Notes

Introduction

1. IWM EC 7, Villiers to Wainwright, 19 March 1919. 2. Illustrated News, 24 May 1919, pp. 747–48. 3. Ibid., p. 750. 4. ECSV, anonymous clipping, ‘Britain Pays Just Homage: Every Resident of London Joins in Tribute to ’, 16 May 1919. 5. Illustrated London News, 24 May 1919, p. 750. 6. Ibid., p. 748. 7. A. A. Hoehling, Edith Cavell (London: Cassell), p. 17. 8. K. Pickles, Female Imperialism and National Identity: Imperial Order Daughters of the Empire (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2002), p. 47. See also K. Pickles, ‘Edith Cavell – Heroine: no hatred or bitterness for anyone?’, History Now, 3, 2 (1997) 1–8. 9. P. A. Buckner and C. Bridge, ‘Reinventing the British World’, Round Table, 368 (2003), 77–88, 77. 10. J. M. MacKenzie, ‘Nelson Goes Global: The Nelson Myth in Britain and Beyond’, in D. Cannadine (ed) Admiral Lord Nelson: Context and Legacy (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), pp. 144–165, p. 161, p. 147. 11. See M. Warner, Monuments and Maidens: The Allegory of the Female Form (London: Vintage, 1985). 12. For anomalous Canadian women who were commemorated see C. M. Coates and C. Morgan, Heroines and History: Representations of Madeleine de Vercheres and Laura Secord (Toronto, Buffalo and London: University of Toronto Press, 2002). 13. J. Bethke Elshtain, Women and War (New York: Basic Books Inc., 1987). 14. G. Lloyd, ‘Selfhood, war and masculinity’, in C. Pateman and E. Gross (eds) Feminist Challenges: Social and Political Theory (Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, 1986), pp. 63–76, p. 76. See International History Review, 19, 1 (1997), Special issue on Gender and War in the Twentieth Century. 15. A. Fraser, The Warrior Queens (London: Penguin, 1990), p. 305. 16. N. Yuval-Davis, Gender and Nation (London, Thousand Oaks, and New Delhi: Sage, 1997), especially chapter 5 ‘Gendered Militaries, Gendered Wars’, pp. 93–115. 17. G. Greer, ‘Soldiers’ in The Whole Woman (London: Doubleday, 1999), pp. 162–170, p. 163. 18. C. Enloe, Does Khaki Become You?: The Militarization of Women’s Lives (London, Boston, Sydney, Wellington: Pandora, 1983, 1988), p. 13. See also C. Enloe, Manoeuvres: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 2000), C. Enloe, Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989) and C. Enloe, The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1993).

212 Notes 213

19. P. Summerfield, Women Workers in World War II: Production and in Conflict (London and New York: Routledge, 1989), R. Roach Pierson, They’re Still Women After All (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1986), A. Woollacott, On Her Their Lives Depend: Munitions Workers in the Great War (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), and D. Montgomerie, The Women’s War: New Zealand Women 1939–45 (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2001). 20. S. MacDonald, P. Holden and S. Ardener (eds) Images of Women in Peace and War: Cross Cultural and Historical Perspectives (London: Macmillan, 1987), M. R. Higonnet et al., Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1987), C. M. Tylee, The Great War and Women’s Consciousness: Images of Militarism and Womanhood in Women’s Writings, 1914–1964 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990), and H. M. Cooper et al. (eds) Arms and the Woman: War, Gender, and Literary Representation (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989). 21. J. Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 11. 22. J. Fentress and C. Wickham, Social Memory (Oxford and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1992), R. Samuel, Theatres of Memory, vol. 1 and 2 (London and New York: Verso, 1994, 1999), R. Samuel and P. Thompson (eds) The Myths We Live By (London and New York: Routledge, 1990), E. Hobsbawn and T. Ranger (eds) The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). 23. A. Thompson, ANZAC Memories: Living with the Legend (Melbourne , 1994), p. 9. 24. J. Duncan and D. Cosgrove (eds) ‘Colonialism and Postcolonialism in the Former British Empire’, Ecumene 2: 2 (1995), pp. 127–128, D. Cosgrove and S. Daniels, The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the symbolic representation, design and use of past environments (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), D. W. Meinig and J. B. Jackson, The Interpretation of Ordinary Landscapes: Geographical essays (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1979). 25. S. Schama, Landscape and Memory (New York: Vintage Books, 1995), p. 9. 26. N. Yuval-Davis, Gender and Nation (London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: Sage, 1997), p. 1. 27. C. Enloe, The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War, (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1993), p. 231. 28. A. L. Stoler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002) and A. L. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault’s History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995). 29. F. Cooper and A. L. Stoler (eds) Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997). 30. J. MacKenzie, Propaganda and Empire: The Manipulation of British Public Opinion 1880–1960 (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1984). 31. C. Hall, Civilizing Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination 1830–1867 (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2002), p. 8. 32. L. Colley, ‘The Significance of the Frontier in British History’, (Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center: The University of Texas at Austin, 1995), p. 8. 214 Notes

33. J. Jacobs, Edge of Empire: Postcolonialism and the City (London and New York: Routledge, 1996). 34. F. Driver and D. Gilbert (eds) Imperial Cities: Landscape, Display and Identity (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1999). 35. R. Pesman, Duty Free: Australian Women Abroad (Melbourne and New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), A. Burton, At the Heart of Empire: Indians and the Colonial Encounter in Late-Victorian Britain (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1998), A. Woollacott, To Try Her Fortune in London: Australian Women, Colonialism And Modernity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001). 36. Coates and Morgan, Heroines and History, p. 4. 37. G. Whitlock, The Intimate Empire: Reading Women’s Autobiography (London: Cassell, 2000), p. 41. 38. D. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2000), p. 7. 39. But see on-going work such as J. Eddy and D. Schreuder (eds) The Rise of Colonial Nationalism: Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa First Assert Their Nationalities 1880–1914 (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1988), C. Berger, The Sense of Power: Studies in the Ideas of Canadian Imperialism, 1867–1914 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1970), W. D. McIntyre, The Commonwealth of Nations: Origins and Impact, 1869–1971 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), and P. Buckner, ‘Whatever Happened to the British Empire?’, Journal of the Canadian Historical Association, 4 (1994), 2–32. 40. S. Slemon ‘Unsettling the Empire: Resistance Theory for the Second World’, in P. Mongia (ed) Postcolonial Theory: A Reader (London and New York: Arnold, 1996), pp. 72–83. 41. H. K. Bhabha, ‘Of Mimicry and Man: The ambivalence of colonial discourse’, in The Location of Culture (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), pp. 85–92. 42. B. Ashcroft, Post-Colonial Transformation, (London and New York: Routledge, 2001), p. 93. 43. D. Cannadine, Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their Empire (Penguin: London, 2001), p. 10, p. xix.

1 Pathway to Death: Arrest and Trial

1. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Mrs Reeve, 4 August 1914. 2. Ibid. 3. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Mrs Cavell, 14 March 1915. 4. IWM EC 10, minutes regarding the arrest, 11 August 1915, p. 17. 5. Ibid. 6. A. E. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell: Pioneer and Patriot (London: Faber and Faber, 1965), p. 13. 7. IWM EC 10, the hearing of the military court of the Government, p. 42. 8. IWM EC 10, minutes regarding the first examination, p. 29. 9. IWM EC 10, minutes regarding the second examination, p. 30. 10. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Grace Jemmett, 6 August 1915. 11. IWM EC 10, file Xa, ‘Police Dept B, Brussels, The General Governor in Belgium. Accused: Architect Philipp Baucq, and others’. Notes 215

12. IWM EC 10, ‘Report No. 1 Brussels, 1 August, 1915’. 13. IWM EC 10, ‘Report No. 2 Brussels 1 August 1915’. 14. A. A. Hoehling, Edith Cavell (London: Cassell, 1958), pp. 38–39. 15. IWM EC 10, ‘Report No. 3 Brussels 1 August 1915’. 16. IWM EC 10, Ledger No. 1112, Brussels 27 September 1915, p. 39. 17. Ibid. 18. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Mrs Cavell, 30 August 1914. 19. Ibid., 15 September 1914. 20. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Florence Cavell, 19 September 1914. 21. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Mrs Cavell, 19 October 1914. 22. Ibid., 26 October 1914. 23. Ibid., 8 November 1914. 24. Ibid., 22 November 1914. 25. Ibid., 26 October 1914. 26. Ibid., 16 November 1914. 27. Ibid., 22 December 1914. 28. Ibid., 14 March 1915. 29. Ibid., 14 June 1915. 30. Edith Cavell: Her Life and Her Art (London: The Royal London Hospital, 1990), p. 6. 31. IWM EC 2, Elisabeth Wilkins to Lilian Wainwright, 10 July, nd. 32. PRO KV 2/844 Quien, Gaston Georges, PF 37,346, Captain Robinson to Captain Miller, 15 September 1919. 33. F. Wilkins, Six Great Nurses (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1962), Edith Cavell pp. 116–144, p. 143. The other nurses are Louise De Marillac, Florence Nightingale, Clara Barton, Dorothy Pattison, and Elizabeth Kenny. 34. IWM EC 10, First Examination of Edith Cavell, 8 August 1915, p. 19. 35. Ibid., p 21. 36. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 114 and p. 136. 37. Ibid., p. 137. 38. Ibid., p. 116. 39. IWM, D. J. Tunmore Collection. 40. IWM EC 2, G. Tunmore to Mrs Cavell, 7 February 1915. 41. IWM EC 1, transcript of Cavell’s diary. 42. IWM EC 10, First Examination of Edith Cavell, 8 August 1915, p. 28. 43. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, pp. 39–40. 44. Ibid., pp. 37–38. 45. IWM EC 10, First Examination of Edith Cavell, 8 August 1915, p. 23. 46. Ibid., 24–27. 47. Ibid., p. 30. 48. Ibid., p. 33. 49. Ibid., p. 34. 50. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Florence Cavell, 19 September 1914. 51. H. Judson, Edith Cavell, (New York: Macmillan, 1941), p. 13. 52. IWM EC 10, Second Examination of Edith Cavell, 18 August 1915, p. 34. 53. IWM, EC 10, The Countess De Belleville, 22 August, 1915, p. 36. 54. E. Protheroe, A Noble Woman: The Life-Story of Edith Cavell, (London: Charles H. Kelly, 1916), p. 33. 55. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Grace Jemmett, 6 August 1915. 216 Notes

56. T. A Kempis, Of The Imitation of Christ, The ‘Edith Cavell’ Edition (London: Humphrey Milford and Oxford University Press, 1920). 57. Ibid., pp. vii–viii, p. xviii. 58. Ibid., p. 2, p. 36, p. 52, p. 54, p. 120, p. 124. 59. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 2. 60. Correspondence with the United States Ambassador Respecting the Execution of Miss Cavell at Brussels (London: Darling and Son Ltd, 1915), pp. 17–18. 61. IWM EC 10, Hearing of the Military Court of the Government, p. 42. 62. Ibid., p. 44. 63. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 49. 64. IWM EC 10, Hearing of the Military Court of the Government, p. 56. 65. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 100. 66. W. T. Hill, The Martyrdom of Nurse Cavell: the life story of the victim of Germany’s most barbarous crime (London: Hutchinson and Co., 1915), p. 28. 67. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 25. 68. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 152. 69. R. Ryder, Edith Cavell (New York: Stein and Day, 1975), pp. 249–250. 70. IWM EC 10, Hearing of the Military Court of the Government, p. 64. 71. Hill, The Martyrdom of Nurse Cavell, p. 37. 72. IWM EC 10, Hearing of the Military Court of the Government, p. 73. 73. Ibid., p. 62. 74. Ibid., p. 73. 75. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 205. 76. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 44. 77. Ibid. 78. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 95, Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 179, and K. Adie, Corsets to Camouflage: Women and War (London: Hodder and Stoughton, in association with the Imperial War Museum, 2003), p. 91. 79. J. Elkon, Edith Cavell: Heroic Nurse (New York: Julian Messner Inc., 1956), p. 179. 80. A. De Leeuw, Edith Cavell: Nurse, Spy, Heroine (Toronto: Longmans Canada Ltd., 1968), p. 89. 81. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 96. 82. Hill, The Martyrdom of Nurse Edith Cavell, p. 36–7. 83. D. Blackburn, The Martyr Nurse: the Death and Achievement of Edith Cavell (London: The Ridd Masson Co. Ltd, 1915), p. 50. 84. The Times History of the War, vol. VI (London: The Times, 1916), p. 433. 85. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 34. 86. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, dust jacket. 87. Ibid., pp. 78–9. 88. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 204. 89. IWM EC 2, Foreign Office to Wainwright, 26 August 1915. 90. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 79. 91. Ibid., p. 78. 92. von der Lanken to Whitlock, 12 September 1915, p. 7. 93. Ibid. 94. Whitlock to Page, 21 September 1915, Correspondence with the United States Ambassador, p. 6. 95. Ibid. Notes 217

96. De Leval to Whitlock, 12 October 1915, Correspondence with the United States Ambassador, p. 16. 97. Ibid., pp. 16–19 98. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 108. 99. De Leeuw, Edith Cavell, p. 83. 100. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 111. 101. Ibid., p. 110. 102. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, pp. 216–217. 103. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 121. 104. Ibid., p. 124 and p. 149. 105. IWM EC 10, Scrapbook, The Times, 13 October 1917. 106. IWM, EC 3, extract from the minute book of the Bar Council of Advocates of the Court of Appeal of Brussels, 16 July 1921. 107. Ibid., Judgement of the first Chamber of the Court of Appeal of Brussels, 21 December 1921. 108. PRO KV2/822. 109. Ibid. 110. IWM EC 2, C. E. Jarers to Mrs Cavell, 17 August 1915. 111. IWM EC 10, p. 37. 112. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Nurses, 14 September 1915. 113. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Elisabeth Wilkins, 11 October 1915. 114. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Nurses, 11 October 1915.

2 Gendered Execution: Dying Like a Woman

1. Joan Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988). 2. W. T. Hill, The Martyrdom of Nurse Cavell: The Life Story of the Victim of Germany’s Most Barbarous Crime (London: Hutchinson and Co., 1915), p. 45. 3. IWM EC 3, bound volume IV, special misc B9, ‘Re: Edith Cavell, 1915’ by Rev S. T. Gahan. A similar account is given in Correspondence with the United States Ambassador Respecting the Execution of Miss Cavell at Brussels (London: Darling and Son Ltd, 1915), pp. 22–23. 4. Ibid. Pfarrer Le Soeur’s account. 5. IWM EC 3, scrap of paper. 6. Cape Argus, 23 October 1915, 5, has Reverend Gahan’s words. Cape Times, 25 October, 11, covers the memorial service to be held and has a copy of Gahan’s statement of Cavell’s last words. 7. D. Blackburn, The Martyr Nurse: the Death and Achievement of Edith Cavell (London: The Ridd Masson Co., Ltd, 1915), p. 48. 8. A. A. Hoehling, Edith Cavell (London: Cassell, 1958), p. 132. 9. A. E. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell: Pioneer and Patriot (London: Faber and Faber, 1965), p. 224. 10. R. Ryder, Edith Cavell (New York: Stein and Day, 1975), p. 223. 11. IWM EC 2, Whitlock to von der Lancken, 12 October 1915, and Correspondence with the United States Ambassador Respecting the Execution of Miss Cavell at Brussels (London: Darling and Son Ltd, 1915), p. 25. 218 Notes

12. The Times History of the War, vol. VI (London: The Times, 1916), p. 437. 13. Vancouver Daily Province, 18 October 1915, p. 1. 14. Hill, The Martyrdom of Nurse Cavell, p. 49. 15. Ibid., p. 71. 16. H. Judson, Edith Cavell, (New York: Macmillan, 1941), p. 273. 17. In Memory of Nurse Cavell: The Story of Her Life and Martyrdom (London: C. Arthur Pearson Ltd., 1915), p. 36. 18. Ryder, Edith Cavell, p. 223. 19. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 131. 20. E. Protheroe, A Noble Woman: The Life-Story of Edith Cavell, (London: Charles H. Kelly, 1916), p. 63. 21. Cape Argus, Sunday 24 October 1915, p. 1. 22. E. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 69. 23. Vancouver Daily Province, 18 October 1915, p. 1. Its story had come from the London Daily Mail’s correspondent in Amsterdam. 24. Morning Leader, 19 October 1915, p. 1. 25. Edward Parrott, The Children’s Story of the War (Toronto: Thomas Nelson and Sons, Limited, 1915–1919), no. 21, 1915, 374. 26. Christchurch Star, 23 October 1915, p. 10. 27. Sydney Morning Herald, 19 October 1915, p. 9. 28. Cape Argus, 19 October 1915, p. 7, Cape Times, 19 October 1915, p. 3. 29. Blackburn, The Martyr Nurse, pp. 51–2. 30. IWM EC 7, Yorkshire Telegraph, 15 May 1919. 31. S. J. Blackmore, Nurse Edith Cavell: A War Drama (Canada, 1916). 32. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, pp. 224–5. 33. The Times History of the War, vol. VI (London: The Times, 1916), p. 437. 34. F. Wilkins, Six Great Nurses (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1962), p. 142. 35. E. Grey, Friend Within the Gates: The Story of Edith Cavell (London: Constable and Company Ltd., 1960), p. 184. 36. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 131. 37. A. De Leeuw, Edith Cavell: Nurse, Spy, Heroine (Toronto: Longmans Canada Ltd., 1968), pp. 92–94. 38. J. Elkon, Edith Cavell: Heroic Nurse (New York: Julian Messner Inc., 1956), pp. 184–86. 39. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 99. 40. Hill, The Martyrdom of Nurse Cavell, pp. 53–55. 41. Ryder, Edith Cavell, pp. 222–223. 42. Hill, The Martyrdom of Edith Cavell, p. 55. 43. IWM EC 10, P114/1, The Times, 26 October 1915. 44. Hill, The Martyrdom of Nurse Edith Cavell, p. 55. 45. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 100. 46. Ibid., p. 105. 47. Hill, The Martydom of Nurse Edith Cavell, p. 54. 48. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 140. 49. Ryder, Edith Cavell, p. 232. 50. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 208 and Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 105. 51. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 120, De Leeuw, Edith Cavell, p. 90, and Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 218. 52. IWM EC 14/2, South Wales News, 15 May 1919. Notes 219

53. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 133. 54. Hill, The Martyrdom of Nurse Edith Cavell, p. 54. 55. T. Proctor, Female Intelligence: Women and Espionage in the First World War (New York: New York University Press, 2003), pp. 42–51. 56. C. Haste, Keep the Home Fires Burning: Propaganda in the First World War (London: Allen Lane, 1977), p. 90. G. S. Messinger, British Propaganda and the State in the First World War (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1992), p. 18. 57. Ryder, Edith Cavell, p. 237. 58. Gazette, 25 October 1915, p. 1. 59. Cape Times, Friday 22 October 1915, p. 7. 60. Ibid., 25 October 1915, p. 7. 61. Proctor, Female Intelligence, p. 104. 62. Ibid., p. 44. 63. PRO KV2/822, MO5 (Colonel) Minute Sheet 16 October 1915. 64. Proctor, Female Intelligence, p. 100. 65. Catherine Speck, ‘Edith Cavell: martyr or patriot’, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Art, 2:1, 2001, pp. 83–98, 83. 66. G. and A. Forty, Women War Heroines (London: Arms and Armour Press, 1997), p. 152. Cavell is in Chapter 11 ‘Spies’. 67. De Leeuw, Edith Cavell, was published as part of a ‘Spies of the World’ series that featured Rose Greenhow: Spy for the Confederacy, Major Andre: Brave Enemy and Benedict Arnold: Hero and Traitor. 68. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 2. 69. PRO KV2/844, Baron to Bruce, 25 January 1919. 70. PRO KV2/844, GHQ I(b) 28 November, 1918, Capt G S for Liet-Col G S To Paris B. C. I. 71. PRO KV2/844, Gilbert Wakefield’s notes. 72. PRO KV2/844, Baron to Bruce, 3 February 1919. 73. PRO KV2/822, notes from R. 29, 19 January 1916. 74. PRO KV2/844, Robinson to Miller, 15 September 1919. 75. PRO KV2/844, Daily Mail, 6 September 1919. 76. The Times History of the War, vol. VI (London: The Times, 1916), p. 437. 77. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 138. 78. IWM EC 10, von der Lancken to Zimmermann, 15 December 1915. 79. Haste, Keep the Home Fires Burning, p. 90. 80. Cape Times, 23 October 1915, p. 6. 81. Twenty Years After. The Affair of Nurse Cavell, pp. 545–546. 82. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 225, repeated in Edith Cavell: Her Life and Her Art (London: The Royal London Hospital, 1990), p. 7. 83. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 218. 84. J. B. Elshtain, Women and War (New York: Basic Books, 1987). 85. P. Knightley, The First Casualty: From the Crimea to Vietnam: The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist and Myth Maker (London: Andre Deutsch, 1975), p. 35. 86. J. Blackwood, London’s Immortals: the Complete Outdoor Commemorative Statues (London: Savoy Press, 1989). 1989, p. 166. 87. T. Wilson, The Myriad Faces of War: Britain and the Great War, 1914–1918 (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1986), p. 744. 220 Notes

88. IWM EC 2, A. Rowland Grant to Mrs Cavell, 18 October 1915. 89. IWM EC 2, Belgian Government Sce to Mrs Cavell, incorrectly dated 12 August 1915. 90. IWM EC 2, Adrien Methouard President Du Conseil Municipal De Paris to Mrs Cavell, nd. 91. IWM EC 2, Royal British Nurses’ Association to Mrs Cavell, 29 October 1915. 92. IWM EC 2, Prince Reginald de Croy to Mrs Cavell, 18 October 1915. 93. IWM EC 2, Dunelm to Mrs Cavell, 25 October 1915. 94. IWM EC 2, Dunelm to Mrs Cavell, 3 November 1916. 95. IWM EC 2, Dunelm to Mrs Cavell, 7 May 1917. 96. IWM EC 2, Zelius-Laidlaw to Mrs Cavell, 10 December 1917. 97. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 239.

3 Thrills of Horror and Waves of Outrage: Diffusing Propaganda

1. The Times History of the War, vol. VI (London: The Times, 1916), p. 429. 2. E. Protheroe, A Noble Woman: The Life-Story of Edith Cavell, (London: Charles H. Kelly, 1916), pp. 115–6. 3. P. Knightley, The First Casualty: From the Crimea to Vietnam: The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist and Myth Maker (London: Andre Deutsch, 1975), p. 80. 4. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 63–64. 5. Ibid., p. 73. 6. Ibid., p. 84. 7. J. M. Read, Atrocity Propaganda 1914–1919 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941), p. 210. 8. J. MacKenzie, Propaganda and Empire: The Manipulation of British Public Opinion 1880–1960 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), p. 3. 9. C. Haste, Keep the Home Fires Burning: Propaganda in the First World War (London: Allen Lane, 1977), p. 107. 10. G. S. Messinger, British Propaganda and the State in the First World War (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1992), pp. 8–9. 11. Ibid., p. 14. 12. Ibid., p. 1. 13. P. Knightley, The Second Oldest Profession: the spy as bureaucrat, patriot, fantasist and whore (London: Guild Publishing, 1987), p. 84. 14. P. Buitenhuis, The Great War of Words: British, American and Canadian Propaganda and Fiction, 1914–1933 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1987), p. 1. 15. Messinger, British Propaganda, p. 44, p. 23. 16. M. L. Sanders and P. M. Taylor, British Propaganda During the First World War 1914–18 (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1982), p. 107. 17. Buitenhuis, The Great War of Words, p. 30. 18. Sanders and Taylor, British Propaganda, p. 145. 19. Ibid., pp. 103–106. 20. Ibid., p. 54. 21. Knightley, The Second Oldest Profession, pp. 84–85. Notes 221

22. Sanders and Taylor, British Propaganda, p. 31. 23. S. J. Potter (ed) Newspapers and Empire in Ireland and Britain: Reporting the British Empire c. 1857–1921 (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2004), p. 2. 24. Sanders and Taylor, British Propaganda, p. 2. 25. S. J. Potter, News and the British World: The Emergence of an Imperial Press System, 1876–1922 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 195. 26. Cape Times, 23 October 1915, p. 7. 27. Ibid., 28 October 1915, p. 7. 28. Ibid., 30 October 1915, p. 7. 29. S. J. Potter, ‘Empire and the English Press, c. 1857–1914’, in S. J. Potter, Newspapers and Empire in Ireland and Britain, pp. 39–61, p. 41 and S. J. Potter, News and the British World, p. 161. 30. Potter, News and the British World, p. 89. 31. Cape Times, 23 October 1915, p. 7. 32. Cape Argus, 22 October 1915, p. 5. 33. Morning Leader, 19 October 1915, p. 1. 34. Press, 26 October 1915, p. 5. 35. Star, 22 October 1915, p. 1. 36. Ibid., 23 October 1997, p. 10. 37. Vancouver Daily Province, 25 October 1915, p. 6. 38. Press, 26 October 1915, p. 5. 39. Daily Telegraph (Sydney), 25 October 1915, p. 6. 40. Sydney Morning Herald, 25 October 1915, p. 9. 41. Ibid., 26 October 1915, p. 9. 42. Ibid., 30 October 1915, p. 17. 43. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 75. 44. Cape Argus, 18 October 1915, p. 3 45. Morning Leader, 23 October p. 1. 46. D. Blackburn, The Martyr Nurse: the Death and Achievement of Edith Cavell (London: The Ridd Masson Co., Ltd, 1915), p. 6. 47. Ibid., p. 10. 48. Ibid., p. 2. 49. Vancouver Daily Province, 23 October 1915, p. 1. 50. Morning Leader, 25 October 1915, p. 1. 51. Gazette, 23 October 1915, p. 1. 52. W. T. Hill, The Martyrdom of Nurse Cavell: the life story of the victim of Germany’s most barbarous crime (London: Hutchinson and Co., 1915), p. 50. 53. Ibid., p. 16. 54. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 116. 55. Ibid., p. 85. 56. Two examples are Press, Tues 26 October, p. 1, and Hill, The Martyrdom of Nurse Cavell, p. 115. 57. Cape Times, 23 October 1915, p. 7. 58. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 117. 59. Ibid., p. 115. 60. W. S. Murphy, In Memoriam: Edith Cavell, (London: F. and E. Stoneham, Ltd., 1916). 61. The Times History of the War, vol. VI (London: The Times, 1916), p. 439. 62. R. Ryder, Edith Cavell (New York: Stein and Day, 1975), pp. 251–252. 222 Notes

63. Hill, The Martyrdom of Nurse Cavell, p. 48. 64. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 86. 65. D. Reynaud, ‘Convention and Contradiction: Representations of Women in Australian War Films, 1914–1918’, Australian Historical Studies, 113 (October 1999), 215–230, 223. 66. F. Wilkins, Six Great Nurses (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1962), pp. 142–143. 67. J. Blackwood, London’s Immortals: the Complete Outdoor Commemorative Statues (London: Savoy Press, 1989), p. 166. 68. Reported in the Cape Times, 23 October 1915, p. 7. 69. Cape Argus, 23 October 1915, p. 5. 70. Ibid., 25 October 1915, p. 1. 71. Gazette, 22 October p. 12. 72. Press, 27 October 1915, p. 8. 73. Toronto Daily Star, 23 October 1915, p. 1. 74. Gazette, 22 October 1915, Vancouver Daily Province, 25 October 1915, p. 6. 75. Cape Times, 23 October 1915, p. 6. 76. Ibid., 25 October 1915, p. 7. 77. LAC RG 84, A-2-A, vol. 1489, reel T 9624, file J-16–82, ‘The Cavell Memorial. Jasper National Park. Description written at the request of the provisional committee by the Park Chaplain, secretary to the movement’. 78. Cape Times, 26 October 1915, p. 10. 79. Ibid., p. 81. 80. Sanders and Taylor, British Propaganda During the First World War, p. 145. 81. Ibid., p. 79. 82. J. Elkon, Edith Cavell: Heroic Nurse (New York: Julian Messner Inc., 1956), p. 180. 83. J. M. Bourne, Britain and the Great War (London: Edward Arnold, 1989). 84. Sanders and Taylor, British Propaganda During the First World War, p. 141. On Fryatt see A. C. Hughes, ‘War, Gender and National Mourning: The Significance of the Death and Commemoration of Edith Cavell in Britain’, European Review of History, 12: 3 (2005), pp. 425–444, p. 425. 85. Cate Haste, Keep the Home Fires Burning, p. 101. 86. Ibid., p. 102. 87. Cape Times, 23 October 1915, p. 6. 88. Ibid., 23 October 1915, p. 7. The Times History of the War, vol. VI (London: The Times, 1916), p. 429. 89. Cape Argus, 25 October 1915, p. 7. 90. Haste, Keep the Home Fires Burning, p. 93. 91. Ibid., pp. 93–95, and Knightley, The First Casualty, p. 83. 92. Haste, Keep the Home Fires Burning, p. 94. 93. Knightley, The First Casualty, p. 84. 94. Haste, Keep the Home Fires Burning, p. 83. 95. Ibid., pp. 84–85. 96. S. R. Grayzel, Women and the First World War (London and New York: Longmans, 2002), p. 19. 97. Ibid., pp. 87–88. 98. Sanders and Taylor, British Propaganda During the First World War, p. 155. 99. IWM Film 542, ‘Stand by the men who have stood by you’ (Great Britain: National War Savings Committee (sponsor), Kinsella and Morgan (production company), c. 1917. Notes 223

100. IWM Film 384, ‘Nurse Cavell’s Grave and Memorial’ (Australia: Australian War Records Section (sponsor), 5 mins, 1919). 101. IWM Film 1074 ‘Re-Interment of Edith Cavell’ (Great Britain, 9 mins, 1919). 102. Haste, Keep the Home Fires Burning, pp. 81–2. 103. Blackburn, The Martyr Nurse, pp. 61–2. 104. Cape Argus, 24 October 1915, p. 1. 105. Ibid., 21 October 1915, p. 5. 106. The Times History of the War, vol. VI (London: The Times, 1916), p. 438. 107. Vancouver Daily Province, 22 October 1915, p. 1. 108. Ibid., 21 October 1915, p. 1. 109. Echoes, 77 (June 1919), 33–5. 110. Birkenhead News, Saturday 12 October 1918. 111. Hill, The Martyrdom of Nurse Cavell, p. 113. 112. Haste, Keep the Home Fires Burning, p. 82. 113. Knightley, The First Casualty, p. 82. 114. Vancouver Daily Province, 29 October 1915, p. 1. 115. Press, 27 October 1915, p. 8. 116. Cape Times, 23 October 1915, p. 6 117. Haste, Keep the Home Fires Burning, pp. 90–91. 118. S. Malvern, ‘For King and Country’: Frampton’s Edith Cavell (1915–1920) and the Writing of Gender in Memorials to the Great War’, in D. J. Getsy (ed) Sculpture and the Pursuit of a Modern Ideal in Britain c. 1880–1930 (Aldershot and Burlington VT.: Ashgate, 2004), pp. 219–238, p. 225–226. 119. T. Proctor, Female Intelligence: Women and Espionage in the First World War (New York: New York University Press, 2003), p. 103. 120. A. A. Hoehling, Edith Cavell (London: Cassell, 1958), p. 137. 121. Cape Argus, 25 October 1915, p. 1. 122. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 160. 123. Blackburn, The Martyr Nurse, p. 63–4. 124. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 137. 125. Blackburn, The Martyr Nurse, p. 65. 126. The Times History of the War, vol. VI (London: The Times, 1916), p. 439. 127. Sanders and Taylor, British Propaganda During the First World War, p. 145. 128. In The Times History of the War, vol. VI (London: The Times, 1916), p. 440. 129. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 137. 130. The Times History of the War, vol. VI (London: The Times, 1916), p. 439. 131. Blackburn, The Martyr Nurse, pp. 64–65. 132. Toronto Daily Star, 22 October 1915, p. 1. 133. Gazette, 23 October 1915, p. 8. 134. Sanders and Taylor, British Propaganda During the First World War, p. vii. 135. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 137. 136. J. M. Read, Atrocity Propaganda 1914–1919 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941). In the preface he doesn’t think the US entered the war because of propa- ganda. See also Sanders and Taylor, British Propaganda During the First World War. 137. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 138. 138. Ibid., p. 141. 139. E. Grey, Friend Within the Gates: The Story of Edith Cavell (London: Constable and Company Ltd., 1960), p. 185. 140. Wilkins, Six Great Nurses, p. 143. 224 Notes

141. A. De Leeuw, Edith Cavell: Nurse, Spy, Heroine (Toronto: Longmans Canada Ltd., 1968), p. 94. 142. David W. Lloyd, Battlefield Tourism: Pilgrimage and the Commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 (Oxford and New York: Berg, 1998), p. 1.

4 Who Was This Heroine?: Representation and Reality

1. British Weekly, in E. Protheroe, A Noble Woman: the Life-Story of Edith Cavell (London: Charles H. Kelly, 1916) p. 149. 2. B. K. Turner, Baby Names for the ‘90s and Beyond (New York: Berkley Books, 1991), p. 172. 3. IWM EC 14/2, Outlook, 17 May 1919. 4. Ibid., Glasgow Herald 16 May 1919. 5. Ibid., Scotsman, 19 May 1919. 6. J. Purvis, Emmeline Pankhurst: a biography (London and New York: Routledge, 2002). 7. See discussion of ‘the shame syndrome’ in A. Fraser, The Warrior Queens (Markham, Ont.: Penguin, 1990). 8. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, pp. 95–6. 9. IWM EC 10, 14/2, Glasgow Herald, 16 May 1919. 10. See David W. Lloyd, Battlefield Tourism: Pilgrimage and the Commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 (Oxford and New York: Berg, 1998), pp. 49–93. 11. Ken Inglis suggests that the Melbourne funeral and Canberra burial of William Throsby Bridges served as a ‘surrogate funeral’ for all of his officers and men. K. Inglis, Sacred Places: in the Australian Landscape (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, The Miegunyah Press, 1998), p. 77. 12. IWM EC 10, 14/2, Empire News, 18 May 1919. 13. Ibid., Sheffield Daily Telegraph, 16 May 1919. 14. Ibid., Daily Mirror, 22 October 1915. 15. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 10. 16. R. Ryder, Edith Cavell (New York: Stein and Day, 1975), p. 229. 17. IWM EC 10, 14/2, Scotsman, 19 May 1919. 18. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 124. 19. Ibid., p. 119. 20. Ibid., p. 118. 21. IWM EC 10, 14/2, Empire News, 18 May 1919. 22. Ryder, Edith Cavell, p. 241. 23. This is the perspective taken in A. A. Hoehling, Edith Cavell (London: Cassell, 1958). 24. Ryder, Edith Cavell, p. 2. 25. H. Judson, Ibid., (New York: Macmillan, 1941), p. x. 26. For examples see A. E. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell: Pioneer and Patriot (London: Faber and Faber, 1965) p. 26, Ryder, Edith Cavell, p. 228 and J. Elkon, Edith Cavell: Heroic Nurse (New York: Julian Messner Inc., 1956), p. 188. 27. Judson, Edith Cavell, p. 155. 28. W. T. Hill, The Martyrdom of Nurse Cavell: the life story of the victim of Germany’s most barbarous crime (London: Hutchinson and Co., 1915), p. 15–16. Notes 225

29. Judson, Edith Cavell, p. 79. 30. M. Vicinus, Independent Women: Work and Community for Single Women: 1850–1920, (London: Virago, 1985), pp. 5–6. Ch 3 ‘Reformed Hospital Nursing: Discipline and Cleanliness’, p. 85. 31. A. Mackinnon, Love and Freedom: Professional Women and the Reshaping of Personal Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 32. See S. Jeffreys, The Spinster and Her Enemies: and Sexuality 1880–1930 (London: Pandora, 1985), K. Holmes, ‘Spinsters Indispensable’: Feminists, Single Women and the Critique of Marriage, 1890–1920, Australian Historical Studies, 110 (1998) 68–90, A. Oram, ‘Repressed and Thwarted, or Bearer of the New World? The Spinster in Inter-War Feminist Discourses’, Women’s History Review (1992), 1: 3, 413–434, and C. Smith-Rosenberg ‘The New Woman as Androgyne: Social Disorder and Gender Crisis, 1870–1936’ in C. Smith- Rosenberg (ed) Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). 33. K. Adie, Corsets to Camouflage: Women and War (London: Hodder and Stoughton, in association with the Imperial War Museum, 2003), pp. 89–90. 34. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 82. 35. Ibid., p. 85. 36. Stevens, R. T. The Fields of Yesterday (Feltham: Hamlyn, 1982). 37. IWM EC 3, birth certificate. 38. Hill, The Martyrdom of Nurse Cavell, pp. 6–7. 39. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 8. 40. Judson, Edith Cavell, p. xii. 41. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 26. 42. Ibid., p. 19. 43. Ibid., pp. 20–21. 44. See Edith Cavell: Her Life and Her Art (London: The Royal London Hospital, 1990). 45. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 22. 46. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 9. 47. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 22. 48. Ibid., p. 23. 49. Ibid., p. 23, Judson, Edith Cavell, p. 29. 50. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 10. 51. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 24. 52. Ibid. 53. Ibid., p. 22. 54. Judson, Edith Cavell, p. 79. 55. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 27. 56. Ibid., pp. 28–29. 57. Ibid., p. 32. 58. Ibid., p. 58. 59. Ibid., p. 39, Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 13. 60. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, pp. 42–44. 61. Ibid., p. 45 and p. 54. 62. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, pp. 13–14. 63. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 56. 64. Ibid., p. 58. 226 Notes

