important value now and Dubois, New York, NY: International Publishers. that a revisiting of this history can be very Elshtain, J. B. (2002). The Jane Addams reader. New York, instructive in these beleaguered times. NY: Basic Books.

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Ferguson, I. & Lavalette, M. (2013). Critical and radical social Reynolds, B. C (1963). An Uncharted Journey: Fifty years of work: An introduction. Critical and Radical Social Work, growth in social work. New York, NY: The Citadel Press. 1(1) 3–14. Reynolds, B. C. (1986). Focus on peace: Social work faces Freire, P. (1990). A critical understanding of social work. world conflict. Catalyst, 5(4), 90. Journal of Progressive Human Services, 1(1) 3–9. Selmi, P. (2001). Beyond the Rank and File Movement: Mary Jennissen, T. & Lundy, C. (2011). One hundred years van Kleeck and social welfare radicalism in the great of social work: A history of the profession in English depression, 1931–1942. The Journal of Sociology and Canada, 1900–2000. Waterloo, ONT: Wilfrid Laurier Social Welfare, 28(2), 75–100. University. Selmi, P. (2005). Van Kleeck (1883–1972). Encyclopedia of Jennissen, T. & Lundy, C. (2017). “Capitulo 3, Canada,” in social welfare history in North America (pp. 413–415). Trabajo Social, Historia y desafios de una profesion, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Alfredo Hidalgo Lavie (Coordinator), (pp. 69–90). van Kleeck, M. (1935a). Social security or what? Address in Madrid, Spain: Ediciones Académicas. Toronto, Canada, June 7. From Sophia Smith Collection, Johnstone, M. (2015). “Don’t take the social out of social van Kleeck fonds, Box 19. work”: The social work career of Bessie Touzel van Kleeck, M. (1935b). Sources of power for the social work (1904–1997). Affilia: Journal of Women and Social Work, programme. June 10, pp. 1–30. From Sophia Smith 30(3), 395–407. Collection, van Kleeck fonds, Box 19. Klosterman, E. M., & Stratton, D. (2006). Speaking truth to van Kleeck, M. (1935c). Governmental intervention in the power: Jane Addams’ value base for peacemaking. labor movement. Address to a meeting of Section IV, Affilia: Journal of Women and Social Work, 21(2), Social Action, of the National Conference of Social 158–168. Work, Montreal June 11, pp. 1–27. From Sophia Smith Lavalette, M. (Ed.). (2011). Radical social work today. Bristol Collection, van Kleeck fonds, Box 19. UK: The Polity Press. van Kleeck, M. (1941). Social work, peace and the people’s Leighninger, L. & Knickmeyer, R. (1976). The Rank and File well-being: Social work 1941. Originally published in Movement: Relevance of radical social work traditions to Social Work Today (pp. 3–18), From Sophia Smith modern social work practice. Journal of Sociology and Collection, van Kleeck fonds, Box 17. Social Welfare (November) 4(2), 166–177. van Kleeck, M. (1961). Peace through international trade in a Livesay, D. (1977). Right hand left hand: A true life of changing world. Reprinted from Public Ownership in the the Thirties: Paris, Toronto, Montreal, the West and United States, Goals and Priorities. Peace Publications, Vancouver. Love, politics, the depression and feminism. New York, 3–23. Erin, Ontario: Porecpic Press. West, R. (2012).“Bertha Capen Reynolds: Radical social Lundblad, K. (1995). Jane Addams and social reform: A role worker. Social Justice Solutions. Retrieved from model for the 1990s. Social Work, 40(5), 661–669. http://www.socialjusticesolutions.org/2012/10/26/ Lundy, C. (2011). Social work, social justice and human bertha-capen-reynolds-radical-social-worker/ rights: A structural approach to practice (2nd ed.). Wills, G. (1995). A Marriage of Convenience: Business and Toronto, ONT: University of Toronto Press. Social Work in Toronto, 1918–1957. Toronto: University Marsh, L. (1975) Report of Social Security for Canada, 1943. of Toronto Press. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Reprinted from 1943. Marsh, L. (2017) Report of Social Security for Canada, 1943, edited by Allan Moscovitch. Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press (new edition). Maurutto, P. (2004). Charity and public welfare in history: A look at Ontario, 1830–1950. The Philanthropist, 19(3), 159–167. National Association of Social Workers (NASW) Foundation. (2004). Bertha Reynolds (1885–1978) – Social Worker, author and professor of social case work. Social Welfare History Project. Retrieved from http://socialwelfare. library.vcu/people/reynolds-bertha-capen/ RCMP Files, Bessie Touzel. Dec, 1951–Jan, 1969. 635 pp. (Accessed through Freedom of Information from the National Archives of Canada.) RCMP Files, Mary Jennison, 1939–1970, 3,171 pp. (Accessed through Freedom of Information from the National Archives of Canada.) Reisch, M., & Andrews, J. (2002). The road not taken: A history of radical social work in the United States. New York, NY: Brunner-Routledge. Reynolds, B. C. (1935,1994). Social casework: What is its place in the world today?” Reprinted in Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, (September), 453–59.

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Surveys, social licence and the Integrated Data Infrastructure

Pauline Gulliver, Monique Jonas, Tracey McIntosh, Janet Fanslow and Debbie Waayer, University of Auckland, New Zealand

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION: Statistics New Zealand’s Integrated Data Infrastructure (IDI) is a central repository for researchers to access multiple government agency datasets. The aim of this investigation was to understand social licence for including survey data in the IDI.

METHODS: Two convenience samples were recruited: (1) participants in one of 10 focus groups; and (2) respondents to pilot surveys for the 2018 NZ census or a population-based survey on violence experience. Qualitative data were transcribed and analysed using thematic analysis. Analyses were conducted independently by two members of the research team and results compared.

FINDINGS: Whilst little prior awareness of the IDI existed, participants developed considered judgements about it, identifying concerns and proposing safeguards that would encourage them to support its maintenance and use.

CONCLUSIONS: While there is the potential for social licence to be granted for the IDI, an on-going, transparent engagement process is required to maintain trust with agencies and researchers. As an over-represented population within government agency data, active, honest engagement is required with Ma¯ori, as are safeguards to reduce risks of further stigmatisation and marginalisation.

KEYWORDS: big data; social licence; indigenous data; policy development

Introduction (see Figure 1). The IDI provides a “one-stop- shop” for researchers to access multiple “[The] quest to understand and explain what government datasets to understand health, works and for whom in what circumstances justice, education, social services and income underpins the notion of evidence-based outcomes. While linkage is undertaken policy making” (Sanderson, 2002). In 2014, at the individual level, analysis occurs Statistics New Zealand (StatsNZ, Aotearoa at the aggregate level by academic and New Zealand’s (NZ’s) independent agency policy development researchers (Statistics for the collection and delivery of robust, New Zealand, 2017a). The creation of AOTEAROA independent statistics (Statistics New linked datasets for research purposes is NEW ZEALAND SOCIAL Zealand, 2017c)) launched the Integrated not new (Holman et al., 2008). However, WORK 30(3), 57–71. Data Infrastructure (IDI), which “contains the difference between bespoke linkages person-centred data from a range of to answer specific research questions and CORRESPONDENCE TO: government agencies, Statistics NZ surveys, large-scale, linked datasets developed as Pauline Gulliver and non-government organisations” a repository lies in the use, re-use, and [email protected]

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Figure 1. Overview of the IDI, from http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/snapshots-of-nz/integrated-data- infrastructure.aspx, accessed 25 September 2017.

potential unknown future use of such data Zealanders confidence that their data is sets. being used appropriately” (Curran & Shaw, 2018). To date, the IDI has largely eluded the NZ public’s consciousness. However, it is The principles and regulatory mechanisms increasingly used as evidence for policy governing the establishment and use of decisions, such as restructuring funding large-scale, linked datasets such as the IDI mechanisms for state-funded schools are subject to increasing debate (Casanovas, (Edwards, 2016). Governmental support for De Koker, Meddelson, & Watts, 2017). the IDI has resulted in pressure on non- In NZ, four Health and Disability Ethics governmental organisations and researchers Committees (HDECs) review health and in receipt of government funding to make disability research. However, secondary client databases available for inclusion in analysis of de-identified administrative the IDI as a condition of their funding (Kirk, data for observational studies is exempt 2016). Since the change in government from HDEC review (Health and Disability following the 2017 general election, the Ethics Committee, 2014). Because personally discourse around the use of large-scale, identifying information within the IDI is linked data sets has subtly changed: “while withheld or encrypted, analyses utilising the numbers are critical, the insight gained IDI data are considered exempt. While some from doing the analysis is just as important” users of the IDI, particularly university (Social Investment Agency, 2018). Further, researchers, are required to obtain ethics the NZ government has launched an approval through university ethics investigation into how “government committees, StatsNZ does not require currently uses algorithms, to give New approval from an ethical review committee

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prior to granting access to the IDI, or peer been employed to explain the failure of Care. review to ensure research rigour. data, (Carter, Laurie, & Dixon-Woods, 2014). It is also invoked by StatsNZ as a necessary There are, however, safety mechanisms in condition of the success of the IDI. place for use of the IDI: The aim of the current investigation was • Referee checks are conducted on to elucidate the extent of social licence researchers; for including survey data in the IDI. As • Only data necessary to answer research with related concepts such as trust, social questions are made available; licence is not straightforward to delineate or • Access to the data is through a measure (Boutilier & Thomson, 2011). Both controlled data environment; the concept of trust and the requirements of • Only research questions considered social licence are likely to: mean different to have a wider public interest are things to different people (Rooney, Leach, & considered. Ashworth, 2014); vary by context (Hall, • Output from research conducted using Lacey, Carr-Cornish, & Dowd, 2015) and IDI data is checked to ensure results are be highly sensitive to changing public not personally identifiable (Statistics perceptions (Heikkinen, Lepy, Sarkki, & New Zealand, 2017a). Komu, 2016). Despite its ineffability, experience drawn from a range of fields International experiences reveal challenges suggests that social licence can be a decisive for broad-scale data linkage and use. force in allowing or preventing a range of Developing and employing large datasets activities (Rooney et al., 2014). Therefore, it containing microdata can engender public is useful to understand social licence as it distrust (Presser, Hruskova, Rowbottom, & pertains to the IDI and what conditions or Kancir, 2015), and political anxiety about parameters members of the public might invasion of privacy (Dudley-Nicholson, place upon it, whilst acknowledging its 2016). Recent English experience illustrates dynamic, variable nature. how a failure to secure public trust can fatally jeopardise efforts to harness the Social licence potential of ‘big data’. Care.data was a central repository of health and social care The concept of social licence derives from data from all English National Health Service the work of sociologist Everett Hughes funded care settings, developed primarily (Hughes, 1958), who explored the conditions for research and evaluation purposes. under which society was prepared to afford Established in 2013, its implementation professions permission to adopt practices became so problematic that it was that violate accepted social norms without discontinued in 2014. Contributing issues incurring social sanction. This permission included inadequate management and constitutes social licence – it implies a communication, a contradictory legislative mandate, empowering the licensed agent to environment with respect to patient ask things of others in relation to the licensed confidentiality (Presser et al., 2015), the practice (Hughes, 1958, p. 78). intention for Care.data to be accessible to private companies, and an all-or-nothing Social licence has risen to prominence opt-out consent process (Shaw, 2014). Its particularly within industries and enterprises collapse was attributed to failure to attend that impose harms upon resources or to levels of public trust in health services communities, such as mining, forestry and research, and the conditions upon and fishing. A “social licence to operate” which that trust is based, combined with is predicated upon an agent meeting “the scepticism about Care.data’s public good expectations of society regarding the conduct orientation. The concept of social licence has and activities of corporations that go beyond

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the requirements of formal regulation” undertaken, often with the explicit consent (Carter et al., 2014), p. 404). It emerges from the individual and understanding of from a process. Trust is central in enabling the process involved. and sustaining social licence, representing a willingness to accept vulnerability to Methods the actions of another in some domain (Mollering, 2006; Rousseau, Sitkin, Burt, & As social licence cannot be conferred if Camerer, 1998). We were interested to learn the relevant community is unaware of how people conceived themselves and the agency seeking it, the research team others as vulnerable, and what determined were interested in investigating whether willingness to accept vulnerability (and members of the NZ public were aware that therefore trust the process) and confer social the IDI existed; were able to understand the licence. practice lying outside social norms involved in using the IDI; and the terms considered We adopted the following working necessary to engage in this practice without definition of social licence: incurring social sanction. Rather than attempting to quantify the overall level of Societal acceptance that a practice that social licence, we investigated awareness of, lies outside general norms may be and attitudes towards, the IDI amongst two performed by a certain agent, on certain separately selected convenience samples. terms. It is the result of an ongoing One comprised respondents to one of two process of negotiating terms with a surveys with different levels of perceived wider societal group, and means that sensitivity; the other were participants in the practice can be performed by that focus groups. agent without incurring social sanction. Social licence confers a mandate upon the Respondents to the survey were “primed” licensee to ask things of others in relation about the nature of the survey by answering to the licensed practice.

