JournalofEnvironmentalPsychologyŽ1998. 18,399᎐408 0272-4944r98r040399q10$30.00r0 ᮊ1998AcademicPress ArticleNo.ps980112
EFFECTSOFFLOTATIONRESTONCREATIVEPROBLEMSOLVING ANDORIGINALITY
TORSTENNORLANDER,1 HENRIKBERGMAN1 ANDTREVORARCHER2 1 DepartmentofPsychology,KarlstadUniversity,65188Karlstad,Sweden; 2 Gotebor¨ gUniversity,Sweden
Abstract
Thepurposeofthepresentstudywastoexplorewhetherornotflotationrestrictedenvironmentalstimula- tiontechniqueŽREST. facilitatesthecreativeproblem-solvingabilityandoriginality.Sample1consistedof 40subjects,20menand20women,randomlyassignedinequalnumberstoeitheranonRESTgroup Žarmchair-sitting. ortoafloatingRESTgroup.Bothgroupsworkedona‘chainpuzzle’for5minandwere theninterruptedwith45minofsittingorfloating.Thesubjectswerethengiventhetaskofcontinuingwith thecreativeproblem-solvingtest.Sample2consistedof54subjects,27menand27women,randomly assignedinequalnumberstoeitheranonRESTgroupŽ.armchair-sitting,adryRESTgrou pŽ lyingonacouch inadarkroom. oraflotationRESTgroup.Thegroupsthenhadtofillinacoupleofpaper-and-pentestsand weregivenscoresonfluency,obviousanswers,originalanswers,eleganceanddeductivethinking.The resultsŽimpaire dcreativeproblem-solvingabilityandhigheroriginalityforthefloatinggroup. were interpretedasanindicationofcognitivefunctionwheretheprimaryprocessstilldominatesoverthe secondaryprocess. ᮊ1999AcademicPress
Introduction al.,1991. offersupportforthepremisethatflota- tion᎐isolationmayreinforceaspectsof‘imagery’, Thepurposeofthisinvestigationistoapplythe possiblyaprerequisitetothecreativeprocess. flotation᎐isolationtechnique,aformofsensory FlotationRESThasbeenshowntoaffectcreative deprivation,or,asexpressedbythemorerecent performance.Forinstance,Suedfeldetal.Ž.1987 concept,‘restrictedenvironmentalstimulation andForgaysandForgaysŽ.1992aretwostudies Ž. technique’REST.Earlierexperimentsconducted directlydedicatedtocreativity.Unfortunately,both Ž withRESToftenreportednegativeeffectsZubeck, thesestudiessufferfromconcomitantmethodologi- 1973. suchasproblemswithlogicalthinking,con- calproblems,asdescribedbytheauthors.Concern- centrationproblems,higherlevelsofanxietyand ingthestudyofSuedfeldetal.Ž.1987,therewere evenhallucinations.Subsequentresearchhas onlysevensubjects,includingtwooftheauthorsof demonstratedthatpositiveeffectsmayalsooccur, thereport.Theself-reportresult,however,indicated suchasimprovedrelaxationŽ.Jacobsetal.,1984, lessanxietyŽ.Fine&Turner,1982,increasedrecep- thatsubjectsexperienced‘better’newideas tivitytoinformationŽ.Aquino,1982,painreduction directlyfollowingfloatingratherthansimplyafter ŽTurner&Fine,1984.,heartratereductionŽJacobs sittingintheiroffices.ForgaysandForgaysŽ.1992 etal.,1984. andmusculartensionreduction lost25percentoftheirsubjectpopulationduetoa Ž.Stanley&Francis,1984.Correspondingnegative proceduralprobleminconnectionwithdatacollec- andpositiveeffectsarereportedforthefloating tion.Thisproportionof‘missingdata’isdisconcert- formofREST Že.g.Best&Suedfeld,1982; inglylargeinviewofthesmall,thoughsignificant, Hutchison,1984;Forgays&Belinson,1986; differencesobtainedŽi.e.thefloatinggroupsuc- Suedfeldetal.,1987;Suedfeld&Bruno,1990.. ceededbetterthanthecontrolgroup. withadiver- SeveralstudiesŽe.g.Lee&Hewitt,1987;McAleney genttestthatmeasuredfluency.Anotherproblem etal.,1990;Suedfeld&Bruno,1990;Wagamanet withthelatterstudypertainstothefactthatthe 400 T.Norlanderetal. authorsallowedtheirsubjectsto,amongstother Thepurposeofthepresentstudyistoexplore things,workwithadifficultconvergentproblem,a whetherornotflotationRESTfacilitatesthecre- so-called‘brain-teaser’,duringtheongoingisola- ativeproblem-solvingabilityandoriginality.The tion.Theriskwiththisprocedureisthatthese expectedabilityofthisproceduretoweakenthe subjects,duetothismentalactivity,werepreoccu- secondaryprocesstherebyallowingtheprimary piedwithlargelyirrelevant‘analytical’stimuli, processtoremainundisturbedshouldproducea therebybeingretainedwithinthesecondary similarresulttothatobservedundertheinfluence process.Thissituationpresupposesaradically ofalcohol,i.e.thecreativeproblem-solvingability differentexperimentalset-uptothatordinarily