Berichte/Reports Biodiversity

Alfred Toepfer Akademie für Naturschutz

n : k Berichte/Reports

12. Jahrgang, Sonderheft 2, 1999 Vol. 12, Special Issue 2, 1999

Proceedings Forum Biodiversity - Treasures in the World's Forests 3 -7 July 1998

Registriertes Projekt der Weltausstellung n Niedersachsen NNABer. 12. Jg. Sonderh. 2 224 S. Schneverdingen 1999 ISSN: 09 35 - 14 50 Proceedings Forum Biodiversity - Treasures in the World's Forests

Forests in Focus is funded by

Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt Niedersächsische Umweltstiftung Osnabrück Hannover

The forum 'Biodiversity-Treasures in the World's Forests' is sponsored by:

supported by:

Alfred Toepfer Foundation F.V.S., Hamburg EFFEM, Verden Smurfit, Schneverdinger Wellpappenwerk GmbH & Co. KG Stadt Schneverdingen TUI, Hannover Stadtwerke Schneverdingen Verein der Förderer und Freunde der Alfred Toepfer Akademie für Naturschutz

Editor and Distributer: Alfred Toepfer Akademie für Naturschutz Hof Môhr, D-29640 Schneverdingen, Phone +49-5199-989 0, Fax +49-5199-989-46

Responsible for the contents of each contribution is the respective author. Editorial Remark: The forum was open to various kinds of contributions by participants. Contributions were made in form of statements, abstracts of papers, scientific papers and posters. This publication includes all these various kinds of contributions without attempt to create a unified format. Some texts were slightly modified by the editors, mainly in order to overcome language problems, and the text was not revised again by the author. It was not meant to change the contents, but if the modification resulted in a different meaning, it is sole ly the responsibility of the editors.

Editor: Dr. Jutta Poker, Inge Stein, Dr. Ulrich W erder

ISSN 09 35 - 14 50

Printed on recycled paper (100% waste paper)

Forests in Focus project partners:

Landkreis Alfred Toepfer Akademie Schutzgemeinschaft Forstwirtschaft Soltau-Fallingbostel für Naturschutz Deutscher Wald in Niedersachsen NNA-Reports Vol. 12/1999, Special Issue No. 2

Contents Page Introduction of 'Forests in Focus' 3 Sayer, J. Congress Recommendations 4

Samper, C. Recommendations WS Biodiversity as Value in Society 6 Schütz, J.-P. Recommendations WS Biodiversity as a Resource 7

Posey, D. A. Recommendations WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity 8 Zakri A. H. Recommendations WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity 9

Congress Programme Wermann, E. Opening Address 13 Zakri A. H. Challenges of Implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity 15 Barthlott, W. et al. Biodiversity - The Uneven Distribution of a Treasure 18 Iwand, W. M. Supporting Biodiversity: Taking the Benefit of Tourism into Account 29 Palmberg-Lerche, C. Conservation of Biological Diversity, with Special Reference to the Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources 32 Turok, J. Regional Collaboration on Forest Genetic Resources: Conserving a Common Heritage 39 Olson, D. M. & E. Dinerstein The Global 200: A Representation Approach to Conserving the Earth's Most Biologically Valuable Ecoregions 40 Boyle, Tim. The Impacts of Human Activities on Biodiversity in Natural Tropical Forests 50

& Ch. Wood Conserving the Tropical Resource Base: Do we Title Land or Organize Community? 6 8 Anane, M. Role of the Media in Biodiversity Conservation: Challenges and Opportunities 69

Kleinschmit, J. Is Normal Forest Management Able to Conserve Rare Species? 8 6 Hanewinkel, M. Successful Examples of Multiple Forest Use - the Model o f Selection Forests 90 Niño, E. & J. Bittner Reserva Natural La Planada - 15 Years Experience in Protection, ' Conservation and Research fo ra Sustainable Development 93 Geldenhuys, C. J. Potential of and Development for Ecotourism in the Tsingy de Bemaraha near Bekopaka, Madagascar 95 Sunaryo Ecotourism is a Viable Way of Using Resources 102

Workshop Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity Posey, D. A. Cultural and Spiritual Values of Forests and Biodiversity: Valuing the Knowledge of Indigenous and Traditional Peoples 103

1 Maffi, L. Language: A Resource for Nature 117 Slikkerveer, J. Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Peoples, Forests and Plants 126 Hilario, M. Statement 134 Ruttanakrajangsri, K. Thailand: Hilltribe's Way of Life and Changes 135 Bone, R. Community Use of Woodland Resources at Aliseni Village, Ulumba Mountain, Southern Malawi 138 Golubev, A. Springs as Unique Components of Natural and Social Environment 150

Workshop Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity Barber, C. V. The Diverse Tools and Measures Needed to Conserve, Rehabilitate, and Sustainably Use Forest Biodiversity 156 Jansons, J. Forest Management and Biological Diversity in Latvia 156 Holesgrove, R. Forest Biodiversity Conservation in Australia 158 Jack, J. B. Analogue Forestry as a Process of Biodiversity Management 159 Gustafsson, L. Integration of Biodiversity into Timber Production - The Swedish Approach 161 Barber, C. V. Conserving Forest Biodiversity in Protected Areas: Can Conservation and Development Co-exist? 163 John Joseph, S. Community Participation 163 Nader, W. Use it or Lose it: INBio's Integrative Concept for Biodiversity Conservation 169 Werder, U. Sustainable Aquaculture-Systems in the Rainforest - Fish Culture in the Surroundings of Manaus 174 John Joseph, S. Non Timber Forest Products of India 178 Manokaran, N. & H. T. Chan Management of Mangroves at Matang Peninsula Malaysia 185 Halbritter, K. Remote Sensing for Quantifying Structural Diversity in Forests for Forest Biodiversity Assessment 185 Enescu, V. & L. lon ita Challenges of the Forest Genetic Resources in Romania 193 Marku, V. & F. Gjoka Biodiversity and Some Aspects of its Management in Albania 195

Poster Presentations and Additional Contributions DesGranges, J.-L. A Biodiversity Forecasting Model Using Bird Assemblages 200 Gustafsson, L. Hot Spots for Biodiversity in Swedish Forests 201 Krzakowa, M. Phenolic Compounds Content as a Measure of Genetic Diversity in Conifers 201 Lemieux, G. Forest Biodiversity from the Soil Biological and Biochemical Pedogenetic Processes 202 Ma Chuo & Han Jin The Impact of the Three Gorges Hydroelectric Project on and the Preservation Strategies for the Biodiversity in the Affected Region 202 Mahendrarajah, E. S. Can Miniature Forests Ameliorate Loss of Biodiversity? 203 Molino, J.-F. et al. From Tree to Region: Evaluating Tree Species Diversity in Tropical Rainforests, Examples from French Guyana 204 Pridnya, M. V. Functional Role of Biodiversity in Forest Ecosystems of Caucasus 208 Roy, Shyamal K. & Pinaki Sinka Diversity of Medicinal Plants in Bangladesh and their Uses as a Resource 209

Scher, S. Impacts of Market Pressure on the Genetic Diversity of the Yew (Taxus): A Forest Bioresource for Therapeutic Taxanes 210

Schilder, K. Sustainable Use of the Galip Nut Canarium indicum and Rainforest Conservation on Siassi, Papua New Guinea 211

Spanos, K. et al. A Special Biotope in a Pinus halepensis Forest in Chalkidiki - N. Greece 212 Vasilyeva, Y. The Role of Traditional Use in the Conservation of Forest Ecosystem Biodiversity in the Baikal Region 216 Velarde, M. D. et al. Woodlands Pattern and Territorial Diversity in Madrid 217 Werner, C. et al. Analysis of High Resolution Satellite Data for Recording Composition and Structure of Forests 221

2 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

Forests in Focus Time Schedule Between 1998 and 2000, five fora take within the framework of 'WELTFORUM WALD', place. With respect to the multiple func official project of the World Exposition 2000 tions of forests, the fora focus from d if ferent perspectives on the worldwide sustainable co-existence of mankind and A series of fora focusing on global forests Toepfer Academy for Nature Conser forest: issues aims at achieving consensus among vation (NNA). Forests and Energy (To what extent can relevant interest parties on tools and con The project includes various activities forests contribute to the world's future cepts to sustainably develop the world's and exemplary projects demonstrating energy supply?) January, 1998 forests. The project 'Forests in Focus' adds sustainable management and use of Biodiversity -Treasures in the World's operative recommendations for solving forests to local people and international Forests (Prospects of conservation, use environmental problems concerning visitors (reafforestation of degraded and sustainable development of biodi forests to current political negotiations heathland, redevelopment of former versity in forests) July, 1998 and scientific meetings in the field of fore military areas, environmentally sound Forests Source of Raw Material stry. The fora act as an agent between po wooden buildings, thermal use of wood, (Potentials of forest products' use and litics, economics, science and public and use of non-timber products, management marketing) May, 1999 provide condensed up-to-date knowl of a nature reserve and tourism, etc.). Forests and Atmosphere-Water-Soil edge as well as agreed upon proposals Within this frame, 'Forests in Focus' (Regulation of energy and matter cycles for action adequate to target groups. forms the professional backbone. The with respect to climate change, water Thus, 'Forests in Focus' supports the local fora address institutions and social parties cycles and soil degradation) July, 1999. implementation of guidelines on forest concerned with forests, particularly those Forests and Society (Interrelation of management and enforces the forest which cultures and environment, public aware related parts of the Agenda 21 process. ■ are directly connected to forests, ness, public participation; integration of ■ play an active role in forest manage recommendations of the former fora) Background ment November, 1999. ■ are affected by forest management. The final events will be the presenta The World Exposition 'EXPO 2000 Han Thefora intend to encouragethe rele tions of the results and recommendations nover' presents the concept of sustaina vant social parties to participate effi of all fora at the EXPO 2000 in Hannover ble development as agreed upon in the ciently in decision making on forest in Summer 2000 and at the congress Agenda 21 at the UNCED 1992 in Rio de issues, thus promoting the worldwide Sustainability in Time and Space - in Janeiro. EXPO 2000 includes various implementation of the recommendations cooperation with PRO SILVA (Implemen worldwide decentralised projects. One of of the Agenda 21. tation of forest management guidelines these, 'WELTFORUM WALD' (World in divergent forest types.) June, 2000. Forum on Forests) has been initiated by Auspices authorities of the district Soltau-Falling- bostel, Northern Germany, the Associa 'Forests in Focus' is performed under the tion for the Protection of Forests and auspices of the Federal Minister of Food, Woodlands (SDW), the Forestry Com Agriculture and Forestry, Mr. Karl-Heinz mission of Lower Saxony and the Alfred Funke.

3 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

cial and economic conditions of a loca Biodiversity: tion as well as on the biophysical charac teristics of the forests and their biodiversity. Treasures in the World's Forests ■ Solutions appropriate to the biologi cally simple forests of temperate and Concluding Statement of the Forum boreal countries with advanced econo mies may not be applicable to the biolog Chairman: Prof. Jeff Sayer, Centre for International Research in Forestry ically much richer forests of the less devel (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia oped economies of tropical regions. ■ Economics has a valuable role to play in helping to make better decisions relat In an event leading up to the EXPO 2000 emerged as major themes of the forum: ing to biodiversity but participants were Hannover World Exposition a group of ■ The divergence between biodiversity concerned that conventional economics 150 scientists, foresters, conservation as seen by "Western" science and as seen does not yet adequately capture many of practitioners and concerned individuals by the diverse communities of people the cultural, spiritual or ecological values from 35 countries met for four days by more directly in contact with biodiversity of biodiversity. invitation of the Alfred Toepfer Academy in the forests: "Science" tends to reduce The forum recognized the valuable for Nature Conservation at Schneverdin- biodiversity to components through lists achievements of the processes occurring gen in Lower Saxony to discuss the issues of species, hot spots, biodiversity indices under the Convention on Biological confronting the use and conservation of etc. whereas most cultures see biodiversi Diversity and the great potential of the the world's forest biodiversity. On the first ty in terms of assemblages of species and CBD to have real impacts on the ground. day a plenary session was held at which attach values according to the ecological It saw the CBD as continuing to be the 9 papers on different aspects of biodiver services provided and the many uses prime focus for international action but sity were presented. On subsequent days made of these assemblages, many of recognized that there are limits to what the forum worked in four parallel ses which may be of cultural and spiritual sig can be achieved through "intergovern sions but gathered in plenary each eve nificance. Participants stressed that the m e n ta l" action and that there is a need ning to review the results of the day's "w hole" assemblage of biodiversity (eco for parallel actions at the national and work and consider general conclusions logical and human communities) have local levels and in the corporate sector. and recommendations. A number of tech greatervaluethanthe "sum" of the parts. The forum also noted the potential nical papers were presented at each ■ The erosion of our knowledge of for the Intergovernmental Forum on workshop but considerable time was allo biodiversity caused by the loss of local cul Forests to play an important role but felt cated for debate. Transcripts of the papers tures and languages: Since value is not an that the IFF had as yet only made modest presented and summaries of the debates, intrinsic feature of biodiversity but is a progress on biodiversity. The IFF also has conclusions and recommendations of function of our knowledge of any species potential but again it was emphasized each workshop will be provided in the or community this loss of knowledge that intergovernmental negotiation is record of the Forum in the near future. represents a loss of value and undermines not a substitute for local action. The Forum was characterized by the the stability of communities and their The workshops elaborated a number of great diversity of the participants, many conservation. conclusions and recommendations which of whom had not previously met. ■ The relative merits of biodiversity con are included in their reports. The work Amongst the participants were people servation being an indispensable compo shop recommendations are not repeated who had been closely involved in the nent of integrated multiple-use forest here, instead this summary presents a various international and intergovern management systems as in much of cen number of more general conclusions and mental processes dealing with biodiver tral Europe or alternative approaches recommendations which emerged from sity, but others were people more con based on a clear segregation between the discussions. These are presented as a cerned with practical conservation on the "production forests" and "conservation record of our views and are addressed to ground. Yet others came from industry, forests" as in Australia, New Zealand and the participants in international debates research institutes and NGOs. There were some tropical countries. on biodiversity as well as to "actors" in several persons from cultural minorities in ■ The potential impacts on biodiversity society whose activities have an impact on tropical developing countries. A signifi of the globalization of economies and the forests and their biodiversity. cant number of participants had personal "information technology" revolution: ■ The work of the CBD has benefited experience of the management of central Globalization will lessen the "control" greatly from contributions provided by European woodlands for biodiversity. that sovereign governments can exercise science. However the full potential of the Everyonetook part intheir personal capa over their natural resources whilst the scientific community has notyet been mobi cities and discussions were frank and free. greatly improved communications result lized. It is recommended that there should There was no attempt to conduct a ing from information technology should be greater engagement of social scientists comprehensive review of all global forest lead to greater empowerment of hither familiar with traditional ecological knowl biodiversity issues. The group focussed on to marginal peoples. edge (TEK), and of practitioners of "infor those issues that it considered to be of par ■ The recognition that solutions to bio mal" science - the specialists, often from ticular concern and for which it had spe diversity problems will usually be loca cultural minorities, who are the reposito cial competence. The following therefore tion-specific and will depend on the so ries of much traditional knowledge.