Our definition makes explicit that the Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Interview practice under consideration lies outside Sample (Frequencies) of general norms. Specifically, the linkage of individual-level information collected Census Sensitive by government agencies without explicit Age knowledge of the people from whom data 15-24 yrs 2 9 were collected. It differs from the definition adopted by the Data Futures Partnership 25-34 yrs 12 7 which limited social licence to “When people 35-44 yrs 4 4 trust that their data will be used as they have 45+ yrs 13 11 agreed, and accepted that enough value will Sex be created, they are likely to be comfortable with its use” (Data Futures Partnership, Male 13 11 2016). Female 17 20 Gender diverse 1 1 It is important to note at the outset that this Ethnicity work is focussed specifically on social licence as it relates to the linkage of data for analysis NZ European 25 14 at the aggregate level for research and policy Ma¯ori 0 8 development purposes. This differs from Other 6 10 the sharing of information for the purposes Total 31 32 of service delivery, a process regularly

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a series of questions, administered face- a in general; to-face by an interviewer. The goal was to b if they were data participants had determine if the nature of the survey was personally provided (to the survey); associated with the likelihood of consenting c if the data were anonymised; to linkage. Survey 1 was a subset of d if the focus of the research was at census questions administered by StatsNZ the population level, rather than interviewers (n = 31 participants); Survey 2 focusing on individuals; was a subset of questions designed to assess e if the information they provided violence exposure in the general population could be used again in the future for (n = 32 participants). Age, sex and ethnicity unknown purposes. of survey participants are presented in 3. Their views on the safeguards that Table 1. There is an important distinction should be in place for the data to be in the recruitment methods employed by made available for other researchers. StatsNZ and the university. The university 4. Who should store the combined research team was particularly interested administrative and survey-based data. in obtaining feedback from sections of the 5. Whether there are types of data that population who are either over-represented they felt could be shared without in violence statistics, or for whom very little seeking individual permission, or types information about the prevalence of violence of data that it would be wrong to seek is reported. As such, recruitment methods permission to share. were designed to encourage participation from Māori, LGBTIQ+ and disabled The focus groups comprised the following members of the community. community groups:

Following the survey questions, participants • Disabled persons; were asked open-ended questions about: • Members of the LGBTIQ+ community; • Mothers of young children; a) whether they would consent to have • New migrants; the information they had just provided • Young Māori men; uploaded and linked with government • Māori women (×2); agency data; • Pākehā men; b) their reasons to provide or withhold • Intimate partner violence (IPV) survivor consent; advocates; c) what safeguards would favourably • Māori (mixed gender); influence their decision; and • Mixed (general). d) what information about process (where would the data be stored) and usage Interview data were recorded with an (access rights, long-term storage) would electronic data capture programme, REDCap assist an informed choice. (P. A. Harris et al., 2009) and hand-written notes. Focus group discussions were Semi-structured focus groups were digitally recorded and transcribed. All data conducted to contribute to the design of were analysed using thematic analysis, a population-based survey on violence an inductive method of analysis which exposure. Participants were asked about: explores the manifest (content that is noted or mentioned directly by respondents) 1. Their understanding of the information and latent (implicit or underlying) themes. NZ government agencies hold about Analyses were conducted independently by individuals and what is done with it. two members of the research team and results 2. The degree to which they considered compared. Where interpretation differed, the it acceptable to link survey data with analyses were brought to the wider research information held by government agencies: team and resolved through discussion.

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Results from interviews and focus group collected through social media, or that discussions were analysed and are presented they “didn’t really have anything to hide” separately. [SR18]. Those who would not consent were concerned with how their information would Ethics approval for this investigation was be used, who would access it, and whether granted by the University of Auckland they would be identified: Human Participants Ethics Committee (ref 017300). All participants provided informed Not right to link up my story from consent prior to participating. separate sources. [SR32]

Results No knowledge of who may access it. Concern around confidentiality, Arm 1: Interviews with Survey inappropriate use, lack of clarity around Respondents. destruction dates. [SR24] Most (81% of census and 70% of violence A total of 23% of the violence survey and survey) survey respondents indicated they 45% of census survey participants wanted would be willing to have their completed additional information to help them decide survey linked with government agency whether they would consent to having their data. Where participants did not consent survey data linked with government agency to linkage, they were more likely to have data, including who would access it, what disclosed a social norm breach. Violence it would be used for, and what protections survey participants were asked about were in place: their pornography use – 30% of those who reported pornography use would consent Who can access government agency data? compared with 63% of those who reported What will government use it for? [SR3] no pornography use. Explain the purpose and process of Amongst those willing to consent to data data sharing in the IDI and a guarantee linkage there was a perception that this around privacy. [SR16] would “help the government make better decisions” (Survey respondent 1 [SR1]) and Survey participants were provided with a “provides access to more comprehensive range of options that might influence their data” [SR6]. Respondents to both surveys willingness to provide consent to have also indicated their data were “already their information linked. The proportion out there” [SR23], alluding to information of participants from each survey who

Table 2. What Would Make it Easier to Consent to Have Your Information Linked?

Option Census Sample Sensitive Sample Assurance that my name and address will be removed from the 74% 81% data I provide Guarantee that the information is only available to bona fide 65% 65% researchers Freedom to be able to withdraw the data whenever I want 58% 58% Knowledge that the information was held by Statistics New Zealand 58% 50% Assurance that the information would be destroyed after a set 52% 46% period of time Knowledge that the information was held by a university 39% 46%

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agreed to each option (more than one could about them and honestly… none of it be selected) are summarised in Table 2. based on fact. [IPV Survivor] Across the two groups, there was consistent agreement with the importance of knowing Members of the disabled community that their name and address would be highlighted problems associated with removed, control over access, and being able communicating and how this could impact to withdraw the data. on the quality of information collected and recorded about them. Arm 2: Focus Groups: It gives me chills really when I go to All focus group participants were aware that anywhere like a GP cos there’s such a fear government agencies collected information of misdiagnosis for deaf people because about them. There was acceptance of they just don’t understand us. It’s 5 to 10 information sharing for the purposes of percent of deaf that get their information service provision. accurately passed on so I think there’s a big fear in the deaf community about the …you collect it once then lots of people representation of us. [Disabled person] can, if it’s safe, use the same information instead of asking again. [Mother of young The pervading concern expressed by these children] groups was that the IDI could ultimately use incorrectly recorded data. This would …changing your GP they transfer the be amplified for community members data from one place to another and they with a higher degree of interaction with have full information on health issues government agencies, who subsequently and everything. [New migrant] have more information collected about them.

However, few participants were aware of the 2. Understanding the context of data IDI. Extended discussion was needed to shift collection thinking from individual-level data sharing for service delivery, to population-level data A key concern for Māori was understanding linkage for service and policy design. the context of data and collection and understanding the meaning of data. These Five key themes emerged from discussions: concerns were mirrored by representatives of (1) good quality data are important; (2) marginalised populations as well: understanding the context of data collection; (3) privacy is important; (4) oversight of the …data that [are] given, in … an interview researchers is required; and (5) yes, I am can be de-contextualised and alienated happy, if I provide consent. from what the [original] kaupapa [purpose, rationale] was. [Māori mixed gender] 1. Good quality data are important [the data] becomes kind of powerless Views concerning the quality of the data because all the information…is available for data linkage could be connected completely different…so [can] easily…get to participant experiences with individual distorted…out of context. [LGBTIQ+] agencies. For example, IPV survivor advocates highlighted concerns about the Even if data were factually correct, their quality of the information collected: meaning could be lost or distorted if the context of collection was not understood. I have seen hundreds of [Statutory Social Linked to this were concerns that structural Service Agency] files from women that and societal context could be obscured by the have asked the ministry... what’s written focus on individual-level data. An important

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manifestation of this relates to Māori over- As soon as you put my age, my representation in government datasets that impairment, the length of time I’ve had report negative social indicators, a situation my impairment – there are some people reflecting the harms of colonisation, societal who would know exactly who I am. disparities and institutional racism (Kukutai, [Disabled person] 2011) which may not be recognised and properly accounted for by those who use What information was perceived as the data. These risks were highlighted by requiring greater protection differed between participants who could imagine the IDI being individuals and groups. Privacy concerns used to compound damaging stereotypes, were raised about financial information especially for communities that had more (Pākehā men); social services and police information held about them: records (Māori, IPV survivor advocates); and health service information (Disabled persons …it’s going to highlight our problems… and mothers of young children). It is often used just to prove cultural deficits. [Māori women] For some, individual control over information was connected with trust in I come from a kura kaupapa [Māori political processes and players: language immersion school] and we just have different aspirations and I think Coming from a country where control that is what we should be measured over your information is very highly by. We come from Māori aspirations, valued and sharing that information has from our whānau collective not from sometimes had really detrimental impacts a government collective. But in saying on people I think just as an individual, that, we didn’t [our kura] under-achieve, knowing where my information is going we over-achieved for our region, but to go, and having some control over that that is because it came from our own is important. [New migrant] people. However we are not making our overall data look better because we are …our demographics are changing…a lot a small proportion. Māori students in of the people that are coming into NZ, mainstream schools are still [expected] to I’m not saying that they are corrupt, but live up to the aspirations of government. they come from corrupt countries where Their data [are] collected by Pākehā as corruptness is a way of life. So in 30 or 50 well. [Māori mixed gender] years’ time, how is this information going to be treated? [Pākehā man] 3. Privacy is important 4. Oversight of the researchers is required Privacy concerns, nominated by all participants, were largely expressed in terms Participants identified a need for research of the risk of individual identification: accountability – an independent body that should have oversight of the research [T]he risk comes when it becomes process. personal and [discloses] personal information that might be scrutinized …as long as safeguards were in place by a government department for their and appropriate processes were in place purposes. [LBGTIQ+] to make sure that information is only accessed and used in a certain way, that Some participants commented on the has to be really clear. [New migrant] difficulties of ensuring non-identifiability when collating many pieces of personal The most solid, robust oversight process is information: what people would feel most comfortable

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with because there are so many people Discussion who will want access to that data because The input from our participants provides data is so terribly valuable…people who insights into the nature of the vulnerabilities have some teeth, who can say no and can those living in New Zealand perceive in remain unchallenged. [Pākehā man] relation to the IDI, along with the conditions under which they may be willing to make 5. Yes, I am happy to have my data linked, themselves vulnerable and place trust in with my consent those analysing and using the data for the sake of the good that they anticipate may be Despite their concerns, the majority of derived from use of the IDI. This informs an participants would be willing to allow understanding of the conditions that may be researchers to use the data stored about them placed upon the IDI’s social licence. Whilst within the IDI if they were asked. Trust was little prior awareness of the IDI existed an enabler of consent, as was the perception amongst our participants, they developed that data linkage would benefit themselves, considered judgements about it, identifying their family, or the community. Participants concerns and proposing safeguards that with negative experiences with government would encourage them to support its agencies were less likely to approve. maintenance and use. Fairly high levels Participants viewed the consent process as of institutional trust in the integrity and both required and expected. competence of StatsNZ and related agencies present in our sample were tempered with I know that that’s my information, I suspicion, often borne from experience. This know…that that’s my record…I just want reinforces the view that social licence is an to be asked. [Māori women] on-going process of negotiation, dependent on judgements over an agent’s integrity and When prompted and provided with the competence (Butler & Cantrell, 1984; Mayer, opportunity, focus group participants were Davis, & Schoorman, 1995). interested in and willing to engage with the concept of the IDI. They could see the benefits as well as risks and highlighted opportunities The expressed willingness to grant social for strengthening the securities around access: licence, whilst strong, was not unconditional: guarantees are needed about data quality; …as far as being able to pull information researcher awareness of, and sensitivity out for research purposes, I think it’s to, the structural and societal context amazing to have all that data linked and surrounding data; and that individuals to know you’ve got the same individual will not be identifiable. Robust oversight across data systems; and there’s just mechanisms are required to ensure so much you can do with all that appropriate use of this taonga (treasure / information. [New Migrant] gift). Further, Māori expressed concern about how decisions around data use were to be While clear that consent was necessary, made. This speaks to the notions of data participants were realistic about the ownership and data sovereignty. challenges resulting from a consenting process: A strength of the research presented is the methods used to derive an understanding Isn’t that where the greater good comes of social licence for linking data in different in? Governments, whether you like it contexts. When interview participants were or not have to have information on the provided with the opportunity to report a populous of the country…you can’t opt social norm breach (use of pornography) in in and out of that sort of thing, it’s just confidence, and then asked about whether not practical. [Pākehā man] they would consent to having that data

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linked with government agency data, they level risk prediction based on suboptimal were less likely to do so. These findings data will be greater still. Examples of suggests there are limits to acceptable incomplete or inconsistent reporting are sharing of data. Where those data have easily identified in NZ (Gulliver, Cryer, & the potential to be damaging in the future, Langley, 2013; Mansell, Ota, Erasmus, & it appears that individuals are less likely Marks, 2011) as they are in the majority of to trust the process. Indeed, those who developed countries (Jansen, 2012). Because expressed fewer concerns about sharing of the non-random nature of missing data in data indicated they had “nothing to hide”, the majority of social measures, imputation implying no perceived breaches of social is not appropriate where data are absent norms. The focus group discussions (Sterne et al., 2009). The drive for the use of allowed a discussion amongst peers about linked datasets for policy development needs these limits. For example, the men’s and to be balanced with investment to ensure young mother’s focus groups moved from good quality data are collected, recorded, indicating they had “nothing to hide” to and transferred appropriately. Without this, discussing concerns around the use of there is a risk that both competence-based information they did consider sensitive and integrity-based elements of public (financial data and health disorders, trust will be eroded, and social licence respectively). correspondingly compromised. Our findings demonstrate the permeable interface 1. Good quality data are important between trust of government agencies and the IDI itself: participants’ views about the Government agency administrative data competence and integrity of agencies they form the basis of the IDI. As administrative had dealings with informed their views data vary in quality (Daas, Ossen, & about the IDI. Securing social licence for the Tennekes, 2010), problems with the raw IDI requires attention to data integrity at the data collected from service-level interactions provider agency level, as well as within the is subsequently embedded in the IDI, and IDI. carried over into future use. Participants with significant experience of government 2. Context of data collection is important agencies were readily able to identify this risk. The promise of the IDI is that previously elusive associations will be revealed through To date, the IDI has been used as the data linkage. However, to understand and basis for two predictive risk models (for interpret identified associations, the original child maltreatment, and educational context and purpose of data collection non-achievement) that, if implemented, must be understood. Participants who had could influence a child’s life trajectory. experienced unfair assumptions by agencies Although developed at the population level, were particularly likely to identify this need. implementation of predictive models at the In NZ, Māori are over-represented in the individual level has been contemplated. majority of adverse outcomes (McIntosh, Therefore, despite the application of 2011; McIntosh & Coster, 2017), and are more StatsNZ’s safety mechanisms that prevent likely to come into contact with government the publication of results that could be agencies, increasing the data collected personally identifiable, it is possible that about them. Understanding the drivers for the application of research derived from the over-representation is important (Cram, IDI could impact at the individual level. Gulliver, Wilson, & Ota, 2015). Institutional It is well established that population-level racism, enacted in government policies, risk measures seldom translate well to and interpersonal racism, enacted through the individual level (Rockhill, Kawachi, & discriminatory behaviour, is demonstrated Colditz, 2000). The failings of population- to be negatively associated with health