Ž.mainlysecondaryprocess-orientedshoulddeterio- consideredduringflotationREST. ratewhereasoriginalityŽmainlyprimaryprocess- Thecapacityofalcoholintaketoalterthebalance oriented. shouldbereinforced.Further,asacontrol betweentheprimaryandsecondaryprocesses factor,theLogicalDeductiveTestŽsecondarypro- Ž.Norlander,1997mayresultinbothpositiveand cess-orientation. shouldalsodeterioratewithflota- negativeeffectsforthecreativeprocess,asfor tion.The‘cheapnecklaceproblem’ŽSilveira,1971; exampleheightenedoriginalityduringintoxication Best,1995. wasappliedasameasureofcreative Ž.Hajcak,1976;Norlander&Gustafson,1998or problem-solvingability.Thetypeofcreativitythat directlyafterintoxicationŽNorlander&Gustafson, differentversionsof‘chainpuzzles’Žwheretheidea 1996.Ž, improved restitution Gustafson & istocutandweldaminimumnumberoflinksin Norlander,1995.,decreaseddeductiveability ordertocreatedifferentpatterns. measureisusu- Ž.Gustafson&Norlander,1994,lesspersistentef- allydefinedas‘adaptiveflexibility’Ž.Guilford,1967. fortŽ.Gustafson&Norlander,1994,adeterioration Suchtestsinvolvealargeamountof‘trialand inflexibilityŽ.Norlander&Gustafson,1998and, error’:‘Failinginoneattempt,Emustrevisehis thereby,adeteriorationinproblem-solvingability tacticsandattemptanotherapproach.Ifheistoo firmlysetononeapproach,heishandicappedin Ž.Hajcak,1976.Further,adecreaseinhandicraft- doingthetest’Ž.Guilford,1967,p 152 Inorderto efficiencyhasbeenobserved ŽNorlander& . . solveachainpuzzle,alargeproportionoflogical Gustafson,1997..Oneinterestingquestioninthis thoughtisrequired;thiswouldnotbesufficientif contextwouldthenbewhetherornotthereexists onelackedtheabilitytoviewtheproblemfroman othermoresuitabletechniques,ratherthanalcohol alternativeperspective,i.e.an‘intuitiveleap’ use,inordertoinducethe‘shiftsofbalance’,or Ž.Guilford,1967.Thus,differentversionsofchain othercombinations,betweentheprimaryandsec- puzzlecreativeproblem-solvingtestsofferdifferent ondaryprocesses.Theseprocessesmaybedescribed estimationsregardingthedimensionsofability.As asfollows:theprimaryprocessinvolvesautistic, ameasureoforiginality,atechniqueinvolvingthe free-associativeandanalogicalthinking,referring production,byeachsubject,ofasmanyassociations tofantasy,reverieand‘day-dreaming’,whereasthe pertainingtovariousseriesofeventswasassigned. secondary process involves the abstract, Originalityisdefinedasthe‘abilitytoproduce reality-orientedthoughtofdailyconsciousness responsesthatarestatisticallyrareinthepopula- Ž. Martindale&Dailey,1996.Severalestablished tion’Ž.Guilford,1967,p.154.Asacontrolcondition, techniquesforinducing‘shifts’ŽLarsson,1987a; adeductivetest,derivedfromHolmquistŽ.1974, Larsson&Starrin,1988;Setterlind,1990. are wasappliedasameasureoflogical-deductive available:hypnosis,neuromuscularrelaxation,au- thought. togenictraining,meditation,biofeedback-training, etc.Anothereffectivetechnique,giventheright circumstances,hasbeenfoundtobelong-distance Method runningrjogging Ž.Larsson,1987b.Oneproblem withthedifferentformsofrelaxationexercisesre- Experiment1 mainsthecomplicationthatthoseindividualsmost inneedofthistraininghavethemostseriousprob- Subjects.FortysubjectsŽ.20menand20women lemsinrelaxing.Consequently,theseindividuals wererecruitedattheUniversityofOrebro¨ .The haveproblemsinitiatingandrormaintainingthe meanagewas22..03yearsŽS.D.s323years,range exercisesŽ.Maslach,1988.The‘floating-technique’ s19to31.,andallwereSwedishborn.Subjects mayhavepotentialasasuccessfulapplicationsince wererandomlyassignedinequalnumbersŽ10men itisclaimedtoproduceanimmediateanddeep and10women.toeither‘nonREST’Žgroup1.orto relaxation. ‘flotationREST’Ž.group2.There werenoŽANOVA. FloatingandCreativity 401 significantdifferences Ž.p)0.1 betweengroups wereconvertedtostaninescoresusinganormtable withregardtoage,weightorrestingpulseŽtaken Ž.Holmquist,1986createdfromindustrialemploy- athomebythesubjectsthemselves,bothinsitting ees.Thisgaveanopportunitytocomparethe34 andlyingdownpositions..Therewerenosignifi- subjectswithalargerpopulationŽ Ms5.15;S.D.s cantdifferencesŽ.Mann-WhitneyUTestbetween 1.16..Atwo-wayANOVAshowednosignificant groupswithregardtocivilstatus,consumptionof differencesbetweengroups wFŽ.1,30s0.58,ps alcohol,breakfastandluncheonhabits,amount 