4 Biodiversity - Treasures in the World's Forests: Congress Recommendations

■ Economic analysis has a major role to ■ Developing countries and cultural ■ Information gives value to biodiversi play in improving decision making on minorities ought in principle to be able to ty. The globalization of information forest biodiversity but it is recommended derive greater economic benefits from systems creates opportunities but also that further development of techniques the exploitation of their biodiversity for creates some threats. Information may is needed to recognize the values thatdif- use in the pharmaceutical, fibre, food and not be available equally to all stakehold ferent cultures attach to biodiversity and technology based industries. There is ers. It is therefore recommended that to better capture the cultural, spiritual however a danger that the benefits of the recording and protection of tradition and functional values of biodiversity. "bio-prospecting" accrue largely to indus al information be given more attention ■ "Western" science and "economic try and not to the communities of people and that attempts be made to make infor globalization" may tend to favor out who are the traditional users of the mation available locally so as to counter comes in which biodiversity conservation resource. It is recommended that bio-pros the present trend towards domination by (nature reserves) are segregated from pecting be promoted as a legitimate way a small minority of global news and infor production forests (plantations). It was to access a valuable natural resource but mation sources. noted that these tendencies may run that institutional arrangements to en ■ Protecting forests and biodiversity counter to the interests of cultural mino sure the equitable sharing of benefits be requires protecting the cultural and lin rities for whom integrated multiple-use further studied and where appropriate guistic diversity of indigenous peoples. solutions may be more desirable. It is strengthened. Scientists must recognize thatthe existing therefore recommended that bio-regio- ■ It was recognized that biotechnology biodiversity paradigm has in the past nal approaches be adopted for conser can play a major role in determining the been misused to alienate and disenfran vation planning with full participation of future uses of components of biodiversi chise peoples from their spiritual and all concerned people in order to optimize ty. Genetic engineering and other mole natural resources and that future scientif all products and services of forests and cular biology techniques have allowed ic endeavors must be built upon recog achieve better allocation of land. the transfer of genes between species. nition of basic rights and recognition of ■ There has been considerable achieve This results in many new options and may traditional ecological knowledge. ment in central Europe in reconciling lead to increased economic benefits. natural forest management and the con However great uncertainty persists on the servation of biodiversity. Whilst recogniz possible impacts of genetically modified Chairman's address: ing that this experience cannot be trans organisms on humans and on biodiversi ferred directly into the very different con ty as a whole. In this context the protocol Prof. Jeff Sayer ditions of the biodiverse forests ofthetro on biosafety under negotiation within Centre for International Research in Fore pics it is nonetheless recommended that the CBD is an important contribution. In stry (CIFOR) attempts to achieve biodiversity conser this context it is recommended that tech P.O. Box 6596 JKPWB vation in the context of locally driven mul nology transfer (including biotechnolo Jakarta 10065, Indonesia tiple-use forest management systems in gy) and capacity building in developing e-mail: [email protected] the tropics should be vigorously pursued. countries should be facilitated and bio ■ Protected areas allocated primarily safety considerations should be incorpo for biodiversity will remain a central ele rated in the development of forest man ment of conservation. It is recommended agement practices and products. that renewed efforts be made under the ■ Non-timber forest products are a vital CBD and IFF to achieve the medium-term resource for very large numbers of peo security of a core set of forests sites of ple in the forested regions of the world. recognized international value for forest The value of this resource is often under biodiversity and that opportunities alrea estimated in formal decision making, dy provided by ongoing activities such as partly because many of the products are the WWF "Global 200 forest ecoregions" not traded in the formal economy. It is program and the forest initiative under recommended that greater attention be the World Heritage Convention be sup given to the sustainability of NTFP resour ported. ces in multiple-use systems and that the ■ Although Integrated Conservation interests of the people who depend upon and Development Programs have been a them be given greater weight in deci principal mechanism of channeling inter sions relating to the use of forest lands. national support to the conservation of ■ Technological options exist to restore forest biodiversity, these have in general forest cover of degraded lands in many produced disappointing results. It is parts of the world. At present much refor recommended that ICDP approaches estation and afforestation uses tech should be led by local communities and niques which lead to biologically impov not imposed upon them and that the like erished forests. It is recommended that lihood of ICDPs succeeding will be enhan greater attention be given to increasing ced if they are based upon local under the species richness of artificially estab standing and valuation of biodiversity. lished forests.

5 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

Workshop: languages. Some of these changes may promote sustainable use, whereas others Biodiversity as Value in Society may result in increased degradation. Information and awareness Chairman: Dr. Cristian Samper, Instituto Humboldt, Bogota, Colombia

Information is an important element of value, and communication and aware Valuation of forest biodiversity that is, the private cost is less than the ness raising can have an impact on indivi social cost. duals and society through the influence Biodiversity can provide different kinds of It is important to design ways and on choice. goods and services that are the basis of means to add value to forests and biodi The communication of information our welfare on this planet. Human activi versity. Information can change percep needs to seeks four elements: (I) the right ties influence biodiversity in a variety of tions, alter values and influence choices. information, (II) to the right people, (III) ways, and we are constantly choosing Technological developments and techno in the right form, (IV) at the right time. In alternatives about the way we use re logy transfer (including biotechnology) the short term special emphasis needs to sources. Determining these kinds of can also increase the possibilities for use, be placed on raising awareness among values can be useful in this context of improve efficiency and add value. The decision makers and the general audien societal choice; and valuation can influ correction of market and institutional ce, where the media can play a critical ence the way we use or abuse forest failures can also influence choice. Overall, role. At the same time we need to resources. the development and valuation of include environmental considerations Biodiversity can have many different multiple-use systems can be important to into education programs, which will have kinds of values, and these often differ achieve a greater total value for forests a longer term impact. among individuals and societies. Some of and biodiversity. There is a trend toward globalization these values are related to the use of of information. Technological develop biodiversity by humans, and others are The socio-economic framework ments, including satellite communica related to cultural and spiritual values of tions, are resulting in faster and broader biodiversity for society. Furthermore, the The socio-economic forces driving biodi information exchange. This means that value of biodiversity as a whole may be versity loss are complex, and include local communication and information more than the sum of its components. aspects such as demographic change, systems have to be reinforced and we need The value of biodiversity should not poverty and inequality, public policies, to seek more equitable and unbiased just be measured through price. Some of markets and trade. These forces gener information exchange at the global level. these values are utilitarian in nature, and ate a change in resource use patterns and include goods and services that are the can lead to habitat loss and degradation. Recommendations: basis for consumption and production, All of these forces operate at the local, which are often traded through markets. national and international level, with a Further research needs to be undertaken However, there are other kinds of values, growing impact of global forces on local to develop methodologies that enable such as option values, bequest values and decisions. valuation of non-direct uses of biodiver existence values, that are not traded One of the driving forces at the local sity, including ecosystem services. through markets. Economists have devel level is related to property rights and land There is a need to reinforce multi-dis oped tools and methodologies (i.e. con tenure. In general, secure property rights ciplinary approaches to valuation of tingent valuation) that can be used to may promote sustainable use of forest biodiversity, including economic, social measure preferences and simulate mar biodiversity, as they may affect the level and cultural values. kets. The sum of these values can provide and nature of investments, capital mar We must promote the valuation of an estimate of the total economic value kets, rent dissipation, enable land trans multiple uses of forest biodiversity and of biodiversity. actions, and favor conservation of natu multiple use systems. ral resources for the future. However, There is an urgent need to correct Distribution of costs and benefits land tenure and property rights by them market and institutional failures, and selves do not guarantee sustainable use, to design mechanisms that internalize The choices we make can influence our since there may be important changes in social costs. options for future choices, so there is a cultural values and markets over time. It is important to strengthen interna cost associated with resource use. In this The current trend toward globaliza tional regulation mechanisms, such as context, it is crucial to develop ways and tion can have important social and eco international treaties and conventions. means to achieve the equitable distribu nomic impacts on resource use, including, Instruments such as certification of fo tion of costs and benefits in society. There but not limed to, access to new markets, rest products can operate though global is a trend toward an increase in the con increased capital flow, labor movements markets and should be implemented, centration of benefits and the socializa and training, increased information taking special care not to impose market tion of costs. The underlying problem is exchange, a change in consumption pat barriers for developing countries. that often some of the costs are passed terns, technology transfer, loss of nation There is an urgent need to strengthen on to society or to future generations, al sovereignty and loss of cultures and means to communicate information at

6 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999 the local and national levels, and at the Chairman's address: same time seek ways to achieve a more balanced and unbiased exchange of Dr. Cristian Samper information at the local level. Institute Alexander von Humboldt Apartado Aereo 8693, Calle 37 # 8-40 Mezzanine, CO - Santafe de Bogota, Colombia Fax: +57-87-320792 e-mail: [email protected]

There are a lot of successful silvicul Workshop: tural concepts respecting multiple use conditions (selection forest, regenera Biodiversity as a Resource tion systems respecting need for hori zontal structure or patchiness). They Chairman: Prof. Dr. Jean-Philippe Schütz, Dept. Forestry and Wood should be enlarged for a wider applica Research, ETH Zürich, Switzerland tion. b) ex situ policy: Find out sound ways of supporting Preamble using biodiversity or its components have conservation goals. M ultiple use does a positive or negative influence on over not seem to be the only correct solution, The perception for the notion of biodi all conservation targets. but there is a strong necessity for solu versity is different between industrialized tions integrated in coherent management countries, in international organizations Recommendations: concepts. They must include welfare of and countries of the South. Within indu the local population. strialized countries the nature conserva For debating coherency it is necessary to Importance of ecotourism: Interest of tion movements (governmental and non distinguish the tw o different ways to companies are too strong and negative governmental) utilize the notion of Biodi conceive promoting of biodiversity. There impacts of tourism are too serious. Eco versity to validate and promote nature is a strong interest to develop jointly both tourism would be perceived as a kind of conservation policies and to raise a- policies because their effects converge. neocolonialism if the principle of causali wareness of a sound lifestyle for the pre a) in situ policy: How to live in har ty is not respected. External costs have to servation of the environment. They refer mony with nature be internalized to the local populations. to Agenda 21 of the Rio Conference. Identify the way of cohabitation with There are many successful projects International oriented organizations regard to the different needs and uses. which are integrating respectfully the have mostly other perceptions of the sig Multiple uses represent a relevant way main constraints in different regions of nificance of biodiversity, more as awa of solution. It is important to find out the world. reness of necessities to preserve global win-win solutions in respect of all inter There is a vast need for research, espe biodiversity where it is endangered world est. The development of a close-to-na- cially respecting the long run and the slow wide. Therefore there are two very differ ture silviculture including a network of pre reaction of forest on impacts and its resi ent angles regarding the priorities and served areas has been recognized as a liency. The reaction of forest ecosystems measures concerning solutions. relevant prospect. In the future silvicul to different kinds of perturbations inclu These two different meanings and tural solutions should be enlarged with sive pests requires further research. perceptions for biodiversity, one more or respect to a combination of diverse silvi less in situ perception and the other ex cultural techniques (so called polyvalent situ perception, had initially some influ silviculture) combined with accessory Chairman's address: ence on coherency of discussion in the prerequisites (dead wood). workshop. They are not exclusive mutual In a definition of biodiversity in this Prof. Dr. Jean-Philippe Schütz ly, on the contrary; awareness of rich sense it is necessary to include the syne- ETH Center populations of the necessity of global cological dimension for biocenotic coha Dept, of Forestry and Wood Research conservation could begin with develop bitation, and a genetical dimension in CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland ing awareness for harmonic behaviour relation with evolutionary conditions. e-mail: [email protected] with one's own environment. It seems Biodiversity is to be interpreted as evo realistic to combine these two methods of lutionary continuum. realization. Biodiversity has its own value. It The declared aim of Workshop II was could be defined as 'indigenous life form to discuss whether economical returns of patterns'. 7 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

prevailing scientific/economic paradigm Workshop: has been used to separate indigenous peoples from their land bases and natur Interrelationship of al and intellectual resources by ignoring their cultural and spiritual values. This Cultural and Biological Diversity dominant, top-down approach has fuel led biopiracy and other forms of exploi Chairman: Prof. Darrell Posey, Institute of Social and Cultural tation and destruction of bio-cultural Anthropology, Oxford, United Kingdom diversity. 4 - Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) encodes the relationship of human 1 - Historically, indigenous and tradition ists, often expressed through the collec beings with their natural and spiritual al peoples have been seen only as inha tive knowledge of gender and age environment. It is holistic and encapsu bitants of the forest and objects of study groups, lineages, clans and local associa lates intellectual, cultural, spiritual, beha like 'natural species'. However, since the tions; vioural and material elements transferred Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) ■ the central importance of land, terri over generations, including: was signed in Rio in 1992, 'knowledge torial and tenural rights, given that many ■ perceptions, beliefs, cosmologies, innovations and practices' of 'indigenous state policies alienate community lands attitudes, opinions, practices, experien and local communities embodying tradi and resources; ces, skills, technologies, traditions, inno tional lifestyles' (Art. 8—j), customary prac ■ the identification of who precisely are vations, tice (Art. 10-c), and traditional technolo 'indigenous peoples' should principally ■ artefacts, tools, and other material gies (Art. 18-4) have been guaranteed by be left w ith the peoples and communities objects, over 177 signatory countries. Increasingly, themselves to decide, as guaranteed by ■ trees, seeds, plants, crops, animals, international organisations (including the UN Working Group on Indigenous ■ local institutions, such as women UNESCO, FAO, UNEP, ILO, WTO, UNDP, Peoples, ILO, and the Draft Declaration on groups, tenure systems, healers associa IUCN, etc.) are recognising the central the Rights of Indigenous Peoples; tions, importance of local communities and ■ nation state sovereignty cannot over ■ procedures, processes and local au their traditional ecological knowledge - ride basic indigenous and human rights. thority structures, expressed in their languages and cultures 2 - There is an "inextricable link" be TEK should not be seen in opposition - in the conservation of forests and biodi tween linguistic, cultural and biological to 'Scientific Ecological Knowledge'. versity. diversity. Indigenous and local peoples Rather, common ground, complementa This includes the recognition of: see language, culture, nature and land as rity, collaboration and synergism should ■ the active participation of communi intimately related parts of the same be sought to better tackle the conserva ties in all phases of biodiversity conserva whole. Language is the main carrier of tion of forests and biodiversity. Both are tion and forest management; culture and main instrument for creating, part of the same human endeavour to ■ destruction of forest resources pro transmitting and developing knowledge, create order out of disorder; vokes loss of knowledge and cultures, including knowledge about the environ The TEK approach specifically focuses ignoring the fundamental importance of ment, the forests and biodiversity; on the philosophies and cosmovisions on the spiritual connection with the land and ■ The loss of linguistic diversity is esti which indigenous peoples base their man nature; mated to be even greater and faster than agement and conservation perceptions ■ sacred sites as centres of important the loss of biodiversity (possibly up to 90% and practices, but it also develops specific forest and biological diversity, and that of the 5-7000 existing languages becom research methodologies to extrapolate many presumed 'natural ecosystems' ing extinct before the end of the next 'subjective' factors at the individual level to have been moulded by human interven century). This loss of languages leads to 'objective' variables at the system level; tion as anthropogenic or cultural land loss of knowledge, including ecological TEK is relevant for bio-cultural diver scapes (as recognised by the UNESCO knowledge, with grave consequences for sity conservation & management of forest World Heritage Convention); humans and the earth. resources, as it: ■ biodiversity as being holisticand insep ■ Therefore, indigenous and local peo ■ provides new opportunities for colla arable from the human family and society, ples are engaging in a struggle to main borative R&D and therefore can never be reduced tain or revitalise their languages and cul ■ provides alternatives for sustainable merely to components or molecules; tures at the same time that they struggle use ■ the need for consent and benefit-shar to preserve or recover their lands and ■ provides indigenous environmental ing agreements including full disclosure, resources. assessment prior informed consent and equity; 3 - In view of these international ■ provides alternative conservation ■ indigenous and traditional peoples' activities and processes, the 'ecodiversity- methods & practices alliances and the need to support their geodiversity-biodiversity' model (expres ■ contributes to the development of own efforts and activities, and especially sed in the opening session of this confer alternative philosophies of nature and their self-determination; ence) must include cultural and language the environment ■ specialised knowledge of women, diversity of different peoples, and their ■ contributes to the policy planning & elders, children and knowledge special knowledge systems. Unfortunately, the implementation process at various levels.

