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Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6” x 9” black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. UMI Bell & Howell Information and Leaming 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Atbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0000 THE RISE, DOMINANCE, AND PASSING OF CHINESE AMERICAN SUPERMARKETS IN NORTHERN CALIFORNIA, 1930S-1970S DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for The Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Alfred Yee, M.A. The Ohio S tate University 1999 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Warren R. Von Tine, Adviser Professor James R. Bartholomew Ai1 / ^ Adviser Professor Joan Cashin History G raduate Program UMI Number; 9941464 Copyright 1999 by Yee, Alfred All rights reserved. UMI Microform 9941464 Copyright 1999, by UMI Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 Copyright by Alfred Yee 1999 ABSTRACT From the 1930s to the 1970s, Chinese American owned grocery stores and supermarkets were dominant competitors in communities throughout Northern California. They were so well established that there were very few residents who did not patronize them or know about them. Ranging from single-store to multi-store operations, they com peted directly with national chain and local independent stores. Nearly all of the supermarkets are no longer in operation or owned by Chinese Americans. A combination of propitious factors brought about their rise and prosperity. Likewise, the materialization of unfavorable conditions overwhelmed the supermarkets, precipitating their decline and insolvency. Chinese Americans entered into the grocery business by two routes. One was the 1920 fortuitous start of an immigrant in Colusa, California and the other was the invitation to Chinese American by Caucasian grocers to operate meat and produce concessions in their combination markets in the mid-1920s. Chinese American began expanding their grocery stores into supermarkets in the 1930s. They could not hove opened their stores without support from a grocery wholesaler willing to sell to them. From postw ar to th e early 1970s, the supermarkets proliferated, taking advantage of the booming population. The Chinese American operators' greatest edge was their cheap labor, allowing them to sell m erchandise a t low cost and to reap huge profits. C h ea p labor w as b ased on traditional Chinese employment practices in which employees were expected to work long hours. This practice was reinforced by the sense of mutual responsibility and ethnic solidarity among employers and employees. But formidable challenges emerged. From the mid-1950s onward the increasingly strong labor unions forced labor expense up. During the 1960s the cost of capitalization and operation of modem stores rose sharply. In the 1970s notional companies dominated new markets. Partnerships hod interpersonal problems, arresting any response to challenges. Furthermore, management was neither capable of managing an increasingly complex operation nor willing to commit the resources to remain competitive. Most owners and partners were ready to retire, but they had a difficult time getting out. Only one company ended their operation while still on the ascension and prosperous. Ill ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project has had its shore of intellectual and emotional vicissitudes. Many times I felt overwhelmed and discouraged but many true friends and colleagues encouraged and prodded me along. I must thank Sandra Chim, Bing Fun Cheng, Rosemary Flemmer, and Kenneth Luk. I wish to thank my adviser. Professor W arren R. Van Tine, for his support, encouragem ent, a n d p a tie n ce which m a d e this dissertation possible. He was truly o 'white knight" during my darkest hours. Other professors who gave me reassurance include Samuel Chu and Yan-shuan Lao. Gratitude for technical service in the history department goes to Joby Abernathy. I am indebted to George Quon Jr. whose knowledge and eagerness facilitated greatly my research by introducing me to his network of associates, all fruitful resources. I am very grateful to Lelond Lee who provided me with invaluable details and nuances with energy and enthusiasm, making the material com e to life. Bill Wong and George Wong were very informative and helpful. It was a pleasure to glean information from George Chon whose insights were provocative. Appreciation must also be extended to Jimmie Lee, Henry Fong, Earl Joe, Joe Tong, Rose Yee, Bill Lew, G ene Yee, and Art Yim, all of whom contributed to the special research. And finally, special thanks to my friend Anna W. Lee who eagerly assisted me with her vigilant search for resources. IV VITA 9 April 1951 Bom - Sacramento, California 1973 B.S. R enew able Natural Resources, University of Californio, Davis 1990 B.A. Humanities, California State University, Sacram ento 1993 M.A. History/Humanities, Californio State University, Sacram ento 1992 Production Researcher at KVIE Channel 6, public television station in Sacramento, California 1993/1994 Assistant Director of the Notional Endowment of the Humanities Summer Institute for East Asian Humanities, CSUS 1997-1998 Lecturer of Asian History an d Chinese Civilization, California State University, Sacram ento 1998-1999 Researcher a n d Writer of the Educational Guide for California /ksion Pacific American Experience, Visual Communications, Los Angeles, California PUBLICATION Alfred Yee, “What Happened to Chino Slough?' Golden Notes Vol. 40, No. 2, Summer 1994. FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: East Asian History Minor Field: A aan American History Immigration History Modem Chinese Literature TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..........................................................................................................................iv VITA..........................................................................................................................................................V CHAPTERS 1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................... 1 2 SUPERMARKETS..............................................................................................................................18 3 CHINESE AMERICAN COMMUNITY, EMPLOYMENT, AND BUSINESS...................................41 4 BEGINNINGS................................................................................................................................. 60 5 GOLDEN TIMES............................................................................................................................. 86 6 DECLINE AND PASSING ..............................................................................................................120 7 EMPLOYEES .................................................................................................................................. 147 8 LABOR UNIONS............................................................................................................................166 9 STUDIES IN CHINESE MANAGEMENT.........................................................................................188 10 CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................................200 BIBUOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................................235 VI CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Emerging during the 1930s and securing a competitive market share for about the next five decades, Chinese American supermarkets were dominant operations in the retail food business in small, medium, and large cities throughout Northern California. Until recently, they were so well established that there were very few Northern California residents who did not, at one time, shop in one of them or know about them. These supermarkets were located in nearly every community and were able to com pete directly with national chains as wells as local competitors and prosper. These