0.45xorbetweensexeswFŽ.1,30s3.56 ,ps0.07x. oftraining,healthstatus,culturalbackground,use Therewasnointeractionbetweengroupsandsexes oftobacco,interestinsportsorlevelofeducation wFŽ.1,30s0..03 ,ps087x. Ž.p)0.07.Therewas,however,asignificantdiffer- enceŽ.Mann-WhitneyUTestbetweengroupswith Instruments. Ž.1A floatingtankŽPantareiFlytex- regardtotheirbackgroundgrowingupconditions perten,Stockholm. measuring2400mm=1260 Ž.p-0.01;subjectsinthecontrolgrouphadamore mm=950mmwasused.Waterdepthvaried provincialbackgroundcomparedtothefloating between200᎐300mmduetoevaporation,andthe group. volumeofwaterwas1cubicmeter.Thefloating tankwasinsulatedontheinsidesoastomaintain Design.ThecontrolgroupŽ.group1workedona aconstanttemperatureandtoisolatethesubject creativeproblemfor5minandthenreclinedinan fromsoundandsight.Thewatertemperaturewas armchairfor45minduringwhichtimetheywere maintainedat34.2ЊC.AmbientŽ.airtemperature allowedtoreadmagazineswhichwerelaidoutfor wasthesameasthewatertemperaturetomini- themŽ.sitting.Finallytheywereallowedtocon- mizesensesensation.Thewaterwassaturated tinueworkingonthecreativeproblemeitheruntil withmagnesiumsulfateinordertomaintainasalt theyhadsolvedtheproblemoruntil30minŽ5min concentrationof1.3grcm3. beforesittingand25minaftersitting. hadpassed. Ž.2 Apulse-measuringinstrumentŽpolarSport Subjectsinthecontrolgrouphada‘pre-sitting’ tester. wasusedthroughouttheentiredurationof withthepulse-measuringinstrumentabout1week theexperimenttomeasuresubjects’heartrate.It beforethedesignatedtimefortheexperiment.No consistedofanelectrodebeltfastenedoverthe psychologicaltestingwasconductedatthispoint. chestbyawiderubberbandandfunctionedasa ThefloatinggroupŽ.group2workedonthesame radio-transmitter.Thereceiverwasaclockwhich creativeproblemasthecontrolgroupbutafter5 receivedandstoredtheinformation.Boththe minreceiveda45minfloatingsession.Thenthey receiverandthetransmitterwerewatertighttoa wereallowedtocontinuethecreativeproblem- depthof1atmosphere.Toreducedisturbance solvingŽ.chainpuzzleeitheruntilatotalof30min betweenthereceiverandthetransmitterin Ž.5minbeforefloatingand25minafterfloating thesaltwater,thereceiverwasfastenedtothe hadpassedoruntiltheyhadcompletedthetask.To electrodebelt.Theinformationstoredinthe allowthesubjectstobecomeaccustomedtothe clockrreceiverwasthenenteredintoaPCcom- floatingsituationandthepulse-measuringinstru- puter.Thesubjects’pulsewasregisteredevery60s. ment,eachwascalledupontotakeafloating Ž.3F SᎏchangeandstabilityŽHolmquist ,1986.. sessionabout1weekbeforethedesignatedtime Atestmeasuringattitudetochangeandstability, fortheexperiment.Nopsychologicaltestingwas andwhichcorrelatesstronglywithseveralcreativ- conductedatthispoint. itytests,wasadministeredtoallsubjectsat Subjectswhomanagedtosolvethecreativeprob- thebeginningoftheexperiment,i.e.beforethe lembeforesitting-timeorfloating-timeŽfivemen, manipulation. onewoman. wereconsequentlyremovedfromthe Ž.4Silveira’ s‘cheapnecklaceproblem’ŽSilveira, experiment,havingsolvedtheproblembeforethe 1971;Best,1995. wasadministeredtotestcreative experimentalmanipulation.Forgroup1Žthenon- problem-solvingability.Fromfoursmallchainswith RESTgroup. thiscausedalossoftwosubjectsand threelinksineachchain,thesubjectisrequired,by fromgroup2Ž.thefloatinggroupfoursubjects.For openingandclosingthelinks,tobuildacircleof thestatisticalanalysistherethereforeremaineda chainswhichcostsnomorethan15crowns.To totalof34subjects,18subjectsinthecontrolgroup openalinkcosts2crownsandtoclosealinkcosts Ž.eightmenandtenwomenand16inthefloating 3crowns.Inordertohelpthesubjectstofurther groupŽ.sevenmenandninewomen.Apersonality visualizetheproblem,theyhadthepossibilityof testmeasuringcreativeattitudeFSŽHolmquist, borrowingaboxcontaining1crowncoins.Thesub- 1986. wasadministeredtoallsubjects.Testresults jectshadtwoseparateopportunitiestoworkonthe 402 T.Norlanderetal. problem.Atthefirstopportunitytheywereallowed taskofcontinuingwithSilveira’scheapnecklace toworkfor5minonly,afterwhichthesubjectwas problem.Thetimetosolvetheproblemwasnoted. interrupted.Atthesecondopportunitythesubjects Ifthesubjecthadnotsolvedtheproblemwithin25 wereallowedtowork,ifneeded,for25min, minŽ.afterthebreaktheexperimentwastermi- attheconclusionofwhichtheexperimentwas