8 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

Recommendations: versity paradigm has been misused to Chairman's address: alienate and disenfranchise peoples from 1. Protecting forests and biodiversity re their spiritual and natural resources, and Prof. Darrell Posey quires protecting the cultural and lingu that future scientific endeavours must be Institute of Social and Cultural A nthro istic diversity of the indigenous peoples, built upon: pology traditional societies, and local communi ■ recognition of basic rights including 51 Banbury Road ties living in forests and other biodiversi full disclosure to, prior informed consent Oxford 0X2 6PE, United Kingdom ty-rich environments - including their from and authorisation by the local com e-mail: [email protected] cultural and spiritual values. munities and appropriate representati 2. The land, territorial and human rights ves; - including linguistic and cultural rights — ■ recognition and use of Traditional of these groups must be recognised with Ecological Knowledge; in the principle of self-determination to ■ collaborative research and develop guarantee negotiation and representa ment of the role of the researcher as a tion as equal parties at all levels and in all true partner in biodiversity conservation; processes that affect them. ■ equitable benefit-sharing with local 3. Scientists must recognise that the groups. existing biodiversity-geodiversity-ecodi

- specific attention to the roles and Workshop: involvement of women - realistic attention to the priority Tools and Measures for Conservation, social welfare needs of the community - effective local stakeholder dialogue Rehabilitation and mechanisms - development and use of conflict Development of Biodiversity resolution skills and mechanisms - attention to the social geography of Chairman: Prof. Dato' Zakri A. Hamid, University Kebangsaan, Malaysia the "community" - not all groups of peo ple living together are cohesive commu nities! Principal Conclusions and uses of biological resources are sustaina "In stimulating sustainable forestry Recommendations ble, and more equitable sharing of the for rural development it is importantthat benefits of the uses of biodiversity. local people should not be conceived as I Cross-Cutting Concerns This requires new processes for invol an unnatural factor to forests, but rather ving a broader range of "stakeholders" in as a highly specialized ecological agent Protected Areas remain a keystone for decision-making and management. acting within the forest." conserving forest biodiversity, but will We must deepen our knowledge of never be large enough to comprehensi biodiversity and ecological processes - as vely conserve the full range of forest well as related socio-economic issues II Can Biodiversity be Conserved biodiversity. -and disseminate that information in ways in Large Scale Timber Production A broader "bioregional" approach to that are useful to biodiversity managers Forests? biodiversity conservation is therefore and policy makers. necessary, which incorporates BD conser Public awareness, through schools There are great ecological differences vation objectives into timber production, and training centers and the media, is very between tropical and temperate forests, plantation development, agriculture, and important for building public support for and between the socio-economic and other resource uses - and promotes job biodiversity conservation. governmental structures in which they creation to draw people away from the Community participation in biodiver are managed (or mismanaged). forest frontier. sity conservation is a crucial tool for suc Experience from Sweden shows that • A bioregional approach under both cess across many types of forests and biodiversity conservation objectives can qualitative and quantitative aspects in forest uses. Some key tools for encour be successfully integrated into large- turn requires a broader conception of aging community participation are: scale timber production in a temperate, "biodiversity conservation" including not - the role of NGOs as catalysts and developed country with a large forest only protection, but also ensuring that communicators products industry. Timber certification

9 Biodiversity: Workshop: Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity has been an important tool for doing this - Some of the most important pro component of fibre production system in in Sweden. Certification can also be a fea tected areas in the world should perhaps the 21st Century. sible way to promote BD-f riendly ways of be designated as world heritage sites Current timber plantation models, producing NTFP goods and services. under the world heritage convention. however, are not supportive of biodiver Under present institutional condi sity - often they are replacing diverse tions in most major tropical timber pro IV Non-Timber (Non-Wood) natural forests, and are in many cases ducing countries large-scale logging is a Forest Products and Services composed of monocultural stands. major catalyst for processes of forest de Innovative technologies and manage gradation and biodiversity loss. NTFPs add value to the forest resource, ment strategies that better incorporate Nevertheless, since large-scale timber particularly for local communities, pro biodiversity into plantation planning, sit production from natural forests is likely mote strategies and measures to increase ing, species composition, and manage to continue in both temperate and tro its production and provide an incentive to ment are urgently needed. pical areas, development of both techni conserve the forest. Apart from reinforcing traditional cal and institutional innovations to NTFPs are not, in many places, agroforestry systems the socio-economic improve the prospects for biodiversity in "minor" forest products - rattan, forest- dimensions of plantation establishment production forests must be a priority. One related fisheries, aquaculture and hunt (e.g. displacement of local farming com way in which such biodiversity and the ing, and many leaves and nuts in India are munities who then turn to the natural ecological processes that maintain biodi examples. But it is difficult to quantify forest for subsistence) must be carefully versity may be protected is through a net their value, as many NTFPs do not enter considered as well. work of protected areas including habi formal markets. Restoration of natural forest ecosys tats w ithin production forests. As market access grows, however, the tems is technically feasible in many cases, risk of over-exploitation becomes acute, and should be utilized for restoring de Ill Protected Areas even for NTFP uses that were formerly graded parts of forests landscapes. "traditional" and "sustainable." Tree plantings do have a catalytic Historical concepts of protected areas as Forest-related fisheries and aquacul effect on the regeneration of native pristine ecosystems walled o ff from ture (e.g. flooded forests and pond- shade-tolerant forest species and there human influence have failed in many systems of the Amazon, mangroves of SE fore restoration of native forest biodi parts of the world - pressures from local Asia) are an extremely important NTFP versity, across a broad range of site con needs and larger-scale development with key nutritional as well as income ditions under many different plantation activities (and global markets) are too benefits for local communities. species. Planting of fast growing, useful strong, while defensive measures are too Given the high economic and conser tree species, preferably native species, weak. vation value of NTFPs, policies need to be could therefore be used efficiently to Recent efforts in developing countries changed to provide greater incentives for restore the biodiversity and productivity to establish "integrated conservation and their sustainable utilization. of degraded land. development projects" (ICDPs) sound Biodiversity prospecting forthe devel Recent developments of "carbon good in theory, but have largely failed to opment of new pharmaceuticals, pesti forestry" as presently often used in the conserve the core protected areas they cides, transgenic plants gain increasing context of the Climate Change Conven are intended to serve. importance and will contribute signifi tion have increasingly become a source of Needed is a new "bioregional" cantly to the valorization of forests. funding for biodiversity conservation. approach with three key elements: Royalty agreements, technology transfer However, it is crucial that the imperative - Planning and management of biodi and adding value to primary materialsfor of tree-planting to sequester carbon do versity and related human activities across product development within the source not become an excuse for the replace whole landscapes-including urban, indus country are important conditions and ment of natural forests with plantations. trial, and demographic factors - with a implicated by the CBD. related broadening of the sectors and Whole forest product and services can Chairman's address: stakeholders involved in the process. contribute significantly to human welfare - A return to stricter protection - and might include carbon, oxygen, water, Prof. Dato' Zakri A. Hamid backed by adequate resources - for areas litter, honey, habitats of fauna, landscape, Deputy Vice-Chancellor where biodiversity conservation is a top recreation, education, ecotourism and Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia priority and is not compatible with units of unique scientific value. 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia human uses (e.g. tigers versus farmers). As NTFPs increasingly enter main e-mail: [email protected] - Transition from state- and corpo stream markets, local economic institu rate-dominated forest ownership and con tions must be developed (e.g. co-opera trol to far wider applications of commu tives) to ensure that local people receive nity-based and community-managed fair prices and improved market access for forestry in non-core areas their NTFPs. - Equitable sharing of burdens and benefits, with specific attention to the V Restoration and Rehabilitation rights of indigenous communities with long-standing claims on forest areas. Timber plantations are going to be a key

10 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

Congress Programme

Friday, 3 July 1998

Ellenberg, H. Round Table: How to Count and Compare Biological Diversity in Forests? Definitions and Decisions needed

Saturday, 4 July 1998

Schreiner, J. Opening address Vauk, G. Opening address Wermann, E. Opening address Key-notes Sayer, J. Introduction Zakri A. H. Challenges of Implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity Barthlott, W. The Uneven Distribution of a Treasure Ganguly, A. Drugs from Natural Sources Iwand, W. M. Supporting Biodiversity: Taking the Benefits of Tourism into Account Ellenberg, H. Results of the Round Table: Howto Count and Compare Biological Diversity in Forests? Definition and Decisions Needed Palmberg-Lerche, C. Conservation of Biological Diversity w ith Special Reference to the Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources Turok, J. Regional Cooperation on Forest Genetic Resources: Conserving a Common Heritage Martin-Jones, J. Global 200 Forest Ecoregions Boyle, T. The Impacts of Human Activities on Biodiversity in Natural Tropical Forests

Sunday and Monday, 5 and 6 July 1998

W orksh o p Biodiversity as Value within Society Samper, C. Introduction: Cultural and Spiritual Values of Biodiversity Ramos, A. Why Does Biodiversity Loss Occur in Many Places if it is Socially Better to Give it a Persistent Use? Nader, W. Biodiversity - Source of Inspiration and Innovation Samper, C. Introduction: Underlying Socio-Economic Forces Behind Biodiversity Loss Forje, J. W. Conserving Biological Diversity in Cameroon's Forests: Problems and Prospects for the Future Walker, R. Conserving the Tropical Resource Base: Do we Title Land or Organize Community? Anane, M. Role of the Media in Biodiversity Conservation Challenges and Opportunities W orksh o p Biodiversity as a Resource Schütz, J.-P. Introduction Geldenhuys, C. J. Requirements for Improved and Sustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity: Examples of South Africa Scherzinger, W. Importance of Vertical Stratification and Horizontal Patchiness Concerning Species-Diversity in Managed Forests - A Comparison Kushalappa, C. Impact Assessment of Working of Western Ghats Forests in Kodagu District, Karnataka State, South India Kleinschmit, J. Forest Management and the Conservation of Rare Species Hanewinkel, M. Successful Examples of Multiple Forest Use - The Model of Selection Forests Bittner, J. Reserva Natural La Planada - 15 Years Experience in Protection, Conservation and Research for a Sustain able Development Geldenhuys, C. J. Potential of and Development for Ecotourism in the Tsingy de Bemaraha near Bekopaka, Madagascar Sunaryo Ecotourism is a Viable Way of Using Resources W orksh o p Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity Posey, D. A. Introduction: Cultural and Spiritual Values of Biodiversity Maffi, L. Language: A Resource for Nature Slikkerveer, J. Traditional Ecological Knowledge Systems: Peoples, Forests and Plants Carino, J. Indigenous Peoples' Views and Concerns: An International Perspective Hilario, M. Forests of the Peruvian Amazon Ruttanakrajangsri, K. Indigenous Views from Thailand Bone, R. Community Use of Eucalyptus Plantation and Regenerating Miombo Woodland Resources at Aliseni Village, Ulumba Mountain, Southern Malawi Gobulev, A. Spring Ecosystems as the Unique Components of Natural and Cultural Environment

11 FORESTS IN FOCUS: Biodiversity - Treasures in the World's Forests: Congress Programme

W o rksh o p Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity Zakri A.H. Introduction Barber, C. V. The Diverse Tools and Measures Needed to Conserve, Rehabilitate, and Sustainably Use Forest Biodiversity Jansons, J. Forest Management and Biological Diversity in Latvia Holesgrove, R. Conservation of Biodiversity in Australia's Forests Jack, J. B. Analogue Forestry as a Process of Biodiversity Management Gustafsson, L. Integration of Biodiversity into Timber Production - the Swedish Approach Barber, C. V. Conserving Forest Biodiversity in Protected Areas: Can Conservation and Development Co-Exist? John Joseph, S. Community Participation Nader, W. Use it or Loose it: INBIO's Integrative Concept for Biodiversity Conservation Werder, U. Sustainable Aquaculture-Systems in the Rainforest - Fish Culture in the Surroundings of Manaus Manokaran, N. Rattan Utilization John Joseph, S. Non Timber Forest Products of India Manokaran, N. Management of Mangroves at Matang Peninsular Malaysia - A Case Study on Conservation, Rehabilita tion and Development of Biodiversity Halbritter, K. Quantification of Forest Biodiversity by Remote Sensing Enescu, V. Challenges to the Forest Genetic Resources in Romania Marku, V. Biodiversity and some Aspects of its Management in Albania

Sunday and Tuesday, 5 and 7 July 1998

Poster Presentations and Additional Contributions Chairmen: Wolfgang Kuhlmann, Prof. Dr. Hans-J. Muhs Bruggemann, J. The EUROPARC Partnership & Exchange Programme Gustafsson, L. Hot Spots for Biodiversity in Swedish Forests Nino, E. Reserva Natural La Planada - 15 Years Experiences in Protection, Conservation and Research for a Sustainable Development Schilder, K. Sustainable Use of the Gallip Nut Canarium indicum and Rainforest Conservation on Siassi, Papua New Guinea Spanos, K. A Special Biotope in a Pinus halepensis Forest in Chalkidiki - N. Greece Velarde, M. Woodlands Pattern and Territorial Diversity in Madrid