65. Ibid., p. 59. 66. IWM EC 10, 14/2, The Times Weekly Edition, 17 November 1916. Alexandra’s letter (Royal approval) 4 November 1916). 67. J. Hallam, Nursing the Image: Media, Culture and Professional Identity (London and New York: Routledge, 2000), p. 10. 68. ‘Marquette’ in S. Coney (ed) Standing in the Sunshine (Auckland: Penguin and Viking, 1993), pp. 304–305, and Inglis, Sacred Places, pp. 365–366. See also Susanna De Vries, Heroic Australian Women in War: Astonishing tales of bravery from Gallipoli to Kokoda (Sydney: HarperCollins, 2004). 69. S. Mann (ed) The War Diary of Clare Gass, 1915–1918 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2000), A. Rogers, While You’re Away: New Zealand Nurses at War 1899–1948 (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2003), J. Bassett, Guns and Brooches: Australian Army Nursing from the Boer War to the Gulf War (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1992), K. Adie, Corsets to Camouflage: Women and War (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 2003), A. Summers, Angels and Citizens: British Women as Military Nurses 1854–1914 (London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988). 70. See M. Poovey (ed) Cassandra and Other Selections From Suggestions For Thought (London: Pickering and Chatto, 1991), F. B. Smith, Florence Nightingale: Reputation and Power (London and Canberra, 1982), and M. Vicinus and B. Nergaard, Ever Yours: Florence Nightingale Selected Letters (London: Virago, 1989). 71. Judson, Edith Cavell, p. 38. 72. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 16. 73. Ibid., pp. 18–19. 74. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p.11. 75. Judson, Edith Cavell, p. 197. 76. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 11. 77. Ibid., p. 28. 78. Ibid., p. 83. 79. Adie, Corsets to Camouflage, p. 90. 80. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, pp. 21–22. 81. Ibid., p. 23. 82. Ibid., p. 24. 83. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Elisabeth Wilkins, 30 July 1912. 84. Judson, Edith Cavell, p. 163. 85. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 28. 86. Judson, Edith Cavell, p. 5, p. 53. 87. Ibid., pp. 277–278. 88. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 27. 89. Ibid., p. 15. 90. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, pp. 88–89. 91. Edith Cavell: Her Life and Her Art, p. 3. 92. Protheroe, A Noble Woman, p. 10. 93. Edith Cavell: Her Life and Her Art, p. 4. 94. Ibid., p. 7. 95. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, pp. 20–21. 96. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 70. 97. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, pp. 26–27. Notes 227

98. IWM EC 2, Elisabeth Wilkins to Lilian Wainwright, 10 July post-1945. Sister Wilkins escorted Jemmett back to with her in November 1915. 99. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 25. 100. Judson, Edith Cavell, p. 160. 101. Ibid., p. 163. 102. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 25. 103. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Mrs Cavell, 15 September 1914. 104. Ibid., 16 November 1914. 105. Ibid., 14 March 1915. 106. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell, p. 89. 107. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Mrs Cavell, 30 August 1914. 108. Ibid., 15 September 1914. 109. Ibid., 8 October 1914. 110. Ibid., 21 August 1914. 111. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Lilian Wainwright, 9 November 1914. 112. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Mrs Cavell, 22 November 1914. 113. Ibid., 22 December 1914. 114. Ibid., 8 January 1915. 115. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 25. 116. Judson, Edith Cavell, p. 162. 117. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 72. 118. IWM EC 12 and 13, Edith Cavell to Wilkins, 25 September 1915. 119. Ryder, Edith Cavell, p. 233. 120. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Mrs Cavell, 30 August 1914. 121. Ibid., 9 September 1914. 122. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Lilian Wainwright, 9 November 1914. 123. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Mrs Cavell, 15 September 1914. 124. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 35. 125. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Mrs Cavell, 22 December 1914. 126. Hoehling, Edith Cavell, p. 32. 127. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Mrs Cavell, 8 January 1915. 128. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Mrs Cavell, 14 March 1915.

5 The Geography of Stone: Placing Traditional Monuments

1. Illustrated London News, 6 November 1915, pp. 594–595. 2. E. Protheroe, A Noble Woman: The Life-Story of Edith Cavell, (London: Charles H. Kelly, 1916), p. 75. 3. Ibid., p. 78. 4. Ibid., p. 80. 5. IWM EC 3, pamphlet for St Paul’s memorial service, 29 October 1915, noon. 6. IWM EC 2, correspondence regarding exhumation, funeral and reburial, February–May 1919. 7. I. McCalman, ‘Preface’, in P. A. Pickering and A. Tyrrell, Contested Sites: Commemoration, Memorial and Popular Politics in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Aldershot and Burlington VT.: Ashgate, 2004), p. xiii. 228 Notes

8. IWM EC 3, pamphlet for ceremony, 15 May 1919. 9. See David W. Lloyd, Battlefield Tourism: Pilgrimage and the Commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 (Oxford and New York: Berg, 1998), pp. 49–93. 10. Ibid., p. 32. 11. IWM EC 3, pamphlet for Westminster service, 15 May 1919. 12. Times (London), 18 November 1915. 13. For mentions of the monument see C. Tylee, The Great War and Women’s Consciousness Images of Militarism and Womanhood in Women’s Writings, 1914–64 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 166–167, and J. Marcus, ‘The Asylums of Antaenus: women, war and madness: Is there a Feminist Fetishism?’, in E. Meese and A. Parker (eds) The Difference Within (Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Co., 1989), p. 61. 14. S. Malvern, ‘For King and Country’: Frampton’s Edith Cavell (1915–1920) and the ‘Writing of Gender in Memorials to the Great War’, in D. J. Getsy (ed) Sculpture and the Pursuit of a Modern Ideal in Britain c. 1880–1930 (Aldershot and Burlington VT.: Ashgate, 2004), pp. 219–238, p. 224. A roll of subscribers is buried within the monument. 15. Ibid., p. 219. 16. IWM EC 3, programme of ceremony of the unveiling of the Cavell Memorial, 17 March 1920, noon. 17. Malvern, ‘For King and Country’, p. 222. 18. D. W. Lloyd, Battlefield Tourism, p. 50, p. 92. 19. Malvern, ‘For King and Country’, p. 222. 20. Ibid., p. 219. 21. M. Warner, Monuments and Maidens: The Allegory of the Female Form (London: Vintage, 1985). 22. Pickering and Tyrell, Contested Sites, p. 16. 23. See K. Pickles, ‘The Old and New on Parade: Mimesis, Queen Victoria, and Carnival Queens on Victoria Day in Interwar Victoria’, in K. Pickles and M. Rutherdale (eds) Contact Zones: Aboriginal and Settler Women in Canada’s Colonial Past (Vancouver and Toronto: UBC Press, 2005), pp. 272–291, M. A. Steggles, ‘Set in Stone: Victoria’s Monuments in India’, History Today 51: 2 (February 2001), 44–49, Mark Stocker, ‘Queen Victoria’s Statues’, History Now, 7: 4 (November 2001), 5–9, T. Smith, ‘“A grand work of noble concep- tion”: the Victoria memorial and imperial London’, in F. Driver and D. Gilbert (eds) Imperial Cities: Landscape, Display and Identity (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1999), pp. 21–39, and Y. Whelan, ‘Procession and Protest: the Visit of Queen Victoria to Ireland, 1900’, in L. Proudfoot and M. Roche (eds) (Dis)Placing Empire: Renegotiating British Colonial Geographies, (Aldershot and Burlington VT, Ashgate, 2005), pp. 99–116. 24. For example see M. Vicinus, Independent Women: Work and Community for Single Women: 1850–1920, (London: Virago, 1985), p. 282. 25. E. Grey, Friend Within the Gates: The Story of Edith Cavell (London: Constable and Company Ltd., 1960), Author’s Note, npn. 26. NIWM 11538 Edith Cavell Memorial. References Gleichen, London’s Open Air Statuary, p. 14, and Malvern, ‘For King and Country’, p. 224. 27. NIWM 11538 Edith Cavell Memorial. References Gleichen, London’s Open Air Statuary, p. 14. Notes 229

28. Malvern, ‘For King and Country’, p. 224. 29. NIWM 11538 Edith Cavell Memorial. References Gleichen, London’s Open Air Statuary, p. 14. 30. Malvern, ‘For King and Country’, p. 223. 31. PRO DSIR 26/322. Discolouration of marble of Nurse Edith Cavell Memorial Statue 1924–1933. 32. Malvern, ‘For King and Country’, p. 223. 33. Pers Com., with Mark Stocker. 34. Malvern, ‘For King and Country’, pp. 221–222. 35. Ibid. 36. A. Borg, War Memorials: From Antiquity to the Present (London: Leo Cooper, 1991), p. 78. 37. Malvern, ‘For King and Country’, p. 220. 38. Ibid., pp. 223–224. 39. Borg, War Memorials, p. 111, p. 95. 40. Malvern, ‘For King and Country’, p. 222. 41. Ibid., p. 220. 42. Ibid., p. 225. 43. Ibid., p. 227. 44. Ibid., p. 224. 45. J. Blackwood, London’s Immortals: The Complete Outdoor Commemorative Statues (London: Savoy Press, 1989), p. 166. 46. Malvern, ‘For King and Country’, p. 227. 47. R. Ryder, Edith Cavell (New York: Stein and Day, 1975), p. 237. 48. Blackwood, London’s Immortals, p. 166. 49. Marcus, ‘The Asylums of Antaenus’, p. 53. 50. Malvern, ‘For King and Country’, p. 234. 51. G. Bernard Shaw, Joan (London: Constable and Company, 1929), pp. xxxii–xxxiii. 52. Marcus, ‘The Asylums of Antaenus’, p. 61. 53. Ibid., p. 57. 54. Kai Tiaki, July 1919, xii, 3, p. 106 55. PRO, T161/109 Monuments and Memorials. Contribution towards a monu- ment to be erected in memory of Phillipe Baucy [sic], a Belgian contemporary of Miss Edith Cavell, 21 March 1926. 56. L. van Ypersele, ‘Making the Great War Great: 1914–18 War Memorials in Wallonia’, in W. Kidd and B. Murdoch (eds) Memory and Memorials: The Commemorative Century (Aldershot and Burlington VT.: Ashgate, 2004), pp. 26–40. 57. L. van Ypersele, ‘Making the Great War Great: 1914–18 War Memorials in Wallonia’, in W. Kidd and B. Murdoch (eds) Memory and Memorials: The Commemorative Century (Aldershot and Burlington VT.: Ashgate, 2004), p. 31. 58. T. Proctor, Female Intelligence: Women and Espionage in the First World War (New York: New York University Press, 2003), p. 116. 59. IWM EC 3, 15 Juillet 1920. 60. G. Bresc-Bautier and Anne Pingeot, Sculptures des jardins du Louvre, du Carrousel et des Tuileries (Paris: Reunion des musees nationaux, 1986), pp. 360–62. 61. See Y. Bizardel, ‘Les statues parisiennes fondues sous l’Occupation’, Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 83 (March 1974), 129–152. 230 Notes

62. IWM EC 10, 14/2, The Globe, 13 November 1916. 63. Ibid., untitled clipping, 19 May 1919. 64. D. J. Sherman, The Construction of Memory in Interwar France (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1999), p. 8. 65. Antonia Fraser makes this argument in A. Fraser, The Warrior Queens (London: Penguin, 1990). 66. Malvern, ‘For King and Country’, p. 226. 67. M. H. Darrow, French Women and the First World War: War Stories of the Home Front (Oxford and New York: Berg, 2000), p. 284. 68. NIWM 5426 Edith Cavell Plaque. 69. NIWM 46481 Cathedral, . 70. A. E. Clark-Kennedy, Edith Cavell: Pioneer and Patriot (London: Faber and Faber, 1965), p. 23. 71. Ryder, Edith Cavell, p. 237. 72. Borg, War Memorials, p. 111 and NIWM 20221. 73. NIWM 44710. 74. NIWM 8070. 75. K. Inglis, Sacred Places: War Memorials in the Australian Landscape (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, The Miegunyah Press, 1998), p. 218. 76. A. Woollacott, To Try Her Fortune in London: Australian Women, Colonialism And Modernity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 102. 77. AWM, ECS, Sydney Mail, n.p, n.d. 78. Pers Com., Board of Trustees minutes for 11 December, 1918. 79. Christine Boyanoski, Loring and Wyle: Sculptor’s Legacy (Toronto: Art Gallery of Ontario, 1987), p. 27. 80. On May 18, 1921 the Toronto General Hospital Board of Trustees minutes approved the installations by Darling and Pearson supervised by Frank Darling. Ibid., p. 26. ‘Wyle had been given the commission for the Edith Cavell Memorial, probably in the spring of 1919; she had submitted a small model earlier that year, which had been inspected by the hospital trustees, then approved by Sir Edmund Walker in March. Jules F. Wegman, an architect, was responsible for designing the architectural framework for the bronze relief, which was erected in late August 1921, apparently without ceremony’. 81. TPL Scrapbooks, anonymous clipping, ‘Italy Pays Homage to Britain’s Heroine’, 13 November 1992. 82. Ibid. 83. Pers Com., with Italian Canadian Society. October 2000. 84. UHN loose document in file on monument. 85. Inglis, Sacred Places, p. 133. Margaret Baskerville was the sculptor. 86. Ibid., p. 174. 87. Ibid., pp. 365–366. 88. Daily Telegraph, Sydney, 25 October 1915, 11, The Argus, Melbourne, 17 November 1915, 10. 89. AWM ECS, Graphic, Melbourne, 18 November, 1926. 90. C. Speck, ‘Edith Cavell: Martyr or Patriot?’ Australian and New Zealand Journal of Art, 2:1, 2001, pp. 83–98, pp. 92–93. 91. Inglis, Sacred Places, p. 134. 92. M. Lake ‘Mission Impossible: How Men Gave Birth to the Australian Nation – Nationalism, Gender and Other Seminal Acts’, Gender and History, 4, 3, (1992), 305–322. Notes 231

93. Joy Damousi, Living With the Aftermath: Trauma, Nostalgia and Grief in Post- War Australia. (Cambridge and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 10, p. 12. 94. See J. MacKenzie, Propaganda and Empire: The Manipulation of British Public Opinion 1880–1960 (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1984). 95. See D. Cannadine, Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their Empire (Penguin: London, 2001). 96. AWM ECS, Argus Melbourne, 26 April 1937. 97. Ibid., Age, Melbourne, 26 April 1940. 98. Ibid., Argus, Melbourne, n.d., May 1943. 99. Ibid., 9 October 1943. 100. Ibid., Letter to the Sun, 16 April 1943. 101. Ibid., Argus, Melbourne, 26th April 1943. 102. Ibid., Age, Melbourne, 25 April 1966. 103. Ibid., Melbourne Herald, 11 April 1969. 104. Ibid., Age, Melbourne, 22 April 1963. 105. Ibid., Melbourne Sun, 7 July 1939. 106. NAAV ECTF, M287, Introduction 1972. 107. Kai Tiaki, April 1916, p. 111. 108. Quick March, 10 May, 1919, p. 31. 109. McCalman, ‘Preface’, p. xv. 110. A. King, Memorials of the Great War in Britain: The Symbolism and Politics of Remembrance (Oxford and New York: Berg, 1998), p. 1. 111. R. E. B. Coombs, Before Endeavours Fade: A Guide to the Battlefields of the First World War (London: After the Battle, 1976, 9th printing 2001), p. 18.

6 Homes and Hospitals: Locating Medical Memorials

1. See Katie Pickles, Female Imperialism and National Identity: Imperial Order Daughters of the Empire (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2002), chapter 6, ‘Other than stone and mortar’: war memorials, memory and imperial knowledge’, pp. 108–121. 2. A. Whittick, War Memorials (London: Country Life Ltd., 1946), p. 1 writes that Canadians favoured non-traditional memorials. But Ken Inglis, Sacred Places: War Memorials in the Australian Landscape (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, The Miegunyah Press, 1998), p. 144 argues for ‘monumen- tality over use’ in Australia, and also South Africa, Britain and New Zealand. See also C. Maclean and J. Phillips, The Sorrow and the Pride: New Zealand War Memorials (Wellington: Government Printer, 1990). 3. NIWM 39387. 4. Ibid., 36654. 5. Illustrated War News, 18 October 1916, p. 37. 6. NIWM 45333. 7. Ibid., 15567. 8. A. King, Memorials of the Great War in Britain: The Symbolism and Politics of Remembrance (Oxford and New York: Berg, 1998), p. 65. 9. NIWM 15592, Birkenhead News, Saturday 12 October 1918, n.p. 10. Birkenhead News Victory Souvenir of the Great War 1914–1919 (Birkenhead: Willmer Bros and Co Ltd, 1919), p. 142. 232 Notes

11. Birkenhead News, Saturday 30 March, 1918, p. 2. 12. Birkenhead News Victory Souvenir of the Great War 1914–1919, p. 141. 13. King, Memorials of the Great War in Britain, p. 86. 14. Birkenhead News, Saturday 30 March, 1918, p. 2. 15. Birkenhead News Victory Souvenir of the Great War 1914–1919, p. 141. 16. Ibid. 17. Birkenhead News, Saturday 20 April, 1918, n.p. 18. Toronto Daily Star, 26 October 1915. 19. See L. J. Rupp, Worlds of Women: The Making of an International Women’s Movement (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), and M. Sinha, D. Guy and A. Woollacott (eds) and Internationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999). 20. Katie Pickles, ‘Colonial Counterparts: the First Academic Women in Anglo- Canada, New Zealand and Australia, Women’s History Review, 10, 2 (2001), 273–297. 21. Julia Bush, ‘Edwardian Ladies and the ‘Race’ Dimensions of British Imperialism’, Women’s Studies International Forum, 21, 3, (1998), 277–289. 22. A. Woollacott, ‘Inventing Commonwealth and Pan-Pacific Feminism: Australian Women’s International Activism in the 1920s-30s’, Gender and History, 10:3, (1998) 425–448, 95, and Woollacott, A. Woollacott, To Try Her Fortune in London: Australian Women, Colonialism And Modernity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001). See also F. Paisley, ‘Citizens of their World: Australian Feminism and Indigenous Rights in the World Context, 1920s and 1930s’, Feminist Review, (April 1998), pp. 66–84 and F. Paisley, ‘Cultivating Modernity: Culture and Internationalism in Australian Feminism’s Pacific Age’, Journal of Women’s History, 14: 3 (2002), pp. 105–132. 23. IWM EC 2, Edith Cavell to Mrs Cavell, 22 November 1914. 24. Pamphlet, ‘Exposition – Petit Musee Cavell – du 1er octobre au 31 decembre 2002 by D. Delheusy-Rotman’. The purpose of the exhibition was to raise money for an achat d’un store anti-soleil for the crèche. At the end of the exhibition the dolls were for sale for 25 euros each. 25. http://www.xray.hmc.psu.edu/rci/ss7/ss7_2.html, accessed 19 November 2004. 26. IWM EC 10, 14/2, The Times, 13 October 1917. 27. http://archway.archives.govt.nzViewFullAgencyHistory.doc – records of the Northland Hospital Board (BBOL) 1950–1985 – administrative history, accessed 14 September 2005. 28. http://www.nmhct.nhs.uk/pharmacy/atrustb.htm, accessed 26 August 2005. 29. IWM EC 2, J. Hall Richardson to Miss S. Wolfe Murray, National War Museum, Women’s Work Sub-Section, H.M. Office of Works, Westminster, 29 June 1917: ‘And I have recollection of an appeal for money, which I believe was spent in the provision of a Nurse Cavell Ward which was added to the London Hospital’. 30. IWM EC 10, 14/2, Irish Times, 18 November 1916. 31. K. Jeffery, ‘Nationalisms and Gender: Ireland in the time of the Great War 1914–1918’, http://www.oslo2000.uio.no/program/papers/r13/r13- jeffery.pdf, p. 4. 32. G. W. Russell, New Zealand Today (Wellington: Minister of Internal Affairs and Public Health, 1919), p. 283. 33. IWM EC 10, 14/2, Daily Telegraph, 11 June 1918. Notes 233