nated.Amanipulationcheckaftercompletionofthe terminated. experimentwasconductedtocontrolwhetheror notthesubjecthadconsciouslythoughtaboutthe Procedure. Directlyonarrival,subjectswere experimentwhilesittingorfloating.Subjectswere informedthattheycouldterminatetheexperiment askediftheyhadconsideredtheproblemand,ifso, atanytime,foranyreason.Thereafter,thesubjects howmanytimes,andtheanswerwaswrittendown. wereinstructedtoputonthepulse-measuring instrument.Subjectsbelongingtothefloatinggroup Experiment2 wereinstructedtochangeintotheirswimmingcos- Ž tumesandabathrobebeforetheexperimentwas Subjects.Fifty-foursubjects 27menand27 . ¨ started.Then,thesubjectswereinformedofthe womenwererecruitedattheUniversityofOrebro. ..Ž s proceedingsforthenext100min,i.e.first,they Themeanagewas2324yearsS.D. 350years, s . wererequiredtosolveaproblemfor5min,thensit range 19to33,andallwereSwedishborn.Sub- for45minŽ.nonRESTgrouporfloatfor45min jectswererandomlyassignedinequalnumbers Ž. Ž.flotationRESTgroup,andfinallytosolvea ninemenandninewomentoeithera‘nonREST’ Ž. Ž. furtherproblemwithinashorttimeperiod. groupgroup1,a‘dryREST’groupgroup2anda Ž. Theinstructionswerethengivenforthecheap ‘flotationREST’groupgroup3.Therewerenosig- Ž. necklaceproblemasfollows:‘Infrontofyouare nificantdifferences one-wayANOVA between groupswithregardtoage,heightorweight Ž p) foursmallchainseachconsistingofthreelinks.It . . costs2crownstoopenalinkand3crownstoclose 018,buttherewasasignificantgroupdifference withregardtohowmanyacademictermsthesub- alink.Allthelinksareclosedatthebeginningof jectshadattendedattheuniversitywFŽ.2,53s6.62, thetest.Yourtaskistoconnectall12linksintoone - . x Ž. continuouscircle,orifyousowishintoanecklace, p 001.AposthoctestScheffe’´ sshowedthat group3Ž.Ms4..61,S D s212differedfromboth atatotalpriceofnomorethan15crowns.Ifyou . . group2ŽMs2..22,S D s265.andgroup1ŽMs thinkitmayhelp,youmaydeductandaddcoins . . 2..17,S.D.s209..Therewerenosignificantdiffer- fromtheboxwhileyouworkwiththetask.’ encesŽ.Kruskal-Wallisbetweengroupswithregard After5min,thesubjectswereinterruptedfrom toconsumptionofalcohol,breakfastandluncheon theproblem-solvingtask.Subjectsbelongingtothe habits,amountoftraining,healthstatus,cultural nonRESTgroupwereinstructedtositinanarm- background,growingupconditions,useoftobacco, chairandreadthemagazineslaidoutorany interestinsportsoreducationŽ.p)0.26,butthere literaturetheymayhavebroughtwiththem,fora wasasignificantdifferencewithregardtocivil durationof45min.Subjectsbelongingtotheflota- statusŽ.ps0..02wheregrou p3Žmeanran ks205. tionRESTgroupwereinstructedtovisitthebath- differedfromgroup2Ž.meanranks31andgroup1 roomandthentakeashower.Furthermore,they Ž.meanranks31.Group3consistedofmoresin- wereinstructedtothoroughlydrytheirfacessoas glescomparedtotheothertwogroups.Atestwas toavoidirritatingdropletsofwaterthatmight administeredtoallsubjectstoprovidemoreback- disturbtheirrelaxationinthetank.Toavoidthe groundinformation.Thetestmeasuredprevailing possibilitythatthesubjectsmaybethinkingabout attitudetocreativitywithrespecttochangeand thecreativeproblem-solvingassignmentwhile stability,namelytheFSŽ.changeandstabilitytest floating,theyweregivenrelaxationinstructions Ž.Holmquist,1986.Atwo-wayANOVAindicatedno accordingtoBensonŽ.Benson,1975p.159᎐163. differencesbetweengroupsŽ.ps0.51andnodiffer- Thesubjectwastheninformedofhowtoremove encesbetweensexes Ž.ps0.42.TheFSscoring thecoverandhowtoclimbinandoutofthetank. resultsweretransformedintostaninefollowinga Soasnottobedisturbedbythewaterandto normfromindustrialemployees,bothworkersand furthereliminatesounds,waxplugswereinserted officialsŽ.Holmquist,1986,therebymakingpossible intothesubjects’ears.Thereafter,thesubject acomparisontoabroaderpopulation Ž Ms4.7, enteredthetank. S.D.s1.59.. After45minsittingŽ.inthearmchairorfloating Ž.inthetanksubjectswereallowedtoleavethe Design. TheflotationRESTgroup Ž.group3 armchairortank,respectively,andweregiventhe receiveda45minfloatingsession,afterwhich FloatingandCreativity 403 theywereinstructedtoconcludethreepsychologi- events,allwithsomeconnectiontotheNordicsitu- calpaper-and-pentests.Toaccustomthesubjects ationŽe.g.