12 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

besonders sorgfältig gestalteten Wald Opening Address rändern. Kurz: Der Vielfalt der Standorte soll Ernst Wermann die Vielfalt der Waldökosysteme ent sprechen. Man nutzt klug natürliche Abläufe. Abstract „soutenu" verwendet wird; „soutenu" Und man greift zurück auf die Vielfalt hat die gleiche (lateinische) Wurzel wie - der Waldbehandlungsmöglichkeiten, die From the German point of view conser englisch - „sustainable", heißt also nach über Jahrhunderte entwickelt und er vation and sustainable management haltig. probt wurden. Stützen kann sich natur have been and will be essential for main Nachhaltigkeit in der Forstwirtschaft nahe Waldwirtschaft auf entsprechende taining the biological diversity of forests. hat sich als Begriff und Handlungsmaxi Planungen (Waldfunktionskartierung, Together with improved monitoring, me ständig weiterentwickelt, ist bedeu Standortkartierung etc), und unterstützt research and protection of forests against tend erweitert worden, umfasst heute wird sie durch die Forstpolitik mit Instru pressures from outside (e.g. air pollution), ökonomische, ökologische und soziale menten wie finanzieller Förderung, Aus- they will be main elements of an inte Ziele, auch die Erhaltung der biologischen und Weiterbildung und flächendeckender grated concepts on regional level, for Vielfalt, und hat das Wohl künftiger Beratung. Naturschutzrechtliche Anreize which European ministers responsible for Generationen im Auge. Diese Art von wie Vertragsnaturschutz kommen hinzu. forests paved the way in Lisbon in June Selbstverpflichtung der Forstwirtschaft Meine Ausführungen zur „Erhaltung 1998 by adopting a work programme for scheint mir angemessen und wesentlich von Biodiversität durch nachhaltige Nut enhancement of biological diversity in auch für die zukünftige Sicherung der zung" zeigen, dass wir fortschrittlich forests. Biodiversität in den Wäldern zu sein. genug sind, uns nicht allein auf ein Netz On the international level the various Die europäischen Forstminister haben von Schutzgebieten zu verlassen. Schon in bi- and multilateral efforts to slow down dies bereits 1993 bei ihrer Konferenz in Rio wurde darauf Wert gelegt; ich führte forest loss and forest degradation could Helsinki ausdrücklich in dieser Weise dieses aus. Hinzu kommt ein europaspe be facilitated by a legally binding instru bekräftigt und damit sozusagen die zifischer Aspekt, der zugleich zeigt, dass ment on the conservation and sustaina europäische Antw ort auf Rio im Waldbe man Modelle, die anderswo unter ande ble management of forests worldwide. reich gegeben. ren Bedingungen entwickelt wurden, Since more information is needed on Der Wiederaufbau der Wälder in nicht ungeprüft übertragen sollte. details, options, pros and cons of the Europa beweist: Nachhaltige Forstwirt Die Ausscheidung großflächiger various options etc. etc., Germany will schaft mehrt die natürlichen Ressourcen, Schutzgebiete leuchtet ein in Regionen continue to be an active partner in the die sie nutzt und indem sie sie nutzt. Wie mit großflächigen Naturwäldern in staat ongoing IFF-process. viele andere Wirtschaftszweige können lichem Eigentum, wie im Norden von dies von sich behaupten? Nordamerika. In Europa überwiegt der Grußwort Jahrhunderte nachhaltiger Forstwirt private Waldbesitz und hier der relativ schaft haben in den Wäldern einen kleine Familienbetrieb. Daraus ent Auf der Umweltkonferenz der Vereinten beachtlichen Schatz an Biodiversität wickelt sich eine Vielgestaltigkeit der Nationen 1992 in Rio de Janeiro wurde erhalten (um das Leitmotiv Ihres Forums Waldstrukturen und eine biologische der Durchbruch erzielt: Nach mehrjähri aufzugreifen). Aus Vergleichsstudien, z. Vielfalt, die über die natürliche Vielfalt gen Verhandlungen beschloss man dort B. von Prof. Ammer, München, wissen wir, noch hinausgeht. Ist sie durch verant einstimmig das Übereinkommen über dass Artenvielfalt in naturnah bewirt wortungsvolle Nutzung entstanden, biologische Vielfalt, das inzwischen von schafteten Mischwäldern nicht geringer kann sie auch nur durch Fortsetzung der 170 Staaten weltweit gezeichnet ist. Sein zu sein braucht als in total geschützten Bewirtschaftung erhalten werden. Ziel ist die Erhaltung von Ökosystemen, Reservaten. Unter solchen Bedingungen würden der Artenvielfalt und der genetischen Unter naturnaher Waldwirtschaft allzu ehrgeizige Stillegungs- und Total Vielfalt. stellen wir uns in Mitteleuropa vor: schutzprogramme biologische Vielfalt Auf dieser Konferenz wurde auch ■ kleinflächige Nutzung, eher gefährden. deutlich, dass die Umweltprobleme nicht ■ standortgerechte Baumartenwahl, Den richtigen Weg in der Schutzge allein durch Schutz in den Griff zu bekom ■ Bevorzugung der Naturverjüngung, bietsfrage wies m. E. die jüngste Vertrags men sind, sondern auch durch Nutzung ■ Integrierung von Alters staatenkonferenz zum Übereinkommen in und zwar durch nachhaltige Nutzung. und Zerfallsphasen, Bratislava. Dort beschloss man, vordring Das gilt auch für die Sicherung der Biodi- ■ Schutz wertvoller Biotope, lich eine saubere Analyse des Bedarfs vor versität in Wäldern. ■ waldschonende Erschließung, zunehmen (gap analysis). Im übrigen war Nachhaltigkeit ist ein Begriff, der von ■ boden- und bestandsschonende man in Deutschland keineswegs untätig. der Forstwirtschaft geprägt wurde - in Technik, Hier sind immerhin 4% der Waldfläche Mitteleuropa bereits 250 Jahre vor der ■ integrierter Pflanzenschutz, (400000 ha) unter strengen Schutz nach Brundtlandkommission. In Frankreich ■ und als Ergebnis strukturreiche, Forstrecht und Naturschutzrecht gestellt. verweist man sogar auf ein königliches ungleichaltrige Mischwälder mit ausrei Dazu gehören die Wälder in Nationalpar Dekret von 1348, in dem im Zusammen chend totem Holz, mit der Fülle auch sel ken, Naturschutzgebieten, Waldschutz hang mit forstlicher Nutzung der Begriff tener Baum- und Straucharten und mit gebieten und Naturwaldreservaten.

13 Wermann - Opening Address

Zusätzliche 2% betreffen Wälder in Bio bieten dazu alle Möglichkeiten der Netz me. Eine Politik zurTropenwalderhaltung sphärenreservaten, die auf Teilflächen werkforschung. muss sich daher mit Bemühungen um ebenfalls strengen Schutz vorsehen. In Europa und Nordamerika wachsen faire Entwicklungschancen für die Men Auch auf die seit langem eingeleite Waldfläche, Holzvorräte und Holzzu schen verbinden. Darüber hinaus strebt ten speziellen Maßnahmen zur Erhaltung wachs. In anderen Regionen der Erde ist die Bundesregierung den Abschluss eines der forstgenetischen Ressourcen ist zu Forstpolitik darauf angelegt, aus einer völkerrechtlich verbindlichen Überein verweisen (in situ , d. h. im Wald, oder ex stetig schrumpfenden Waldfläche immer kommens überdie Walderhaltung (Wald situ , d. h. in Samenplantagen oder in Gen mehr Bedürfnisse einer immer größeren konvention) an. Wir wissen, dass noch banken). Ein Programm zum genetischen Bevölkerung zu befriedigen und gleich viele Details zu klären sind. Länder, die Langzeitmonitoring gern. Art. 7b des zeitig die schlimmsten Angriffe auf die noch zögern, möchten einfach besser Übereinkommens über biologische Viel Wälder, die von außen kommen, abzu informiert sein über Inhalte, Optionen, falt ist geplant. Auf europäischer Ebene wehren. Deutschland versucht dabei zu Vorteile der verschiedenen Optionen etc. wird im Rahmen des seit 1995 bestehen helfen: 250 Mio. DM werden jedes Jahr Deshalb wird sich Deutschland wei den Europäischen Programms für forst allein für forstliche Projekte in der terhin aktiv an den Arbeiten des zwi genetische Ressourcen (EUFORGEN) Welt bereitgestellt. Ländern, die die ge schenstaatlichen Waldforums (Intergo zusammengearbeitet. wünschte wirtschaftliche, technische und vernmental Forum on Forests, IFF) betei Zur Sicherung der Biodiversität in industrielle Entwicklung erleben, soll ligen, das bis zum Jahr 2000 den Beschluss Wäldern beschlossen die europäischen geholfen werden, in ihre Entwicklungs über ein eventuelles Verhandlungsman Forstminister soeben in Lissabon ein strategien frühzeitig den Schutz von dat für eine Waldkonvention vorbereiten umfangreiches Arbeitsprogramm, das Natur und Umwelt zu integrieren. Dies soll. Das IFF wird Ende August zu seiner 2. den Weg ebnen soll zu einem integrier führt zu wechselseitigem Geben und Neh Sitzung zusammentreten. ten Gesamtkonzept. Es soll nachhaltige men. Auch w ir wollen daraus lernen. Deutschland war auch Gastgeber Nutzung und Gebietsschutz, aber auch Diese Politik der Bundesregierung zur eines internationalen Experten-Work- Monitoring, Aufklärung und Weiterbil Erhaltung der Tropenwälder dient auch shops über nationale Forstprogramme, dung, Forschung und-besonders wichtig nicht zum geringsten Teil der Erhaltung der gestern endete. Nationale Forstpro - den immer noch notwendigen Schutz der biologischen Vielfalt. Die Tropenwäl gramme wurden, wie Sie sich erinnern der Wälder gegen Belastungen von der zählen zu den vielfältigsten und werden, von der Vorläuferorganisation außen (z. B. gegen Luftschadstoff- und artenreichsten Ökosystemen, die es auf des IFF, dem Zwischenstaatlichen Wald Nährstoffemissionen) behandeln. Um der Erde gibt, und es war die Sorge um ausschuss (Intergovernmental Panel on Fo Doppelarbeit zu vermeiden, wurde das die Erhaltung dieser Wälder, die mit zum rests, IPF) besonders empfohlen als geeig Arbeitsprogramm mit der europäischen Abschluss des Übereinkommens geführt netes Instrument zur Verwirklichung Umweltministerkonferenz abgestimmt. hat. Bei der Unterstützung von Tropen einer nachhaltigen Waldbewirtschaf- In Deutschland arbeiten Bund und ländern zur Erhaltung und nachhaltigen tung. Auch diese internationalen Aktivi Länder gemeinsam bereits an einem sol Bewirtschaftung ihrer Wälder verfolgt täten gehören zum forstpolitischen Kon chen integrierten Konzept. Auch die Ver die Bundesregierung einen integrativen zept von Bundesminister Borchert. Ich bände werden beteiligt werden. Speziell Ansatz. Es kann auch hier nicht einfach habe Ihnen daraus einige Gedanken vorge fü r die Forschung bleibt noch ein weites nur darum gehen, große Flächen unter tragen, auch um das Interesse deutlich zu Feld. Ich denke, dazu wird dieses Forum Schutz zu stellen. Die ansässige Bevölke machen, das der Schirmherr dieser Ver einiges ausführen. rung sollte nicht ausgeschlossen werden anstaltung beimisst. Aus den Ergebnissen Ich benutze die heutige Gelegenheit, von der Nutzung des Waldes, der gerade des Forums wollen wir lernen. Es ist also auch noch mehr Dialog zwischen Wissen in den Tropen meist nicht nur Holz, son durchaus Eigennutz im Spiel, wenn ich schaft und Politik über prioritären Infor dern eine Fülle weiterer Güter bietet. Die Ihnen den bestmöglichen Erfolg wünsche. mationsbedarf anzuregen. Wir finanzie Integration von Walderhaltung und Die Aufzählung von Aktivitäten zur ren in Deutschland z. B. ein Verbundpro Waldschutz, nachhaltiger Nutzung und Walderhaltung und zur Integration der jekt „Auswirkung forstlicher Maßnah ergänzenden Maßnahmen zur Verbesse Erhaltung der biologischen Vielfalt in die men und anderer Einflussfaktoren auf die rung der Lebensbedingungen der örtli nachhaltige Bewirtschaftung der Wälder Biodiversität in Wäldern". Dafür wurde chen Bevölkerung hat noch einen weite war nicht erschöpfend. Zu einem voll ein Simulationsmodell entwickelt, ge ren Vorteil. Wald erlangt über seinen ständigen Bild gehören auch die zahlrei nannt Ökogen, das auch in anderen Län Wert als Lebensraum hinaus einen w irt chen Initiativen von nichtstaatlichen dern Beachtung findet. Wir würden es schaftlichen Wert als Einkommensquelle. Organisationen sowie der Wissenschaft. z. B. begrüßen, wenn Vergleichsstudien Damit wächst die Bereitschaft der Men Hier reiht sich Ihre Veranstaltung vor wie die eingangs erwähnte auch in schen, sich für seinen Schutz einzusetzen. bildlich ein. anderen Waldgebieten durchgeführt Forstliche Projekte müssen ihrerseits würden. integriert werden in geeignete Landnut Anschrift des Verfassers: W ir würden es noch mehr begrüßen, zungskonzepte, die die Armut bekämp wenn solche Studien im Zusammenwir fen und Ernährung und Beschäftigung Ernst Wermann ken über Ländergrenzen hinweg betrie sichern. Die tieferen Ursachen der Wald German Federal Ministry of Food, ben werden könnten. Vielleicht kann das vernichtung liegen nämlich außerhalb Agriculture and Forestry Forum auch dazu Anstöße geben. IUFRO, der Forstwirtschaft. Von großer Bedeu Rochusstr. 1 CIFOR und das European Forest Institute tung ist auch die Lösung sozialer Proble D-53123 Bonn, Germany

14 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

of the Convention and we will then try to Challenges of Implementing elaborate under provision of the Con vention its institutional structure and the the Convention on processes on substantive elements which the parties have initiated to develop the Biological Diversity substantive provision of the Convention.

Zakri A. Hamid Biological Diversity

The term is used to describe the number Abstract house mechanism and a financial mecha and variety of living organisms. It is defi nism. ned in terms of genes, species and ecosys Biodiversity supports society in many Among the substantive elements of tems which are the outcome of 3.000 mil important and real ways. Food security, the Convention that have been delibera lion years of evolution. Although the con climatic stability, freshwater security and ted by the Parties are programs of work cept is not fully understood in terms of the health needs of humans around the on coastal and marine biodiversity, forest numbers of species and genes or even world all depend directly upon maintain biodiversity and agricultural biodiversity; what an ecosystem exactly is, it is widely ing and using the world's biodiversity. negotiations on a Biosafety Protocol; and accepted that globally biodiversity is More than 40% of the world's economy an international initiative to further con being lost at all levels. For example, cur and some 80% of the needs of the world's sider the rights of indigenous and local rent rates of extinction of species are poor are derived from biodiversity. Loss communities under the CBD. unprecedented which in turn directly of biological diversity threatens these ser The challenge for the process as it diminishes genetic variability. Ecosystems vices and hence society generally. moves into its implementation phase is to around the world are under increasing The Convention on Biological Diversi develop an approach which will find a pressure from human activities. ty (CBD) is an international treaty with balance between pursuing a truly holistic Biological diversity supports society in near universal membership (as of May and integrative approach demanded by many important and real ways. Food secu 1998,172 countries have ratified the Con the Convention whilst at the same time rity, climatic stability, fresh water security vention). It is conceived as an ambitious being focused enough to allow develop and the health needs of humans around project to arrest the pace of biodiversity ment of its provisions. the world all depend directly upon main destruction. The principal objectives of taining and using the world's biological the CBD are the conservation, sustainable Transcript of the presentation by diversity. More than 40% of the world's use and equitable sharing of the benefits Prof. Dato' Zakri A. Hamid based economy and some 80% of the needs of of the use of genetic resources. The CBD on tapes the world's poor are derived from biolo recognizes that the key to maintaining gical diversity. Loss of biological diversity biological diversity depends upon using Responsible editors: Inge Stein, Jutta threatens these services and consequent this diversity in a sustainable manner. A Poker ly society generally. Accordingly, the UN central purpose of the CBD is to promote In a world of increasing globalization Conference on Human Environment in the concept of sustainable development and environmental degradation, biologi Stockholm in 1972 identified as a priority as envisaged in the instruments arising cal diversity is one of the outstanding is the need for the conservation of biologi from the UNCED process with which the sues which humankind has to address in cal diversity. The number of international CBD was negotiated contemporaneously. order to survive. It is a common concern legal instruments related to biological The CBD is therefore not simply a conser to all of us and therefore not surprising diversity adopted during the 1970s reflect vation treaty: It assumes human use and that biological diversity is along with cli such a priority. The Ramsar Convention on benefit as the fundamental purpose for mate change addressed by the interna Wetlands in 1971, the Convention for the achieving its objectives. tional community not only in political but Protection of the World Cultural and The Convention translates its objec also in legal terms. The Convention on Natural Heritage in 1972, the Convention tives in its normative provisions contained Biological Diversity (CBD) is an interna on International Trade in Endangered in Article 6 to 20. These articles contain tional treaty with near universal mem Species of Wild Fauna and Flora in 1973 key provisions on: measures for the con bership. It entered into force five years and the Bern Convention on the Conser servation of biodiversity, both in s itu and ago and now has established most of the vation of Migratory Species or Wild Ani ex s itu ; incentives for the conservation elements required to be operational. mals in 1979 are a testimony to these and sustainable use of biodiversity; re Attention within the process is now efforts and the importance attached to search; education; assessing the environ moving towards implementation. By a the issues by the international communi mental impacts of projects; regulating way of context and in order to understand ty. However, these early initiatives em access to genetic resources and the tech the issues at stake in this move towards phasize conservation. It is only through nology to use these resources; and, finan implementation, I will briefly describe the the report 'Our Common Future', the cial resources. The Convention also estab importance of biodiversity and the history 1978 report of the World Commission on lishes the standard institutional ele Environment and Development, that strides the new challenge facing the ments of a modern treaty, namely a COP, * Chairman, Subsidiary Body on Science, Technical & Techno a Secretariat, advisory bodies, a clearing logical Advice (SBSTTA), Convention on Biological Diversity conservation and sustainable use.