34. Ibid., Daily Graphic, 11 June 1918. 35. Ibid., The Times, 11 June, 1918. 36. Ibid., Daily Mirror, 18 June, 1918. 37. Ibid, The Times, 11 June, 1918. 38. See C. Strange, Toronto’s Girl Problem: the Perils and Pleasures of the City, 1880–1930 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995), and J. Smart, ‘Feminists, Flappers and Miss Australia: Contesting the Meanings of Citizenship, Femininity and Nation in the 1920s’, Journal of Australian Studies, 71 (2002), 1–15. 39. A. Bingham, Gender, Modernity, and the Popular Press in Inter-War Britain (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 91. 40. IWM EC 10, 14/2, Times, 15 April 1918. 41. Ibid., Daily Telegraph, 11 June 1918. 42. Ibid., The Times, 11 June 1918. 43. Ibid., Daily Telegraph, 11 June 1918. 44. Ibid., British Journal of Nursing, 1 June 1918, p. 389. 45. Ibid., Daily Telegraph, 27 June 1921. 46. Ibid., Eastern Daily Press, 6 August, 1918. 47. Interview with Cecilia Brazil, Brisbane, 9 February 2001. 48. Ibid. 49. C. Brazil, B. Davison and J. Tremayne, ‘The Marks-Hirschfeld Medical Museum and the Royal Brisbane Hospital GNA Inc. Nursing Museum Royal Children’s Heritage Trail’, Royal Children’s Hospital, Herston. Saturday 10th May 1997, 1.00pm–4.30pm, p. 12. 50. Ibid., p. 13. 51. UHN, Toronto Western Hospital Auxiliary Ninety Years of Service 1897–1987 (Toronto: Toronto Western Hospital, 1987), n.p. 52. TPL Scrapbooks. 22 October 1926, ‘Stands as Memorial to Noble Edith Cavell.’ 53. http://archway.archives.govt.nzViewFullAgencyHistory.doc – records of the Northland Hospital Board (BBOL) 1950–1985 – administrative history, accessed 14 September 2005. 54. Pers Com., home matron, 1999. 55. Canterbury Health Services Directory, 1995, advertisement. 56. See K. Pickles ‘Kiwi Icons and the Re-settlement of New Zealand as Colonial Space’, New Zealand Geographer, 58:2 (2002), 5–16.

7 The Legacy of Care: Women Helping Women

1. A. King, Memorials of the Great War in Britain: The Symbolism and Politics of Remembrance (Oxford and New York: Berg, 1998), p. 2. 2. J. M. MacKenzie, ‘Nelson Goes Global: The Nelson Myth in Britain and Beyond’, in David Cannadine (ed) Admiral Lord Nelson: Context and Legacy (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), pp. 144–165, p. 157. 3. Ibid., p. 161. 4. E. Protheroe, A Noble Woman: The Life-Story of Edith Cavell, (London: Charles H. Kelly, 1916), p. 88. 5. IWM EC 10, 14/2, Leeds Mercury, 16 May 1919. 6. Ibid., Gentlewoman, 2 December 1916. 7. Ibid., brochure, ‘The Edith Cavell Homes of Rest for Nurses’. 234 Notes

8. P. Buitenhuis, The Great War of Words: British, American and Canadian Propaganda and Fiction, 1914–1933 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1987), p. 1. 9. IWM EC 10, 14/2, Nursing Mirror, 3 July 1920. 10. Ibid., British Journal of Nursing 20, October 1917, p. 256. 11. Ibid., Morning Post, 19 April 1919. 12. Ibid., brochure, ‘The Edith Cavell Homes of Rest for Nurses’. 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid., Gentlewoman, 2 December 1916. 15. Ibid., brochure, ‘The Edith Cavell Homes of Rest for Nurses’. 16. Ibid., Daily Telegraph, 3 May 1917 and the Morning Post, 7 June 1917. 17. Ibid., Nursing Times, 9 December 1916. 18. K. Pickles, ‘A Link in ‘The Great Chain of Empire Friendship’: The Victoria League in New Zealand,’ the Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 33: 1 (January 2005), 29–50, 36. See Julia Bush, Edwardian Ladies and Imperial Power (London: Cassell, 2000). 19. IWM EC 10, 14/2, brochure, ‘The Edith Cavell Homes of Rest for Nurses’. 20. Ibid., Times, 31 October 1916. 21. Ibid., Nursing Mirror, 3 November 1917. 22. Ibid., Times, 25 June 1917. 23. Ibid., Nursing Mirror and Midwives’ Journal, 31 July 1920, p. 300. 24. Ibid., Birmingham Daily Post, 31 October 1916, Eastern Daily Press, 1 November 1916, Morning Post, 2 November 1916, Daily News and Leader, 2 November 1916, Nursing Times, 4 November 1916, Scotsman, 2 November 1916, Dundee Advertiser, 1 November 1916, Liverpool Post, 2 November 1916, Glasgow Herald, 2 November 1916, Manchester Guardian, 3 November 1916, Nursing Mirror and Midwives’ Journal, 4 November 1916, British Medical Journal, 4 November 1916, Irish Times, 3 November, 1916, Times Weekly Edition, 17 November 1916, Home and Colonial Mail, 3 November 1916, Sunday School Chronicle, 6 December 1916, Nursing Mirror, 9 December 1916, Everyman, 8 December 1916, and Catholic Times and Catholic Opinion, 15 December 1916. 25. Ibid., Times Weekly Edition, 4 November 1916. 26. Ibid., British-Australasian, 9 November 1916. 27. Ibid., Morning Post, 19 April 1919. 28. Ibid., Daily Telegraph, 3 May 1917, and Morning Post, 7 June 1917. 29. Ibid., British Journal of Nursing, 20 October 1917, p. 256. 30. Ibid., Nursing Mirror and Midwives’ Journal, 20 October 1917, p. 53. 31. Ibid., British Journal of Nursing, 1 June 1918, p. 389. 32. Ibid., 13 May 1918. 33. Ibid., Nursing Mirror, 7 July 1917. 34. Ibid., Nursing Mirror and Midwives’ Journal, 20 October 1917, p. 52. 35. Ibid., Nursing Mirror, 7 July 1917. 36. Ibid., Daily News and Leader, 4 November, 1916. 37. Ibid., Gentlewoman, 2 December 1916. 38. Ibid., Nursing Mirror and Midwives’ Journal, 20 October 1917, p. 53. 39. Ibid., Nursing Mirror, 19 January 1918. 40. Ibid., Morning Post, 19 April 1919. 41. Ibid., Bristol Times, 24 May 1918. 42. Ibid., Nursing Mirror, 19 January 1918. Notes 235

43. Ibid., Nursing Mirror and Midwives’ Journal, 1 May 1920, p. 79. 44. Ibid., 31 July 1920, p. 300. 45. Ibid., Nursing Mirror, 22 January 1921. 46. Ibid., Daily Telegraph, 27 June 1921. 47. NAAV ECTF, M 289 item 4. 48. Ibid. 49. NLA Petherick, FERG 3700, Edith Cavell House. 50. Ibid., FERG 3841, Nurse Cavell Memorial Home, p. 1. 51. Ibid., FERG 3841, Notes on paper. 52. Ibid., FERG 3700, Edith Cavell House. 53. NLA Petherick, FERG 3700, Edith Cavell House. 54. NLA pamphlet, prompt file, Percy Granger, Edith Cavell Commemoration Concert 1918, p. 3. 55. Ibid., FERG 3700, pamphlet. 56. Ibid., FERG 3841, The Edith Cavell Memorial Home in Sydney, p. 8. 57. Ibid., FERG 3700, Edith Cavell House. 58. Ibid. 59. AWM ECS, Australian Women’s Weekly, May, 1953, p. 6. 60. NLA, pamphlet, prompt file, Percy Granger, Edith Cavell Commemoration Concert, 1918, p. 2. 61. Ibid., p. 3. 62. NAAV ECTF, M 289, 13, valuation 1973. 63. Ibid., M 287, letter to ECTF from Miss Cross, 12 February 1972. 64. Ibid., M 289, 13, 20 February 1974. 65. http://library.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTL039934.html accessed 21 June 2005. 66. J. Bassett, Guns and Brooches: Australian Army Nursing from the Boer War to the Gulf War (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 99. These were given on grounds of age, 55 or over, permanent unemployability or having tuberculosis. 67. Ibid., p. 110. 68. Ibid., p. 97. 69. Ibid. 70. NAAV ECTF, M 291 names index cards a-y. 71. Ibid., M 289, item 2, Age, Melbourne, n.d., 1927. 72. Ibid., M 289, item 2, Sun, Melbourne, 21 October 1927. 73. Ibid., M 288, item 1, minute books 1915–1976. 74. Bassett, Guns and Brooches, p. 98. 75. Ibid. 76. NLA, Manuscript Room, MS 2776, South Australia Army Nurses’ Fund, 1969. 77. Bassett, Guns and Brooches, p. 98. 78. S. Coney (ed) Standing in the Sunshine: A History of New Zealand Women Since They Won the Vote (Auckland: Viking, 1993), pp. 304–305. 79. Kai Tiaki, October 1919, 157 and NZNJ, 75: 10 October 1982, p. 17. 80. Ibid., 9: 1 January 1916, fp. 81. Ibid., October 1919, pp. 155–156. 82. Ibid., 20: 2 April 1927, p. 91. 83. NZNJ, August 1989, p. 6. 84. Ibid., 15 January 1937, p. 23. 85. Ibid., August 1989, p. 6. 236 Notes

86. W. D. McIntyre, The Significance of the Commonwealth, 1965–1990 (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan,1991), p. 345. 87. C. Maclean and J. Phillips, The Sorrow and the Pride: New Zealand War Memorials (Wellington: Government Printer, 1990), and E. Pawson, ‘The Memorial Oaks of North Otago’, in G. Kearsley and B. Fitzharris (eds) Glimpses of a Gaian World: Essays in Honour of Peter Holland (Dunedin: School of Social Sciences, 2004), pp. 115–131. 88. NZNJ, 69, 4 April 1976, p. 29. 89. C. Macdonald, C., Penfold and B. Williams (eds) The Book of New Zealand Women (Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1991), p. 161. See also G. Rice with L. Bryder, Black November: the 1918 influenza pandemic in New Zealand (Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 2005). 90. Pers Com., J. Edmundson, 31 January 2005. 91. G. Strange, ‘I regret the delay …’, Historic Places, September (1998), pp. 11–14. 92. Stuart Ward (ed) British Culture and the End of Empire, (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2001), W. David McIntyre, The Significance of Commonwealth, and Phillip Buckner (ed) The Long Goodbye: Canada and the End of Empire (Vancouver and Toronto: UBC Press, 2004). 93. NZNJ, 32: 10, 1939, 374–375, NZNJ, 40:6, 1947, pp. 182–183. 94. Ibid., 48: 5, 15 October 1955, p. 171. 95. UHN, Cavell file. Memo 18 July 1990, to Sany Twyon from Peter Honor, Manager, Community Relations, and Letter 22 April 1986 to Christine Boyanosky from Peter Honor. 96. Ibid., Memo 30 January 1989, to Mr M. L. Louth from Peter Honor, Manager, Community Relations.

8 Cultural Imperialism and Naming: Embodied Spirits and Memory in the Landscape

1. K. Inglis, Sacred Places: War Memorials in the Australian Landscape (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, The Miegunyah Press, 1998), p. 276. 2. See P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism, 1688–2000 2nd ed (New York: Longmans, 2002). 3. D. Denoon, Settler Capitalism: The Dynamics of Dependent Development in the Southern Hemisphere (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983). See also D. Denoon and P. Mein Smith with M. Wyndham, A History of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000). 4. N. Yuval-Davis, ‘Introduction: Beyond Dichotomies – Gender, Race, Ethnicity and Class in Settler Societies’, in D. Stasiulis and N. Yuval-Davis (eds) Unsettling Settler Societies: Articulations of Gender, Race, Ethnicity and Class (London, Thousand Oaks California and New Delhi: Sage, 1995), pp. 2–38, p. 1. 5. J. A. Mangan (ed) The Imperial Curriculum: Racial Images and Education in the British Colonial Experience (London and New York, Routledge, 1993). 6. B. Ashcroft, Postcolonial Transformation (London and New York: Routledge, 2001), p. 93. 7. J. M. MacKenzie, ‘Nelson Goes Global: The Nelson Myth in Britain and Beyond’, in David Cannadine (ed) Admiral Lord Nelson: Context and Legacy (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), pp. 144–165, p. 161. Notes 237

8. C. M. Coates and C. Morgan, Heroines and History: Representations of Madeleine de Vercheres and Laura Secord (Toronto, Buffalo and London: University of Toronto Press, 2002), Chapter seven, ‘Lessons in Loyalty: Children’s Texts and Readers’, pp. 164–194, p. 164. 9. The Canadian Readers Book IV 1932 (1922). 10. ‘Edith Cavell’, New Zealand School Journal XXII: 5 (1928), p. 70. 11. H. Hagedorn, The Book of Courage (Philadelphia: John C. Winston Company, 1929), pp. 332–342, p. 333. 12. Ibid, p. 342. 13. A Pageant of History: The Reigns of our Kings and Queens Famous People and Events in our History (London and Glasgow: Collins, 1958), pp. 305–7, p. 305 and p. 306. 14. Bright, P. ‘IV The Nurse Who Faced the Firing Squad: Edith Cavell’, in A. Boyle Heroes of Our Time (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1961), pp. 46–59. 15. N. Richardson, illustrated by Edward Mortelmans, Edith Cavell (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1985), p. 34. 16. Ibid., p. 27. 17. J. Elkon, Edith Cavell: Heroic Nurse (New York: Julian Messner Inc., 1956), p. 8. 18. Ibid., p. 132. 19. Ibid., p. 162. 20. J. Johnson, J. Leo illustrations, The Secret Task of Nurse Cavell: A story about Edith Cavell (Minneapolis, Minnesota: Winston Press, 1978). Back page. 21. Ibid., p. 29. 22. Ibid., p. 25. 23. Ibid., pp. 27–8. 24. Ibid., p. 25. 25. Ibid., p. 5. 26. http://www.ngfl.gov.uk/schoolsites/school_details.jsp?urn120935 accessed 2 September 2005. 27. NIWM 36654. 28. PRO ED 109/9489, Hackney: Edith Cavell County Secondary School. 29. http://websites.ntl.com/~edithcavell/index2.htm accessed 2 September 2005. 30. Pers Com., Principal L. Reimer, April 2000. 31. www.edithcavell.edu.com accessed 2 September 2005. 32. http://www.walkervilletimes.com/letters-21a.html accessed 2 September 2005. 33. http://www.gecdsb.on.ca/sub/schools/elem/prelizab/history.htm accessed 2 September 2005. 34. http://www.rootsweb.com/~skstjose/leipzigsk/cavell.html accessed 2 September 2005. 35. J. M. MacKenzie, Nelson Goes Global, p. 157. 36. Atlas Montreal-Plus 4th Standard Edition (Montreal: Perly, 1996). 37. Gregory’s Street Directory 61st Edition (Sydney: Universal Press Pty Ltd, 1996). 38. Go Melway – Greater Melbourne Street Directory Edition 23 (Melbourne: Melway, 1995). 39. See K. Grobbelaar, ‘A Cultural Centre for the Foreign Community, Hillbrow’, Magister in Architecture thesis, University of Pretoria, 2004. 40. The Times History of the War, vol. VI (London: The Times, 1916), p. 439. 41. Brisbane Street Directory (Brisbane: UBD Universal Press Pty Ltd, 1998). 42. Ibid. 238 Notes