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outcomes for Māori (R. Harris et al., 2006) of seven permitted exceptions applies, and Indigenous and minority populations including that the information: “is used in elsewhere (Jones, 2001). Indeed, some key a form in which the individual concerned determinants of health outcomes (ethnicity is not identified” (10.(f) (i)); or “is used for and gender) are socially defined constructs statistical or research purposes and will not which influence life experiences (Jones, be published in a form that could reasonably 2001). be expected to identify the individual concerned” (10.(f) (ii)). Principle Three In countries like NZ, whose colonial history states that, where personal information is impacts upon current health and social collected from a person, the agency must outcomes, power within the research space take reasonable steps to ensure that the is an important contextual issue. The Treaty person is aware that information is being of Waitangi establishes the responsibility collected (3.(1)(a)); the purposes for which it of the Crown to uphold the rights of is being collected (3.(1)(b)), and the intended Māori. Te Mana Rauranga (the Māori Data recipients of the information (3.(1)(c)). Sovereignty Network) have identified three areas of focus to uphold Treaty obligations While StatsNZ apply safe reporting with respect to the IDI. These include social practices to protect privacy (Statistics licence, the expectation that the government New Zealand, 2017a), the potential for will act in the interests of Māori; cultural re-identification is real (Malin, Karp, licence, the impact of data integration & Scheuermann, 2015). Attention to and sharing on the social contract that identifiability reflects the role that privacy is exists through the Treaty; and Māori data seen to play in protecting individuals from sovereignty, recognising that Māori data adverse consequences. Such concerns might should be subject to Māori governance be indicated in the apparent association (Hudson, 2016). between disclosed social norm breach (pornography use) and lack of willingness Māori are often not included in research to consent to survey linkage revealed in design even where research focuses upon our findings. This suggests that ensuring them, or is particularly salient to Māori. information in the IDI cannot be linked back Utilising deficits-focussed data is likely to to individuals will be crucial in securing reproduce deficit perspectives and further and maintaining social licence for including entrench power differentials (Walter, 2016). survey data in the IDI. However reasons Recently, StatsNZ has opened its first to protect privacy extend beyond adverse international data lab, providing access to consequences for the individual into respect the IDI for researchers outside NZ (Statistics for persons (Benn, 1984; Fried, 1968); New Zealand, 2017b). This underscores the preserving liberty (Hallborg, 1986); and need to ensure that researchers understand delimiting state power (Solove, 2007). The the NZ cultural context. preference our participants expressed for IDI data use to be predicated upon consent 3. Privacy is important suggests that their concerns about privacy extend beyond direct adverse consequences Privacy is central to research ethics, and into the social norms establishing the is established in NZ law through the terms of engagement between state and Privacy Act (1993). Participant concern individual. Privacy is often seen as an that data should not enable individuals to umbrella concept with implications for be identified is reflected in Principle Ten how information is collected, stored, used, of the Privacy Act (“Privacy Act,” 1993), disseminated and applied (Solove 2007). which states that information obtained by Whilst research conducted using the IDI has an agency for a given purpose should not been at the population level, some proposed be used for another purpose, unless one applications are at the individual level

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(Edwards, 2016). The concern about privacy Other options include citizen juries and returns the focus to the strong links between public engagement campaigns (van Staa, trust in the institutions using the data and Goldacre, Buchan, & Smeeth, 2016). granting social licence for the IDI. Concerns Van Staa and colleagues have called for expressed that such information could once accountability, transparent operations, and again be used to discriminate and reinforce data stewardship including staff training, prejudices are based on historical realities standard operating procedures and a focus rather than abstract paranoia. on the skills and attitudes of staff to ensure appropriate data usage (van Staa et al., 2016). 4. Who watches the researchers? In a systematic review of research into Oversight from an independent, trusted public acceptability of data linkage, agency, was identified by some participants Aitken, de St Jorre, Pagliari, Jepson, and as a way to minimise potential harms. Cunningham-Burley (2016) acknowledged This finding resonates with experience the importance of consent as a consistent from mining, in which the existence of a theme of public responses to the linkage trusted agency with decision-making rights of health data. However, the authors also has been seen to support social licence highlighted that the need for consent (Prno, 2013). One response to the risks our appeared to be strongly associated with participants identified would be to require trust in the institutions, organisations ethics committee approval to access the or individuals involved in processing or IDI. Training for committee members in the accessing their data: potential harms and benefits of statistical analysis of large de-identified population …rather than focussing on which consent datasets would be necessary to ensure that mechanisms are most favoured by the review process provided the intended members of the public, it may be more protections. However, this measure cannot valuable to focus on how relationships of guarantee protection if the data collected trust are built up (and conversely eroded) were already prejudiced. Māori have and how trust can be facilitated within critiqued university ethics procedures as research and data-sharing or data-linkage “Eurocentric”, privileging liberal notions of processes including through public / the “autonomous individual participant” patient engagement or involvement. rather than considering collectivist (Aitken et al., 2016, p. 15) constructs to guide the research process, resulting in a “condescending ethos” (Tuari, Once again, this highlights the transient 2014, p.134). Potential responses include nature of social licence for data linkage if developing: agencies and researchers do not behave as good stewards of the taonga. …a Māori-dominated ethics process that is dedicated to supporting Māori post- Transparency and public engagement appear graduates, established researchers and to have been at the forefront of data linkage non-Indigenous scholars wanting our initiatives in Scotland, drawing on lessons guidance on conducting ethical research from the English Care.data experience, and with Māori. A process of this kind seeking to maintain social licence. The Farr will focus in part on holding [research Institute of Health Informatics Research ethics boards], government agencies holds four regional public panels that and private research accountable scrutinise and advise on governance systems, if their conduct negatively impacts public engagement plans and research Māori researchers and Māori research practices, as well as additional virtual panels, participants (Tuari, 2014, p. 146, emphasis forums and public panels (Farr Institute). added). The Scottish Primary Care Information

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Resource has an independent advisory group of special interest groups are feasible and that reviews requests for the use of data, as embody respect for those whose information well as an opt-out process (NHS National is contained within the IDI, and whose Services Scotland, 2016). The advisory group interests may be affected by its use. In includes patient representatives, general support of Te Mana Rauranga (Hudson, practitioners and specialist confidentiality 2016), we argue that the Treaty of Waitangi, advisors. which guarantees Māori control over taonga (treasures), requires strong Māori input into 5. Yes, I am happy, with my consent how the IDI is used.

Many participants expected consent to be sought for data use. This was perceived Conclusion as important even when participants As Rooney et al. (2014, p. 211) have observed, were willing to consent. This may reflect “in many vitally important respects a the idea that respect for persons requires [social licence] is constituted by knowledge acknowledgement of their rights and and meaning, rather than by legal interests, and consequently permission for activities that may impact upon them documents and permits instituted through (Benn 1984). The same ideas underpin social a bureaucratic-administrative mechanism.” licence processes and align strongly with Participants in this study appreciated the recognition of the significance of Indigenous purpose and potential of the IDI when it Data Sovereignty. Data Sovereignty is linked was explained to them, but they lacked with Indigenous Peoples’ rights to: pre-existing knowledge of it. They identified concerns and suggested safeguards that maintain, control, protect, and develop would reassure them sufficiently to consent their cultural heritage, traditional to inclusion of their data within the IDI. We knowledge and traditional cultural conclude that, while there is the potential for expressions, as well as their right to social licence to be granted for the IDI, an maintain, control, protect and develop on-going, transparent engagement process their intellectual property over these… is also required that provides individuals If Indigenous Peoples have control over with the ability to interact with research and what and how data and knowledge will policy initiatives being developed in this be generated, analysed and documented, space. As an over-represented population and over the dissemination and use of within government agency data, active, these, positive results can come about. honest engagement is required with Māori, (Kukutai & Taylor, 2016, p. xxii) and safeguards to reduce the risks of further stigmatisation and marginalisation are The consent condition may also reflect a required. concern for transparency as a check upon agency power, a mark of respect for citizens and a way of protecting public good Acknowledgement orientation (Taylor, 2011). The expectation for individual-level consent is a challenge to The authors would like to greatly projects like the IDI, and one that requires acknowledge the support of the Data Futures serious reflection from agencies such as Partnership for providing partnership StatsNZ. Whilst our participants expressed funding for this research, and Statistics New an expectation to consent, they also Zealand for accommodating the research appreciated the logistical barriers. Whilst in the build-up to census 2018. Further, we individual consent for use of all data is not would like to acknowledge the constructive feasible, governance structures involving feedback provided by anonymous peer lay members and ensuring representation reviewers for the journal.

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Neoliberalism and social work with children and families in the UK: On-going challenges and critical possibilities

Steve Rogowski, Former children and families’ social worker, England

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION: Neoliberalism, the belief that free market economies are the best way to achieve human well-being, continues to dominate economic, political and social life in the UK, Europe and the globalised world. In the UK the welfare state has gradually been dismantled and become more punitive, the market place has been introduced, and social work has been de- professionalised and transformed into a narrower, more restricted, role. Instead of relationship- based work, practitioners are largely concerned with completing bureaucracy speedily to ration resources and assess/manage risk. Moreover, in relation to children and families, parents need to be self-responsible and, if they fail, a punitive response awaits: being told to change their behaviour/lifestyle or face losing their children to adoption.

APPROACH AND CONCLUSIONS: Drawing and building upon my previous work (for example, Rogowski, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2016), this article outlines the neoliberal changes and challenges to social work with children and families in the UK, arguing that critical practice is ever more necessary. Such practice entails working alongside children and families on the issues at the root of social injustice, notably growing inequality in the neoliberalised world. Importantly, examples of what such a practice might entail are highlighted.

KEYWORDS: critical practice; managerialism; neoliberalism; social work with children and families; welfare state

Professional social work in the United co-ordinating the work of other agencies Kingdom peaked following the to meet needs. Corresponding with establishment of the welfare state during the ideological move to the right and the post-war years of the social democratic neoliberalism following the election of consensus (for example, Ferguson, 2008; Margaret Thatcher as Prime Minister in 1979, Garrett, 2009, 2009a; Rogowski, 2010). It the situation altered. was a product of a collectivist era when the state played a key role in ensuring the The New Right applied classical liberal basic needs of citizens were met in relation critiques of state action to contemporary AOTEAROA to health, housing, education, employment issues of economic and social policy, NEW ZEALAND SOCIAL and social security. Eventually Social including preferring market to public sector WORK 30(3), 72–83. Services Departments were established approaches to welfare (Ferguson, 2008; whereby social workers helped deal with Garrett, 2009b; Rogowski, 2010). Social CORRESPONDENCE TO: ongoing social problems by direct work workers subsequently felt the brunt of Steve Rogowski with individuals, families, groups and this changed climate. In the late 1980s and [email protected] communities, as well as advocating and 1990s, the introduction of care management

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led to deprofessionalisation concerning party policy remits. This Keynesianism work with adults. Social work’s decline involved agreement on the nationalisation accelerated during the New Labour years, of major industries and planning their particularly in relation to practice with development to eliminate the “boom and children and families. Despite talk of the bust” of capitalism, together with the state ‘Third Way’, Labour largely continued with needing to intervene to temper the causes neoliberalism, a comment which applies of social inequities by creating the welfare to the subsequent Coalition and now state. Social problems that remained were Conservative governments. Consequences explained by an individual’s psychological include the increased privatisation of make-up which was susceptible to services, the use of the voluntary or diagnosis and treatment by, among others, third sector, and social workers being social workers. Notions of solidarity were controlled by managers whose emphasis premised upon the view that the state could is on completing bureaucracy speedily to motivate national growth and well-being by meet targets. In short, practice has become the encouragement of social responsibility de-professionalised and dominated by and the mutuality of social risk (George & managerialism and the social work business Wilding, 1976). (Harris, 2003; Harris & White, 2009), with this escalating under the “alchemy of As Labour and Conservative governments austerity” (Clarke & Newman, 2012) which alternated into the 1970s, differences between has led to massive cuts to public services. them amounted to a little more or a little less government ownership and economic In what follows, I locate the ideological planning, with the welfare state rubric being changes of the last 40 years as being at the accepted. Within this consensus, social work root of the challenges to social work in the came of age, particularly as the Seebohm UK and focus on practice with children and Report (1968) led to local authority Social families. However, it is also important to Services Departments being established to note that the larger themes developed are provide community-based, family-oriented equally applicable to countries such as New services. However, this occurred when the Zealand, Australia, Canada and the USA consensus was to fall apart. The seeds of (see, for example, Beddoe & Maidment, this collapse were laid earlier in the world 2013; Mullaly & Dupre, forthcoming; economic crisis of 1973, and culminated Pease, Goldingay, Hosken, & Nipperess, in the election of Thatcher. Monetarism, a 2016). First, I comment on the move from forerunner of today’s neoliberalism, replaced social democracy to neoliberalism. Second, Keynesianism, which signalled a return I look at how social work has changed to the free market ideology that had been under neoliberalism, particularly work discarded since the 1930s’ Great Depression with children and families. Third, the (Ferguson, 2008; Harvey, 2007). effects of this change in relation to de- professionalisation, managerialism and the The New Right political movement argued social work business are critically discussed. for a complete break with Keynesianism And fourth, despite on-going challenges because social democracy, including the to critical, indeed radical practice, I outline welfare state and social work was, for them, some ways forward. a major part of the problem. The rise and now domination of neoliberalism, drawing From social democracy to on the work of Hayek and Friedman, is neoliberalism the result (see O’Brien & Penna, 1998). This ideology is based on the belief in The social democratic consensus of the individual freedom by reducing government initial post-war years resonated across most regulation in order to liberate individual of the traditional Labour and Conservative entrepreneurial skills within an institutional