15 Zakri • Challenges of Implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity

History of the CBD ■ assessing the environmental impacts does also have the potential to cause of projects harm to the environment and human The origin or the negotiation of the Con ■ regulating access to genetic resources health. Mindful of these dangers, the COP vention lies in the 1987 Governing Coun and the technology to use these resources established an ad hoc Working Group of cil of UNEP which called upon UNEP to ■ financial resources. Experts on bio-safety to develop an inter convene an ad hoc Working Group of The Convention also establishes the nationally legally binding Protocol, speci Experts on biological diversity forthe har standard institutional elements of a fically focusing on the transboundary monization of the existing conventions modern treaty, namely the Conference of movement of any living modified organ related to biological diversity. At its first the Parties (COP), a Secretariat, advisory ism that may have an adverse impact on meeting the group of experts agreed on bodies, a clearing house mechanism and the conservation and sustainable use of the need to elaborate an internationally a financial mechanism. Article 23 estab biodiversity. These negotiations have binding instrument on biological diversi lishes a Conference of the Parties which been conducted in earnest, and it is anti ty. This was followed in May 1989 by an is the supreme party of the Convention. cipated that it should complete its work ad hoc Working Group of Experts on bio The principle function of the COP is to early next year in 1999. logical diversity. In February 1990 the ad regularly review the implementation of ■ Another issue that has been brought hoc Working Group was turned into the the Convention. Today, the COP has met up by the Convention will be on the ma Intergovernmental Negotiating Commit fourtimes, in the Bahamas in 1994, Jakar rine and coastal biodiversity. At the tee which held seven working sessions, ta in 1995, Buenos Aires in 1996 and second meeting of the COP a program of which combined, in adoption of the recently in Bratislava in May 1998. work was initiated known as the Jakarta Nairobi Final Act of the conference, the Some of the components of the Con Mandate which proposes a framework agreed text of the CBD. The Convention vention will be the Secretariat and also for global actions to maintain marine and was opened for signature in June 1992 the SBSTTA, the Subsidiary Body on Scien coastal biodiversity. during UNCED and entered into force on tific, Technical and Technological Advice, ■ An issuewhich ismostpertinenttothe 29 December 1993. As of May 1998, that a mechanism of provision of financial scheduling in this turn will be on forests. is at the fourth Conference of Parties resources, namely at this point the Global As we are fully aware, forests provide the in Bratislava, 172 countries and the Environment Facility (GEF) which is most diverse sets of habitats for plants, European Union have ratified the Con deemed asan interim basis to operate the animals and micro-organisms, holding vention and further 18 countries have financial mechanism of the Convention, the vast majority of the world's terrestri signed it. and also the establishment of the Clear al species. Consequently, the mainte There are some provisions which are ing House Mechanism to promote and nance of forest ecosystems is crucial to the important in the context of the treaty. facilitate technical and scientific co-oper conservation of biological diversity and The principle objectives, as we are fully ation. In this last context the government degradation of forests has a dramatic aware, are three prongs, namely the con of Germany has been very forthcoming in impact on biodiversity. The importance of servation, sustainable use and equitable supporting the establishment and also forests for the purposes of the Conven sharing of the benefits of the use of the implementation of the Clearing tion and the mandate of the CBD in genetic resources. The Convention recog House Mechanism. issues of forest biological diversity has nizes that the key to maintaining bio The nature of the issues which the been confirmed repeatedly by the COP. As logical diversity depends upon using this Convention seeks to address means that for now, focus work program for forest diversity in a sustainable manner. A cen it is heavily dependent on the effective biological diversity has been on the card, tral purpose of the BCD is to promote the ness of the actions of parties in other insti whereby some elements for such a work concept of sustainable development as tutions. The need to develop institutional program include focus on research, envisaged in the instruments arising from links with other international bodies, to co-operation and development of tech the UNCED process w ith which the CBD develop co-operative relationships with nologies necessary for the conservation was negotiated contemporaneously. such bodies and hands-mechanism for and sustainable use of forest biological Therefore, the CBD is not simply a con coordinating this relationship is funda diversity. The program will also compli servation treaty. It assumes human use mental to the implementation of the ment existing national, regional or inter and benefit as the fundamental purpose CBD. The importance of co-operation and national criteria and indicators of frame for achieving its objectives. The Conven co-ordination between the CBD and works for sustainable forest management tion translates its guiding principles of other conventions, institutions and pro and it would also incorporate traditional conservation, sustainable use and equi cesses of relevance has been affirmed at systems of forest biological diversity con table sharing of genetic resources into every meeting of the COP. Consequently, servation. This will build upon the co-oper binding commitments in its normative it is not accurate to simply think of the ation with other relevant fora that the provisions contained in article 6-20. institutional structure of the Convention CBD has already undertaken, e. g. the These include key provision on: in terms of those institutions established close linkage that we have with the Inter ■ measures for the conservation of bio by the process itself. governmental Forum on Forest. logical diversity, both in s itu and e x situ Some of the substantive elements of ■ Another main issue dealt by the CBD ■ incentives for conservation and the Convention are the following: will be agriculture and, as we know, pro sustainable use ■ Bio-safety is an important issue. De moting sustainable agriculture and rural ■ research spite the considerable benefits which bio development have been acknowledged ■ education technology may bring, the technology within the CBD as central to achieving the

16 NNA-Reports Vol. 12/1999, Special Issue No. 2

Contents Page Introduction of 'Forests in Focus' 3 Sayer, J. Congress Recommendations 4 Samper, C. Recommendations WS Biodiversity as Value in Society 6 Schütz, J.-P. Recommendations WS Biodiversity as a Resource 7 Posey, D. A. Recommendations WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity 8 Zakri A. H. Recommendations WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity 9

Congress Programme Wermann, E. Opening Address 13 Zakri A. H. Challenges of Implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity 15 Barthlott, W. et al. Biodiversity - The Uneven Distribution of a Treasure 18 Iwand, W. M. Supporting Biodiversity: Taking the Benefit of Tourism into Account 29 Palmberg-Lerche, C. Conservation of Biological Diversity, w ith Special Reference to the Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources 32 Turok, J. Regional Collaboration on Forest Genetic Resources: Conserving a Common Heritage 39 Olson, D. M. & E. Dinerstein The Global 200: A Representation Approach to Conserving the Earth's Most Biologically Valuable Ecoregions 40 Boyle, Tim. The Impacts of Human Activities on Biodiversity in Natural Tropical Forests 50

Workshop Biodiversity as Value in Society Ramos, A. The Link between Value, Biodiversity Loss and Policy Design: A Case Study in the Bajo Atrato, Colombia 53 Nader, W. Biodiversity - Source of Inspiration and Innovation 54 Forje, J. W. Conserving Biological Diversity in Cameroon's Forests: Problems and Prospects for the Future 60 Walker, R. & Ch. Wood Conserving the Tropical Resource Base: Do we Title Land or Organize Community? 68 Anane, M. Role of the Media in Biodiversity Conservation: Challenges and Opportunities 69

Workshop Biodiversity as a Resource Geldenhuys, C. J. Requirements for Improved and Sustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity: Examples of Multiple Use of Forests in South Africa 72 Scherzinger, W. Importance of Vertical Stratification and Horizontal Patchiness Concerning Species-Diversity in Managed Forests - A Comparison 83 Kushalappa, C. G. & K. A. Kushalappa Impact Assessment of Working of Western Ghats Forests 85 Kleinschmit, J. Is Normal Forest Management Able to Conserve Rare Species? 86 Hanewinkel, M. Successful Examples of Multiple Forest Use - the Model of Selection Forests 90 Niño, E. & J. Bittner Reserva Natural La Planada - 15 Years Experience in Protection, Conservation and Research for a Sustainable Development 93 Geldenhuys, C. J. Potential of and Development for Ecotourism in the Tsingy de Bemaraha near Bekopaka, Madagascar 95 Sunaryo Ecotourism is a Viable Way of Using Resources 102

Workshop Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity Posey, D. A. Cultural and Spiritual Values of Forests and Biodiversity: Valuing the Knowledge of Indigenous and Traditional Peoples 103

Schilder, K. Sustainable Use of the Galip Nut Canarium indicum and Rainforest Conservation on Siassi, Papua New Guinea 211

2 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

Forests in Focus Time Schedule Between 1998 and 2000, five fora take within the framework of 'WELTFORUM WALD', place. With respect to the multiple func official project of the World Exposition 2000 tions of forests, the fora focus from d if ferent perspectives on the worldwide sustainable co-existence of mankind and A series of fora focusing on global forests Toepfer Academy for Nature Conser forest: issues aims at achieving consensus among vation (NNA). Forests and Energy (To what extent can relevant interest parties on tools and con The project includes various activities forests contribute to the world's future cepts to sustainably develop the world's and exemplary projects demonstrating energy supply?) January, 1998 forests. The project 'Forests in Focus' adds sustainable management and use of Biodiversity-Treasures in the World's operative recommendations for solving forests to local people and international Forests (Prospects of conservation, use environmental problems concerning visitors (reafforestation of degraded and sustainable development of biodi forests to current political negotiations heathland, redevelopment of former versity in forests) July, 1998 and scientific meetings in the field of fore military areas, environmentally sound Forests Source of Raw Material stry. The fora act as an agent between po wooden buildings, thermal use of wood, (Potentials of forest products' use and litics, economics, science and public and use of non-timber products, management marketing) May, 1999 provide condensed up-to-date knowl of a nature reserve and tourism, etc.). Forests and Atmosphere-Water-Soil edge as well as agreed upon proposals Within this frame, 'Forests in Focus' (Regulation of energy and matter cycles for action adequate to target groups. forms the professional backbone. The with respect to climate change, water Thus, 'Forests in Focus' supports the local fora address institutions and social parties cycles and soil degradation) July, 1999. implementation of guidelines on forest concerned with forests, particularly those Forests and Society (Interrelation of management and enforces the forest which cultures and environment, public aware related parts of the Agenda 21 process. ■ are directly connected to forests, ness, public participation; integration of ■ play an active role in forest manage recommendations of the former fora) Background ment November, 1999. ■ are affected by forest management. The final events will be the presenta The World Exposition 'EXPO 2000 Han Thefora intend to encouragethe rele tions of the results and recommendations nover' presents the concept of sustaina vant social parties to participate effi of all fora at the EXPO 2000 in Hannover ble development as agreed upon in the ciently in decision making on forest in Summer 2000 and at the congress Agenda 21 at the UNCED 1992 in Rio de issues, thus promoting the worldwide Sustainability in Time and Space - in Janeiro. EXPO 2000 includes various implementation of the recommendations cooperation with PRO SILVA (Implemen worldwide decentralised projects. One of of the Agenda 21. tation of forest management guidelines these, 'WELTFORUM WALD' (World in divergent forest types.) June, 2000. Forum on Forests) has been initiated by Auspices authorities of the district Soltau-Falling- bostel, Northern Germany, the Associa 'Forests in Focus' is performed under the tion for the Protection of Forests and auspices of the Federal Minister of Food, Woodlands (SDW), the Forestry Com Agriculture and Forestry, Mr. Karl-Heinz mission of Lower Saxony and the Alfred Funke.

3 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

cial and economic conditions of a loca Biodiversity: tion as well as on the biophysical charac teristics of the forests and their biodiversity. Treasures in the World's Forests ■ Solutions appropriate to the biologi cally simple forests of temperate and Concluding Statement of the Forum boreal countries with advanced econo mies may not be applicable to the biolog Chairman: Prof. Jeff Sayer, Centre for International Research in Forestry ically much richer forests of the less devel (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia oped economies of tropical regions. ■ Economics has a valuable role to play in helping to make better decisions relat In an event leading up to the EXPO 2000 emerged as major themes of the forum: ing to biodiversity but participants were Hannover World Exposition a group of ■ The divergence between biodiversity concerned that conventional economics 150 scientists, foresters, conservation as seen by "Western" science and as seen does not yet adequately capture many of practitioners and concerned individuals by the diverse communities of people the cultural, spiritual or ecological values from 35 countries met for four days by more directly in contact with biodiversity of biodiversity. invitation of the Alfred Toepfer Academy in the forests: "Science" tends to reduce The forum recognized the valuable for Nature Conservation at Schneverdin- biodiversity to components through lists achievements of the processes occurring gen in Lower Saxony to discuss the issues of species, hot spots, biodiversity indices under the Convention on Biological confronting the use and conservation of etc. whereas most cultures see biodiversi Diversity and the great potential of the the world's forest biodiversity. On the first ty in terms of assemblages of species and CBD to have real impacts on the ground. day a plenary session was held at which attach values according to the ecological It saw the CBD as continuing to be the 9 papers on different aspects of biodiver services provided and the many uses prime focus for international action but sity were presented. On subsequent days made of these assemblages, many of recognized that there are limits to what the forum worked in four parallel ses which may be of cultural and spiritual sig can be achieved through "intergovern sions but gathered in plenary each eve nificance. Participants stressed that the m e n ta l" action and that there is a need ning to review the results of the day's "whole" assemblage of biodiversity (eco for parallel actions at the national and work and consider general conclusions logical and human communities) have local levels and in the corporate sector. and recommendations. A numberof tech greatervaluethan the "sum" of the parts. The forum also noted the potential nical papers were presented at each ■ The erosion of our knowledge of for the Intergovernmental Forum on workshop but considerable time was allo biodiversity caused by the loss of local cul Forests to play an important role but felt cated for debate. Transcripts of the papers tures and languages: Since value is not an that the IFF had as yet only made modest presented and summaries of the debates, intrinsic feature of biodiversity but is a progress on biodiversity. The IFF also has conclusions and recommendations of function of our knowledge of any species potential but again it was emphasized each workshop will be provided in the or community this loss of knowledge that intergovernmental negotiation is record of the Forum in the near future. represents a loss of value and undermines not a substitute for local action. The Forum was characterized by the the stability of communities and their The workshops elaborated a number of great diversity of the participants, many conservation. conclusions and recommendations which of whom had not previously met. ■ The relative merits of biodiversity con are included in their reports. The work Amongst the participants were people servation being an indispensable compo shop recommendations are not repeated who had been closely involved in the nent of integrated multiple-use forest here, instead this summary presents a various international and intergovern management systems as in much of cen number of more general conclusions and mental processes dealing with biodiver tral Europe or alternative approaches recommendations which emerged from sity, but others were people more con based on a clear segregation between the discussions. These are presented as a cerned with practical conservation on the "production forests" and "conservation record of our views and are addressed to ground. Yet others came from industry, forests" as in Australia, New Zealand and the participants in international debates research institutes and NGOs. There were some tropical countries. on biodiversity as well as to "actors" in several persons from cultural minorities in ■ The potential impacts on biodiversity society whose activities have an impact on tropical developing countries. A signifi of the globalization of economies and the forests and their biodiversity. cant number of participants had personal "information technology" revolution: ■ The work of the CBD has benefited experience of the management of central Globalization will lessen the "control" greatly from contributions provided by European woodlands for biodiversity. that sovereign governments can exercise science. However the full potential of the Everyone took part in their personal capa over their natural resources whilst the scientific community has notyet been mobi cities and discussions were frank and free. greatly improved communications result lized. It is recommended that there should There was no attempt to conduct a ing from information technology should be greater engagement of social scientists comprehensive review of all global forest lead to greater empowerment of hither familiar with traditional ecological knowl biodiversity issues. The group focussed on to marginal peoples. edge (TEK), and of practitioners of "infor those issues that it considered to be of par ■ The recognition that solutions to bio mal" science - the specialists, often from ticular concern and for which it had spe diversity problems will usually be loca cultural minorities, who are the reposito cial competence. The following therefore tion-specific and will depend on the so ries of much traditional knowledge.