43. J. Phillips, ‘Wanganui: Capital of the World’, in G. Mclean and K. Gentry, Heartlands: New Zealand Historians Write about Where History Happened (Auckland: Penguin, 2006), pp. 72–89. 44. Pers Com., Beaudesert County Council, August 2001. 45. N. and H. Mika, Places in Ontario: Their Name Origins and History. Part I A-E, (Belleville, Ont.: Mika Publishing Co, 1977), pp. 635–636 and p. 384. 46. P. Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1975) and J. Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995). See also J. Vance, Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning, and the First World War (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1997). 47. D. Rodgers, ‘Sublime, the’ in J. Turner (ed) The Dictionary of Art (London: Macmillan, 1996), pp. 889–91, p. 889. 48. M. Greenhalgh and P. Duro, Essential Art History (London: Bloomsbury, 1992), p. 279, p. 280. 49. D. Rodgers, ‘Sublime’, p. 890. 50. Ibid. 51. Ibid., pp. 889–90. 52. http://campcavell.org accessed 2 September 2005. 53. News London, 4 October 1924. 54. The Canadian Readers, Book IV (Toronto: W. J. Gage and Co. Ltd., 1932), p. 251. 55. A. Rayburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Canadian Place Names (Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 113. 56. See Paul Carter, The Road to Botany Bay: an exploration of landscape and history (New York: Knopf, 1988). 57. Mount Edith Cavell in the Heart of the Subalpine (Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services, Canada, 1982), p. 23. 58. GA, Misc. Clippings, Calgary Herald, 11 November 1990, ‘Peak Named After Martyr’. 59. J. Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning, p. 54. 60. LAC, RG 84, A-2-A, vol. 1489, reel T9624, file J-56–17, the Edmonton Journal, undated, ‘A Minneapolitan’s Pilgrimage to Mount Cavell’. 61. Ibid., vol. 1488, reel T9624, file J-16–82, The Civil Service Review, 30 September 1941, 212, ‘Mount Edith Cavell: A Mountain Memorial to a Heroic Woman’. 62. IWM EC 10, 14/2, Scotsman, 16 May 1919. 63. LAC, RG 84, A-2-A, vol. 1489, reel T9624, file, J-56–17, N. F. Caswell to Mackenzie King, 4 June 1923. 64. Ibid., J. B. Harkin to R. A. Gibson, Acting Deputy Minister of the Interior, 26 June, 1923. 65. LAC, RG 84, A-2-A, vol. 1489, reel, T9624, file J-56–17, J. B. Harkin to S. Maynard Rogers, 26 June 1923. 66. Ibid., S. Maynard Rogers to J. B. Harkin, the Commissioner of Canadian National Parks, Ottawa, 12 November 1923. 67. LAC, RG 84, A-2-A, vol. 1487, reel T9628, J. B. Harkin to S. Maynard Rogers, 31 October 1924. 68. Ibid., S. Maynard Rogers to J. B. Harkin, 12 November 1924. 69. LAC, RG 84, A-2-A, vol. 1488, reel T9628, file J-16–63. In 1925 Gladys Slark applied for a lease and to build tea rooms. In 1930 and 1931 she applied to Notes 239

add sleeping quarters for climbers. In 1946, she sought staff quarters and a ski lodge. In 1948 Annie Guild took over the lease, and in 1955 applied for a building permit for a second floor for overnight accommodation. The tea rooms was in operation until 1972. 70. Ibid., J. B. Harkin to H. H. Rowatt, Deputy Minister of the Interior, 27 April 1931. 71. Edmonton Bulletin, 20 February 1950, ‘New Youth Hostel for Jasper’s Park’. 72. P. Mein Smith, Maternity in Dispute: New Zealand 1920–1939 (Wellington, 1986). For Australia see P. Mein Smith, Mothers and King Baby: Infant Survival and Welfare in an Imperial World: Australia 1880–1950 (London: Macmillan, 1997), M. Tennant, Children’s Health, the Nation’s Wealth: a history of children’ health camps (Wellington: Bridget Williams Books and the Historical Branch, 1994), and S. Coney, Every Girl: A Social History of Women and the YWCA in Auckland (Auckland: YWCA, 1986). 73. A. MacLaren, Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 1885–1945 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1990). For an early discussion of empire, ‘racial fitness’ and eugenics, see M. Tennant, ‘Matrons with a Mission: Women’s Organisations in New Zealand, 1893–1915’, MA thesis, Massey University, Palmerston North, 1976 and C. Daley, Leisure and Pleasure (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2004). 74. LAC, RG 84, A-2-A, vol. 1488, reel T12990, file J-326–2, Ben Deacon, Canadian National Railways, to S. Maynard Rogers, 19 April 1927. 75. LAC, RG 84, vol. 533, reel T10461, file J-326–1. S. Maynard Rogers to J. B Harkin, 9 February 1926. 76. Ibid., S. Maynard Rogers to N. E. Hutchens, 9 February 1926. 77. E. Pawson, ‘The Memorial Oaks of North Otago’, in G. Kearsley B. Fitzharris (eds) Glimpses of a Gaian World: Essays in Honour of Peter Holland (Dunedin: School of Social Sciences, 2004), pp. 115–31. 78. Ballarat Star, 13 August 1917. 79. LAC, RG 84, vol. 533, reel T10461, file J-326–1, J. B. Harkin to S. Maynard Rogers, 8 October 1925. 80. Ibid., Clipping from St Paul Dispatch, 15 October 1925. 81. GA, Misc. Clippings, The Edmonton Journal, 8 August 1932, ‘Service to Honor Martyred Nurse: Memory of Edith Cavell to Be Honored in Mountains’. 82. Ibid., 2 August 1987. W. Sprakes, ‘British Nurse/war martyr remembered in Jasper’. 83. http://www/worldweb/com/parkscanada-jasper/learning_experiences/ learn- ing.html accessed 4 March 2003. 84. LAC, RG 84, A-2-A, vol. 1489, reel T9629, file, J-16–82, Calgary Albertan, 11 June 1927, ‘Nurse E. Cavell Church is Plan at Jasper Park.’ 85. Ibid., ‘The Cavell Memorial Jasper National Park.’ 86. Ibid., H. Edwards, Chaplain of Jasper Park to Charles Stewart, Minister of the Interior, 7 April 1927. ‘It will be built by the Construction branch of the C.N.R. the Committee finding the funds, and it will be built under the con- trol of the Manager of Jasper Park Lodge.’ ‘It will be available for use by all religious denominations at the discretion of the Manager’. 87. Ibid., The Edmonton Journal, 15 June 1927. Catholic Henry J. O’Leary Archbishop of Edmonton wrote that ‘We have our own church in the town of Jasper. If, later on, the circumstances require a new church in Jasper we will build one’. 240 Notes

88. Ibid., Fred Turnbull to the Mayor of Jasper, 10 August 1936. 89. A. De Leeuw, Edith Cavell: Nurse, Spy, Heroine (Toronto: Longmans Canada Ltd., 1968), p. 95 and A. A. Hoehling. Edith Cavell (London: Cassell, 1958), p. 146. 90. G. Thornton, Cast in Concrete: Concrete Construction in New Zealand 1850–1939 (Auckland: Reed, 1996), pp. 159–161. 91. Birkenhead News, 12 October 1918, n.p. 92. http://www.paris.org/Kiosque/feb98/love.html accessed 26 August 2005. 93. http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~shebra/st_lawrence_baptisms_ 1921–22.htm accessed 2 September 2005. 94. http://members.westnet.com.au/web/talltrees/Eulogy/Eulogy2.htm accessed 21 June 2005. 95. Pers Com., E. Ellis, 2004. 96. Pers Com., J. Murray, 2004. 97. Archives New Zealand Auckland, Regional Office. BBAE 1570 Box 2368 record 2806/1971. 98. Archives New Zealand, Dunedin Regional Office. DAAC 9075 D239 box 393 record 8091. 99. http://www.tbheritage.com/TurfHallmarks/Graves/ cem/GraveMattersFaraway. html accessed 2 September 2005. 100. The Times History of the War, vol. VI (London: The Times, 1916), p. 439. 101. L. van Ypersele, ‘Making the Great War Great: 1914–18 War Memorials in Wallonia’, in W. Kidd and B. Murdoch (eds) Memory and Memorials: The Commemorative Century (Aldershot and Burlington VT.: Ashgate, 2004), pp. 26–40. 102. IWM EC 10, 14/2, Daily Express, 25 May 1919. 103. IWM EC 2, J. Kilgour Bonnar to H. J. Buckland Esq., 10 October 1920. 104. NAAV ECTF, M289, item 4, letter in French to the Director of St Gilles Prison from Mrs Baker, 20 Juillet 1923. 105. AWM ECS, Australian Women’s Weekly, 6 May 1953. 106. Ibid., Sun, Sydney, 14 February 1935. It was given by McAuley to Mr G. P. Smith of a Sydney insurance company and passed on by relatives of Smith. 107. AWM ECS, Adelaide Advertiser, 24 April, 1959. 108. http://www.stephen-stratford.co.uk/edith_cavell.htm accessed 2 September 2005. 109. J. Hallam, Nursing the Image: Media, Culture and Professional Identity (London and New York: Routledge, 2000), p. 42. 110. Mitchell Library, Set Box 1–5, F940.394/2, R. M. Dunbar, Nurse Cavell: A Song of Remembrance, Nash’s Music Store, Sydney. 111. Ted Humphreys’ Private Collection. F. V. St Clair, I Will Repay: In Memory of Edith Cavell, E. Marks and Son, London. 112. NLA, Petherick, E. Cahlke, The Martyrdom of Nurse Edith Cavell. Also The Reverie, (Hobart: Monotone Art Printers, 1916), p. 11. 113. NAAV ECTF, M350/0 item 2, crochet cloth. 114. Pers Com., P. Wood, 1997. 115. D. W. Lloyd, Battlefield Tourism: Pilgrimage and the Commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 (Oxford and New York: Berg, 1998). Back blurb. Notes 241

Conclusion

1. http://stjohnscathedral.com.au/community/info/women.html accessed 21/06/2005. 2. L. Colley, ‘The Significance of the Frontier in British History’, (Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center: The University of Texas at Austin, 1995), pp. 21–22. 3. K. Jeffery, ‘Nationalisms and Gender: Ireland in the time of the Great War 1914–1918’, http://www.oslo2000.uio.no/program/papers/r13/r13-jeffery.pdf. 4. Glasgow Herald, 17 May 1919. 5. Daily Herald, 20 May 1919. Bibliography

Primary sources

Imperial War Museum, London: Edith Cavell Collection (IWM EC) EC 1 Edith Cavell’s Diary. EC 2 Letters written by Edith Cavell. December 1911–October 1915. EC 3 Miscellaneous papers in Edith Cavell’s hand. EC 4 Letters written to or concerning Edith Cavell. 1914–1917. EC 5 Official and semi-official correspondence concerning the arrest, execu- tion and burial of Edith Cavell. EC 6 Further official and semi-official correspondence. EC 7 Official and other correspondence relating to the exhumation and reburial of Edith Cavell’s remains, January-August 1919, and subsequent correspondence. EC 8 Miscellaneous documents 1896–1921. EC 9 Printed Items (Mainly Orders of Service) concerning the memorial and funeral services in London and Norwich, 1915 and 1919. EC 10 Official German documents concerning Edith Cavell. EC 11 Official awards bestowed posthumously on Edith Cavell. EC 12 Correspondence 18 August 1914–24 November 1915 between Edith Cavell and Longworth Wainwright and the Royal National Pension Fund for Nurses – concerning Edith Cavell’s pension policy. EC 13 Transcriptions of several of Edith Cavell’s last letters from prison and of other miscellaneous items, together with miscellaneous correspondence from Elisabeth Wilkins, dated 1961. EC 14/1 Printed Material. EC 14/2 Scrapbooks (circa 300pp) Edith Cavell Homes for Nurses. EC 15 Extensive collection of photographs and postcards (circa 48 items). EC 16 A watercolour painting by Edith Cavell of Swardeston Church near Norwich; a mounted copy of a painting entitled ‘The Martyrdom of Nurse Cavell’.

IWM, D. J. Tunmore Collection IWM Film 542, ‘Stand by the men who have stood by you’ (Great Britain: National War Savings Committee (sponsor), Kinsella and Morgan (production company), c. 1917. IWM Film 384, ‘Nurse Cavell’s Grave and Memorial’ (Australia: Australian War Records Section (sponsor), 5 mins, 1919). IWM Film 1074, ‘Re-Interment of Edith Cavell’ (Great Britain, 9 mins, 1919).

242 Bibliography 243

National Inventory of War Memorials, Imperial War Museum (NIWM)

NIWM 5426 NIWM 8070 NIWM 11538 NIWM 15567 NIWM 15592 NIWM 20221 NIWM 36654 NIWM 39387 NIWM 44710 NIWM 45333 NIWM 46481

The National Archives, Kew, London (PRO) DSIR 26/322. Discolouration of marble of Nurse Edith Cavell Memorial Statue 1924–1933. ED 109/9489. Hackney: Edith Cavell County Secondary School. HLG 45/1479. Permission for the burials within the Garth, Norwich Cathedral of Cannon and Mrs Hay Aitken, and the removal of the body of Nurse Edith Cavell from an earth grave for re-burial in Norwich Cathedral: inquiry – 1929–1964. CUST 49/448. Arrangements for bringing body of Nurse Edith Cavell into England. 01 January 1919–31 December 1919. HQ 45/10794/302577. Burials: Nurse Edith Cavell. Removal of remains from Belgium to UK 1915–1919. KV 2/822. Security Service Personal (PF Series) Files. KV 2/844. Quien, Gaston Georges PF 37, 346. MT 25/32. The re-internment of the remains of the late Miss Edith Cavell in England – Question of Transport from Brussels, 1919. T1/11874. Minute. Grant from the Royal Bounty Fund. Includes Grant to mother of Nurse Edith Cavell. T1/12566. Office of Works: Transfer of the care of the Nurse Edith Cavell Memorial to the department under the Public Statues (Metropolis) Act 1854, 1920. T 161/109. Monuments and Memorials. Contribution towards a monument to be erected in memory of Phillipe Baucy [sic], a Belgian contemporary of Miss Edith Cavell, 21 March 1926.

National Archives of Australia (Victoria) (NAV)

Edith Cavell Trust Fund (ECTF) Records M 296; M 297; M 299; M352; M287; M 288; M289; M291; M293; M294; M359; M373; M367; M288; M360; M353. Includes ledgers of trust fund, correspondence, holiday house records, photographs, minute books 1916–1976. 244 Bibliography

Australian War Memorial, Canberra (AWM)

Edith Cavell Scrapbooks (ECS)

Mitchell Library, Sydney (ML)

Dunbar, R. M. Nurse Cavell: A Song of Remembrance, Nash’s Music Store, Sydney. F940.394/2 Set Box 1–5.

National Library of Australia, Canberra (NLA)

Granger, P. Edith Cavell Commemoration Concert, 1918, pamphlet, prompt file. South Australia Army Nurses’ Fund, 1969, MS 2776, Manuscript Room

Petherick Reading Room Cahlke, E. The Martyrdom of Nurse Edith Cavell. The Reverie, (Hobart: Monotone Art Printers, 1916), p. 11. FERG 3700 Edith Cavell House. FERG 3841 Nurse Cavell Memorial Home. FERG 3841 Notes on paper. FERG 3841 The Edith Cavell Memorial Home in Sydney.

Toronto Public Library (TPL)

Scrapbooks, anonymous clipping, ‘Italy Pays Homage to Britain’s Heroine’, 13 November 1922. Scrapbooks, 22 October 1926. ‘Stands as Memorial to Noble Edith Cavell.’

University Health Network Artifact Collection, Toronto (UHN)

Cavell file. Memo 18 July 1990, to Sany Twyon from Peter Honor, Manager, Community Relations, and Letter 22 April 1986 to Christine Boyanosky from Peter Honor. Cavell file. Memo 30 Jan 1989, to Mr M. L. Louth from Peter Honor, Manager, Community Relations. Toronto Western Hospital Auxiliary Ninety Years of Service 1897–1987 (Toronto: Toronto Western Hospital, 1987), n.p.

Library and Archives Canada, Ottawa (LAC) Echoes, 77 (June 1919), 33–5. LAC RG 84, A-2-A, vols. 1487, 1488, 1489. Covers the commemoration of Edith Cavell at Jasper National Park including proposals for youth hostel, chapel, and cairn. Bibliography 245

Glenbow Archives, Calgary (GA)

Misc. Clippings, Calgary Herald, 11 Nov 1990, ‘Peak Named After Martyr.’ Misc. Clippings, The Edmonton Journal, 8 Aug 1932, ‘Service to Honor Martyred Nurse: Memory of Edith Cavell to Be Honored in Mountains.’ Misc. Clippings, The Edmonton Journal, 2 Aug 1987. Winn Sprakes, ‘British Nurse/ war martyr remembered in Jasper.’

Edith Cavell School Collection, Vancouver, Canada (ECSC)

Miscellaneous documents including anonymous Clipping, ‘Britain Pays Just Homage: Every Resident of London Joins in Tribute to Edith Cavell’, 16 May 1919.

Newspapers

Age (Melbourne) Argus (Melbourne) Ballarat Star Birkenhead News Birmingham Daily Post Bristol Times British Journal of Nursing British Medical Journal British Weekly British-Australasian Cape Argus (Cape Town) Cape Times (Cape Town) Catholic Times and Catholic Opinion Daily Express Daily Graphic Daily Herald Daily Mirror Daily News and Leader Daily Telegraph Daily Telegraph (Sydney) Dundee Advertiser Eastern Daily Press Edmonton Bulletin Empire News Everyman Gazette (Montreal) Glasgow Herald Globe Herald (Melbourne) Home and Colonial Mail Illustrated War News 246 Bibliography

Irish Times Kai Tiaki (New Zealand) Leeds Mercury Liverpool Post Manchester Guardian Morning Leader (Regina) Morning Post New Zealand Nursing Journal (NZNJ) News London Nursing Mirror Nursing Mirror and Midwives’ Journal Nursing Times Outlook Press (Christchurch) Quick March (New Zealand) Scotsman Sheffield Daily Telegraph South Wales News Star (Christchurch) Sun (Melbourne) Sunday School Chronicle Sydney Mail Sydney Morning Herald The Graphic (Melbourne) The Illustrated London News The Times The Times Weekly Edition Toronto Daily Star Vancouver Daily Province Yorkshire Telegraph

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Secondary sources concerning Edith Cavell

A Kempis, T. Of the Imitation of Christ, The ‘Edith Cavell’ Edition (London: Humphrey Milford and Oxford University Press, 1920). ——. A Pageant of History: The Reigns of our Kings and Queens Famous People and Events in our History (London and Glasgow: Collins, 1958), 305–307. Adie, K. Corsets to Camouflage: Women and War (London: Hodder and Stoughton, in association with the Imperial War Museum, 2003). Blackburn, D. The Martyr Nurse: the Death and Achievement of Edith Cavell (London: The Ridd Masson Co. Ltd, 1915). Blackmore, S. J. Nurse Edith Cavell: A War Drama (Canada, 1916). Bright, P. ‘IV The Nurse Who Faced the Firing Squad: Edith Cavell’, in A. Boyle Heroes of Our Time (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1961), 46–59. Clark-Kennedy, A. E. Edith Cavell: Pioneer and Patriot (London: Faber and Faber, 1965). Correspondence with the United States Ambassador Respecting the Execution of Miss Cavell at Brussels (London: Darling and Son Ltd, 1915). Cole, M. Women of To-Day (London, Edinburgh, Paris, Melbourne, Toronto and New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, 1938), Edith Cavell, 65–87. de Croy, M. War Memories (London: Macmillan, 1932). De Leeuw, A. Edith Cavell: Nurse, Spy, Heroine (Toronto: Longmans Canada Ltd., 1968). Edith Cavell: Her Life and Her Art (London: The Royal London Hospital, 1990). ‘Edith Cavell’, New Zealand School Journal XXII: 5 (1928), 70. Elkon, J. Edith Cavell: Heroic Nurse (New York: Julian Messner Inc., 1956). Felstead, S. T. Edith Cavell: The Crime that Shook the World (London: George Newnes Ltd). 248 Bibliography