‘Whatwouldhappeniftheresuddenly tothefloatingsituationtheywereinstructedto wasanewiceageinNorthEurope?’..Timewas partakeoffourfloatingsessionsbeforethe limitedto2minperitem,givingatotalof12 designatedtimefortheexperiment. min.Thefluencyscorewasobtainedthrougha ThedryRESTgroupŽ.group2receivedexactly simplesummationofalltheresponses,excluding thesametreatmentasgroup3beforeandduring alliterations.ApanelofjudgesŽconsistingoftwo theexperiment,butinsteadoffloatingtheyspent highschoolteachers. wasformedtoassessre- 45minrestingonacouchinalight-andsound- sponsesasbeingeitherobviousororiginalonthe proofedchamber.ThenonRESTgroupŽ.group1 basisofquality.Inaddition,eachjudgewas receivedexactlythesametreatmentasgroup3 requiredtodeterminefromtheresponsesofeach beforeandduringtheexperiment,butinsteadof subjectthatwhichwasconsideredmostelegant floatingtheysatinanarmchairfor45minand andtoadjudgethisonaten-pointscale.Inthe wereallowedtoreadmagazineswhichwerelaid eventofalackofanyresponsebeingconsidered outforthemŽ.sitting. elegant,thesubjectwasassignednopoints.‘Obvi- ous’wasdefinedasahighfrequencyresponse, Instruments. Ž.1 A floating tank ŽPantarei ‘original’asarareresponseinlargepopulations Flytexperten, Stockholm. with measurements and‘elegance’as‘anobjectrenterpriseachievesele- 2400=1260=950mmwasused.Waterdepth gancewhentwoormoreapparentlyopposingcom- variedbetween200᎐300mmaccordingtoevapora- ponentsarecombinedtooneharmoniousunit.The tion,andthevolumeofwaterwas1cubicmeter. greatertheinitialoppositionbetweenthecompo- Thefloatingtankwasinsulatedontheinsidesoas nentsinvolvedthemoreelegantthesolutionor tomaintainaconstanttemperatureandtoisolate ‘end-point’isexperienced’Ž.Norlander,1997,p.9. thesubjectfromsoundandsightŽ.seeabove.Water andairtemperatureweremaintainedat34.2ЊC,as Procedure.Directlyonarrivalatthelaboratory forexperiment1.Magnesiumsulfatesaturation thesubjectwasinformedthattheycouldterminate wasmaintainedataconcentrationof1.3grcm3,as theexperimentatanytime,foranyreason.Ifthe above. subjectbelongedtothefloatinggroupsrhewas Ž.2Th eFSchangeandstabilitytestŽHolmquist, instructedtochangeintoherrhisswimmingcos- 1986. usedtomeasureattitudetochangeandsta- tumeandabathrobebeforetheexperimentwas bility,andcorrelatesstronglywithseveralcreativ- itytests,wasadministeredtoallsubjectsatthe started.ThesubjectthencompletedtheFStestand beginningoftheexperiment,i.e.beforetheflotation filledoutaquestionnaireabouttheirback- manipulation. ground.IfthesubjectbelongedtothenonREST r Ž.3Th eSyllogismsItestŽHolmquist ,1974.mea- groups hewasinstructedtositinanarmchair sureslogicalanddeductivethinkingability.Itcon- andreadthemagazineslaidout,oranyliterature sistsof21itemsdemandingaquantitativetypeof theyhadbroughtwiththem,foradurationof45 deductionreasoningŽe.g.TomistallerthanJohn. min.IfthesubjectbelongedtothedryRESTgroup r JohnissmallerthanBill.IsJohntallerthanTom?. s hewasgivenrelaxationinstructionsaccordingto ᎐ Timewaslimitedto5.5minandthenumberof BensonŽ.1975p.159 163andtheinstructionto correctanswerswereregistered. practisetheseexerciseswhilerelaxingonthepal- Ž.4 TheFREGOtest ŽHolmquist ,1973. isa let.Eachsubjectwasgivenwaxearplugstoplace questionnairewhichhasbeenconstructedfor inherrhisears.Afterthis,thedoorwasclosedand measuringthevariable‘preconsciousactivity’.Itis thesubjectleftaloneinthedarkenedchamber. atranslationfromtheNorthAmericanPrecon- Finally,ifthesubjectbelongedtotheflotationREST sciousActivityScaleŽ.Holland&Barid,1968.The groupsrhewasinstructedtovisitthebathroom reasoningbehindthetestisthathigh‘preconsci- andthentakeashower.Furthermoresrhewas ous’activitystimulatesnewandunusualassocia- instructedtothoroughlydryherrhisfacesoasto tions.TheFREGOtestconsistedof36itemsto avoidirritatingdropletsofwaterthatmighthave whichthesubjectassigned‘yes’or‘no’answersto disturbedrelaxationinthetank.Thereafterthe statementsŽe.g.Iwouldratherbeapoliticianthan subjectwasgivenrelaxationinstructionsaccording ascientist.. toBensonŽ.1975p.159᎐163andtheinstructionto Ž.5Finally,eachsubjectwasaskedtoproduceas practisetheseexercisesduringfloating.Soasnotto manyconsequencesaspossibletosixdramatic bedisturbedbythewaterandtofurthereliminate 404 T.Norlanderetal.