4 Biodiversity - Treasures in the World's Forests: Congress Recommendations

■ Economic analysis has a major role to ■ Developing countries and cultural ■ Information gives value to biodiversi play in improving decision making on minorities ought in principle to be able to ty. The globalization of information forest biodiversity but it is recommended derive greater economic benefits from systems creates opportunities but also that further development of techniques the exploitation of their biodiversity for creates some threats. Information may is needed to recognize the values that dif use in the pharmaceutical, fibre, food and not be available equally to all stakehold ferent cultures attach to biodiversity and technology based industries. There is ers. it is therefore recommended that to better capture the cultural, spiritual however a danger that the benefits of the recording and protection of tradition and functional values of biodiversity. "bio-prospecting" accrue largely to indus al information be given more attention ■ "Western" science and "economic try and not to the communities of people and that attempts be made to make infor globalization" may tend to favor out who are the traditional users of the mation available locally so as to counter comes in which biodiversity conservation resource. It is recommended that bio-pros the present trend towards domination by (nature reserves) are segregated from pecting be promoted as a legitimate way a small minority of global news and infor production forests (plantations). It was to access a valuable natural resource but mation sources. noted that these tendencies may run that institutional arrangements to en ■ Protecting forests and biodiversity counter to the interests of cultural mino sure the equitable sharing of benefits be requires protecting the cultural and lin rities for whom integrated multiple-use further studied and where appropriate guistic diversity of indigenous peoples. solutions may be more desirable. It is strengthened. Scientists must recognize that the existing therefore recommended that bio-regio ■ It was recognized that biotechnology biodiversity paradigm has in the past nal approaches be adopted for conser can play a major role in determining the been misused to alienate and disenfran vation planning with full participation of future uses of components of biodiversi chise peoples from their spiritual and all concerned people in order to optimize ty. Genetic engineering and other mole natural resources and that future scientif all products and services of forests and cular biology techniques have allowed ic endeavors must be built upon recog achieve better allocation of land. the transfer of genes between species. nition of basic rights and recognition of ■ There has been considerable achieve This results in many new options and may traditional ecological knowledge. ment in central Europe in reconciling lead to increased economic benefits. natural forest management and the con However great uncertainty persists on the servation of biodiversity. Whilst recogniz possible impacts of genetically modified Chairman's address: ing that this experience cannot be trans organisms on humans and on biodiversi ferred directly into the very different con- ty as a whole. In this context the protocol Prof. Jeff Sayer ditions of the biodiverse forests of the tro on biosafety under negotiation within Centre for International Research in Fore pics it is nonetheless recommended that the CBD is an important contribution. In stry (CIFOR) attempts to achieve biodiversity conser this context it is recommended that tech P.O. Box 6596 JKPWB vation in the context of locallydriven mul nology transfer (including biotechnolo Jakarta 10065, Indonesia tiple-use forest management systems in gy) and capacity building in developing e-mail: [email protected] the tropics should be vigorously pursued. countries should be facilitated and bio ■ Protected areas allocated primarily safety considerations should be incorpo for biodiversity will remain a central ele rated in the development of forest man ment of conservation. It is recommended agement practices and products. that renewed efforts be made under the ■ Non-timber forest products are a vital CBD and IFF to achieve the medium-term resource for very large numbers of peo security of a core set of forests sites of ple in the forested regions of the world. recognized international value for forest The value of this resource is often under biodiversity and that opportunities alrea estimated in formal decision making, dy provided by ongoing activities such as partly because many of the products are the WWF "Global 200 forest ecoregions" not traded in the formal economy. It is program and the forest initiative under recommended that greater attention be the World Heritage Convention be sup given to the sustainability of NTFP resour ported. ces in multiple-use systems and that the ■ Although Integrated Conservation interests of the people who depend upon and Development Programs have been a them be given greater weight in deci principal mechanism of channeling inter sions relating to the use of forest lands. national support to the conservation of ■ Technological options exist to restore forest biodiversity, these have in general forest cover of degraded lands in many produced disappointing results. It is parts of the world. At present much refor recommended that ICDP approaches estation and afforestation uses tech should be led by local communities and niques which lead to biologically impov not imposed upon them and that the like erished forests. It is recommended that lihood of ICDPs succeeding will be enhan greater attention be given to increasing ced if they are based upon local under the species richness of artificially estab standing and valuation of biodiversity. lished forests.

5 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

There are a lot of successful silvicul Workshop: tural concepts respecting multiple use conditions (selection forest, regenera Biodiversity as a Resource tion systems respecting need for hori zontal structure or patchiness). They Chairman: Prof. Dr. Jean-Philippe Schütz, Dept. Forestry and Wood should be enlarged for a wider applica Research, ETH Zürich, Switzerland tion. b) ex situ policy: Find out sound ways of supporting Preamble using biodiversity or its components have conservation goals. M ultiple use does a positive or negative influence on over not seem to be the only correct solution, The perception for the notion of biodi all conservation targets. but there is a strong necessity for solu versity is different between industrialized tions integrated in coherent management countries, in international organizations Recommendations: concepts. They must include welfare of and countries of the South. Within indu the local population. strialized countries the nature conserva For debating coherency it is necessary to Importance of ecotourism: Interest of tion movements (governmental and non distinguish the two different ways to companies are too strong and negative governmental) utilize the notion of Biodi conceive promoting of biodiversity. There impacts of tourism are too serious. Eco versity to validate and promote nature is a strong interest to develop jointly both tourism would be perceived as a kind of conservation policies and to raise a- policies because their effects converge. neocolonialism if the principle of causali wareness of a sound lifestyle for the pre a) in situ policy: How to live in har ty is not respected. External costs have to servation of the environment. They refer mony with nature be internalized to the local populations. to Agenda 21 of the Rio Conference. Identify the way of cohabitation with There are many successful projects International oriented organizations regard to the different needs and uses. which are integrating respectfully the have mostly other perceptions of the sig Multiple uses represent a relevant way main constraints in different regions of nificance of biodiversity, more as awa of solution. It is important to find out the world. reness of necessities to preserve global win-win solutions in respect of all inter There is a vast need for research, espe biodiversity where it is endangered world est. The development of a close-to-na- cially respecting the long run and the slow wide. Therefore there are tw o very differ ture silviculture including a network of pre reaction of forest on impacts and its resi ent angles regarding the priorities and served areas has been recognized as a liency. The reaction of forest ecosystems measures concerning solutions. relevant prospect. In the future silvicul to different kinds of perturbations inclu These two different meanings and tural solutions should be enlarged with sive pests requires further research. perceptions for biodiversity, one more or respect to a combination of diverse silvi less in situ perception and the other ex cultural techniques (so called polyvalent situ perception, had initially some influ silviculture) combined with accessory Chairman's address: ence on coherency of discussion in the prerequisites (dead wood). workshop. They are not exclusive mutual In a definition of biodiversity in this Prof. Dr. Jean-Philippe Schütz ly, on the contrary; awareness of rich sense it is necessary to include the syne- ETH Center populations of the necessity of global cological dimension for biocenotic coha Dept, of Forestry and Wood Research conservation could begin with develop bitation, and a genetical dimension in CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland ing awareness for harmonic behaviour relation with evolutionary conditions. e-mail: [email protected] with one's own environment. It seems Biodiversity is to be interpreted as evo realistic to combine these two methods of lutionary continuum. realization. Biodiversity has its own value. It The declared aim of Workshop II was could be defined as 'indigenous life form to discuss whether economical returns of patterns'.

7 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

prevailing scientific/economic paradigm Workshop: has been used to separate indigenous peoples from their land bases and natur Interrelationship of al and intellectual resources by ignoring their cultural and spiritual values. This Cultural and Biological Diversity dominant, top-down approach has fuel led biopiracy and other forms of exploi Chairm an: Prof. Darrell Posey, Institute o f Social and Cultural tation and destruction of bio-cultural Anthropology, Oxford, United Kingdom diversity. 4 -Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) encodes the relationship of human 1 - Historically, indigenous and tradition ists, often expressed through the collec beings with their natural and spiritual al peoples have been seen only as inha tive knowledge of gender and age environment. It is holistic and encapsu bitants of the forest and objects of study groups, lineages, clans and local associa lates intellectual, cultural, spiritual, beha like 'natural species'. However, since the tions; vioural and material elements transferred Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) ■ the central importance of land, terri over generations, including: was signed in Rio in 1992, 'knowledge torial and tenural rights, given that many ■ perceptions, beliefs, cosmologies, innovations and practices' of 'indigenous state policies alienate community lands attitudes, opinions, practices, experien and local communities embodying tradi and resources; ces, skills, technologies, traditions, inno tional lifestyles' (Art. 8—j), customary prac ■ the identification of who precisely are vations, tice (Art. 10-c), and traditional technolo 'indigenous peoples' should principally ■ artefacts, tools, and other material gies (Art. 18-4) have been guaranteed by be left with the peoples and communities objects, over 177 signatory countries. Increasingly, themselves to decide, as guaranteed by ■ trees, seeds, plants, crops, animals, international organisations (including the UN Working Group on Indigenous ■ local institutions, such as women UNESCO, FAO, UNEP, ILO, WTO, UNDP, Peoples, ILO, and the Draft Declaration on groups, tenure systems, healers associa IUCN, etc.) are recognising the central the Rights of Indigenous Peoples; tions, importance of local communities and ■ nation state sovereignty cannot over ■ procedures, processes and local au their traditional ecological knowledge - ride basic indigenous and human rights. thority structures, expressed in their languages and cultures 2 - There is an "inextricable link" be TEK should not be seen in opposition - in the conservation of forests and biodi tween linguistic, cultural and biological to 'Scientific Ecological Knowledge'. versity. diversity. Indigenous and local peoples Rather, common ground, complementa This includes the recognition of: see language, culture, nature and land as rity, collaboration and synergism should ■ the active participation of communi intimately related parts of the same be sought to better tackle the conserva ties in all phases of biodiversity conserva whole. Language is the main carrier of tion of forests and biodiversity. Both are tion and forest management; culture and main instrument for creating, part of the same human endeavour to ■ destruction of forest resources pro transmitting and developing knowledge, create order out of disorder; vokes loss of knowledge and cultures, including knowledge about the environ The TEK approach specifically focuses ignoring the fundamental importance of ment, the forests and biodiversity; on the philosophies and cosmovisions on the spiritual connection with the land and ■ The loss of linguistic diversity is esti which indigenous peoples base their man nature; mated to be even greater and faster than agement and conservation perceptions ■ sacred sites as centres of important the loss of biodiversity (possibly up to 90% and practices, but it also develops specific forest and biological diversity, and that of the 5-7000 existing languages becom research methodologies to extrapolate many presumed 'natural ecosystems' ing extinct before the end of the next 'subjective' factors atthe individual level to have been moulded by human interven century). This loss of languages leads to 'objective' variables at the system level; tion as anthropogenic or cultural land loss of knowledge, including ecological TEK is relevant for bio-cultural diver scapes (as recognised by the UNESCO knowledge, with grave consequences for sity conservation & management of forest World Heritage Convention); humans and the earth. resources, as it: ■ biodiversity as being holistic and insep ■ Therefore, indigenous and local peo ■ provides new opportunities for colla arable from the human family and society, ples are engaging in a struggle to main borative R&D and therefore can never be reduced tain or revitalise their languages and cul ■ provides alternatives for sustainable merely to components or molecules; tures at the same time that they struggle use ■ the need for consent and benefit-shar to preserve or recover their lands and ■ provides indigenous environmental ing agreements including full disclosure, resources. assessment prior informed consent and equity; 3 - In view of these international ■ provides alternative conservation ■ indigenous and traditional peoples' activities and processes, the 'ecodiversity- methods & practices alliances and the need to support their geodiversity-biodiversity' model (expres ■ contributes to the development of own efforts and activities, and especially sed in the opening session of this confer alternative philosophies of nature and their self-determination; ence) must include cultural and language the environment ■ specialised knowledge of women, diversity of different peoples, and their ■ contributes to the policy planning & elders, children and knowledge special knowledge systems. Unfortunately, the implementation process at various levels.

8 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

Recommendations: versity paradigm has been misused to Chairman's address: alienate and disenfranchise peoples from 1. Protecting forests and biodiversity re their spiritual and natural resources, and Prof. Darrell Posey quires protecting the cultural and lingu that future scientific endeavours must be Institute of Social and Cultural Anthro istic diversity of the indigenous peoples, built upon: pology traditional societies, and local communi S recognition of basic rights including 51 Banbury Road ties living in forests and other biodiversi full disclosure to, prior informed consent Oxford 0X2 6PE, United Kingdom ty-rich environments - including their from and authorisation by the local com e-mail: [email protected] cultural and spiritual values. munities and appropriate representati 2. The land, territorial and human rights ves; - including linguistic and cultural rights — ■ recognition and use of Traditional of these groups must be recognised w ith Ecological Knowledge; in the principle of self-determination to ■ collaborative research and develop guarantee negotiation and representa ment of the role of the researcher as a tion as equal parties at all levels and in all true partner in biodiversity conservation; processes that affect them. ■ equitable benefit-sharing with local 3. Scientists must recognise that the groups. existing biodiversity-geodiversity-ecodi

- specific attention to the roles and Workshop: involvement of women - realistic attention to the priority Tools and Measures for Conservation, social welfare needs of the community - effective local stakeholder dialogue Rehabilitation and mechanisms - development and use of conflict Development of Biodiversity resolution skills and mechanisms - attention to the social geography of Chairman: Prof. Dato' Zakri A. Hamid, University Kebangsaan, Malaysia the "community" - not all groups of peo ple living together are cohesive commu nities! Principal Conclusions and uses of biological resources are sustaina "In stimulating sustainable forestry Recommendations ble, and more equitable sharing of the for rural development it is importantthat benefits of the uses of biodiversity. local people should not be conceived as I Cross-Cutting Concerns This requires new processes for invol an unnatural factor to forests, but rather ving a broader range of "stakeholders" in as a highly specialized ecological agent Protected Areas remain a keystone for decision-making and management. acting within the forest." conserving forest biodiversity, but will We must deepen our knowledge of never be large enough to comprehensi biodiversity and ecological processes - as vely conserve the full range of forest well as related socio-economic issues II Can Biodiversity be Conserved biodiversity. -and disseminate that information in ways in Large Scale Timber Production A broader "bioregional" approach to that are useful to biodiversity managers Forests? biodiversity conservation is therefore and policy makers. necessary, which incorporates BD conser Public awareness, through schools There are great ecological differences vation objectives into timber production, and training centers and the media, is very between tropical and temperate forests, plantation development, agriculture, and important for building public support for and between the socio-economic and other resource uses - and promotes job biodiversity conservation. governmental structures in which they creation to draw people away from the Community participation in biodiver are managed (or mismanaged). forest frontier. sity conservation is a crucial tool for suc Experience from Sweden shows that A bioregional approach under both cess across many types of forests and biodiversity conservation objectives can qualitative and quantitative aspects in forest uses. Some key tools for encour be successfully integrated into large- turn requires a broader conception of aging community participation are: scale timber production in a temperate, "biodiversity conservation" including not - the role of NGOs as catalysts and developed country with a large forest only protection, but also ensuring that communicators products industry. Timber certification