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framework characterised by strong property savage public expenditure cuts and attempts rights (Harvey, 2007). Its core idea is that free to “get more for less” under the banner markets and free trade best achieve human of austerity (Farnsworth & Irving, 2018; well-being, despite leading to vast increases McGimpsey, 2017). Such austerity policies in inequality along with anxiety and are designed to continue the dismantling insecurity in the lives of many (Ferguson, of the welfare state, bring down wages and 2008; Garrett, 2009b; Rogowski, 2013, 2015, fully marketise the economy, thus destroying 2016). all the post-war social and economic gains of ordinary people. More positively, however, The New Right achieved power by the Labour Party under Jeremy Corbyn has employing arguments such as the concept returned to Old Labour and its more robust of dependency culture arising from a too- social democratic roots which, in turn, has generous welfare state, militant trade unions led to a more widespread questioning of the holding employers and governments to whole neoliberal project. ransom, and a lack of law and order. This grouping of economic and political interests Social work and neoliberalism also sought to reduce state intervention, notably in relation to welfare where self- As indicated, the organisational and serving professions such as social work were practice changes to social work over recent seen as encouraging welfare dependency. decades need to be understood in terms of Such views were to lead to the “post- neoliberalism and neoliberalisation. Thus, welfarist” or neoliberal state (Harvey, the Thatcher and John Major Conservative 2007), whereby the quasi-market succeeded governments (1979–1990 and 1990–1997 bureaucratic institutional structures as the respectively) over-saw developments mechanism and legitimating form for the which impacted fundamentally on social allocation of resources from central state to work. As well as the introduction of the local providers, and with market competition aforementioned care management for work and logic shaping the value, purpose and with older people, the need for a social work practice of provision (Le Grand, 2001). In qualification for probation was ended, and brief, Social Services Departments were the introduction of the Diploma of Social regarded as costly and inefficient with the Work in 1989 allowed employers to shape way forward being seen as an increased social work education in their own interests. emphasis on self-help and individual Importantly, the Children Act 1989, despite responsibility, more ‘choice’ and freedom, its preventative and partnership ethos, and an extension of the commodification of confirmed a move from child welfare to child social relations. protection (see Parton, 1996 for a discussion of these issues). No longer was child abuse Despite Tony Blair’s general election victory a medico-social problem with doctors and in 1997, the continuities were with the New social workers the key professionals; instead Right/neoliberal turn and many of New it was socio-legal issue, with the police Labour policies simply “out Toried the and courts taking an increasing role. Social Tories” (Powell, 2000, p. 54; also see Powell, workers became investigators with parents 2008) by consolidating and building on the becoming objects of enquiry; the move was Conservatives’ reforms. Social work was from therapy and welfare to surveillance and drawn deeper into managerial, market- control (Howe, 1992). oriented ways of thinking and practising (Harris & White, 2009). Although the Then there was social work’s 1980s’ neoliberal project led to the 2007/08 financial success in relation to young offending by crash and resulting Great Recession, it diversion from the youth justice system and emerged remarkably unscathed, with developing alternatives to incarceration subsequent governments implementing (Blagg & Smith, 1989; Pitts, 1988; Rogowski,

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2016; Thorpe, Smith, Greenwood, & Paley, used to screen out some needs, redefine them 1980). Despite this arguably being the most as someone else’s problem, or say they were evidenced-based social work achievement, insufficiently serious to warrant intervention this was totally ignored as, from 1991 (Smith, 2008). onwards, “populist punitiveness” emerged with politicians of all parties becoming New agencies, including statutorily enforced increasingly blaming and punishment partnerships and quangos were also created, orientated in their pronouncements all impacting negatively on social work. (Bottoms, 1995). The culmination was New An obvious example is the aforementioned Labour’s Crime and Disorder Act 1998 which Youth Offending Teams, but there was also led to social work’s role being marginalised social work’s absence from any real role as practitioners were merged into Youth in relation to Sure Start and the Children’s Offending Teams with various other Fund, preventative initiatives for younger professionals. and older children and their families respectively. The absence meant that what Under Tony Blair’s (and later Gordon used to be the preserve of highly trained Brown’s) New Labour governments (1997– professionals, namely social workers, was 2007 and 2007–2010 respectively) social work increasingly carried out by less qualified fared even worse. For instance, the Care support, outreach and other staff (Ferguson, Standards Act 2000 saw the Central Council 2008; Garrett, 2009; Rogowski, 2010). for the Education and Training in Social Work replaced by the General Social Care Council Other important developments arose from to regulate social work training and the two high-profile, child abuse tragedies. social work and care workforce. The Social First, there was the fall-out from the Victoria Care Institute for Excellence (SCIE) was Climbie Inquiry (Laming Report, 2003) into also established to identify and disseminate the death of a young girl who died of injuries evidence-based practice, with the demise of inflicted by her carers. Every Child Matters the National Institute of Social Work (NISW) (Department of Education and Skills, 2004) subsequently occurring. The use of the word and the resulting Children Act 2004 aimed care and not social work shows the disdain to transform children’s services and enhance with which New Labour held social work the integration of health, education, social and their desire to cleanse and remove any services/care and others; this led to the oppositional possibilities to the neoliberal demise of Social Services Departments and project (Garrett, 2009; Rogowski, 2010). their replacement by Children’s Trusts. As a result, practitioners no longer had a safe, The standardised assessment framework supportive base in their own local authority (Department of Health et al., 2000) was also department (Garrett, 2009b; Rogowski, 2010, introduced and involved the completion 2013). of detailed initial and core assessments via computer exemplars as an attempt The second tragedy was that of Baby P, to define the indeterminacy, uncertainty Peter Connelly, who died in 2007. Although and ambiguity in practice by introducing initially social workers were vilified, in many a “techno-rationalist” method (Cleaver ways this led to a more progressive debate & Walker, 2004). This led to a focus on about social work for children and families information gathering at the expense which continued into David Cameron’s of meeting needs, with processing and Coalition government of 2010–2015 (Garrett, classification rather than direct work with 2009a; Jones, 2014). For example, following children and families dominating. It was the establishment of the Social Work Task an assessment process underpinned by the Force (SWTF, 2009) and the Munro Review functional objective to manage risk and (Munro, 2011) there was increased public police the socially marginalised, and was awareness about the short-falls of the

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electronic recording system social workers should always be a last resort simply because were forced to use, including the inordinate help and support can enable families to stay amount of practitioners’ time spent on together, even though austerity policies and computers and bureaucracy in general – cuts to services work against this. this called into question New Labour’s “modernization agenda”. Furthermore, a Another cause for concern are plans to Social Work Reform Board was established shift children’s services into independent to improve social work which included the trusts, this being part of growing movement establishment of a College of Social Work to towards independent provision of children’s provide a voice for, and raise the status of, services which adds to fears about a the profession. marketplace in the sector. Meanwhile, families and councils remain on the receiving However, despite such fine aspirations, the end of austerity policies: cuts to welfare resulting action did not always live up to the benefits, housing and support services such expectations of practitioners. Although there as children’s centres and youth work, with was the introduction of a single assessment all of this coupled with flat lining in-work instead of the initial/core assessments and incomes and increasing income insecurity. child protection guidance was reduced, Overall, expenditure on local authority bureaucracy actually increased because of children’s services has been drastically an undue focus on risk with its assessment/ reduced despite rising demand and growing management now being a key component numbers of children; the government of practice (Rogowski, 2014). Indeed, at narrative largely remains that councils need a time of austerity, perhaps we should to do more with less. not underestimate the huge challenges to creating the paradigm shift the SWTF and The most significant recent piece of Munro Review aimed to achieve (Parton, legislation has been the Children and 2012). For instance, the College of Social Social Work Act, 2017 which provides a Work soon closed due to lack of funding new regulator for social work; Social Work under the Coalition government’s austerity England, and attempts to give greater clarity measures. to councils as “corporate parents” of children and young people in care, and care leavers. As for Theresa May’s (2015–present) current Fortunately, attempts by ministers to insert Conservative government, social work with “opt-out clauses” in the legislation to give children and families continues to be on favoured councils exemption from children’s the defensive (see Rogowski, forthcoming). social care laws (supposedly to encourage Practitioners still face inordinate amounts innovation), were dropped. However, of bureaucracy with little time available to concerns remain about politicians taking work directly with children and families. control of social work, especially as new Unless there are child protection concerns, powers are given to the education secretary cases are quickly closed. There is also an to set “improvement standards” for social increased emphasis on adoption with some workers and introduce assessments for local authorities setting targets for how practitioners. many children should be adopted from care, notwithstanding that there are no targets De-professionalisation, managerialism for the rehabilitation of children home from and the social work business care. In any case, the setting of such targets is ethically questionable especially when one Although professionalism can be attacked bears in mind that the right to family life from the political left (see Simpkin, 1983) (where it is safe), is a human right enjoyed a more enduring attack on professional by both parents and children. In addition, or “producer power” came from the New the decision to place a child for adoption Right (George & Wilding, 1994), this being

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taken up by New Labour arguing public firms, functioning in a context as market-like services, including social work, had to as possible. Importantly, information and become “modernised” and responsible to communication technologies (ICTs) fulfilled the “consumer”. At a rhetorical level, this a crucial role in terms of technologising and meant increased professionalism through marketising the public sector (Harris, 2003). the introduction of the social work BA Most recently, we have even seen attempts degree although, on the other hand, this to open up child protection in England pre-occupation functions to ensure a to a commercial market place and more reliable and compliant workforce working privatisation (Jones, 2018). at the will of employers through managers (Dominelli, 2009; Ferguson, 2008; Ferguson The need for efficiency, effective targeting, & Woodward, 2009). Essentially, the degree and ensuring that the requirements focuses on the practical knowledge social of “customers” dominate, rather than workers require (Department of Health, those of service providers, have been 2002) to the exclusion of the knowledge to be the arguments put forward for business- gleaned in order to combat social injustice. centric reform. However, and as alluded Further, despite the emphasis on continuing to, the poorly conceived introduction of professional development, the preoccupation this model meant that social workers had with “competence” is an example of it being to spend most of their time in-putting data governmental tool for the regulatory control rather than working with children and of professionals (Eraut, 1994). families (Hall, Peckover, & White, 2008; White, Wastell, Broadhurst, & Hall, 2010). Under the Coalition and current Tory Furthermore, despite the rhetoric referring government, the face of social work to “empowerment”, “choice” and “needs-led education changed further with the assessment”, the consequence of the changes introduction of fast-track training for practice have been far-reaching with programmes like “Step Up to Social Work” social work taken “away from approaches and “Frontline”. These initiatives have that were therapeutic or which stressed the created a two-tier social work education importance of casework, let alone anything system; a key concern being that the focus of more radical or progressive” (Harris, 2003, the programmes is on practical knowledge p. 66). Moreover, the move to the managerial and the skills employers need rather than the social work business is anathema to social theoretical underpinning of a practice which work values and its commitment to social confronts social inequality. justice and social change.