TABLE1 theeightcatagoriesasdependentvariablesand Meansandstandarddeviations(S.D.) oftesttime groupandsexastheindependentvariablesshowed forgroup(nonREST,floatin g)(andgendermen,women) conditions nosignificantdifferencesfortheeightcategories withregardtogroup Žp)0..09.,sex Žps05.,or Group1NonREST Group2Floating theinteractionbetweengroupsorsex Ž.ps0.78. Men Women Men Women Therewasasignificantdifference ŽWilcoxon . Testtime Matched-Pairs between the pulse while sittingrfloatingandthepulsewhentheproblem Mean 20....26 2160 2993 2485 hadbeenresumed Ž.ps0.02.Furtheranalysis S.D. 10....69 1026 019 753 Ž.WilcoxonMatched-Pairsshowednodifferencefor group1 Ž.ps0.81,buttherewasadifferencefor sounds,waxplugswereinsertedintothesubject’s group2 Ž.p-0.01.Thepulsemeanforgroup1 ears.Thesubjectthenenteredthetank. duringsittingwas67..79Ž.S.D.s881andforgroup After45minofnonREST,dryRESTorflotation 2duringfloatingwas66..44Ž.S.D.s1026.Thepulse REST,thesubjecthadtocompletetheFREGOand meanduringtheresumedworkingroup1was SyllogismsItestsandthesix-itemdramaticevents 69..34Ž.S.D.s944andin group2itwas73.68 test.Theorderofthesetestswasrandomized. ŽS.D.s9.44. . CorrelationanalysisŽ.Pearson’srshowedaneg- ativecorrelation Ž.rsy0..50,ps0008 between Results testtimeandthesubjects’standarddeviationfor meanpulserateduringtheresumedworkonthe Firstsample problem,indicatingthatthelesstimeused,the Testtime.Atwo-wayANOVAshowedasignifi- higherthestandarddeviation.Furtheranalysis cantdifferencebetweengroupswFŽ.1,30s4.75,p Ž.Pearson’srshowedastrongernegativecorrela- s0.04x,withthefloatinggroupusingmoreofthe tionbetweentesttimeandthestandarddeviation availabletesttimeŽ.Ms27..07,S.D.s608thanthe forthemeanpulserateduringworkingroup1 sy ..s controlgroupŽ.Ms21..00,S.D.s1016.Therewere Ž.r 072,p 0005,butnosignificantcorrela- nodifferencesbetweensexesŽ.p)0.53,neitherwas tionforgroup2Ž.rsy0..38,ps033. s thereanyinteractionbetweengroupandsexŽ p Manipulationcontrol.Subjectswereinstructedto . 028,formeansandstandarddeviations,see reporthowoftenduringfloatingrsittingtheyhad . Table1. consciouslythoughtaboutthenecklaceproblem.Of Hitsandmisses.Thenumberofcorrectreported thesubjectsinthecontrolgrouptenreportedthat solutionswithinthegiventesttimeŽ.hitswasnoted, theyhadnotthoughtabouttheproblemwhatso- aswellasthenumberofincorrectsolutionsŽmis- ever,whileeightreportedhavingoncethought ses..Resultsshowedthatgroup1Žcontrolgroup., abouttheproblem.Ofthesubjectsinthefloating hadninehitsandninemisses.Group2Žfloating group,sixreportednothavingthoughtaboutthe group. had6hitsand10misses.AMann-Whitney problem,whiletenreportedhavingoncethought UTestshowednosignificantdifferencesbetween abouttheproblem.AMann-WhitneyUTestshowed groupsŽ.ps0..47orbetwee nsexesŽ.ps047. nodifferencesbetweengroupsŽ.p)0.29regarding theamountofconsciousthoughtontheproblem Pulsemeasurements.Duringtheentireexperi- duringfloatingrsitting. mentpulseswereregisteredfromsubjectsbothin thecontrolandfloatinggroups.Tosimplifyfurther Secondsample statisticalanalysistheregisteredpulsevalueswere reducedtothefollowingeightcategories:Ž1.᎐Ž.4 Interjudgereliabilities.Withregardtofluency, meanpulserate,standarddeviationforpulserate obvious,originalandelegance,thecorrelation values,highestpulseratevalue,andlowestpulse statisticsŽ.Pearsons’rshowedsignifican tŽp-0.05. ratevalue,respectively,forŽ.1sittingandfloating, valuesbetweenthescoresgivenbythetwojudges: Ž.2 duringsittingandfloating, Ž.3 during fluencyŽrs0..99,p-001.,obviou sŽrs0.85,p- sittingrfloating,Ž.4duringsittingrespectivefloat- 0.01.Ž,original rs0.40,p -0.01.,elegance Žrs ing,Ž5.᎐Ž.8meanpulserate,standarddeviationfor 0..57,p-001..Withthisbackgroundanalysisit themeanpulserate,highestpulseratevalue,and wasdeterminedasmeaningfultosummatethe lowestpulseratevaluewhenthecheapnecklace judgesscoringonthefourvariablesforfurther problemwasresumed.AMANOVAŽ.Pillaiswith statisticalanalysis. FloatingandCreativity 405