9 Biodiversity: Workshop: Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity has been an important tool fordoing this - Some of the most important pro component of fibre production system in in Sweden. Certification can also be a fea tected areas in the world should perhaps the 21st Century. sible way to promote BD-friendly ways of be designated as world heritage sites Current timber plantation models, producing NTFP goods and services. under the world heritage convention. however, are not supportive of biodiver Under present institutional condi sity - often they are replacing diverse tions in most major tropical timber pro IV Non-Timber (Non-Wood) natural forests, and are in many cases ducing countries large-scale logging is a Forest Products and Services composed of monocultural stands. major catalyst for processes of forest de Innovative technologies and manage gradation and biodiversity loss. NTFPs add value to the forest resource, ment strategies that better incorporate Nevertheless, since large-scale timber particularly for local communities, pro biodiversity into plantation planning, sit production from natural forests is likely mote strategies and measures to increase ing, species composition, and manage to continue in both temperate and tro its production and provide an incentive to ment are urgently needed. pical areas, development of both techni conserve the forest. Apart from reinforcing traditional cal and institutional innovations to NTFPs are not, in many places, agroforestry systems the socio-economic improve the prospects for biodiversity in "m inor" forest products - rattan, forest- dimensions of plantation establishment production forests must be a priority. One related fisheries, aquaculture and hunt (e.g. displacement of local farming com way in which such biodiversity and the ing, and many leaves and nuts in India are munities who then turn to the natural ecological processes that maintain biodi examples. But it is difficult to quantify forest for subsistence) must be carefully versity may be protected isthrough a net their value, as many NTFPs do not enter considered as well. work of protected areas including habi formal markets. Restoration of natural forest ecosys tats w ithin production forests. As market access grows, however, the tems is technically feasible in many cases, risk of over-exploitation becomes acute, and should be utilized for restoring de Ill Protected Areas even for NTFP uses that were formerly graded parts of forests landscapes. "traditional" and "sustainable." Tree plantings do have a catalytic Historical concepts of protected areas as Forest-related fisheries and aquacul effect on the regeneration of native pristine ecosystems walled off from ture (e.g. flooded forests and pond- shade-tolerant forest species and there human influence have failed in many systems of the Amazon, mangroves of SE fore restoration of native forest biodi parts of the world - pressures from local Asia) are an extremely important NTFP versity, across a broad range of site con needs and larger-scale development with key nutritional as well as income ditions under many different plantation activities (and global markets) are too benefits for local communities. species. Planting of fast growing, useful strong, while defensive measures are too Given the high economic and conser tree species, preferably native species, weak. vation value of NTFPs, policies need to be could therefore be used efficiently to Recent efforts in developing countries changed to provide greater incentives for restore the biodiversity and productivity to establish "integrated conservation and their sustainable utilization. of degraded land. development projects" (ICDPs) sound Biodiversity prospecting forthe devel Recent developments of "carbon good in theory, but have largely failed to opment of new pharmaceuticals, pesti forestry" as presently often used in the conserve the core protected areas they cides, transgenic plants gain increasing context of the Climate Change Conven are intended to serve. importance and will contribute signifi tion have increasingly become a source of Needed is a new "bioregional" cantly to the valorization of forests. funding for biodiversity conservation. approach with three key elements: Royalty agreements, technology transfer However, it is crucial that the imperative - Planning and management of biodi and adding value to primary materialsfor of tree-planting to sequester carbon do versity and related human activities across product development within the source not become an excuse for the replace whole landscapes-including urban, indus country are important conditions and ment of natural forests with plantations. trial, and demographic factors - with a implicated by the CBD. related broadening of the sectors and Whole forest product and services can Chairman's address: stakeholders involved in the process. contribute significantly to human welfare - A return to stricter protection - and might include carbon, oxygen, water, Prof. Dato' Zakri A. Hamid backed by adequate resources - for areas litter, honey, habitats of fauna, landscape, Deputy Vice-Chancellor where biodiversity conservation is a top recreation, education, ecotourism and Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia priority and is not compatible with units of unique scientific value. 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia human uses (e.g. tigers versus farmers). As NTFPs increasingly enter main e-mail: [email protected] - Transition from state- and corpo stream markets, local economic institu rate-dominated forest ownership and con tions must be developed (e.g. co-opera trol to far wider applications of commu tives) to ensure that local people receive nity-based and community-managed fair prices and improved market access for forestry in non-core areas their NTFPs. - Equitable sharing of burdens and benefits, with specific attention to the V Restoration and Rehabilitation rights of indigenous communities with long-standing claims on forest areas. Timber plantations are going to be a key

10 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

Congress Programme

Friday, 3 July 1998

Ellenberg, H. Round Table: How to Count and Compare Biological Diversity in Forests? Definitions and Decisions needed

Saturday, 4 July 1998

Schreiner, J. Opening address Vauk, G. Opening address Wermann, E. Opening address Key-notes Sayer, J. Introduction Zakri A. H. Challenges of Implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity Barthlott, W. The Uneven Distribution of a Treasure Ganguly, A. Drugs from Natural Sources Iwand, W. M. Supporting Biodiversity: Taking the Benefits of Tourism into Account Ellenberg, H. Results of the Round Table: Howto Count and Compare Biological Diversity in Forests? Definition and Decisions Needed Palmberg-Lerche, C. Conservation of Biological Diversity with Special Reference to the Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources Turok, J. Regional Cooperation on Forest Genetic Resources: Conserving a Common Heritage Martin-Jones, J. Global 200 Forest Ecoregions Boyle, T. The Impacts of Human Activities on Biodiversity in Natural Tropical Forests

Sunday and Monday, 5 and 6 July 1998

W orkshop Biodiversity as Value within Society Samper, C. Introduction: Cultural and Spiritual Values of Biodiversity Ramos, A. Why Does Biodiversity Loss Occur in Many Places if it is Socially Better to Give it a Persistent Use? Nader, W. Biodiversity - Source of Inspiration and Innovation Samper, C. Introduction: Underlying Socio-Economic Forces Behind Biodiversity Loss Forje, J. W. Conserving Biological Diversity in Cameroon's Forests: Problems and Prospects for the Future Walker, R. Conserving the Tropical Resource Base: Do we Title Land or Organize Community? Anane, M. Role of the Media in Biodiversity Conservation Challenges and Opportunities W orkshop Biodiversity as a Resource Schütz, J.-P. Introduction Geldenhuys, C. J. Requirements for Improved and Sustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity: Examples of South Africa Scherzinger, W. Importance of Vertical Stratification and Horizontal Patchiness Concerning Species-Diversity in Managed Forests - A Comparison Kushalappa, C. Impact Assessment of Working of Western Ghats Forests in Kodagu District, Karnataka State, South India Kleinschmit, J. Forest Management and the Conservation of Rare Species Hanewinkel, M. Successful Examples of Multiple Forest Use - The Model of Selection Forests Bittner, J. Reserva Natural La Planada - 15 Years Experience in Protection, Conservation and Research for a Sustain able Development Geldenhuys, C. J. Potential of and Development for Ecotourism in the Tsingy de Bemaraha near Bekopaka, Madagascar Sunaryo Ecotourism is a Viable Way of Using Resources W orkshop Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity Posey, D. A. Introduction: Cultural and Spiritual Values of Biodiversity Maffi, L. Language: A Resource for Nature Slikkerveer, J. Traditional Ecological Knowledge Systems: Peoples, Forests and Plants Carino, J. Indigenous Peoples' Views and Concerns: An International Perspective Hilario, M. Forests of the Peruvian Amazon Ruttanakrajangsri, K. Indigenous Views from Thailand Bone, R. Community Use of Eucalyptus Plantation and Regenerating Miombo Woodland Resources at Aliseni Village, Ulumba Mountain, Southern Malawi Gobulev, A. Spring Ecosystems as the Unique Components of Natural and Cultural Environment

11 FORESTS IN FOCUS: Biodiversity - Treasures in the World's Forests: Congress Programme

Sunday and Tuesday, 5 and 7 Ju ly 1 998

12 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

besonders sorgfältig gestalteten Wald Opening Address rändern. Kurz: Der Vielfalt der Standorte soll Ernst Wermann die Vielfalt der Waldökosysteme ent sprechen. Man nutzt klug natürliche Abläufe. Abstract „soutenu" verwendet wird; „soutenu" Und man greift zurück auf die Vielfalt hat die gleiche (lateinische) Wurzel wie - der Waldbehandlungsmöglichkeiten, die From the German point of view conser englisch - „sustainable", heißt also nach über Jahrhunderte entwickelt und er vation and sustainable management haltig. probt wurden. Stützen kann sich natur have been and will be essential for main Nachhaltigkeit in der Forstwirtschaft nahe Waldwirtschaft auf entsprechende taining the biological diversity of forests. hat sich als Begriff und Handlungsmaxi Planungen (Waldfunktionskartierung, Together with improved monitoring, me ständig weiterentwickelt, ist bedeu Standortkartierung etc), und unterstützt research and protection of forests against tend erweitert worden, umfasst heute wird sie durch die Forstpolitik mit Instru pressures from outside (e.g. air pollution), ökonomische, ökologische und soziale menten wie finanzieller Förderung, Aus- they will be main elements of an inte Ziele, auchdie Erhaltung derbiologischen und Weiterbildung und flächendeckender grated concepts on regional level, for Vielfalt, und hat das Wohl künftiger Beratung. Naturschutzrechtliche Anreize which European ministers responsible for Generationen im Auge. Diese Art von wie Vertragsnaturschutz kommen hinzu. forests paved the way in Lisbon in June Selbstverpflichtung der Forstwirtschaft Meine Ausführungen zur „Erhaltung 1998 by adopting a work programme for scheint mir angemessen und wesentlich von Biodiversität durch nachhaltige Nut enhancement of biological diversity in auch für die zukünftige Sicherung der zung" zeigen, dass w ir fortschrittlich forests. Biodiversität in den Wäldern zu sein. genug sind, uns nicht allein auf ein Netz On the international level the various Die europäischen Forstminister haben von Schutzgebieten zu verlassen. Schon in bi- and multilateral efforts to slow down dies bereits 1993 bei ihrer Konferenz in Rio wurde darauf Wert gelegt; ich führte forest loss and forest degradation could Helsinki ausdrücklich in dieser Weise dieses aus. Hinzu kommt ein europaspe be facilitated by a legally binding instru bekräftigt und damit sozusagen die zifischer Aspekt, der zugleich zeigt, dass ment on the conservation and sustaina europäische Antw ort auf Rio im Waldbe man Modelle, die anderswo unter ande ble management of forests worldwide. reich gegeben. ren Bedingungen entwickelt wurden, Since more information is needed on Der Wiederaufbau der Wälder in nicht ungeprüft übertragen sollte. details, options, pros and cons of the Europa beweist: Nachhaltige Forstwirt Die Ausscheidung großflächiger various options etc. etc., Germany will schaft mehrt die natürlichen Ressourcen, Schutzgebiete leuchtet ein in Regionen continue to be an active partner in the die sie nutzt und indem sie sie nutzt. Wie mit großflächigen Naturwäldern in staat ongoing IFF-process. viele andere Wirtschaftszweige können lichem Eigentum, wie im Norden von dies von sich behaupten? Nordamerika. In Europa überwiegt der Grußwort Jahrhunderte nachhaltiger Forstwirt private Waldbesitz und hier der relativ schaft haben in den Wäldern einen kleine Familienbetrieb. Daraus ent Auf der Umweltkonferenz der Vereinten beachtlichen Schatz an Biodiversität wickelt sich eine Vielgestaltigkeit der Nationen 1992 in Rio de Janeiro wurde erhalten (um das Leitmotiv Ihres Forums Waldstrukturen und eine biologische der Durchbruch erzielt: Nach mehrjähri aufzugreifen). Aus Vergleichsstudien, z. Vielfalt, die über die natürliche Vielfalt gen Verhandlungen beschloss man dort B. von Prof. Ammer, München, wissen wir, noch hinausgeht. Ist sie durch verant einstimmig das Übereinkommen über dass Artenvielfait in naturnah bewirt wortungsvolle Nutzung entstanden, biologische Vielfalt, das inzwischen von schafteten Mischwäldern nicht geringer kann sie auch nur durch Fortsetzung der 170 Staaten weltweit gezeichnet ist. Sein zu sein braucht als in total geschützten Bewirtschaftung erhalten werden. Ziel ist die Erhaltung von Ökosystemen, Reservaten. Unter solchen Bedingungen würden der Artenvielfalt und der genetischen Unter naturnaher Waldwirtschaft allzu ehrgeizige Stillegungs- und Total Vielfalt. stellen wir uns in Mitteleuropa vor: schutzprogramme biologische Vielfalt Auf dieser Konferenz wurde auch ■ kleinflächige Nutzung, eher gefährden. deutlich, dass die Umweltprobleme nicht ■ standortgerechte Baumartenwahl, Den richtigen Weg in der Schutzge allein durch Schutz in den Griff zu bekom ■ Bevorzugung der Naturverjüngung, bietsfrage wies m. E. die jüngste Vertrags men sind, sondern auch durch Nutzung ■ Integrierung von Alters staatenkonferenz zum Übereinkommen in und zwar durch nachhaltige Nutzung. und Zerfallsphasen, Bratislava. Dort beschloss man, vordring Das gilt auch für die Sicherung der Biodi- ■ Schutz wertvoller Biotope, lich eine saubere Analyse des Bedarfs vor versität in Wäldern. ■ waldschonende Erschließung, zunehmen (gap analysis). Im übrigen war Nachhaltigkeit ist ein Begriff, der von ■ boden- und bestandsschonende man in Deutschland keineswegs untätig. der Forstwirtschaft geprägt wurde - in Technik, Hier sind immerhin 4% der Waldfläche Mitteleuropa bereits 250 Jahre vor der ■ integrierter Pflanzenschutz, (400000 ha) unter strengen Schutz nach Brundtlandkommission. In Frankreich ■ und als Ergebnis strukturreiche, Forstrecht und Naturschutzrecht gestellt. verweist man sogar auf ein königliches ungleichaltrige Mischwälder mit ausrei Dazu gehören die Wälder in Nationalpar Dekret von 1348, in dem im Zusammen chend totem Holz, mit der Fülle auch sel ken, Naturschutzgebieten, Waldschutz hang mit forstlicher Nutzung der Begriff tener Baum- und Straucharten und mit gebieten und Naturwaldreservaten.