As for managerialism and the social work as In a different vein, the changes outlined business ideology (see for example, Clarke, impacted negatively simply because 1998; Clarke & Newman, 1997; Evans, “practice landscapes under modernising 2009; Harris, 2003; Rogowski, 2010, 2011), agendas had served to undo good practice” such developments transformed the way (Doyle & Kennedy, 2009, p. 51) because welfare organisations carry out government they often result in the policing function policy – a change reflecting the move away dominating practice objectives. This is at the from administering of public services to expense of other priorities, including the their management (Harris & White, 2009). perceived and real needs of users (Stepney, It stemmed from the neoliberal dogma that 2006). Practitioners are often so busy at the market was superior to the state and “getting (the current) the job” done that they that public services needed to be managed are in danger of losing sight of what and much like the private sector. Similarly, the who they are, including their professional social work business involves the neoliberal uniqueness and style of intervention; in view that public services, including social many cases filling in forms and in-putting work, had to become more like private data becomes the be-all and end-all. Again,

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it is worth emphasising that the modernising (2008; Ferguson & Woodward, 2009) developments lead to practitioners wants to reclaim social work together with completing assessments within specific time- reasserting a radical/critical approach (see scales with little time spent helping children also Lavalette, 2011; Turbett, 2014); and and families. Jordan (2007, 2008, 2010; see also Jordan & Drakeford, 2013) looks at re-working the Similarly, concerning social work with young relationship between social work and well- offenders, the influence of managerialism being. All these thinkers develop important is exemplified in forms aimed at assisting arguments points and there is merit in decision-making in practice which are repeating some of their key points here. merely management tools to improve information gathering (Smith, 2007; Whyte, First, Garrett provides a critical account 2009) and lead to a “zombification” of social of the changes afflicting social work workers in youth justice (Pitts, 2001). In with children and families because of short, data in-putting dominates rather than neoliberal rationality. However, although direct work with young offenders and their neoliberalism is the dominant “common families on issues of concern. sense” or ideology, it contains flaws and inconsistencies and thus there are Critical/radical possibilities opportunities. He refers to Gramsci’s notion of “hegemony” with the emphasis on words In many ways, social workers have “been and discursive struggle being linked to more turned into unreflective people-processors orthodox politics based on political parties, by waves of managerialism over the last 30 trade unions, professional associations and years and, more recently, by the intertwining social groups; this means it is possible to of managerialism with New Labour’s create counter-hegemonic strategies aimed at modernisation agenda” (White, 2009, p. 129). social change. This has remained the case under subsequent governments despite lip service occasionally Second, Ferguson voices similar concerns being given to reducing social work relating to the dominance of neoliberalism, bureaucracy. This is because of the central how it has changed social work, the need neoliberal focus on marketisation, reducing for the profession to be reclaimed, and public expenditure and, my concern here, why a radical/critical practice still retains controlling social workers and service users. its relevance. He notes that bureaucracy, If intervention occurs, it is supposed to be rationing of resources, and increasingly evidence-based but, as stated, in most cases having to be the moral police, all contribute unless there are child protection concerns to a profound sense of dissatisfaction or a serious risk to oneself or others, little among social workers. However, with this is offered. Interventions that do occur are dissatisfaction the seeds of resistance are usually of a controlling, authoritarian nature, sown, not least in a desire to re-engage with amounting to parents being told to change a radical/critical practice which provide their life-styles or face the consequences of social work with “resources for hope” losing their children. (Batsleer & Humphries, 2000).

Despite the foregoing, and as I have argued Third, Jordan, never comfortable with previously (for example, Rogowski, 2010, the market mentality of neoliberalism, 2016), there are a range of commentators eschews the perspective of accountants, informed by a critical perspective who managers and government ministers, manage to retain a sense of optimism. re-emphasising social work’s concern Garrett (for example, 2003, 2009b) focuses with relationships and feelings which are on the remaking or transforming of social not vague, woolly concepts. He argues work with children and families; Ferguson social work sits well with a happiness and

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well-being agenda which sees a future model draws attention to the economic, consisting of environmental awareness, a environmental and cultural barriers to revival of respect and mutuality among ensuring children are cared for safely. This ethnic diversity, and a vision of our collective includes fresh assumptions such as: currently quality of life. there are inequalities in children’s chances of living safely with their families; these All three perspectives see social work as far inequalities are related to deprivation and more than the neoliberal preoccupation of other outcomes of inequality such as physical being able to deliver services to individuals and mental health; and social and collective whose well-being is taken to lie in a choice strategies need to be integrated with humane of alternative suppliers, or as offering practices directed at individual families. interventions to target specific behaviours. Rather practice comprises interactions The arguments presented here entail a involving emotions such as empathy, trust refutation of government claims that they and respect; these being the mechanisms are engaged in an ongoing – improvement which produce much of the value of social of the child protection system. Austerity work. And in a similar vein is the more policies have actually increased the number recent work of Featherstone and colleagues of children and families in poverty while (Featherstone, Gupta, Morris, & White, 2018; simultaneously reducing the support Featherstone, White, & Morris, 2014). They available. This, in turn, reinforces the criticise a social work model geared to crisis inequalities that limit the potential of intervention in relation to child protection, growing numbers of children and families, instead seeing the value of community social including the abilities of parents/carers to work whereby teams are based in local care for children safely. communities with children and families treated both as individuals and as members Practice examples of the neighbor-hood. They critique the current practice assumption that the harms When considering the aforementioned, many children need protecting from are found overburdened practitioners query how such within individual families and caused by ideas can be applied in day-to-day practice? acts of omission/commission by parents Nevertheless, I maintain that there are or carers. Related assumptions include the opportunities to challenge rather than simply belief that such acts are due to attachment support the status quo. More emphasis can issues or poor lifestyle choices; intervention be placed on the caring side of social work, being primarily based on protecting children one which is more compatible with social by identifying what distinguishes this family justice and social change. from others in similar circumstances rather than identifying common challenges to good Nowadays, critical/radical practice, may parenting such as poverty and poor housing; have to amount to ‘quiet challenges’ and and seeing procedures, risk assessment and resistance to managerial and business multi-agency working as the core to child orientated discourses and practices (White, protection. 2009), and a number of examples spring to mind. For instance, one can mystify or Instead, the argument is for a different child conceal knowledge of users in order to protection narrative; one that acknowledges acquire resources – this amounts to the the impact of poverty and inequality on manipulation of knowledge and information children and families and which interrogates on their behalf. Or again, one could delay the causes and consequences of deprivation. or exaggerate paperwork or assessment An obvious point is that there are clear plans so that managers are manipulated into links between deprivation and the rates of taking a particular course of action. Ignoring, children being taken into care. Their social bending or re-interpreting rules and

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procedures also have a role to play. When it emphasis on the young women learning comes to more specific cases, let us look at from each other’s experiences. The activities what a critical/radical practice might entail. of the young women could be related to current society which, despite changes First, disaffected teenagers can be hard to influenced by feminist thought, is still reach and engage with. A social worker dominated by men. could be faced with a 15-year-old young man with a disrupted care background. In relation to child protection/safe-guarding, He might be challenging in relation to not despite tragedies such as Victoria Climbie going to school, being disruptive when and Baby Peter, often it is too easy for there and often going missing from home. practitioners to fall into the trap of seeing Drug and alcohol abuse are other issues. He themselves solely as the “hard cops” of the may refuse to engage with social workers welfare state. This is largely because of the because, at the instigation of managers, they role they have been forced into in the current keep changing or his case is closed. Faced neoliberal world, often involving merely with this, it is important that the young intrusively asking questions, gathering man’s views are fully reflected in the various information and in so doing inspecting assessments and other reports, together with families’ homes and lifestyles. All too often the need for practitioners to persevere, be this is carried out, not with the aim of finding available and be honest and consistent in out what help and support is needed to their dealings with him. Admittedly, this can provide reasonable care of the children, be a difficult task given managers want to but rather with a view to defending the process cases as speedily, and with as little organisation’s reputation if things go wrong. recourse to the public purse, as possible. It is a defensive, risk-averse practice, one that But attempts can be made and be successful can be defended rather than one that meets despite the difficulties; this resonates with the needs of users. Instead, social workers arguments about re-stating the importance of could work with children and families on the relationship-based practice (Ruch, Turney, & basis that they are potential allies in dealing Ward, 2010). with the issues under consideration.

A second example is that of a teenage girl In a case of neglect, for instance, you could who is continually absconding, staying out have children arriving at school late or not overnight, sometimes for days at a time. at all, often ill-clad and hungry, because She also associates with other girls who their single parent mother is often hung-over then “hang around” with or are targeted by from repeated alcohol abuse and has been teenage and older young men who befriend unable to get up. A neoliberal social work and sexually exploit them. Again, in reports approach would be simply to tell her to written for child exploitation meetings, change her life-style or face the consequences instead of focusing on inadequate parenting, of child protection procedures and care in effect blaming often single-parent mothers proceedings. A more critical social work doing their best in difficult circumstances, approach, however, would work on the the practitioner could advocate for more issues of concern in a more collaborative/ progressive responses such as a group partnership-oriented way by listening work with the young woman concerned to, and wherever possible, acting on, the and her female friends, even though few mother’s and children’s view of the situation. social workers are currently allowed to use This includes spending time with the family, this method (Cooney & Rogowski, 2017). delving into the reasons for her drinking, This could, utilising an empowering model her and her children’s worries and anxieties (for example, Mullender & Ward, 1991; and so on. Financial and housing problems, Mullender, Ward, & Fleming, 2013), focus for example, might be factors. Linking the on the issues and concerns but with an family members with, and if necessary,

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accompanying them to, appropriate local lines outlined means social work, albeit in groups and agencies dealing with their a small way, can work towards a different, particular issues might also be needed. more just and equal world, not least because Advocating on behalf of their situation might more equal societies are better for everyone also be required. All this takes time and (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009). could well be frowned upon by managers who merely want to quickly process cases, Conclusion but nonetheless the resilient practitioner will find ways round this and create some space. The welfare state is no longer regarded by neoliberals as aiding social solidarity, instead Finally, “old” radical social work being a means to provide consumers with concerns with such as politicisation and tailored, cost-effective services. New Labour consciencisation can still play a part. It embraced the new welfare culture, envisaging may be difficult to engage in some of the a modernised welfare state as having to work potentially critical/radical community/ with the grain of market imperatives (Page, group work initiatives of the past (Ferguson, 2009). Such views have been developed and Iokimidis, & Lavalette, 2018; Lavalette, 2011; taken further by subsequent Coalition and Rogowski, 2010; Turbett, 2014). But, and Conservative governments. despite the challenges of postmodernism which challenges the basis of over-arching Until recently, all three major political truths, it is still possible to work with parties in England, along with most of users on an individual basis with the aim the governments and the main political of developing an understanding of the parties in the developed (and increasingly underlying causes of the problems and the developing) world, accept a consensus difficulties they face, namely the neoliberal which views neoliberalism or (in more system we currently live in. overtly Marxist terms), global capitalism, as the only way forward. Despite the Great As well as practitioners working on an Recession, the belief in free markets and individual basis with users in progressive, limited state intervention remains intact to critical/radical ways, there is also a role the extent that the very existence of social for collective action. This means acting work as a profession is threatened. The with those such as the British Association caring and supportive side of state social of Social Workers to ensure a stronger work does not fit in with the neoliberal professional identity, as well as the Social ideology which emphasises people having Work Action Network to develop strategies to take responsibility for their own lives, to resist managerialism. Trade unions can, nominally supported by family, friends, local and do, assist in such processes. Broader community and voluntary organisations social groupings also have roles to play, where necessary: Cameron’s so-called “Big an example being the anti-globalisation Society”. Perhaps all that can be expected movement. This movement is significant over the coming years is that social workers because of its ability to bring together will become even more the acceptable face disparate groups – trade unionists, of the state in saying that no, or minimal, environmentalists, peace campaigners, services can be offered. People will be feminists, socialists and many others – to expected to “stand on their own feet” with challenge the neoliberal world. It amounts social workers only intervening if people to “unity in diversity” (Leonard, 1997, become a danger to themselves or others, p.177) and points to some ways forward in and then in an authoritarian way. But surely challenging neoliberal orthodoxy. all is not lost in view of the rise of Labour’s Jeremy Corbyn and his efforts to return the Working individually in one’s day-to-day party to a more robust social democratic practice, as well as collectively along the approach to the economy and politics.