Dependentvariables.APillais’MANOVAŽ3=2 8..53,S.D.s348. hadhigherscoresonoriginality factorialdesign. wasperformedwithgroupandsex comparedtogroup1Ž.Ms5..64,S.D.s298butnot asindependentvariablesandthescoresfromthe togroup2ŽMs7..33,S.D.s257..Ž4.Elegance.Uni- FREGOandSyllogismsIteststogetherwiththe variateF-testsshowednosignificantdifference averagedscoresfromthetwojudgeson‘fluency’, betweengroups Ž.ps0.48andnodifferencewith ‘obvious’‘original’and‘elegance’asdependentvari- regardtosex Žps0.70..Ž5.FREGO.Univariate ables.Theanalysisshowednointeractionbetween F-testsshowednosignificantdifferencebetween groupandsex Ž.ps0.5andnosignificantdiffer- groupsŽ.ps0.92andnodifferencewithregardto encewithregardtosex Ž.ps0.61,buttherewas sexŽps0.84..Ž6.SyllogismsI.UnivariateF-tests asignificantgroupdifference Ž.ps0.04.An showednosignificantdifferencebetweengroups ANCOVAcontrollingforthedifferencesinthe wFŽ.2,48s2..43 ,ps009x andnodifferencewith numberoftermsthesubjectshadattendedatthe regardtosexŽ.ps0.86.Eventhoughtherewasno universityyieldednoothersignificantindications. significantgroupdifference,aslighttendency Describedbelowaretheresultsforeachdependent towardsatrendcouldbeobserved:group1Ž Ms variablefromtheunivariateF-testswithregardto 14..67,S.D.s560.Ž,group 2Ms13,S .D.s4.86.and groupandsexŽtherewasnointeractioneffectbe- group3Ž.Ms11,S.D.s4.43. tweengroupandsex,formeansandstandarddevi- ations,seeTable2.Ž..1Fluency.UnivariateF-tests showednosignificantdifferencebetweengroups Ž.ps0.63andnodifferencewithregardtosex Žps0.86..Ž2.Obvious.UnivariateF-testsshowed Discussion nosignificantdifferencebetweengroupsŽ.ps0.92 andnodifferencewithregardtosexŽps0.96..Ž3.Thepresentstudyproducedthreemainresults: Original.UnivariateF-testsshowedasignificant Ž.1subjectsinthefloatinggroupinthefirst differencebetweengroupswFŽ.2,48s4.. 11,ps002x experimentusedmoretesttimeŽ.latencythanthe butnodifferencewithregardtosex Ž.ps0.33.A nonRESTgroup; posthoctestŽ.Scheffe’´ sshowed thatgroup3ŽMs Ž.2theshorterthetesttimelatencybythesub-
TABLE2 EffectsofnonREST,dryRESTorflotationREST(seemethods)onestimates(mean,S.D.) offluency, obvious,original,elegance,FREGOandSyllogismsformenandwomen Group1NonREST Group2DryREST Group3Floating Typeofscores Men Women Men Women Men Women Fluency Mean 29...... 95 3044 3237 3190 3378 3239 S.D. 10...... 57 588 709 750 1164 1018 Obvious Mean 23...... 95 2525 2575 2510 2500 2404 S.D. 8...... 26 417 677 702 918 629 Original Mean 6...... 00 519 806 675 872 833 S.D. 3...... 21 280 298 216 279 423 Elegance Mean 1...... 30 044 094 245 144 144 S.D. 2...... 35 124 174 199 251 217 FREGO Mean 25...... 90 2450 2475 2490 2444 2656 S.D. 2...... 96 507 563 526 397 688 Syllogisms Mean 14...... 00 1550 1338 1270 1178 1022 S.D. 6...... 65 424 558 450 489 406 406 T.Norlanderetal. jectsinthefirstexperimentrequiredforthecre- asdeductiveabilityŽ.secondaryprocess-oriented ativeproblem-solvingtest,thegreatertheheart wasnotinfluencednegativelybythefloatingproce- ratevariability; dure,eventhoughonemaydiscernaweak,non- Ž.3inthesecondexperiment,subjectsinthe significanttrend.Onepossibleexplanationfocuses floatinggroupwerescoredasmoreoriginalincom- uponthefacilitationofvisualimaginationthrough parisonwiththedryRESTandnonRESTcontrol floating.Amoreabstractlyconstructeddeductive groups. testmayhaveprovidedamoreexplicitdeteriora- Thefindingthatresultsofthefloatinggroup