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Abide With Me, 40, 112, 113 ANZAC Adams, Frank, 83 celebrations, 136 Adie, Kate, 91, 99 Day, 133 Adolfi, John, 199 legend, 6, 207 Advertiser, Adelaide, 198 Apartheid, 184 Aegean Sea, 170, 171 Archer, Julia, 199 age, of Cavell, 86, 90, 101, 129 Argus, Melbourne, 135 Age, Melbourne, 120, 136 Army Nurses’ Club, Melbourne, 169 Alexandra Hospital, Singapore, 210 arrest, of Cavell, 16–21 allied art historians, 118 allegiance, 201 Arthur’s Point, near Queenstown, world, 202, 207 194–195 see also British Empire artistic Allies, the, 5, 22, 24, 25, 29, 32, 33, expressions, 47, 78, 102, 122, 161, 42, 43, 55, 56, 83, 84, 85, 88, 94, 176, 199 132, 148, 203 talent, of Cavell, 92, 102 Alpine Club of Canada, 188 arts and crafts style, 140 Ambiorix Square, Brussels, 24 Ashburton Domain, 172 American Ashcroft, Bill, 8, 176 Ambassador in London, 16 Ashton New Road District Home, Consul in Brussels, 16 Manchester, 96 Embassy in Brussels, 103 Asquith, Prime Minister, 77, 87, 149 Legation in Brussels, 16, 33, 36, 41, Association of Head Mistresses of 81, 82 Girls’ Secondary Schools, Amsterdam Telegraph, 43, 45 Melbourne, 135 Anderson, Benedict, 7 atrocity stories, 75–80, 201, 203 Angel Austral Cavell as, 72, 75, 138, 159, 177 Club, 129 Glacier, Canada, 190 Salon, 129, 165 Anglican Church, 39, 92, 103, 112, Australia, 45, 63, 65, 68, 71, 78, 79, 130, 193, 204 84, 97, 132–138, 165–169, 170, Anglo- 173, 182, 185, 192, 195, 197, American-Canadian unity, 192 198, 199, 204, 207–210 Celtic hegemony, 208 Australian Celtic Melbourne, 134 Army Nursing Society (AANS), 168 Saxon heritage, 192 film, 68 animals named after Cavell, High Commissioner, 199 195–197 Women’s Weekly, 167 anti-German sentiment, 17–18, 35, avenging death on battlefield, 64–75 75, 76, 97, 135, 158, 192, 205 see also conscription as beasts, barbarians, monsters and pigs, 16, 61, 79, 80, 85 Baker, Mrs Thomas, 135, 163, 165, see also hatred, propaganda 167, 198

256 Index 257

Ballarat, Victoria, 192 Berlin, 46 Bar Council of the Council of Foreign Office (Records), 17 Advocates of the Court of Appeal Beswick, Grace, 171 of Brussels, 35 betrayal, theories of Cavell’s, 198–199 Barbie dolls, of Edith Cavell, Marie Bingham, Adrian, 148 Depage and Elisabeth Wilkins, Birdwood Avenue, Melbourne, 136 144–145 Birkenhead, Merseyside, 141, 195 Barclay, Dr, 172 Edith Cavell Memorial, 146, 196 Barton, Clara, 178 Ladies’ Charities Committee, 142 Baskerville, Margaret, 129, 130, 133, Birkenhead News, 79, 141, 142, 196 134 birth details, of Cavell, 92 Bassett, Jan, 168 Bismark St, Sydney, 182 Baucq, Philippe, 18, 19, 23, 24, 28, 29, Blackburn, Douglas, 32, 45, 65–66, 79 30, 41, 44, 48, 51, 52, 54, 123 Blackmore, Sidney J., 46 Bavaria, 94 blood, metaphors of, 122 Bawdsey, Suffolk Bodart Manor, 127 Mrs, 19, 23, 24, 25 Parish Church, 127 Philippe, 19, 28 Beatty, Admiral, 117 Bodger, Colonel, 22–23 , of, 30 Borden, Sir Robert, 188 Beck, James M., 82 Borg, Alan, 119 Beeac, Victoria, 196 Bourne, J. M., 75 Belgian Braddort, lawyer, 28 Committee of Inquiry, 77 Bradshaw, Rev. R. E., 193 Consul, London, 20–21 Braun, Thomas, 28, 34 government, 1 bravery, 1, 18, 55–60, 66, 69, 87, 102, in exile, 58 112, 123–124, 149, 151, 163, 168, Minister of Justice, 77 177, 181, 199 royal family, 114 in children’s literature, 177 Senate, 197 as an ‘Englishwoman’, 43–45, 67 chair in senate as memorial to see also courage Cavell, 197 Brazil, 148 Belgium, 9, 15, 16, 20, 22, 23, 28, Bridges, Major-General, 199 32–37, 51–56, 75–79, 80–85, Bridport, south west England, 162, 94–95, 98–100, 107, 111, 114, 163, 184 118, 123, 129, 138, 145, 148, 154, Brighton, Nurses’ home, 58 158, 167, 173–178, 197–198, 205 Brisbane, 133, 165, 182–184, 204 Belgrave School, Clevedon, 92 elite women of, 150–151 Belleville as ‘English-orientated society’, General Hospital, Ontario, 145 150 Paris, 196 Bristol, Lord Mayor of, 158 Benn, Dr, German Chief Medical British Officer in Brussels, 56 Commonwealth League, 143 Bergan, Lieutenant, detective, 17, 28, Empire, 172, 180, 182 29 and Allied relationship, 148 Berkendael Institute, 98 and rest of world relationship, committee of, 104, 106 177 see also Edith Cavell Inter-regional Ex-Nurses’ Service Club, 135 Hospital Centre (CHIREC) Ex-Service Legion, 135 258 Index

British – continued in Melbourne, 133–137 Foreign Office, 1, 41 annual services at, 133, 136 Geological Survey, 189 Norwich bust, 127, 133 government, 62, 158 Byng, Lord, 180 and propaganda, 63 Byron St, London, 183 and the press, 78 Home Secretary, 52–53, 75 Café imperialism, 207 Boulevard de la Senne, 25 role models from imperial icons, Phillippe, 25 147 Californian bungalows, 186 Intelligence, 123 Cambrai, 54 see also MI5 Cameron, Jack, 199 Raj, 75 Camp Cavell, Lake Huron, 188 royal family, 114 Canada, 4, 10, 44, 58, 63–65, 69, 70, subjects, 140–141, 166 72, 79, 83–84, 129, 132, 137–138, womanhood, 58 143–147, 151, 152, 160, 170, 173, Cavell as an exemplar of, 18, 51, 175, 177, 180–181, 188–194, 88, 92, 107, 125, 128, 138, 208–210 155, 165, 207 compared with New Zealand in world, 4, 5, 8, 156, 173, 175, 176, commemoration for Cavell, 173 182, 184, 201, 202, 207, 208, Immigration Department, 192 209, 211 relationship with the United States, boundaries of, 209, 211 192 British-Australian, 161 Cannadine, David, 9, 135 British Empire, 5, 128 Cape Argus, 41, 44, 45, 56, 65, 69, 70, British Journal of Nursing, 161 76, 80 Britishness, 8, 129, 143, 160, 165, 174, Cape Times, 41, 45, 56, 63, 70, 76, 80 176, 181, 201, 207 Cape Town, 70 in Australia, 135, 136 Madras Indian community, 70 in Canada, 193 Capiau, Hermann, 23, 24, 26, 28, 29 in South Africa, 9 Carter, Mrs Edith (Lady Carter), 195 in the United States, 9 Catholic and Whiteness, 9 Archbishop of Edmonton, 193 Bruce, G. J. G., 54 Church, 193 Bruche, Julius, 135 orders and nursing, 99 Bryce, Lord, 77 Catholic Opinion, 160 Bryce Report, 77 Catholic Times, 160 Buckley, Edith Cavell, 197 Cavell Buitenhuis, Peter, 62, 158 family, 1, 69, 112, 121, 127, 160 , Dr Tollemacher, 23 Mr Alexander (father), 92, 95 Bulldogs, 74 Rev Alexander, 160 Burke, Edmund, 187, 188 Eddy, 26, 95 Burnham, Viscount, 114 Florence Scott, 20, 25, 92, 157, Bush, Julia, 143 160, 162 bush fire, 167 Jack, 92 Bushnell, J. Bryan, 190 Miss Joan, 136 busts, for Cavell Lilian, 1, 21, 92, 104 by , 114, 116, Mrs Louisa (mother), 15, 35, 36, 148–149 57, 58, 166 Index 259

Cavell – continued Churchill St, Brisbane, 182 Parent Centre, Toronto, 205 citizenship, 176, 177, 207–208 Township, Sudbury, Ontario, 186 civic, 139, 175, 176–181 Cavell’s Bar and Café, Arthur’s Point, City Hall 194 Toronto, 114, 132 Cavellscapes, 175, 179–195, 208, 209 Westminster, 114 Cavill St, Surfers’ Paradise, Civil Service Review, 190 Queensland, 182 Clark, Jack, 194–195 Cayron, Constant, 19, 28 Clark-Kennedy, A. E., 22, 29, 41, 56, Cecil, Rev Lord William, 89 57, 91, 94, 95, 99, 101 Celtic heritage, 197 class barriers, 61 London, 117 and Cavell, 70, 89, 92, 101, 107, Toronto, 132 194–195 Chakravorty, Dipesh, 8 contribution to Birkenhead Chapman, P., 21, 23 memorial, 142–143 Chateau de Bellignies, 19, 24, 30, 106 elite Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, 59 Belgians, 100 Chicago Journal, 81 Londoners, 114 Chicago Post, 81 and empire, 9 childhood, of Cavell, 92–94 and nursing, 99, 100 children’s snobbery, 101 health building nation and empire, in the Victorian era, 117 191 working-class, 88, 143 literature, 177, 178 Coates, Colin M., 5, 8 Christian, 178–179 Coblenz (Cavell), 181 China, 148 School, 181 chivalry, 32, 39, 43, 57, 64, 67, 202, Cole, Miss Edith (Mrs W. W. Kelly), 204 195 and the British race, 64–65 collecting cards, 161 Christ, 89, 90, 179 collection and Cavell, 90 boxes, 161 Christchurch Hospital, 172 on trams, 142–143 Christian College Avenue, Toronto, 129 beliefs, of Cavell, 27, 92, 121, 122, Colley, Linda, 7, 208 127, 178, 204 colonial heroes, Cavell as, 179 elites, 138, 139, 172, 174, 183 martyr, 66, 89, 204 mimicking the British class remembrance, for Cavell, 204 system, 135 spirituality, 187 Australia and New Zealand virgins, 89 compared, 137 see also virgin martyr encounters, 8 Christian Science Monitor, 80 hegemonic identities, 111, Christianity, 89 188, 201 Cavell’s faith, 41 innovation in memorials, 193 involvement of in escape mimicry, 114, 128, 135, 209 organization, 19 see also mimicry see also religion nationalism, 208 Chronicle, 63 nationalist identities, 150 260 Index colonial – continued imperialism, 175, 183, 201, 207, 208 Office, 63 and naming, 175–201 relationship with metropole, 7, 128, unity, 182 201, 209 Cunard Line, 76 concentration camps, South African Curie War, 50 Irene, 145 Concord, Municipality of, 183 Marie, 145 confession, of Cavell, 21–26, 54, 203 Dahlke, Edith, 199 conscription, 68, 69 Daily Chronicle, 63 see also recruitment Daily Express, 63 Conseil Municipal De Paris, 58 Daily Graphic, 63, 69, 148 conservation, 187 Daily Mail, 45, 63 conservative Daily Mirror, 148 effects of war, 187 Daily News, 63 women, 136, 155 Daily Telegraph, 63, 89, 114 Coombe Head, 162, 163, 164 Daily Telegraph, Sydney, 65 Coptic Church, Sydney, 205 Daley copying, see colonial mimicry; Diana and Roger, 196 mimicry Edith Cavell, 196 Corbet, Mrs Reginald, 163, 164 William Richard, 196 corpse, of Cavell, 41, 42, 88, 112 Danforth Road, Toronto, 183 Cotswold Hills, 163 Dargaville, New Zealand, 152 courage, 48, 87, 102, 189, 193 Darrow, Margaret, 126 and devotion, endurance and Davidson martyrdom, 123 Governor, 167 and heroism, 31, 81 Lady, 167 Court dawn, see time of execution of Brussels Senate House, 28 de Belleville, Countess Marie, 19, 26 House Square, Ottawa Park, Toledo, de Borchgrave 192 Comte, 35, 36 Crabbe, Maurice, 25 Comtesse, 35 Craigie, John, 127 de Croy Crimean War, 97, 119, 161 Prince Reginald, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30 crochet cloth, 199 Princess Marie, 19, 22, 24, 29, 30, 106 Crocker, Miss, 135, 165 de Leeuw, Adele, 48, 53 croquet lawn, 163 de Leval, M. Gaston, 34, 35, 161 Cross de Vercheres, Madeleine, 5, 8 Civique, 58–59 de Villaobar, Marquis, Spanish of the Order of Leopold, 58 Ambassador, 34, 42 Cross, Miss, 167 Dead March, the, 63 Cruickshank, Margaret, 172 defence, of Cavell, 26–38 Cullen, Lady, 165 Denoon, Donald, 176 and Sir William, 167 Depage cultural Antoine, 98, 102 connections between high Marie, 23, 76, 84, 127, 144 and low, 201, 209 as a Barbie doll, 144 federation of empire, 174, 201 on Bawdsey plaque, 127 hegemonic identities, 4, 201 and Edith Cavell medal, 145 Index 261

Derveau, de Belley, chemist, 23, 25, 29 Homes of Rest for Nurses (ECHRN), Detroit, 188 1, 26, 35, 114, 145, 150, Dickenson, Evaline, 96 156–168, 174, 181, 184 Dieppe Avenue, Montreal, 183 Inter-regional Hospital centre displacement of women by returned (CHIREC), Brussels, 125, 144 soldiers, 121 Memorial, Shoreditch Infirmary, dog lover, Cavell as, 104 London, 140 dogs, of Cavell, 104–107, 144, 181 Memorial Association, Sydney, 166 Domain, Corporal D., 23 Memorial Fund, Toronto, 129 Dorff, lawyer, 28 rose, 171 Dorman, Mr, 21 Trust, London, 136 Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan, 62, 157, 158, Trust Fund (ECTF), 133, 135, 165, 159, 160 167, 168–169, 184, 198 Dromana, Victoria, 167, 184 War Memorial Committee, London, Duggan, Sir Winston, 167 114 Duke of Kent Avenue, Montreal, 183 Edmonton Journal, 193 Duke of York, 171 Edward VIII Hospital, Cape Town, 183 Dunbar, R. M., 199 Elderly Nurses’ Fund (Nursing Mirror Dundee Advertiser, 160 and Midwives Fund), 168 Dunedin, New Zealand, 199 elite Dunelm, Bishop, 58 citizens, 111, 142, 156, 160, 165, Dutch 175, 201 frontier, 3, 16, 19, 24, 33 networks, 173 neutrality, 34 women, 129, 139, 146, 150, 151, nursing, 100 165, 170, 173, 205, 208, 211 part in the escape network, 20–24, Elizabeth St, Sydney, 182 54 Elkon, Juliette, 49, 75, 178 Dutton, Rev., 170 Ellerslie Panmure Highway, Auckland, duty, 92, 118, 151, 178, 199 152 Empire Earle, Sir Lionel, 121 Day, 177 Easter Rising, 1916, 210 end of, 207 ECHRN, see Edith Cavell Homes of unity, 135, 160, 208 Rest for Nurses and women, 156, 175 Ecole Belge d’Infermieres Diplomees, see also colonial; cultural; imperial; 114 imperialism; post-colonial see also Berkendael Institute Empire News, 89 Eddison, Miss, 146 Enfield Road, London, 179 Edith Enloe, Cynthia, 7 Streets, 182, 184 environment, 154, 156, 182, township, Sudbury, Ontario, 186 191, 201 Edith Cavell and recuperation for nurses, 162, Bridge, Queenstown, 175–176, 163, 174, 184, 209 194–195, 205, 211 see also landscape Chapter, IODE, 58 equal rights for women, 204 Commemoration Concert, 167 equality and difference between the dining room, Jasper Park Lodge, 193 sexes, 5, 39, 50, 51, 55, 56, 57, Fund, Adelaide, 169 59, 64, 81, 82, 88, 111, 117, 203, Handicap, Flemington Races, 197 204, 211 262 Index escape organization, 3, 17, 19, 41, 50, First Battalion Norfolk Regiment, 23 99, 100, 203 Flemington Races, Melbourne, 197 estimates of numbers, 29–30, 36, Florence St 203 Brisbane, 184 first two men Cavell helped (Bodger Sydney, 183 and Meachin), 22–23 Foreign Office, London, 33 espionage, 19, 50, 123 Foreman, Miss Mabel, 163 was Cavell a spy?, 53–55 forgetting ethnic minorities, 70 Cavell, 67, 173, 202, 205, 207, 211 eugenics, 191 in history, 6, 145, 202, 205 Europe, 177, 205 Forrest, Miss, 135 European Union, 145, 205 Forster, Miss, 135 Evening Post, 63 Forty, George and Anne, 53 execution, 39–59, 211 Foster, Miss, 163 blind-folded, 49, 177 Foucault, Michel, 7 immediate reaction to, 60–85 foundress of modern nursing in justification for, 203 Belgium, 96, 99 officer and gun story, 44, 46, 49, 50, see also protestant nursing 126 Fountain Fever Hospital, Lower reaction to Cavell’s death Tooting, London, 95 allies, 43–49, 57–59 Frampton, Sir George, 114, 119, 120 American, 80–84 bust, 114, 116, 141, 161 German, 49–53 London Monument, 114–122, 143, shocking to children, 181 148 of women by the Allies, 52 Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens, Express, 63 119 France, 19, 26, 29, 48, 55, 59, 77, 94, Faraway Farm, Lexington, Kentucky, 125–128, 135, 138, 145, 148, 163, 197 167, 175, 184, 192, 196–197 female Franco-Prussian War, 80 imperialism, 143, 165 Francois family (Mr and Mrs, imperialists, 143, 164, 205 Marguerite, Evelyn, George, response to Cavell’s death, 82 Helen), 94 feminism Fraser, Antonia, 87, 126 first wave, 92 French imperial, 143 Ambassador to Britain, 58 second wave, 97, 204 border, 24, 25 feminist Canada, 208 movement, 6, 122 health service, 145 and pacifist voices, 203, 205 merchants, 208 role model, 207 Military Mission, Berlin, 17 Ferguson, Lady Helen Munro, 166, nursing profession, 145 167 post-war conservative environment Fifth International Parliamentary in gender relations, 126 Conference on Trade, Brussels, streets named after Cavell, 197 184 films, about Cavell, 46, 68, 199, 200 French, Lord, 160 firing squad, 41, 45, 46, 48, 118, 120, Fry, Elizabeth, 204 177, 181, 188, 193 Fryatt, Captain, 76 Index 263 fund-raising, 114, 139, 140, 146, 150, rank and file attitude towards 156, 161, 164, 165, 167, 170, Cavell’s execution, 45, 46 179, 209 refusal to surrender Cavell’s body, 42 by artists, 161 Germany, 15, 34, 51, 52, 53, 56, 65, concerts, 150, 161 66, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84 lack of money leading to Gestapo, the, 25 creativity, 201 Ghost lectures, 161 of Cavell, 181 funds Glacier, Canada, 190 for nurses, 167, 168–169 Gianelli, Victor, 132 personal donations, 160 Gibson funeral, Cavell’s, see repatriation Hugh, 34 fur brigades, 189 Margaret, Miss, 92, 94, 127 Fussell, Paul, 187 Gille Louis, 25 Gahan, H. Stirling, 39–40, 41, 48 Victor, 25 Gallipoli, 208 Gipsy Road, West Norwood, 163 St, Sydney, 182 glacier named after Cavell, 194 Garde Civique (Belgium), 18 glamour, and Cavell, 178 Gavin, John, 68 Glasgow Herald, 88, 211 Gazette, Montreal, 66, 69, 83 Gleichen, 118 Geelong globalization, 205 District Nursing Society, 197 God, King and Country, 112, 118, nursing homes, 196 120, 122 Geikie, Archibald, 189 Godefroy, Mr, 28 German Military Code, 28, 33 Got, Ambroise, 17 gender governess, Cavell as, 90, 94 differences during war, 5, Grace St, Sydney, 182 64, 81 graffiti, 184 see also equality and difference Grands mots du Soldat, 18 between the sexes Graux relations, 126 Marguerite, (nee Francois), 90, 94, Geneva cross, 118 98 Gentlewoman, 157, 162 see also Francois family Geographic Board, 188 Pierre, 98 George V Park, Sydney, 183 grave, of Cavell German in Belgium, 1, 40, 68, 70, 78, 84, documents of Cavell’s arrest, trial 85, 198 and execution, 16–38, 50 in Norwich, 1, 113 governors in Belgium, see von Grayzel, Susan, 78 Bissing; von der Lancken greatcoats, 129 hatred of British, 35 Greer, Germaine, 5 invasion of Belgium, 15 Grey justification for shooting Cavell, Edward, Sir, 33, 41 49–53 Elizabeth, 118 Military Code, 28, 33 Groves, Mr W. G., 164 Military Police, 17, 24, 25 Guards Crimean War Memorial, propaganda images of, see anti- Waterloo Place, London, 119 German sentiment Gullen, Augusta Stowe, 151 264 Index