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Corbyn’s rise encourages many to Cleaver, H., & Walker, S. (2004). From policy to practice: The implementation of a new framework for social take a more optimistic view of future assessment of children and families. Child and Family possibilities for critical social work while Social Work, 9, 81–90. also acknowledging the pitfalls (Rogowski, Cooney, L., & Rogowski, S. (2017). Towards a critical 2010, 2013, 2016, forthcoming). Despite feminist practice with children and families: Child sexual exploitation as an exemplar. Practice: Social Work in challenges and difficulties, opportunities Action, 9(2), 137–149. remain and need to be taken as the practice Department for Education and Skills. (2004). Every Child examples outlined earlier indicate. Working Matters: Change for children. London, UK: Stationery individually in one’s own practice with Office. users on a critical, indeed, radical basis, must Department of Health. (2002). Requirements for social work training. London, UK: Author. go hand in hand with acting collectively to Department of Health and Employment/Home Office. (2000). ensure there is resistance to the neoliberal Framework for the assessment of children in need and world. This involves social workers moving their families. London, UK: Stationery Office. beyond being competent technicians, towards Dominelli, L. (2009). Repositioning social work. In R. Adams, a broader concept of what is professional, L. Dominelli, & M. Payne (Eds.), Social work: Themes, issues and critical debates (3rd ed., pp. 13–25). namely an acknowledgement that knowledge Basingstoke, Hants: Palgrave Macmillan. and understanding are required to challenge Doyle, C., & Kennedy, S. (2009). Children, young people, current managerial obstacles and practices. their families and carers. In P. Higham (Ed.), Post This knowledge and understanding points qualifying social work practice (pp. 49–62). London, UK: Sage. towards the structural connections that Eraut, M. (1994). Developing professional knowledge and penetrate the surface of what social workers competence. London, UK: Farmer Press. encounter daily and involves locating users’ Evans, T. (2009). Managing to be professional? Team difficulties and possible solutions within the managers and practitioners in modernised social work. wider social context. In J. Harris & V. White (Eds.), Modernising social work: Critical considerations (pp. 145–165). Bristol, UK: Policy Press. In summary, against the official agenda of Farnsworth, K., & Irving, Z. (2018). Austerity: Neoliberal so-called modernisation and transformation dreams come true? Critical Social Policy, 38(3), in social work, and despite the intensification 461–481. of work and the individualisation of users, Featherstone, B., Gupta, A., Morris, K., & White, S. (2018). Protecting children: A social model. Bristol, UK: Policy an element of discretion endures (Harris Press. & White, 2009). As a result, a niche can be Featherstone, B., White, S., & Morris, K. (2014). Re-imagining found for some progressive, even critical/ child protection: Towards humane social work with radical, possibilities. families. Bristol, UK: Policy Press. Ferguson, I. (2008). Reclaiming social work: Challenging neo-liberalism, promoting social justice. London, UK: References Sage. Batsleer, J., & Humphries, B. (Eds.). (2000). Welfare, Ferguson, I., Ioakimidis, V., & Lavalette, M. (2018). Global exclusion and political agency. London, UK: Routledge. social work in a political context: Radical perspectives. Beddoe, L., & Maidment, J. (Eds.). (2013). Social work Bristol, UK: Policy Press. practice for health and wellbeing: Critical issues. Ferguson, I., & Woodward, R. (2009). Radical social work in Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. practice: Making a difference. Bristol, UK: Policy Press. Blagg, H., & Smith, D. (1989). Crime, penal policy and social Garrett, P. M. (2003). Remaking social work with children and work. Harlow, UK: Longman. families: A critical discussion of the “modernisation” of Bottoms, A. (1995). The philosophy and politics of social care. London, UK: Routledge. punishment and sentencing. In C. Clarkson & R. Morgan Garrett, P. M. (2009a). The case of Baby P: Opening (Eds.), The politics of sentencing reform (pp. 17–49). up spaces for the debate on the “transformation” Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. of children’s services? Critical Social Policy, 29(3), Clarke, J. (1998). Thriving on chaos? Managerialism and 533–547. social welfare. In J. Carter (Ed.), Postmodernity and the Garrett, P. M. (2009). “Transforming” children’s services: fragmentation of welfare (pp. 171–186). London, UK: Social work, neoliberalism and the “modern” world. Routledge. Maidenhead, Berks: Open University Press. Clarke, J., & Newman, J. (1997). The managerial state. George, V., & Wilding, P. (1976). Ideology and social welfare. London, UK: Sage. 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Hall, C., Peckover, S., & White, S. (2008). How practitioners Pitts, J. (2001). Korrectional karaoke: New Labour and the use ICT in social care work. Community Care, 15 May, “zombification” of youth justice. Youth Justice, 1(2), 3–12. 26–27. Powell, M. (2000). New Labour and the third way in the Harris, J. (2003). The social work business. London, UK: British welfare state: A new and distinctive approach. Routledge. Critical Social Policy, 20(1), 39–60. Harris, J., & White, V. (Eds.). (2009). Modernising social Powell, M. (Ed.). (2008). Modernising the welfare state: The work: Critical considerations. Bristol, UK: Policy Press. Blair legacy. Bristol, UK: Policy Press. Harvey, D. (2007). A brief history of neo-liberalism. Oxford, Rogowski, S. (2010). Social work: The rise and fall of a UK: Oxford University Press. profession? Bristol, UK: Policy Press. Howe, D. (1992). Child abuse and the bureaucratisation of Rogowski, S. (2011). Social work with children and families: social work. Sociological Review, 40(3), 491–508. Challenges and possibilities in the neoliberal world. Jones, R. (2014). The story of Baby P: Setting the record British Journal of Social Work, 42(5), 921–940. straight. Bristol, UK: Policy Press. Rogowski, S. (2013). Critical social work with children and Jones, R. (2018). In whose interest? The privatisation of child families: Theory, context and practice. Bristol, UK: Policy protection and social work. Bristol, UK: Policy Press. Press. Jordan, B. (2007). Social work and well-being. Lyme Regis, Rogowski, S. (2014). Critical social work in child protection/ UK: Russell House. safeguarding: Challenges and (fewer) opportunities. Critical and Radical Social Work: An International Jordan, B. (2008). Welfare and well-being: Social value in Journal, 2(1), 43–58. public policy. Bristol, UK: Policy Press. Rogowski, S. (2015). Margaret Thatcher’s legacy for social Jordan, B. (2010). 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British Journal of Social Work, 36(8), Users taking action for empowerment. London, UK: 1289–1307. Whiting and Birch. SWTF/Social Work Task Force. (2009). Building a safe, Mullender, A., Ward, D., & Fleming, J. (2013). Empowerment confident future. London, UK: General Social Care in action: Self-directed groupwork. Basingstoke, UK: Council. Palgrave Macmillan. Thorpe, D., Smith, D., Greenwood, C., & Paley, J. (1980). Munro, E. (2011). The Munro review of child protection: Final Out of care: The community support of juvenile report. London, UK: Department of Education. offenders. London, UK: Allen and Unwin. O’Brien, M., & Penna, S. (1998). Theorising welfare: Turbett, C. (2014). Doing radical social work (reshaping Enlightenment and modern society. London, UK: Sage. social work). Basingstoke, Hants: Palgrave Macmillan. Page, R. (2009). Labour governments and the welfare state White, V. (2009). Quiet challenges: Professional practice in since 1945. 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The spirit level: Why more Sage. equal societies always do better. London, UK: Penguin.

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Family violence – through the lens of reflective practice

Amitha Krishnamurthi, Resettlement Case Advisor, Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, New Zealand

ABSTRACT

By applying my cultural sense of self and incorporating a case study, this reflective work examines family violence and the compulsive and seductive aspects of so-called “victim blaming” which, I contend, operate as a defence against institutional anxieties experienced and borne by individual practitioners. In this reflective piece I consider family violence, and aspects of domination described above from my lived experience as an indigenous woman, and as a migrant from the Global South. I also incorporate a social work case study from an Aotearoa New Zealand context to further explore cultural aspects of family violence or domination.

KEYWORDS: Family violence; reflective practice; meaningful engagement; power and control

My name is Luka; I live on the second floor; I live authority, mastery, supremacy and influence upstairs from you; and oppression (Ross, 2017). Yes I think you've seen me before; if you hear something late at night; According to Section 3(1) of the New Some kind of trouble. Some kind of fight; Zealand Domestic Violence Act of 1995, Just don't ask me what it was… Domestic violence is “in relation to any I think it's because I’m clumsy; I try not to talk person, means violence against that person too loud; by any other person with whom that person Maybe it's because I’m crazy; is, or has been, in a domestic relationship”. I try not to act too proud; they only hit until you cry; The statistical rate of family violence in And after that you don't ask why Aotearoa New Zealand is alarmingly You just don't argue anymore… high; the New Zealand Family Violence (Suzanne Vega, 1987) Clearinghouse (NZFVC) indicates that, in 2016, there were 118,910 family violence Family violence is defined as an expression investigations by the New Zealand Police. and dimension of social domination which A total of 55% of Aotearoa New Zealand includes aspects of coercion including, but not women speak of intimate partner violence limited to, physical acts of violence (Adams, (psychological/emotional abuse) in their 2012). This reflective work considers some of lifetime. The impact on children and young AOTEAROA the more detailed aspects of domination and people involved in such situations is NEW ZEALAND SOCIAL the way these are manifested as a pervasive immense. In 2015, for example, New Zealand WORK 30(3), 84–89. aspect of culture. The concept of culture Police recorded 10 homicides of children here references the background social norms and young people under 20 years of age by which determine or prescribe behaviours a family member. In 2015, 63 children and CORRESPONDENCE TO: Amitha Krishnamurthi and are internalised as beliefs. Domination youth were hospitalised for a serious, non- Amitha.Krishnamurthi@ as expressed in family violence relates to fatal assault perpetrated by a family member mbie.govt.nz specific and implied acts signifying control, (NZFVC, 2017).

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My journey in social work philosophies to my experience of working with Indian women in the US, Malaysia, I am a social worker who completed a India and latterly in Aotearoa New Zealand. master’s degree in India as a medical and I have attempted to relate my experiential psychiatric social worker, and an accelerated reality of being raised in post-Independence master’s degree in the United States (US) India to post-colonised New Zealand. The in direct practice social work (focused British presence in India is negligible since on application of social work theory and 1947; however, in New Zealand, the on- methods to the resolution and prevention going tangata whenua lived reality along-side of psychosocial problems experienced by tauiwi (a term used to describe people who individuals, families and groups). Moving are not Māori), is difficult to understand to Aotearoa New Zealand was a conscious without a critique of the colonial legacy. decision, and researching the bi-cultural Decisions made pre-independence however, aspect of social work practice in this country still impact every Indian to this day. helped inform me about engaging with families of different cultures and ethnicities One of the most enduring clichés unique to Aotearoa New Zealand. When about India is that it is a country of I was working in the US, Aotearoa New contradictions. Like all clichés, this one too Zealand was seen as part of the Pacific Island has a grain of truth in it. At the heart of the group; as such, I found myself putting a contradiction stand Indian women: for it label on people in Aotearoa New Zealand is true to say that they are among the most as “Pacific Islanders” in much the same way oppressed in the world, and it is equally people in the US categorised me as “Asian” – true to say that they are among the most something I did not appreciate. This made liberated, the most articulate and perhaps me reflect on the categorisation we social even the most free. (Butalia, 1997) workers adopt, following the lead of others, which privileges the geographical over a Mahatma Gandhi coined the term Stree deeper understanding of the communities Shakthi (women power) and Hinduism we serve. speaks positively of femininity (Ray, 2005). Female Hindu gods are the holders of For example, as with Asian countries, the knowledge and wealth, complementing so-called Pacific Island nations of Samoa, their male counterparts. However, the lived Tonga, Cook Islands, Tuvalu, Niue, to reality of many Indian women today speaks name only a few, have different languages, a different story. Sexual violence has become manners of dressing, different ideas about an area of significant concern and attention family structure, duty, respect, and different as against physical and other forms of world views. I reason with myself that it is violence (Das, 2006). Safety issues have taken near impossible to know the intricacies of precedence over emotional wellbeing. all the different ethnicities we work with. However, acknowledging the similarities Case study: an exploration of and differences would translate to active the dynamics of oppression and listening; of seeking to understand “their” story, as all meaningful intervention starts at domination in the place of work the beginning. The following case study is offered to further explore dynamics of oppression and In considering the dynamic of domination domination in a social work practice context. and oppression I have, during the course of All identifying characteristics of the people my frontline work in Aotearoa New Zealand, in this case study have been changed. compared tangata whenua (a term used to describe the Māori people as the original Shylai is a 38-year-old female of Indian inhabitants of Aotearoa New Zealand) descent born and raised in Aotearoa New

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Zealand. She has three children who are 5, child abuse and exposure to family violence, 7 and 12 years old. Her partner, Robin, is which appears at the beginning of this article not the father of her three children. Shyla encapsulates how a person experiencing is 12 weeks pregnant with Robin’s child. abuse feels about the importance of keeping Shyla and Robin have been together for intimate partner details private even when it four months. Shyla’s neighbours who, are is likely to be obvious to others around. her main supports, called the police several times due to verbal and physical arguments Reflective practice as the basis of (which have increased in intensity and meaningful engagement frequency) at her house late at night. The police identified Robin as the perpetrator Trained in an environment of evidence- of violence and Shyla as the victim. Shyla’s based concrete philosophies in India, I children, when interviewed, spoke about struggled with reflective practice when I was being scared for their mother when Robin is in the US. What has been interesting for me drinking or is angry. Shyla was assessed as a is looking at the historical origins of critical very child-focused mother; she has a collage thought. Critical thinking can be traced back of her children’s growing up years on the in the East to ancient India and Buddhist front wall of her lounge, she bakes cookies, is philosophy (Gambrill, 2012). Questioning closely linked with school activities and is a one’s values, beliefs and seeking to reframe very involved mother. these with sound logical reasoning is the essence of critical thinking and reflective Shyla spoke with social workers several times practice. The goal is to seek the truth so the about the violence in the home and became knowledge gained assists in future practice. very teary when information shared by her children was given to her. Shyla was urged Progress in a case is measured by evidence- several times by social workers to seek a based tools as well as reflecting on what protection order under the Domestic Violence was done and on how it was delivered Act (1995). After the fourth reported incident and perceived. “Reflexivity means that we of physical family violence and, after initiating constantly get evidence about how effective the process several times in the past, Shyla or worthwhile our actions are, and we can finally applied for a protection order. Once the change what we are doing according to the protection order was granted, however, Shyla evidence and its value” (Adams, Dominelli, invited Robin back to her home. & Payne, 2009, p. 127). Kolb (1984) and Adams et al. (2009) have raised the idea Subsequently, over a period of two months, of incorporating experiential learning and there were several police call-outs with reflective observation into social work regard to family violence perpetrated by practice. Experiential learning highlights Robin on Shyla. While Shyla had been the role of one’s experience of a situation commended by the social workers and and the role it plays in bettering practice. other professionals when she obtained the Reflective observation helps such learning protection order, the very same professionals to be cemented into one’s ongoing practice. now seemed to blame her for the violence It promotes an understanding that the work in the home. The reasoning around this was one does as a social worker is dynamic. The that, had she not brought Robin back into “use of self” is a concept mentioned often the house, she would have mitigated the to social work students. For example, Fook risk that she put herself and her children (2002) states that social work practitioners’ under. It appeared as though the victim was face significant challenges such as identifying seen to be “culpable” for having committed what they contribute to a relationship, how herself to an unsafe relationship so should their contribution impacts on decisions, take responsibility when something went and what individual and structural power wrong. Vega’s (1986) song “Luka” about imbalances influence practice.