tion.Ingeneral,itappearsthatthebalancercombi- fromthefirstexperimentwerenotashighasthe nationbetweenprimaryandsecondaryprocesses controlgrouponthecreativeproblem-solvingtest duringacreativeproblem-solvingtestoranorigi- seemstoindicatethataresidualfloatingeffect nalitytestmaybeinfluencedbyflotationRESTin mustbeconsidered,evenafterthesubjecthasleft muchthesamewayaswasthatobtainedfor theimmersiontank.Thiseffectmaypossiblybe alcoholintoxicationŽ.Norlander,1997. characterizedbycognitivefunctioningwhereinthe Animportantaspectforfuturestudiesconcern- primaryprocessstilldominatesoverthesecondary ingflotationRESTandtestsofcreativitypertains processandwheretheabilityofmakingshifts tothemorestringentcontrolofexpectancyfactors. betweenthetwoprocessesappearsimpairedr Inthisregard,itmaybearguedthatbothpositive retarded.Onesupportforthissuspicionisprovided andnegativeexpectationsoffloatingmayhavesome bythesecondmainresultofthisstudywhichcoin- impactupontheresults.Innoneofthethreestud- cideswithcertainotherexperiments,e.g.Bowers iesdirectlyconcernedwithfloatingandcreativity, andKeelingŽ1971. whofoundthatsubjectsscoring i.e.Suedfeldetal.Ž.1987,ForgaysandForgays highoncreativetestshadgreatervarianceofheart Ž.1992andthepresentstudy,hassufficientconsid- ratecomparedtothosewhoproducedlowresults. erationbeenmadefortheputativeroleof WithsupportofLaceyŽ.1967,BowersandKeeling expectancyfactors. concludedthatthegreaterheartratevariability Generally,flotationRESTexperimentsmaintain observedinthemorecreativesubjectsindicated onlyonecontrolgroup,i.e.anarmchairgroupora thattheyhadrapidcognitiveshiftsbetween couchgroup.Inthepresentcircumstancewehave reality-orientedcognitionandmoreimaginal developedadouble-controlgroupdesignŽ theDCG- innerdirectedideation.Followingacomprehensive design. maintainingbothaNONRESTandaDRY perusalthroughstudieswithphysiologicalcorre- RESTcondition.Thistypeofdesignresemblesthe latesofcreativity,SulerŽ.1980drewtheconclusion conditionwhichhasbeenconsideredintermsof that‘Creativepeopleshouldpossessanaboveaver- ‘double-placebo’andror‘balanced-placebo’designs ageabilityforshiftingbetweenstatesoflowarousal nowoftenappliedinstudiesontheeffectsof associatedwithprimaryprocessandhigherstates alcoholandotherdrugsonstatesofconsciousness ofarousalcharacterizedbysecondaryprocess’Ž p. Ž.cf.Marlattetal.,1973. 158..Itiswithinreasontosuggestthatadaptive flexibility,whichmaybemeasuredwithdifferent formsofchainpuzzles,demandsahigherpropen- Acknowledgements sitytocognitiveshifts.Itseemsrelevantthatthe controlgroup,i.e.thatproducingthebestresultson ThisstudywassupportedbygrantsfromAdlerbert thetest,providedthehighestcorrelationbetween ResearchFoundationŽARF. ,Gotebor¨ gandfrom shortesttesttimeandgreatervarianceinheart SportDevelopmentCenterŽ.IUC,Orebro¨ . rate. Athirdsupportforthenotionofaprimary process-dominatedfloatingeffectdirectlyafterthe Notes actualfloatingisindicatedbythethirdmainresult CorrespondenceshouldbeaddressedtoDrTorsten inthisstudy,i.e.thesubjectsinthefloatinggroup Norlander, Department of Psychology, Karlstad ofthesecondexperimentwerescoredasmoreorigi- University, S-651 88 Karlstad, Sweden. E-mail: [email protected] nalcomparedtothedryRESTandnonREST groups.Toreiterate,itseemsasiforiginalitymay beconnectedtotheprimaryprocessinmuchthe References samemannerasproblem-solvingmaybeconnected tothesecondaryprocess.Ontheotherhand,the Arieti,S.Ž1966. .Creativityanditscultivation:relationto secondexperimentposesacomplexresultinsofar psychopathologyandmentalhealth.InS.ArietiŽEd.. Floating and Creativity 407
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