Hackney Hoehling, A. A., 22, 28, 30, 32, 33, 34, Council, London, 140 41, 48, 54, 80, 83, 96, 99, 101 Education Directorate, 179 holiday fund, Sydney, 166 Haig, Lady, 160, 161 Holland, see Dutch hair colour Hollywood, 159 blonde, 71, 145, 175, 178 Home and Colonial Mail, 160 grey, 90, 101, 178 homecoming, of Cavell, 89 red, 102 see also repatriation Hall, Catherine, 7 homes and hospitals named after Hallam, Julia, 96, 199 Cavell, 139–155 Hampshire, 199 homes, 147–152 Hanmer Springs, New Zealand, 147 Brisbane, 150, 151 Hardy St, London, 183 Dromana, Victoria, 167 Harkin, J. B., 190–193 Jasper, 191 Harrach, Count, 51 Sydney, 129, 166, 198 Harwich, England, 15 hospitals, 144–146 Haslemere, Surrey, 162, 163, 164 Belleville, Ontario, 145 Haste, Cate, 61, 77, 78 Peterborough, 146 Hastings St, Sydney, 182 Brussels, 182 hatred, 35, 75–80, 107, 112, 143, 158, Hackney, United Kingdom, 179 179, 190, 205, 210 London, 146–150, 182 see also anti-German sentiment; Paparoa, New Zealand, 145, 152 propaganda Toronto, 146, 151–152 hegemonic rest homes, 152–154 attitudes, 176, 205, 208, 211 Auckland, 152, 153 colonial identities, 111, Lethbridge, Alberta, 152 138, 201 Sumner, New Zealand, 152, 153, and minorities, 75 154, 184 constructions of nationalism, Vancouver, 152 patriotism and culture, 7, wards, 146–147 75, 201 Birkenhead, United Kingdom, see also colonial; cultural; imperial; 141–142 imperialism; networks; patriotic Dublin, 146 organizations; patriotism; post- London, 146 colonial Queen Mary Hospital, New Henbury, 163 Zealand, 147 Hennessy Toronto, 146, 150 Lady, 165 homogeneity in commemoration for Sir David, 165 Cavell, 154, 156 Herald, Melbourne, 136 Hong Kong, 136 heroes and heroines, 5, 8, 53, 96, 113, Hooker, Hilda, 171 142, 146, 177, 179, 182, hospitals, see homes and hospitals 187, 190 named after Cavell Hildyard, Nora, 171 House of Lords, 52 Hill, W. T., 29, 32, 66, 80, 90 Huddersfield, 78 Hillbrow, Johannesburg, 184 Hull and East Riding Convalescent historical geography, 6 Home, 157 Hobart, 199 humanity, 118, 119, 127, 131, 142 Hobsbawn, Eric, 7 Hume, Grace, 78 Index 265

Imitation of Christ, The, 26–27, 158 Islamic Park, London, 205 imperial Italian centre and post-colonialism, 8, 111, Canadian Society, ‘Italo Canadese’, 128, 146, 205, 208 131, 132 cities, 133, 209 Canadians, Toronto, 132 curriculum, 10, 176–181 Italians Ex-Servicewomen’s League, 135 as Allies, 132 history, 7, 8 in Brussels, 52 icons of the war, 147 identities, 4, 135, 139 Jacobs, Jane, 7 gender, 205 Japan, 148 citizenship, 19, 61, 111 Jarers, Charles E., 36 mindsets in naming streets, 183 Jasper, 191, 201 Order Daughters of the Empire Heritage Theatre, 193 (IODE), 4, 58, 79 Inn, 193 patriotic organizations, 62, 111, Mayor of, 193 156 memorial service, 192 power, 7, 121, 176 National Park, 175, 188, 190–193 press system, 63 Park Lodge, 193 War Graves Commission, 88 jazz music, 191 War Museum, London, 17, 106 Jeffery, Keith, 146 imperialism Jeffries Cavell as a role model for British Percival and Harriet Ann, 196 women and around the Empire, Vivienne Edith Cavell, 196 88, 101, 149, 165, 176 Jellicoe and gender and nationalism, 7 Admiral, 117 see also British imperialism; Lady, 160, 161 colonial; female imperialism; St, Sydney, 182 imperial; post-colonial Jemmett, Grace (Gracie), 18, 26, 36, independent new women, 32, 91, 101, 102–104 102, 104, 202, 207 as a drug addict, 102–103 indigenous place names, 188 Joan of Arc, 30, 66, 96, 126 influenza, 172 and Cavell as martyrs, 126 epidemic (1918), 170, 171, 172 Joan St, Sydney, 182 Inglis Joffre Ken, 132, 133 General, 29, 147 Miss, 101, 140 Street, Brisbane, 183 Institute Edith Cavell and Marie Jones, Miss, 135 Depage, 123, 144 Jowitt, F. W., 121 see also Berkendael Institute; Edith Judson, Helen, 43, 90, 92, 95, 97, Cavell Inter-regional Hospital 101, 102 Centre (CHIREC) Julian, O. R. A., 142 International justice, 211 Council of Nurses, 100 was Cavell’s death just?, 56, 203 Federation of University Women, 143 interrogation, of Cavell, 21–26 Kai Tiaki, 137, 170 Ireland, 146, 210 Kaiser, Wilhelm II, 51, 54, 78 Irish Coast, 76 as a beast and chief barbarian, 80, Irish Times, 160 81, 83 266 Index

Kant, Immanuel, 187 Leipzig, Saskatchewan, 181 Keefer, W. Napier, 160 Lethbridge, Alberta, 152 Kelly, Mrs Florence, 169 letters Keogh, Nurse, 210 by Cavell, 15–16, 36–38, 101–107 King and Britishness, 100, 106 Albert, 58 from prison, 103 George V, 65, 69, 75 to Grace Jemmett, 18 of Spain, 51 to Mrs Cavell, 15, 16, 19–20, 21, King, Alex, 137, 141, 142, 156 103, 106–107 King, Truby, 197 on the German occupation, Kingsland Road, Hoxton, 140 106–107 Kirschen, Sadi, 28, 29, 34, 35 to her nurses, 37 Kitchener to her sister Lilian, 106 Lord, 50, 147, 180, 199 to the editor, 81–83 Ontario, 181 Leu, Fred, 192 Park, Brisbane, 184 Lewis, Mrs Lance, 198 St, Auckland, 183 Liberation Belgique, 19 St, Singapore, 210 Libiez, Advocate, 23, 24, 25, 29 Kiwi heroines, 154 Libre Belgique, 18 Knight, Zita Edith Cavell, 197 Lincolnshire Endowment Fund, 161 Knightley, Phillip, 57, 62, 77 Lions Club, Toledo, Ohio, 192 Llandovery Castle, 72 Labour Government, Britain, 121 Lloyd, David, 117, 201 Lac Beau Vert, Jasper, 193 local Lady context, 156, 210 Cowdray’s British Women’s Hospital identity, 171 Committee, 167–168 see also parochialism Lamington Nurses’ Hostel, 150 in memorials, 154 Mayoress, Melbourne, 165 London, 2, 111, 118, 182 Lake, Marilyn, 133 Bishop of, 66, 67, 114, 121 Lake Huron, 188 Bridge, 163 landscape, 6, 175, 201, 209 County Council, 114 away from the ravages of war, Edith Cavell monument, 114, 117, 164 120, 121, 128, 177 imperial and colonial, 182 Hospital, 63, 95, 96, 101, 145, 146, pristine, 187 147, 182, 183 recuperative, 163 Metropolitan Asylums Board, 95 and , 197–199 Louvain, 72, 83 wilderness, 191 Lucas, Mrs, 135 see also environment, sublime Luckes, Miss, 95 Lansdowne, Lord, 52 lucky charm, Cavell as, 197 last words, of Cavell, 39–40, 41, 49, Luna Park, St Kilda, 184, 185 121, 122, 143, 190, 205 Lusitania, 67, 72, 76, 83, 84, 123 Laurel Court school, Peterborough, 92, 127 Mace, Rodney, 117 Le Soeur, Father Paul, 39–40, MacKenzie, John, 4, 7, 61, 156, 176, 48, 49 182 Leclercq, J., 123 Mackenzie, Sir Thomas, 160 Leigh Infirmary, Wigan, 140 Mackenzie King, William Lyon, 190 Index 267

Mackinnon, Alison, 91 memorial Maidstone, United Kingdom, 95 cairn, idea for one in Jasper, Malines, France, 15 193–194 Malvern, Sue, 80, 112, 117, 118, 120, cairn and plaque at Cavell School, 121 Cavell, 181 Malvern, Victoria, 133 homes and hospitals, see homes Manchester Guardian, 119 and hospitals named after Mansion House, Bristol, 161 Cavell Manston aerodrome, 196 service, 29 October 1915, St Paul’s Marcus, Jane, 122 Cathedral in London, 112 Margaret St, Sydney, 182 tablet in Toronto, 171 Market Drayton, 162 temple, plans for one in Jasper, 190, Marquet St, Sydney, 183 191 Marquette, 157, 170–172, 210 trees, 72, 191, 192 Martin, M., Director of St Gilles memorials Prison, 198 in Cavell’s footsteps, 126–128 Martin-place, Sydney, 65 meanings of, 201 martyrdom, 32–33, 39, 68, 120, 162, medical, 139–155, 209 185, 199, 207 see also homes and hospitals Cavell seeking it, 90 named after Cavell in children’s literature, 177, Melbourne and Norwich memorials 179 compared, 138 see also virgin martyr Melbourne bust, 133, 134, 165 Maryborough, Victoria, 132 schools, see schools named after statue by Margaret Cavell Baskerville, 133 stone Masterman, Charles, 62 granite, 118, 128, 133 maternal care, 202–203 marble, 114, 118, 127, 141 maternity training, 96 schist, 194 Matin, 125 and , 132 matron, Cavell as, 89, 102, memory, 187, 191, 202 107, 120 Merrit, Mayor and Mrs, 141 Maude, Nurse, 171 Messinger, Gary, 62 May, Sister, 135 methodology employed in the book, Mayer, Otto, 17 7, 17, 86, 207 mayors, 114, 123, 140, 141, metropole and periphery, 148, 175, 193 202, 207 McAuley, A., 198 Meyer, Rev F. B., 67, 89 McBride, Sir Richard, 188 MI5, 22, 35, 36, 53, 54 McCalman, Iain, 137 see also British intelligence McWade, Margaret, 199 Midwell, Sister, 192 Meachin, Sergeant, 22–23 Miller, Charles, 199 media, the, see newspapers; press; mimicry, 128, 166, 207, 209 propaganda of British initiatives around the Meens, Patre, 19 world, 154, 208 Melbourne, 133, 137, 165 see also colonial mimicry Girls’ Grammar mineral resource towns, 185 School, 135 miners and Cavell, 185, 194 Cup day, 197 Minneapolis, 189 268 Index modern Murphy, William S., 67 British womanhood, 120 Mythe Grange, Tewkesbury, 163, 164 nursing as secular, 98, 100 modernist sculpture, 119 naming modernity and cultural imperialism, 175–201 central heating, 149 glacier after Cavell, 194 cigarettes and smoking, 159, 163 homes and hospitals after Cavell, electric hair-drying machines, 149 139–155 flappers, 159 see also homes and hospitals see also independent new women named after Cavell Mons, 24, 29 of mountain, see Mount Edith battle of, 16 Cavell Monton, Miss, 25 of people and animals after Cavell, Montreal, 208 176, 195–197 monuments schools allied, 125–126 after Cavell, 179–181 in Belgium, 122–125 after heroes and heroines of the combination of artistic and British Empire, 180 pragmatic intentions, 141 ships after women, 197 Edith Cavell Monument, Brussels, streets after Cavell, see streets 122–123, 124 Nathan, Governor, 150 Edith Cavell Monument, London, Nation’s Fund for Nurses (NRN), 168 114 National official monuments for Cavell, identity, 139, 177, 208 111–138 Parks, 187, 191 in places where Cavell had lived, Portrait Gallery, 114 126–128, 140–143 War Aims Committee (NWAC), 76 to women, 117 National Council of Women utilitarian, 139, 165–166 Canada (CNCW), 143 Moore of Great Britain and Ireland (NCW), Temple Lushington, 127 121, 143 Thomas, 90 nationalism, 207 Morgan in Canada, Australia and New Cecilia, 5, 8, 177 Zealand, 173 J. H., 89 Cavell as a part of nation and Mormal, Forest of, 24 Empire, 111, 114 Morning Leader, Regina, 45, 65, 66 as a kindred spirit, 207 Morning Post, 63 Neagle, Anna, 136, 199, 200 Mount Nelson, Lord Horatio, 4, 67, 113, 117, Edith Cavell, 58, 128, 175, 182, 118, 120, 176, 182 188–194, 201, 211 monuments for, 67, 208 Geikie, 189 St, London, 183 Sorrow, 190 St, Sydney, 182 mountainous regions commemorating neo-romantic age in sculpture, 119 Cavell, 194 networks mourning, 112, 176 of imperial unity, 160, 161, 205 see also wreaths whereby peripheries copied the multiculturalism, 205 metropolis, 139 Index 269 neutral status Norwich, 68, 92, 111, 113, 149, 179 for America during the Great War, Cathedral, 1, 2, 79, 112, 113, 193 80, 81 Cathedral monument, 127 for the Berkendael Institute, 100 compared with Melbourne bust, see also Dutch neutrality 133, 134 New Guinea Martyrs, 204 District Nursing Association, 149 New South Wales, 137, 166 Norwich Union Magazine, 92 New Statesman, 119 nuns in nursing, 100 ‘new’ women, 143 Nurse Cavell sculptors, 138 Memorial Fund, Norwich, 149 see also independent new women Monument, London, 113 New York Bar, 82 nurses New York Evening Post, 81 aid to, 156–174 New York Herald, 81 allowances, 167 New York Times, 80, 81, 82 from Australasia, 97, 166 New York Tribune, 81, 82 doing duty for Empire, 166, 171 New Zealand, 137, 169–173, 176, 207, hostels, 91, 139 208, 210 see also homes and hospitals Army Nursing Service, 170 named after Cavell Nurses’ Memorial Fund, 170 Memorial Chapel, Christchurch, Trained Nurses’ Association New Zealand, 171–172 (NZTNA), 170 Red Cross, 113 New Zealand Nursing Journal, 173 their presence at Cavell’s funeral, New Zealand School Journal, 177 113 Newfoundland, 185 uniform, 30–31, 102, 120, 177 newspapers, 43–45, 62–66, 69–70, 77, at execution, 48, 49 78, 146 who died on the Marquette, 171 Nicholson, Mrs, 162 nursing Nightingale, Florence, 89, 96, 97, 99, Cavell’s lifetime achievements, 107, 137, 161, 172, 173, 184, 185, 204 186, 193, 204, 210 duty and Christian duty, 179 Cavell as Florence Nightingale, 65, identity of Cavell 89, 211 as humble, 188 comparisons with Cavell, 96, 97, as an inspirational/role model 142, 178, 193, 197, 210 nurse, 49, 86, 97, 140, 151, memorial horse, 197 173, 199 monument, London, 119 as offering impartial care, 46, 56, Nursing Home, Singapore, 210 68, 157, 202 tree memorial, New Zealand, 172 as pure and innocent, 46, 61, 101 Ninth Lancers, 23 as youthful, 32, 65, 89 noble images at her death, 60 British woman, 48, 58, 82, 86–92, profession, 65, 66, 91, 99, 107, 123, 96, 137, 147, 149, 166, 177 154 sacrifice, 65, 68, 125, 132, 141, 175, and Cavell’s memory, 204 187, 203 gaining credibility through Norfolk Endowment Fund, 161 Cavell, 148, 149 North African desert, 171 and independent women, 91 North America, 205 qualities of Cavell, 66 270 Index