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A personal audit of one’s practice can Observing the case study of Shyla through be crucial to being effective. It is best my social work lens, and applying Duluth’s practice to factor in a review/evaluation power and control model (Pence & Paymar, in any social work plan you make with 1993), it seemed to me that the violence a client and their family. Likewise it is the professionals were working to stem important to review one’s practice as we was being re-perpetuated by the very go. This will mean that one is working as same professionals. At the start of the a reflective practitioner linking with new process, Shyla was seen to be absolved developments, changes and changed inputs of all responsibility to stay safe. Once required, for the outcome to work in the the external system imposed restrictions best interests of the client. As an accountant on the perpetrator (Robin), it seemed would check the incomings and outgoings the professionals were absolved of their of a company’s financial matters, a personal responsibility of ensuring the safety of the audit of self by a social worker can be seen victim. The full circle, as the professionals to be hugely helpful to evaluating one’s viewed it, was that the victim re-possessed practice (West, 2010). the responsibility of staying safe. It was unclear what opportunities the victim was As a migrant Indian woman I often explore given to claim her space, her identity or her the predominant beliefs in my culture strength to accomplish what was expected and what I have grown up to know and of her. It appeared that the time given for experience as internalised certainties. I have regenerative work in relation to the victim’s grown up seeing and knowing that ideas emotional wellbeing was dictated by the about male superiority, coercion and control professionals or process meant to assist her. form a natural background to entitlement It seemed that the pace of the client was not and privilege. This privileged status is often considered as a factor in the change process. afforded to the man, expected and reinforced My reflection was that, had this been by the surrounding dynamics and social considered, change was more likely to have norms. been sustained and impactful on the client and her family. The price of privilege is the objectification of the other and, as such, the empathetic and These reflections led me to the conclusion emotional world is frequently foreclosed as that, in this case, the values and beliefs that a way to defend and maintain the position are meant to fight power and control did and values required to manage “othering” not necessarily foster equality. Rather the (Lazaridis, Campani, & Benveniste, 2016). values and beliefs that were in action were The power and layering (implicit meaning) of the victim being required to rise up to the of words, and communicating what is expectations put on her by the very people inferred but not expressly stated, is a familiar who were expected to understand her thing for me. The parallels that can be drawn situation much better than others. Having with family violence are significant. Adams grown up in an environment where people (2012) points out that, once one is immersed are more concerned about performing a in a colonial environment, understandings task as per what is expected of them rather of superiority and entitlement can become so than what they wish to do, the unnecessary familiar and ingrained that the legitimacy of value placed on external expectations was empire becomes self-evident. Adams notes, starkly obvious to me. Knowing you need to further, that living and breathing within the change, and experiencing that on a “feeling” centrality of a dominant cultural perspective level are very different things. Knowing you will tend to diminish alternative perspectives need to leave the relationship and having beneath one “flat earth” reality; a reality the motivation to do it are exclusive of each where alternative perspectives have little other. Motivation is based on a sustained currency. feeling of optimism and the professionals

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involved with Shyla knew that Shyla was understanding of differences and similarities. not optimistic, future-focused or thinking For an indigenous person trained in theories about herself and her children’s safety and that mainly originated from the West, my well-being. It appeared to me that knowing journey has made me aware of embedded this did not translate to understanding her and pervasive aspects of control and inability to be optimistic about change. It is domination while working with families. likely that Shyla was justifying her actions Cultural considerations and understanding to both Robin and the professionals she was are best guided by understanding different working with. world views from the perspective of the person belonging to that world view. It was clear that Shyla was at a moment in her life where she was not at her best. What What started as a reflection from a structural was expected of her, however, was to better perspective on work in the family violence her previous attempts at improving her sector has become an introspective journey situation. Responsibility and expectations for me. As a person privileged to enter of the professionals governed the help the homes and lives of individuals and process and these expectations were not their families, the respect I accord these informed by a sense of where her emotional families and individuals needs to be and physical abilities were, given the sincere and without judgment. Concepts stressful situation. Shyla was to act as the like non-judgmental attitude, sustainable responsible mother to ensure the physical engagement, and unconditional positive and emotional safety and well-being of regard, which I was taught by the Western her children. I am not discounting Shyla’s social work theorists, mean nothing to ability to act. I am analysing the work of clients if these ideas are not demonstrated the professionals whose main responsibility in action. is to assist the victim. It appeared that the professionals were unclear if her inability to Staying true to myself as a practitioner is act was about her being “able” to or whether about recognising that what I do intuitively she was “willing” to. Discerning this as a is distinct from logical and rational actions. “willingness or capacity” matter could have In my work with people I tend to have steered the helping process down a different an outward focus – on their story, their path. This might have given the client the perspectives, their abilities and strengths, ability to explore her resilience, her strength and their limitations. After several years and the support that was offered rather than of practice as a social worker, I at times do the client thinking about “letting people not question what I do unconsciously as down” – be it her family, her friends, her long as what drives the action has a clear children or the professionals working purpose. What has occurred to me through with her. this reflection is that effective practice is to consciously question what drives my actions and thoughts. Questioning comes naturally Conclusion to social workers and, as Einstein (2016) I have attempted to speak, through my famously said, “The important thing is not journey in social work, about the importance to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own social workers need to place on recognising reason for existing.” our cultural positioning and identity. With fluid societies and travel between countries Note by social workers and the need to build solid i No real names in this case study, details changed. communities, social workers have significant References stress placed on them. Their work with Adams, P. (2012). Masculine empire: How men use violence people should be about appreciating their to keep women in line. Auckland, New Zealand: views and needs rather than a tokenistic Dunmore Publishing.

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Adams, R., Dominelli, L., & Payne, M (2009). Social work: Themes, issues and critical debates (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Butalia, U. (1997). The Women’s movement in India: Action and reflection. Communique, 42–43 (July-August). Retrieved from www.twnside.org.sg/title/india-cn.htm Das, V. (2006). Sexual violence, discursive formations, and the state. In F. Coronil & J. Skurski (Eds.), States of violence (pp. 393–425). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Domestic Violence Act (1995). Retrieved from http:// www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1995/0086/latest/ DLM371926.html Einstein, A. (2016). Albert Einstein quotes. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. Retrieved from https://www.amazon.com/Einsten-Wisdom-Quotes- Extraordinary.../1523324678 Fook, J. (2002). Social work: Critical theory and practice. London, UK: Sage Publications. Gambrill, E. (2012). Social work practice: A critical thinker’s guide (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. New Jersey, USA: Prentice-Hall. Lazaridis, G., Campani, G., & Benveniste, A. (2016). The rise of the far right in Europe: Populist shifts and “othering”. London, UK: Springer Nature. New Zealand Family Violence Clearing House. (2017). Data summaries. Retrieved from https://nzfvc.org.nz/sites/ nzfvc.org.nz/files/Data-summaries-snapshot-2017.pdf Ray, B. (Ed). (2005). Women of India: Colonial and post- colonial periods. New Delhi, India: Paula Press. Pence, E., & Paymar, M. (1993). Education groups for men who batter: The Duluth model. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company. Ross, E. A. (2017). Social control: A survey of the foundations of order. London UK: Routledge. Vega, S. (1986). Luka [Recorded by A&M]. On Solitude Standing. New York: Bearsville Studios. West, L., (2010). Really reflexive practice. In H. Bradbury, N. Frost, S. Kilminster, & M. Zukas (Eds.), Beyond reflective practice: New approaches to professional lifelong learning (pp. 66–80). New York, NY: Routledge.

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Kris Olsson’s Kilroy was Here

Michele Jarldorn Flinders University, South Australia Correspondence to: [email protected]

When I was approached to write a classic acknowledgement, we took turns to stand book review, what immediately came to up and read aloud their names and their mind was Kilroy was Here, a book I first background information. This simple, encountered while taking an elective in my respectful activity humanised and dignified a BSW degree. Not a scholarly monograph or group of people who tend to be represented a social work text book, Kilroy was Here is, merely as numbers and statistics. Later on the surface anyway, a beautifully crafted in that same lesson, Heather talked about biography of an extraordinary Australian her recent attendance at an international woman, Debbie Kilroy. Kilroy is a former conference where she had heard feminist prisoner who survived the system and whose responses to prison and the criminalisation life’s work is dedicated to radically changing of women. She spoke specifically about that same system. However, for me, the book Kilroy’s achievements, and the book which is much more than a good read. It served to she had just finished reading, Kilroy was Here. consolidate the connection between theory, practice and experience in profound ways. Kris Olsson’s Kilroy was Here captures integral moments and turning points Coming to university as a “non-traditional” in Kilroy’s life, while at the same time mature-aged student, while posing presenting a time-capsule of Australia’s numerous challenges, furnished me with recent gendered, racist and “classed” the ability to connect the dots between the history. Scattered through the chapters are theories and lived experience of oppression. many examples where Kilroy was failed My most profound learning in my degree and abused by individuals as well as by came from my second-year elective, a the education, welfare and criminal justice Women’s Studies topic, Sex, Gender and systems. From the time she entered a Identities. Taught by Dr Heather Brook, who Catholic infant school, Debbie’s experiences later became my primary PhD supervisor, of formal education were rarely positive. the topic and the content helped shape who I She liked climbing trees with the boys and am as a social worker, academic and activist most of her mates were Aboriginal kids in various ways. Using an intersectional – she rejected the nuns’ expectations of feminist perspective, the topic gave me the ladylike behaviour and from an early age tools to identify overt and covert connections was not afraid of questioning, or challenging between power and gender. Using various authority, especially if she thought they creative approaches, Heather demonstrated were being arbitrarily unjust. As she grew the ways in which gender, race and class older, Debbie’s distrust of, and resistance to, influence how social problems are created, authority, grew. She began skipping school addressed and resolved. One of the most to be with her mates and refused to obey memorable sessions in that semester was her parents. By her early teens, Debbie had about the role of prisons in society. It began learned to hate school and regularly truanted with each of us being handed a sheet of as a result. Her parents were often worried paper which included the name, age and sick about her safety and their inability background of an Aboriginal person who to rein in her behaviour. So, when social had died in custody. In a deeply moving workers and the police recommended that

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Debbie undergo a psychiatric assessment of stepping into the patterns of prison life to search for a possible reason for her and out of patterns of life outside. This behaviour, they agreed. Like most working- wasn’t so hard for someone who had class families, they had been socialised to spent her formative years in a brutalising privilege the opinion of professionals such institution, much of it in isolation. She as social workers, teachers, psychologists wasn’t afraid. It was, at some level, like and lawyers. At just 13 years of age, Kilroy going home. (Olsson, 2005, p. 112) entered Wilson Youth Hospital for what her parents were told was an “assessment”. Not only did Kilroy survive prison, she Upon her entry to Wilson, Debbie was demonstrated her fierce and unfaltering stripped, showered and deloused, she loyalty to her people, by fulfilling a promise suffered brutalising physical and emotional that many make but rarely follow through abuse and neglect until her first discharge with. Kilroy has devoted her post-release life some three months later. to supporting criminalised women to have a voice, providing them with judgement-free Wilson Youth Hospital was part of a raft of support and advocacy. She has done this institutional responses to social problems that through the organisation she was integral was commonly used in Australia, that have in creating: Sisters Inside, recognised since been the subject of a Royal Commission. internationally for its work that is grounded Wilson was a government-run “child guidance in human rights and is driven by, and for, hospital” which claimed that it could “treat” criminalised women. More broadly, she has delinquency. Staffed by a combination of contributed to policy, research and the work medical and security personnel, Wilson of the United Nations in their measures provided a scientific, institutional approach aimed at upholding the rights of criminalised to social problems in Australia, described and disadvantaged women. by Ashton and Wilson as an “unholy union of welfare and punishment” (2014, p. xi). What lessons informed my social work Between July 1975 and April 1977, Kilroy was identity in this book? Firstly, it helped me to readmitted into Wilson at least seven times, understand that it is not just the abuse suffered creating a continuum of violence. Kilroy’s by the individual that causes pain and trauma, mother was interviewed for the book and, but the collective experience of witnessing reflecting on her decision to give permission others being hurt and abused and the for her daughter to be “assessed” at Wilson, associated feelings of helplessness – of being she said, “I would have painted the house hot unable to do anything about it. When Kilroy pink if the social workers had told me it would is quoted as saying, “whatever normal is, fix her” (Olsson, 2005, p. 15). institutions and violence don’t breed it when it comes to relationships” (Olsson, 2005, p. 175), Research (Halsey & Deegan, 2015; she is telling us that being institutionalised Carrington, 1993) shows being locked up creates long-term damage to people’s ability as a juvenile puts people at enormous risk to identify and maintain healthy relationships. of entering prison as an adult. In her late For criminalised women, this is often twenties, married and the mother of two operationalised through stigma, as their young children, Kilroy was imprisoned in treatment in institutions by the criminal justice Queensland’s notorious Boggo Road Prison. system leads them to believe that they do not As the following excerpt shows, adult prisons deserve happiness, or to be loved or nourished. can seem like a natural progression for I have worked alongside women who, like someone who has spent a significant period of Kilroy did, appear to internalise that, for some their adolescence in the “care” of the state: reason they deserve their punishment – no matter how cruel or usual it becomes. Often it …those first few days in prison were a is deeply felt guilt over losing their children, as process of desensitising, layer by layer, this excerpt suggests:

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Separation from her children is usually the usefulness of peer-to-peer support, the the first and biggest loss a woman precariousness of funding – despite service experiences when she goes to prison. delivery successes – when an organisation Both the woman and her children are works in the advocacy space and the benefits capitulated into a cycle of grieving of being a politically savvy activist. More that starts with the shock of arrest and broadly though, it articulates a critique of the trauma of a trial, and continues charity and social control methods of social on through the stage of imprisonment work intervention and clearly demonstrates and gradual release. Women are often the damage to individuals, families and overwhelmed by guilt and anxiety communities created by the prison industrial about the children; they have lost their complex and its neoliberal relative, the welfare parenting role and identity along with industrial complex. Most of all, the book taught their freedom and dignity. Children of me to always question claims about “evidence” all ages suffer dislocation (if they are and evidence-based practice. We should placed with a carer) and teasing at school; always ask ourselves, “whose evidence do we they feel anger at their mother for the take as authentic” – those who collect statistics separation and shame, and pain at the and turn them into research – or the real-life separation from her and often from her experiences of people closest to the issue? siblings. (Olsson, 2005, p. 193) For any reader, the book is a page-turner, a Demonstrating that being shoehorned into compelling story of survival over adversity formal education is not the only way to attain and disadvantage. Engaging with this book knowledge, Kilroy is a street-smart human sent me on a direction of learning that I rights activist, committed to advocating for had not contemplated I would take and, I the rights of disadvantaged women. She can think, has made me a better social worker be likened to what Gramsci (1957) defined as all around. The book presented to me for the a “street level intellectual”, having the ability first time the perspectives held by the prison to see through layers of control and “civilised abolition movement and led me to read oppression” and get right to the heart of the work of Angela Davis (see for example the matter – a straight talker respected by Davis, 2003, 2012), which ultimately informed her community and importantly, trusted by my PhD research and my work outside of them to speak truth to power. Later, Kilroy academia. Kilroy was Here should be a must- enhanced her personal strengths with formal read for any social worker who works with, education, through a series of vocational or is interested in, working alongside women certificates, earning a degree in social work who have spent time in prison. and studying law, becoming the first former prisoner in Queensland to be admitted as a References legal practitioner. Ashton, P., & Wilson, J. Z. (2014). Silent system: Forgotten Australians and the institutionalisation of women and children. North Melbourne, Victoria: Australian Scholarly This book conveys an authentic truth about Publishing. women’s experiences of release from prison. Carrington, K. (1993). Offending girls: Sex, youth and justice. For example, often people appear to have St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin. changed post-release and may not seem to Davis, A. Y. (2003). Are prisons obsolete? New York, NY: embrace the prospect of freedom, described Seven Stories Press. Davis, A. Y. (2012). The meaning of freedom and other as being “institutionalised”. For those of difficult dialogues. San Francisco, CA: City Lights Books. us who have never been held in a prison, Halsey, M., & Deegan, S. (2015). Young offenders: Crime, it can seem a simple task to instruct former prison and struggles for desistance. Basingstoke, prisoners to shrug off this feeling if they Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Gramsci, A. (1957). The modern prince and other writings. want to successfully reintegrate into the New York, NY: International Publishers. community. Kilroy’s story makes very clear Olsson, K. (2005). Kilroy was here. Sydney, NSW: Bantam why this is impossible. The book demonstrates Books.

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Blame, culture and child protection

Jadwiga Leigh, 2017 Palgrave Macmillan, London, UK ISBN 978-1-137-47008-9, pp. 255, hardback, NZD170.00

n recent years, the public has held social use statutory power to take that child into workers responsible for rescuing “at- care, thus both fulfilling and shaping public Irisk” children and the media are poised perceptions of the social work role. An to pounce when a child is seriously harmed. alternative course of action is to work with Sensationalist reporting has tarnished the child’s family to help them resolve issues the profession’s reputation, especially in considered risky but that can feel unrealistic England. Jadwiga Leigh’s book offers an when administrative requirements are insider’s perspective on what it means to be prioritised over relationship-building, and a social worker in this context. It includes when other sources of support are hard stories, vignettes, observations and reflective to find. This kind of risk-averse practice research notes from her comparative has infiltrated the child welfare field in ethnographic study of English and Flemish Aotearoa New Zealand, where recent child protection agencies. The tone is rhetoric positions children as “vulnerable” experiential, immediate and, at times, very to harm because their families’ problems are personal. Drawing on social interactionism entrenched and intractable. and Goffman’s work on stigma, Leigh discusses the nature of “profession” and Leigh’s book explains how English child “professional identity”. She explains how protection agencies reacted to the threat professional decision-making is profoundly of public vilification. In a rather futile undermined by constant awareness of attempt to insulate themselves against public scrutiny and describes the different criticism, they adopted a defensive experience of social workers in Flanders, stance. To forestall accusations of careless where child welfare practice maintains monitoring, they developed hierarchical a tradition of supporting families, child organisational structures and managerial protection practice is interdisciplinary, surveillance of social workers’ compliance compassionate and collegial, and social work with administrative procedures. Targets and is still a respected profession. timescales leave little scope for developing the trusting relationships that enable Beginning with a lament for English social social workers to hear families’ stories, workers’ loss of status, Leigh explains that understand their problems, and work the profession has reacted to blame by with them towards some kind of solution. veering towards risk avoidance, stifling the Child protection has morphed into agency responsive, “inspirational” practice that protection and child protection social work was formerly its hallmark and undermining has internalised risk. However, instead of social workers’ confidence in their specialist protecting the social work profession from expertise. Social workers dread featuring on public blame and contempt, this reaction the front page of the tabloid newspapers as eroded the profession’s reputation. Child the person responsible for “failing” to protect protection social work is perceived as a child. Faced with the dilemma of assessing callous rather than helpful. Yet, rather than whether a child is safe at home, it can feel regaining respect by articulating the strong, much safer to err on the side of caution and cohesive body of knowledge that underpins

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the profession’s specialist expertise in shows artwork in the form of “coffin-shaped supporting people experiencing hard boxes” containing compressed paper records times, child protection social work has been of work with previous families. This seems complicit in the damage done. bizarre, but Leigh does not discuss other possible interpretations – an example of Organisational culture that equates her tendency to report rather than analyse. professionalism with compliance is Despite her focus on “how space and incompatible with the values and expertise environment can impact on the identity at the heart of social work’s capacity to of those who work in these settings and promote the well-being of children and their those who visit them” (p. 139), she does not families, and to its capacity to promote social probe the incongruity between the agency’s justice. professed aims and its practice. For example, students are excluded from the staff Leigh compares this regrettable state of lunchroom despite the agency’s commitment affairs with the very different Flemish to collegiality. child welfare system which is based in an established, integrated continuum of care. Leigh’s comparative ethnography leaves The preventive end of this continuum crucial questions unanswered. How realistic features home-based support provided is it to imagine shifting individualised by specially trained nurses for all families child protection practice typical of risk- with new babies, for as long as they need averse cultures towards the collegial, it. The investigative end of the continuum interdisciplinary work and collective aims to maintain a supportive attitude. responsibility that characterises the work Leigh’s book uses photos and descriptions of the Flemish agency described in Leigh’s to illustrate how physical environment book? To what extent is it possible for a embodies prevailing assumptions about statutory agency to engage in supportive the professional/client relationship and the practice when families view social workers status of social workers. Photographs of as authoritarian? Deep-seated suspicion the English site show a bleak environment of English social workers’ motives and that prioritises managerial concerns about competence is implicit in some of the stories efficiency and reflects power differentials. presented in the book. Such suspicion This “fortress of social work” reflects builds over many years and will not easily hierarchical staffing structures by positioning dissipate, so how could the English child social workers in an open-plan office protection model metamorphose into where confidentiality is compromised and something resembling the Flemish model? managers can keep an eye on what is going The book’s discussion of entrenched on from behind venetian blinds encasing risk-averse orientation suggests that the glass that partitions their workspaces metamorphosis could not happen without from the common space occupied by other a fundamental change in the way child staff. There is no sign of any attempt to make protection agencies view, value and support children and families feel comfortable in their social workers. Transformation to the building, while obvious signage does a less mechanistic culture would require nothing to decrease stigma. significant attitudinal change, a shift away from the prevailing view that it is imperative By contrast, the Flemish agency is located in to rescue children from families deemed a school. Social workers meet with children dangerous and towards supporting families and families in personalised, individual to raise their children safely. Flemish child offices accessed via a corridor adorned with protection builds on universal, preventive artwork intended to demonstrate that many service provision, inter-professional respect families have struggled previously, and and collective responsibility. Unfortunately, thus lessen stigma. A photo of this corridor preventive services in Aotearoa New Zealand

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have also been eroded and collegial practice protection social workers. The book provides is not well developed. vivid extracts from social workers’ accounts of their professional lives and thus offers The experiences described in Leigh’s book insight into the realities of practice, including will resonate with many social workers. anxieties, regrets and disappointments This may be helpful to those struggling that now characterise the child protection with a sense of dissonance between what field. Although social workers may not be they entered social work to do and what encouraged by the book’s content, it could they find themselves doing. The book’s potentially counteract the media’s propensity description of a sustained comparative to denigrate social work. If the book were ethnography project will be useful to required reading for journalism students, people contemplating research projects they might more carefully consider the moral using similar methodology. Where it may dimension of their own future work. Mostly, be especially useful, however, is in helping however, the book points to the need for outsiders understand the quandaries and social workers to take control of the narrative constraints routinely encountered by child about what social work can, and should, do.

Reviewed by Irene de Haan, University of Auckland, New Zealand

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Research for social workers: An introduction to methods (4th ed.)

Margaret Alston and Wendy Bowles, 2018 Allen & Unwin, Crows Nest, Australia ISBN 978-1-76029-744-2, pp. 522, paperback, NZD56.99

ocial workers must understand Part one introduces social work research. their responsibility for research and In chapter one the priorities in the research Spublications (ANZASW, 2013; SWRB process of social work values, human 2016), develop “research-mindedness” rights and social justice within political, (Flynn & McDermott, 2016), including being social, and economic contexts, with a focus ongoing critical consumers of research on action and change are all identified. evidence that can be incorporated into While the cultural context of research is everyday practice (Gray, Plath, & Webb, briefly explored later in the chapter, greater 2009), and increasingly, become social prominence for the place of indigenous work research practitioners (Beddoe, Yates, research could be made. The chapter explores Fouche, & Harington, 2010). As a social work quantitative and qualitative methodological educator who works alongside students to strategies as well as emancipatory, feminist understand the value of research evidence and postmodern influences on research in decision-making, I found this text helpful methods. While outlining different forms of and highly recommend it as a resource research and the power of underlying beliefs for students and graduates. This fourth separately for clarity, the explanation of how edition provides an accessible guide for mixed methods, combining aspects of these beginning researchers to some key research strategies and methodologies, can enhance philosophies, perspectives, strategies, the validity of the research findings is designs and methods. Choosing a research useful. The authors argue that inductive and topic, developing answerable questions, deductive thinking can be seen as different selecting appropriate methodology and phases of a cyclical process of developing methods, analysing findings, documenting knowledge, theory building and theory and disseminating the research are all testing. A discussion around the politics and discussed with embedded social work ethics of research concludes this chapter. research examples. Chapters conclude with The questions and exercises provide a useful further reading lists, discussion questions guide for the critical analysis of research and exercises to aid understanding. The publications as well as consideration of the well-referenced text is divided into five many dimensions of developing a research parts (beginning social work research; project. research methods for social work; evaluation; statistical analysis; bringing it all together) Chapter two explores choosing a research with a number of chapters within each part. topic and the importance of identifying Chapters can be utilised as stand-alone or the underlying conceptual framework in together as a congruent whole consideration defining the criteria and purpose of the of research for social workers. The text research. The value of an advisory group sits alongside many familiar social science made up of the project’s key players research methodology texts and provides is also outlined. Chapter three focuses excellent connections for the reader to the on developing the research questions field of social work research. utilising either a quantitative or qualitative

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methodological strategy. A useful case action research, evidence-based practice and example demonstrating quantitative best practice evaluation, community-based research is utilised to demonstrate how the rapid appraisals (post-disaster recovery and questions influence the research design and other crisis situations research), and other the potential data analysis that might result. methods. This example introduces, explains, and demystifies language utilised in quantitative Part four is titled statistical analysis, research. Quantitative research questions are and concentrates on analysis for both then compared to the bottom-up deductive qualitative research and statistical analysis approach for developing qualitative for quantitative research. Different ways research questions that maintain credibility, of analysing data are presented with trustworthiness and rigour. An excellent reference made to software packages. Part discussion on how epistemological markers five brings the content of the text together (paradigm, theory, power, reflexivity), along by considering two critical phases in the with other factors including triangulation research process: having an impact on policy of evidence, persistent observation or and practice, and writing up the research prolonged engagement, and member to ensure maximum impact and leading checking can demonstrate trustworthiness to action. The final chapter of the text and rigour is provided. provides a guide to developing a research proposal and, although this stage in the Chapter four summarises seven stages research process happens much earlier, in the research process. Quantitative and without an understanding of, and decisions qualitative research examples are given. made around, the full research process, the As background to these steps, the factors research proposal could not be completed, that influence the nature and success of hence the logic behind the placement of this the research including the agency context, chapter. theoretical and socio political context, professional and personal contexts and Margaret Alston and Wendy Bowles are practical issues to ensure manageable, clear both Professors of Social Work in Australia research projects are identified. It may have at Monash University and Charles Sturt been useful to link the student academic University respectively. setting into this discussion, given the text’s target audience includes students. References ANZASW. (2013). Code of ethics. Christchurch, New Zealand: Parts two and three provide an overview of Author. different research methods and processes of Beddoe, L., Yates, D., Fouche, C. B., & Harington, P. (2010). Practitioner research made easier: A report on the GRIP analysis. Specific sections may be focussed project. Aotearoa New Zealand Social Work Review, upon by readers that best applies to the 22(2), 22–36. research they are considering. Individual Flynn, C., & McDermott, F. (2016). Doing research in social chapters describe methods often useful for work and social care: The journey from student to social work research including sampling, practitioner researcher. London, England: Sage. systematic reviews or secondary data Gray, M., Plath, D., & Webb, S. (2009). Evidence-based social work: A critical stance. Abingdon, England: analysis, surveys and interviews, and Routledge. assessing community needs and strengths, SWRB. (2016). Code of conduct. Wellington, New Zealand: evaluation including programme evaluation, Author

Reviewed by Sonya Hunt, Senior Lecturer, Social Work Programme, University of Waikato, New Zealand.

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