Nursing Mirror, 107 Perley, Sir George, 160 Nursing Mirror and Midwives’ Journal, personal/embodied commemorations, 162, 163, 164 176 Nursing Times, 159 personality, of Cavell, 101–107 aloof and lonely, 101 O’Dwyer, Miss, 135 honest, 94 O’Hagan, Jack, 199 humanitarian, 104 old maid, 90, 101 innocent and caring, 68 see also independent new women, lack of sense of humour, 95 spinsters methodical, 23, 26 Osborne, Mr, 135 neat and orderly, 37, 48 Oxley, Mrs H. J., 150 noble, 86 see also noble pacifism selfless, 36, 68 Cavell as a pacifist, 122, 204 Peterborough, 127, 146 pacifist feminism, 122 Cathedral, 127 pacifist voices, 122 Petit, Gabrielle, 123, 198 radical, 122 Petit mots du Soldat, 18, 19 and women’s opposition to war, 6 Phillips, Jock, 185 Padbury, 128 Piaf, Edith, 196 Page, W., American Ambassador in Pickering, Paul, 117 London, 33 pictures of Cavell in people’s homes, Pan Pacific Women’s Movement, 143 197 Pankhurst, Emmeline, 87 Piersoul, Patre, 19 Pansaers, Louis, 30 pilgrimage Paris, 125 to Cavell’s grave, 198 parochialism, 137, 171, 172, 205 to Mount Edith Cavell, 190 Parrott, Sir Edward, 45 see also post-war pilgrims patriarchal warfare, 39, 43, 57, 59, 82, Pinkhoff, detective, 22, 28, 29 121, 201, 202, 203 pioneer of modern nursing in patriarchy, 64, 122, 166, 205 Belgium, 99, 178 patriotic see also protestant nursing duty, 163, 177 techniques martyr, 208 Place organizations, 61, 62, 111, 156, 160 de la Constitution, Brussels, 24 places, 209 Jacques-Cartier, Brussels, 208 patriotism, 19, 29, 61, 63, 75, 95, 113, Rogier, Brussels, 24 118, 121, 122, 129, 181, 211 Rouppe, Brussels, 24 patterns in appearance of memorials, plaques 139–140, 201 Bawdsey Parish Church, 127 peace, 166 and busts at medical sites, 154–155 see also pacifism in Melbourne and Sydney, 128–129 Peace Bonds, 71 St Pancras Infirmary, 140 Peagram, Henry, 113 St Paul’s Cathedral, Melbourne, 129 Pech, Gabriel, 125, 126 Shoreditch Infirmary, 140 Paris monument, 125, 126 Steeple Bumpstead, Essex, 127 people named Swardeston Church, 127 after Edith Cavell, 195–197 Victoria Central Community Edith, 196 Hospital, 141 Index 271

Plunket, Lord, 160 posters, 62, 70, 71–74, 78 poetry, 67, 68, 199 see also anti-German sentiment; Pope, the, 51 hatred Port Huron, 188 Prospect Park, Brooklyn, 191 post-colonial Prospect Road, Penlee, 166 cities, 205 Protestant nursing techniques, 97 era, 205, 208, 211 Cavell as a pioneer of, 99, 154 relationship between colonies and Protheroe, E., 26, 29, 101, 112, 157 metropole, 7, 8, 180 Pye St, Sydney, 182 thinking, 7 see also colonial; imperial; Queen Alexandra, 57, 96, 114, 147, imperialism 150, 158, 160, 161 post-colonialism, see imperial; post- Nursing Service, 135 colonial Queen Elisabeth of Belgium, 123, 158, post-war 198 conservation, 191 Queen Victoria, 95, 117, 136 consumerism, 148 Queen’s District Nurses, Manchester, 96 hope and spirit, 143, 176 Queensbridge Road, London, 179 pilgrims, 113 Queensland, 169, 204 position of women, 111 War Nurses’ Fund (QWNF), 169 postcards, 62, 113, 121 Queensway, Etobicoe, Toronto, 183 Potter, Simon, 63 Quien, Gaston Georges, 55 Powell River, British Columbia, 186 Quinell, Mrs, 165 President Wilson, 83, 84 press Raemaeker, Louis, 80 backing propaganda machine, 77 Randall, Pauline, 103 Bureau, 62, 78 Rattray, Lorna, 171 see also newspapers; propaganda Read, Benedict, 119 Press, Christchurch, 64, 69, 80 recruitment, 64–75 Priddat, Frederik, 189 local efforts, 70 Prince Charles School, Ontario, 181 and military conscription, 60–85 Princess Elizabeth School, Ontario, posters, 70, 73, 74 181 recuperation, see environment; Princess Paola, 144 landscape Private Lewis, 23 Red Cross, 15, 24, 100, 166, 172 private sphere of care and British, 88, 145, 188 nurture, 88 Canadian, 160 Proclamation du Roi Albert, 18 France, 145 Proctor, Tammy, 53, 123 Norwich, 106 propaganda, 60–85, 202, 203, 211 see also nurses and the British Government, 61, 62, Reimer, Len, 181 157 relics, 176, 198 films, 46, 68, 199, 200 see also spiritualism German White Book, 77 religion images, 44, 203 Cavell’s convictions, 40 influencing America’s entry into and patriotism, 113, 179 the war, 83 see also Christianity official and unofficial, 61, 157 repatriation of Cavell’s body, 1–2, plays, 46, 193, 199 87, 113 272 Index

Reserves Act New Zealand, 172 Victorian Trained Nurses’ resistance network, see escape Association (RVTNA), 165 organization Royal Canadian Mounted Police resource towns, 209 (RCMP), 193 retribution for those involved in rue de la Culture, 16, 98, 104 Cavell’s death, 54–55 rustic, 190, 191 Returned Ryder, Roland, 29, 30, 41, 68, 69, 90, Army Nursing Sisters Sub-Branch 127 (New South Wales), 169 Ryle, Bishop Herbert R., 26 Australia, 135, 168 New Zealand, 137, 152 sacrifice, 81 Services Association, (RSA), 152, 168 see also martyrdom Soldier’s League, Bankstown sub- Said, Edward, 7 branch, Sydney, 198 St Albert, Alberta, 193 Reuters, 45, 63, 64 St Clair, F. V., 199 Special War Service, 63 St George Boulvard, Moncton, 181 Rhodes St Gilles Cecil, 183 Hospital, 100 Public School, 183 Prison, 16, 17, 18, 19, 25, 27, 40, 41, Sydney, 183 78, 198 Richardson, Nigel, 177 prison cell of Cavell, 27, 39–40, 198 Ridder, Hermann, 83 Saint Joan (1926), George Bernard River Avon, 163 Shaw, 122 Riverside, Walkerville, 181 St John’s Anglican Cathedral, Robertson, Sir William, 160 Brisbane, 204 Robinson, Captain, 22 St Kilda Rocky Mountains Outer Hebrides, 184 Canada, 188, 194 Road, Melbourne, 133, 136, 185 Colorado, 194 St Leonard’s Hospital (renamed Rogers Shoredith Infirmary), London, Margaret, 171 140 S. Maynard, 190, 191, 192, 193 St Margaret, 204 Rome, 161 St Marie Church, Brussels, 24 Rosano, Maria, 132 St Martin’s Place, London, 114 Ross, Miss E., 161 St Mary and St George, Church of portrait of Cavell, 181 Jasper, 193 Rowlands, Councillor and Mrs D. Roger, St Mary and St Markorious Coptic 142 Orthodox Church, Cavell St, Rowney, Miss Paddy, 198 Sydney, 206 Royal St Mary’s Hospital, Auckland, 137 Academy, London, 161 St Monica, 204 Air Force (RAF), 196 St Pancras Infirmary, London, 96, 140 Brisbane Hospital, 150 St Paul’s British Nurses’ Association, 58 Cathedral, Dunedin, 170 Melbourne Golf Club, 183 Cathedral, London, 112 Melbourne Hospital, 136 memorial service for Cavell, 64 Victoria College of Nursing, 135 Cathedral, Melbourne, 63, 129, 130, Victoria College of Nursing Victoria 133 Nurses’ Association, 167 St Sulpice, France, 55 Index 273 sainthood and Cavell, 1, 2, 157, 197 shoe shop Brussels, 205, 207 saleability of Cavell story, 64, 78, 80 Shoreditch, Mayor of, 140 Salonika, 148 Shoreditch Infirmary (St Leonard’s Samuel, Raphael, 7 Hospital), 96, 101, 140, 179, 183 Sanders, M. L., 62, 63, 75, 78, 82 Shotover River, 194–195 Saturday Review, 119 Schreiner, W. P., 160 scale of monument building, 170 shrines, 176 Schama, Simon, 6 at Birkenhead, 141 school texts and readers, 177 Cavell’s cell, 27, 198 schools named after Cavell, 179–181 Gabrielle Petit’s cell, 198 Bedford, United Kingdom, 180 Mount Edith Cavell, 189 Coblenz (Cavell), Saskatchewan, of the new world, 189 180, 181 Shrine of Remembrance, Hackney, United Kingdom, 179 Melbourne, 136 Moncton, New Brunswick, 180, 181 Simon, Sir John, 53 Norwich, United Kingdom, 179 Singapore, 136, 210 St Catharine’s, Ontario, 135, 180, 181 Slark, Gladys, 191 Vancouver, British Columbia, 180, 181 Slemon, Stephen, 8 Windsor, Ontario, 180, 181 Smith, Harley, 132 Scotsman, 87, 160, 190 snow and purity, 190 Scott, Joan Wallach, 39 soldiers Scott St, Sydney, 182 affinity with Cavell, 74, 85 Scottish avenging Cavell’s death, 65, 85 memorialization of Cavell, 211 numbers killed in the Great War, 202 merchants, 208 wounded soldiers mourning Cavell, Scottishness, 199 112 sea air as curative, 162, 174, 184 solitary confinement, 34 seascapes, 162, 182, 184, 209 sonic boom of feeling, 186 Secord, Laura, 5, 8 Sophia St, Vancouver, 152 Secret War Propaganda Bureau, 77 South Africa, 70, 79, 183, 210 self-sacrifice, 198 South African selflessness, 89, 178, 199 housing developments, 184 Serbia, 118 War, 50 settler South American memorial card, 58 capitalism, 176 South Australia Nurses’ Fund, 169 societies, 8, 176, 187, 208 South Dublin Union, 210 and white identity, 201 South Wales News, 51 Severin, Mr, 24, 25, 28 Southern Alps of New Zealand, Severn River, 163 194–195 Shaw Speck, Catherine, 53, 133 C. G., 136 spies, see espionage family, 166 spinsters, 90, 178 George Bernard, 62, 122 see also old maid Miss, E. M., 135, 167 spirit, of Cavell, 159 Mr, 198 spiritualism, and war memorials, 175 Shelley, James, 172 Staats Zeitung, 83 Shenton Methodist Church, East Stanley Geelong, 196 Arthur, Sir, 35, 145, 160 Sherman, Daniel J., 126 Lady, 165 274 Index

Star, Christchurch, 45, 64 subscriptions to raise funds for Stasiulis, Daiva, 176 monuments, see fund-raising state Sudbury, Ontario, 185 houses, 186 suffragettes, 87, 121 interventions, 209 Summer Hill, Sydney, 129, 166 War Council, 169 summerhill stone, 186 stature of Cavell, 120 Sun, Melbourne, 135, 169 Steeple Bumpstead, Essex, 94, 127 sunset, 190 Stephens, Thomas George and surrogate daughters, 103 Elizabeth Lavinia, 196 surveying and naming, 189 Stoeber, Dr Eduard, 28, 43, 75 Swardeston, 91, 92 Strange, Glyn, 172 church, 94, 113, 127 Strauss, Oscar, 82 vicarage, 113 streets Sydney, 63, 65, 129, 133, 137, 165, named after Cavell, 175, 167, 182, 183, 198, 205, 206, 208 181–186 holiday house, 166 Brussels, Jasper, London, 182 rivalry with Melbourne, 166 Brisbane, Cape Town, Clevedon, Town Hall, 167 London, Melbourne, Sydney Morning Herald, 45, 65 Peterborough, West Montreal, symbolism, of Rugby, Sydney, Toronto, laurel wreath, 127 Winnipeg, 183 lilies, 141 Beaulieu Sur Mer, Biarritz, fleur de lys, 140 Brisbane, Cannes, Havre, roses, 141 Johannesburg, Lisbon, white camellia, 154 Mauritius, Nice, Vitry Sur Seine, 184 tablets, for Cavell Beaudesert, Queensland, Boyland, Leigh Infirmary, Wigan, 140 Queensland, Duncan, British Paris, 125 Columbia, St John’s, Peterborough, 127 Newfoundland, Wanganui, St Paul’s Cathedral, Melbourne, 129, New Zealand, 185 130 Port Stanley, Ontario, Reefton, Toronto, 129, 131, 133 New Zealand, 186 Tagblatt, Berlin, 56 Jasper, 190 Taylor, P. M., 62, 63, 75, 78, 82 Toronto, 205 tea room, Jasper, 191 named Edith, 196 Tellier, Louise, 25 in patriotic places from the Great Temple, Sir Richard, 158 War, 184 Tennyson, Lord, 160 Strickland, Lady Edeline, 166 Terrasse de l’Orangerie in the Jardin Struthers, Mrs W. E., 143 des Tuileries, 125 sublime, 175, 176, 187, 190, 194, Tewkesbury, 163 201, 209 The Years (1937), by Virginia Woolf, 122 and back to nature movement, 188 Theodore, Mrs Edward G., 150 and the Holocaust, 188 Thiemann, Mr, 28 and Mount Edith Cavell, 189 Thirty Fourth Division Memorial, and natural beauty in a play, 199 Mont Noir, 138 and the new world, 187 Thomson, Alistair, 6 Index 275

Thorndike, Sybil, 199 underground railway, 82, 177 Three Guineas (1938), by Virginia Union Jack, 1, 46, 47 Woolf, 122 United States, 76, 148, 175, 177, 181, Thuliez, Louise, 18, 19, 22, 23, 24, 28, 191 29, 54 abolitionists, 82 time of Cavell’s execution, 43, 46, attitude towards joining the war, 33, 118, 177, 199 203 Times, The, 63 and a British world, 5 Times History of the War, The, 32, 34, German Catholic immigrants, 181 41–42, 46, 55, 68, 82, 184 reaction to Cavell’s death, 5 Tir National, 1, 40, 41, 42, 43, 46, 78, women’s clubs, 82 123, 198 see also American Togoland, 148 University Avenue, Toronto, 129 Toronto, 165 , 151 Daily Star, 69, 83 Unknown Warrior General Hospital, 129, 173 New Zealand, 172 Western Hospital, 146, 151–152 , 88, 113, 117, Ladies’ Board, 151 203 Trafalgar untimely death, 86, 97, 202 Battle of, 113 see also martyrdom Day, 67 Upjohn, William, 136 St, Sydney, 182 Urbana, Ohio, 82 Square, 70, 114, 117 utilitarianism in memorials, 139, 143, transcendence, 175, 176, 211 146, 148, 170 transnational continuity and difference, 111, 148, Van Gonbergen, clergyman, 19 150, 151, 169 Van Lint, Abbe, 19 emotions, 145, 175, 176 Van Til, Jacqueline, 31, 102 history, 4, 6, 194, 205, 207, 211 Van Ypersele, Laurence, 123 networks, 139, 164, 178 Vancouver Daily Province, 42, 44, 64, see also networks 79, 80 Travers, Martin, 172 Vanderlinden, Charles, 23 Treaty of Versailles, 112 Vicinus, Martha, 91 trees, as memorials, see memorial trees Victoria Tregea, Edith Cavell, 197 Central Community Hospital Tribune, 81 (formerly Mill Lane Hospital), Trigellis-Smith, Beryl, 136, 137 Merseyside, 141 Tunmore League, 160 Mrs, 23 St, Sydney, 183 Sergeant, 23 Station, London, 163 Turnbull, Fred, 193 Victorian Tyrrell, Alex, 117 Army Nurses, 135 era, 91, 117 U-boat sinkings, 83 Victory Bonds, 72 Uccle, 144, 205 Vilvorde, Belgium, 78 mayor of, M. Paul Errera, 123 virgin martyr, Cavell as, 89, 97, 120, monument to Edith Cavell and 161, 202 Marie Depage, 123, 125 see also martyrdom 276 Index

Vive la Belgique, 41, 123 Western von Bissing, General, 32, 34, 36, 55 Melbourne Hospital, 183 von der Lancken, Governor, 17, 32, Western Toronto Hospital, 152 33, 34, 41, 52, 55 Edith Cavell Nurses’ hostel, von Sauberzweig, Governor, 30, 34, 146 51, 55 Westminster Vossische Zeitung, 50 Abbey, 1, 88, 90, 113, 117 votes for women, 117, 121, 126, 154, Mayor of, 114 204 Wheeler, A. O., 188 White Waimate, New Zealand, 172 Dominions, 111, 137, 140, 173 Wainwright settler societies, 75, 138, 146, 165, Lilian, see Cavell, Lilian 174, 175, 208, 210 Dr Longworth, 33, 41, 92, 102, 104, White, Corporal, 23 160 Whitehall, London, 117 Wales, Lake, 83 Whiteness, 4, 9, 190, 208 Wallonia, 123 Whitlock Wanganui, New Zealand, 185 Brand, 33, 34, 82, 192 War Gillian, 8 bonds, 71, 78 Whittington Hospital Chapel, Charities Act, 1916, 158 Islington, Upper Holloway loan stock, 161 (renamed St Pancras Infirmary), Memorial Window, Great Hall, London, 140 University of Canterbury, 172 Wiheries, 23 Office, 162 Wilcox, Herbert, 199 Pensions Act, Australia, 168 Wilkins Propaganda Bureau at Wellington Frances, 48, 69 House, London, 62 Sister Elisabeth, 16, 17, 21, 26, 37, savings certificates, 78 89, 90, 100, 101, 106, 144 widows, 133 Wilson, Trevor, 57 wards as memorials to Cavell, see Windsor, Ontario, 181 homes and hospitals named Winter, Jay, 6, 187, 189 after Cavell Wirral Archives, 141 Wartime Concerts Committee, Wister, Owen, 83 161 women Wasmes, 23 gendered feminine behaviour, 82, Waterloo Bay, Queensland, 184 149 Way, Miss Florence, 162 in the ‘public sphere’, 117 Weeping Mother Memorial, Brisbane, status in society, 87, 121–122, 202, 133 203 Wellington wrong for men to kill, 64, 84–85, House, London, 62 202 New Zealand, 137 see also equality and difference Point, Brisbane, 184 between the sexes Wells, H. G., 62 women’s West history, 6, 97, 117, 207 Bay, south west England, organizations, 121, 135, 143 162, 184 interwar transnational networks, Norwood, Surrey, 164 164 Index 277 women’s – continued Woolf, Virginia, 122 see also elite women; female Woollacott, Angela, 129 imperialism; networks; patriotic World War II, 17, 26, 48, 49, 99, organizations; transnational 125–126, 132–136, 150, 171, networks 176, 188, 204, 205, 207 Patriotic League, 132 and the commemoration of suffrage, see votes for women women, 133 women and war nurses, 136 contribution to the war effort and wreaths, 127, 135, 136, 198 women’s status in society, 87, Wyle, Florence, 129, 131, 133 149, 203 Wyre, Orkney, 127–128 images of, 202 Heritage Centre, 127 improved status of British women from the war effort, 117 York Pioneer and Historical Society, in the military, 5 190 resuming traditional work, 121, Yorkshire Telegraph, 45 203–204 young adult’s literature, 117–118 women’s place during war, 5, 6, 57, youth hostels, 191 125, 202 Yuval-Davis, Nira, 7, 176 women sculptors, 138 see also Baskerville, Margaret; Wyle, Zelius-Laidlaw, Alice, 58 Florence Zimmermann, Alfred, 50, 52, 55