13 Wermann - Opening Address

Zusätzliche 2% betreffen Wälder in Bio bieten dazu alle Möglichkeiten der Netz me. EinePolitikzurTropenwalderhaltung sphärenreservaten, die auf Teilflächen werkforschung. muss sich daher mit Bemühungen um ebenfalls strengen Schutz vorsehen. In Europa und Nordamerika wachsen faire Entwicklungschancen für die Men Auch auf die seit langem eingeleite Waldfläche, Holzvorräte und Holzzu schen verbinden. Darüber hinaus strebt ten speziellen Maßnahmen zur Erhaltung wachs. In anderen Regionen der Erde ist die Bundesregierung den Abschluss eines der forstgenetischen Ressourcen ist zu Forstpolitik darauf angelegt, aus einer völkerrechtlich verbindlichen Überein verweisen (in situ, d. h. im Wald, oder ex stetig schrumpfenden Waldfläche immer kommens überdie Walderhaltung (Wald s itu , d. h. in Samenplantagen oder in Gen mehr Bedürfnisse einer immer größeren konvention) an. Wir wissen, dass noch banken). Ein Programm zum genetischen Bevölkerung zu befriedigen und gleich viele Details zu klären sind. Länder, die Langzeitmonitoring gern. Art. 7b des zeitig die schlimmsten Angriffe auf die noch zögern, möchten einfach besser Übereinkommens über biologische Viel Wälder, die von außen kommen, abzu informiert sein über Inhalte, Optionen, falt ist geplant. Auf europäischer Ebene wehren. Deutschland versucht dabei zu Vorteile der verschiedenen Optionen etc. wird im Rahmen des seit 1995 bestehen helfen: 250 Mio. DM werden jedes Jahr Deshalb wird sich Deutschland wei den Europäischen Programms für forst allein für forstliche Projekte in der terhin aktiv an den Arbeiten des zwi genetische Ressourcen (EUFORGEN) Welt bereitgestellt. Ländern, die die ge schenstaatlichen Waldforums (Intergo zusammengearbeitet. wünschte wirtschaftliche, technische und vernmental Forum on Forests, IFF) betei Zur Sicherung der Biodiversität in industrielle Entwicklung erleben, soll ligen, das bis zum Jahr 2000 den Beschluss Wäldern beschlossen die europäischen geholfen werden, in ihre Entwicklungs über ein eventuelles Verhandlungsman Forstminister soeben in Lissabon ein strategien frühzeitig den Schutz von dat für eine Waldkonvention vorbereiten umfangreiches Arbeitsprogramm, das Natur und Umwelt zu integrieren. Dies soll. Das IFF wird Ende August zu seiner 2. den Weg ebnen soll zu einem integrier führt zu wechselseitigem Geben und Neh Sitzung zusammentreten. ten Gesamtkonzept. Es soll nachhaltige men. Auch wir wollen daraus lernen. Deutschland war auch Gastgeber Nutzung und Gebietsschutz, aber auch Diese Politik der Bundesregierung zur eines internationalen Experten-Work- Monitoring, Aufklärung und Weiterbil Erhaltung der Tropenwälder dient auch shops über nationale Forstprogramme, dung, Forschung und-besonders wichtig nicht zum geringsten Teil der Erhaltung der gestern endete. Nationale Forstpro - den immer noch notwendigen Schutz der biologischen Vielfalt. Die Tropenwäl gramme wurden, wie Sie sich erinnern der Wälder gegen Belastungen von der zählen zu den vielfältigsten und werden, von der Vorläuferorganisation außen (z. B. gegen Luftschadstoff- und artenreichsten Ökosystemen, die es auf des IFF, dem Zwischenstaatlichen Wald Nährstoffemissionen) behandeln. Um der Erde gibt, und es war die Sorge um ausschuss (Intergovernmental Panel on Fo Doppelarbeit zu vermeiden, wurde das die Erhaltung dieser Wälder, die mit zum rests, IPF) besonders empfohlen als geeig Arbeitsprogramm mit der europäischen Abschluss des Übereinkommens geführt netes Instrument zur Verwirklichung Umweltministerkonferenz abgestimmt. hat. Bei der Unterstützung von Tropen einer nachhaltigen Waldbewirtschaf In Deutschland arbeiten Bund und ländern zur Erhaltung und nachhaltigen tung. Auch diese internationalen Aktivi Länder gemeinsam bereits an einem sol Bewirtschaftung ihrer Wälder verfolgt täten gehören zum forstpolitischen Kon chen integrierten Konzept. Auch die Ver die Bundesregierung einen integrativen zept von Bundesminister Borchert. Ich bände werden beteiligt werden. Speziell Ansatz. Es kann auch hier nicht einfach habe Ihnen daraus einige Gedanken vorge für die Forschung bleibt noch ein weites nur darum gehen, große Flächen unter tragen, auch um das Interesse deutlich zu Feld. Ich denke, dazu wird dieses Forum Schutz zu stellen. Die ansässige Bevölke machen, das der Schirmherr dieser Ver einiges ausführen. rung sollte nicht ausgeschlossen werden anstaltung beimisst. Aus den Ergebnissen Ich benutze die heutige Gelegenheit, von der Nutzung des Waldes, der gerade des Forums wollen w ir lernen. Es ist also auch noch mehr Dialog zwischen Wissen in den Tropen meist nicht nur Holz, son durchaus Eigennutz im Spiel, wenn ich schaft und Politik über prioritären Infor dern eine Fülle weiterer Güter bietet. Die Ihnen den bestmöglichen Erfolg wünsche. mationsbedarf anzuregen. Wir finanzie Integration von Walderhaltung und Die Aufzählung von Aktivitäten zur ren in Deutschland z. B. ein Verbundpro Waldschutz, nachhaltiger Nutzung und Walderhaltung und zur Integration der jekt „Auswirkung forstlicher Maßnah ergänzenden Maßnahmen zur Verbesse Erhaltung der biologischen Vielfalt in die men und anderer Einflussfaktoren auf die rung der Lebensbedingungen der örtli nachhaltige Bewirtschaftung der Wälder Biodiversität in Wäldern". Dafür wurde chen Bevölkerung hat noch einen weite war nicht erschöpfend. Zu einem voll ein Simulationsmodell entwickelt, ge ren Vorteil. Wald erlangt über seinen ständigen Bild gehören auch die zahlrei nannt Ökogen, das auch in anderen Län Wert als Lebensraum hinaus einen w irt chen Initiativen von nichtstaatlichen dern Beachtung findet. Wir würden es schaftlichen Wert als Einkommensquelle. Organisationen sowie der Wissenschaft. z. B. begrüßen, wenn Vergleichsstudien Damit wächst die Bereitschaft der Men Hier reiht sich Ihre Veranstaltung vor wie die eingangs erwähnte auch in schen, sich für seinen Schutz einzusetzen. bildlich ein. anderen Waldgebieten durchgeführt Forstliche Projekte müssen ihrerseits würden. integriert werden in geeignete Landnut Anschrift des Verfassers: W ir würden es noch mehr begrüßen, zungskonzepte, die die Armut bekämp wenn solche Studien im Zusammenwir fen und Ernährung und Beschäftigung Ernst Wermann ken über Ländergrenzen hinweg betrie sichern. Die tieferen Ursachen der Wald German Federal Ministry of Food, ben werden könnten. Vielleicht kann das vernichtung liegen nämlich außerhalb Agriculture and Forestry Forum auch dazu Anstöße geben. IUFRO, der Forstwirtschaft. Von großer Bedeu Rochusstr. 1 CIFOR und das European Forest Institute tung ist auch die Lösung sozialer Proble D-53123 Bonn, Germany

14 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

Zakri A. Hamid Biological Diversity

The term is used to describe the number Abstract house mechanism and a financial mecha and variety of living organisms. It is defi nism. ned in terms of genes, species and ecosys Biodiversity supports society in many Among the substantive elements of tems which are the outcome of 3.000 mil important and real ways. Food security, the Convention that have been delibera lion years of evolution. Although the con climatic stability, freshwater security and ted by the Parties are programs of work cept is not fully understood in terms of the health needs of humans around the on coastal and marine biodiversity, forest numbers of species and genes or even world all depend directly upon maintain biodiversity and agricultural biodiversity; what an ecosystem exactly is, it is widely ing and using the world's biodiversity. negotiations on a Biosafety Protocol; and accepted that globally biodiversity is More than 40% of the world's economy an international initiative to further con being lost at all levels. For example, cur and some 80% of the needs of the world's sider the rights of indigenous and local rent rates of extinction of species are poor are derived from biodiversity. Loss communities under the CBD. unprecedented which in turn directly of biological diversity threatens these ser The challenge for the process as it diminishes genetic variability. Ecosystems vices and hence society generally. moves into its implementation phase is to around the world are under increasing The Convention on Biological Diversi develop an approach which will find a pressure from human activities. ty (CBD) is an international treaty with balance between pursuing a truly holistic Biological diversity supports society in near universal membership (as of May and integrative approach demanded by many important and real ways. Food secu 1998,172 countries have ratified the Con the Convention whilst at the same time rity, climatic stability, fresh water security vention). It is conceived as an ambitious being focused enough to allow develop and the health needs of humans around project to arrest the pace of biodiversity ment of its provisions. the world all depend directly upon main destruction. The principal objectives of taining and using the world's biological the CBD are the conservation, sustainable Transcript of the presentation by diversity. More than 40% of the world's use and equitable sharing of the benefits Prof. Dato' Zakri A. Hamid based economy and some 80% of the needs of of the use of genetic resources. The CBD on tapes the world's poor are derived from biolo recognizes that the key to maintaining gical diversity. Loss of biological diversity biological diversity depends upon using Responsible editors: Inge Stein, Jutta threatens these services and consequent this diversity in a sustainable manner. A Poker ly society generally. Accordingly, the UN central purpose of the CBD is to promote In a world of increasing globalization Conference on Human Environment in the concept of sustainable development and environmental degradation, biologi Stockholm in 1972 identified as a priority as envisaged in the instruments arising cal diversity is one of the outstanding is the need for the conservation of biologi from the UNCED process with which the sues which humankind has to address in cal diversity. The number of international CBD was negotiated contemporaneously. order to survive. It is a common concern legal instruments related to biological The CBD is therefore not simply a conser to all of us and therefore not surprising diversity adopted during the 1970s reflect vation treaty: It assumes human use and that biological diversity is along with cli such a priority. The Ramsar Convention on benefit as the fundamental purpose for mate change addressed by the interna Wetlands in 1971, the Convention for the achieving its objectives. tional community not only in political but Protection of the World Cultural and The Convention translates its objec also in legal terms. The Convention on Natural Heritage in 1972, the Convention tives in its normative provisions contained Biological Diversity (CBD) is an interna on International Trade in Endangered in Article 6 to 20. These articles contain tional treaty with near universal mem Species of Wild Fauna and Flora in 1973 key provisions on: measures for the con bership. It entered into force five years and the Bern Convention on the Conser servation of biodiversity, both in situ and ago and now has established most of the vation of Migratory Species or Wild Ani ex situ; incentives for the conservation elements required to be operational. mals in 1979 are a testimony to these and sustainable use of biodiversity; re Attention within the process is now efforts and the importance attached to search; education; assessing the environ moving towards implementation. By a the issues by the international communi mental impacts of projects; regulating way of context and in orderto understand ty. However, these early initiatives em access to genetic resources and the tech the issues at stake in this move towards phasize conservation. It is only through nology to use these resources; and, finan implementation, I will briefly describe the the report 'Our Common Future', the cial resources. The Convention also estab importance of biodiversity and the history 1978 report of the World Commission on lishes the standard institutional ele Environment and Development, that strides the new challenge facing the ments of a modern treaty, namely a COP, * Chairman, Subsidiary Body on Science, Technical & Techno a Secretariat, advisory bodies, a clearing logical Advice (SBSTTA), Convention on Biological Diversity conservation and sustainable use.

15 Zakri • Challenges of Implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity

History of the CBD ■ assessing the environmental impacts does also have the potential to cause of projects harm to the environment and human The origin or the negotiation of the Con ■ regulating access to genetic resources health. Mindful of these dangers, the COP vention lies in the 1987 Governing Coun and the technology to use these resources established an ad hoc Working Group of cil of UNEP which called upon UNEP to ■ financial resources. Experts on bio-safety to develop an inter convene an ad hoc Working Group of The Convention also establishes the nationally legally binding Protocol, speci Experts on biological diversity forthe har standard institutional elements of a fically focusing on the transboundary monization of the existing conventions modern treaty, namely the Conference of movement of any living modified organ related to biological diversity. At its first the Parties (COP), a Secretariat, advisory ism that may have an adverse impact on meeting the group of experts agreed on bodies, a clearing house mechanism and the conservation and sustainable use of the need to elaborate an internationally a financial mechanism. Article 23 estab biodiversity. These negotiations have binding instrument on biological diversi lishes a Conference of the Parties which been conducted in earnest, and it is anti ty. This was followed in May 1989 by an is the supreme party of the Convention. cipated that it should complete its work ad hoc Working Group of Experts on bio The principle function of the COP is to early next year in 1999. logical diversity. In February 1990 the ad regularly review the implementation of ■ Another issue that has been brought hoc Working Group was turned into the the Convention. Today, the COP has met up by the Convention will be on the ma Intergovernmental Negotiating Commit fourtimes, in the Bahamas in 1994, Jakar rine and coastal biodiversity. At the tee which held seven working sessions, ta in 1995, Buenos Aires in 1996 and second meeting of the COP a program of which combined, in adoption of the recently in Bratislava in May 1998. work was initiated known as the Jakarta Nairobi Final Act of the conference, the Some of the components of the Con Mandate which proposes a framework agreed text of the CBD. The Convention vention will be the Secretariat and also for global actions to maintain marine and was opened for signature in June 1992 the SBSTTA, the Subsidiary Body on Scien coastal biodiversity. during UNCED and entered into force on tific, Technical and Technological Advice, ■ An issue which ismostpertinenttothe 29 December 1993. As of May 1998, that a mechanism of provision of financial scheduling in this turn will be on forests. is at the fourth Conference of Parties resources, namely at this point the Global As we are fully aware, forests provide the in Bratislava, 172 countries and the Environment Facility (GEF) which is most diverse sets of habitats for plants, European Union have ratified the Con deemed asan interim basis to operate the animals and micro-organisms, holding vention and further 18 countries have financial mechanism of the Convention, the vast majority of the world's terrestri signed it. and also the establishment of the Clear al species. Consequently, the mainte There are some provisions which are ing House Mechanism to promote and nance of forest ecosystems is crucial to the important in the context of the treaty. facilitate technical and scientific co-oper conservation of biological diversity and The principle objectives, as we are fully ation. In this last context the government degradation of forests has a dramatic aware, are three prongs, namely the con of Germany has been very forthcoming in impact on biodiversity. The importance of servation, sustainable use and equitable supporting the establishment and also forests for the purposes of the Conven sharing of the benefits of the use of the implementation of the Clearing tion and the mandate of the CBD in genetic resources. The Convention recog House Mechanism. issues of forest biological diversity has nizes that the key to maintaining bio The nature of the issues which the been confirmed repeatedly by the COP. As logical diversity depends upon using this Convention seeks to address means that for now, focus work program for forest diversity in a sustainable manner. A cen it is heavily dependent on the effective biological diversity has been on the card, tral purpose of the BCD is to promote the ness of the actions of parties in other insti whereby some elements for such a work concept of sustainable development as tutions. The need to develop institutional program include focus on research, envisaged in the instruments arising from links with other international bodies, to co-operation and development of tech the UNCED process with which the CBD develop co-operative relationships with nologies necessary for the conservation was negotiated contemporaneously. such bodies and hands-mechanism for and sustainable use of forest biological Therefore, the CBD is not simply a con coordinating this relationship is funda diversity. The program will also compli servation treaty. It assumes human use mental to the implementation of the ment existing national, regional or inter and benefit as the fundamental purpose CBD. The importance of co-operation and national criteria and indicators of frame fo r achieving its objectives. The Conven co-ordination between the CBD and works for sustainable forest management tion translates its guiding principles of other conventions, institutions and pro and it would also incorporate traditional conservation, sustainable use and equi cesses of relevance has been affirmed at systems of forest biological diversity con table sharing of genetic resources into every meeting of the COP. Consequently, servation. This will build upon the co-oper binding commitments in its normative it is not accurate to simply think of the ation with other relevant fora that the provisions contained in article 6-20. institutional structure of the Convention CBD has already undertaken, e. g. the These include key provision on: in terms of those institutions established close linkage that we have with the Inter ■ measures for the conservation of bio by the process itself. governmental Forum on Forest. logical diversity, both in s itu and e x s itu Some of the substantive elements of ■ Another main issue dealt by the CBD ■ incentives for conservation and the Convention are the following: will be agriculture and, as we know, pro sustainable use ■ Bio-safety is an important issue. De moting sustainable agriculture and rural ■ research spite the considerable benefits which bio development have been acknowledged ■ education technology may bring, the technology within the CBD as central to achieving the

16 Zakri • Challenges of Implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity

aims of the Convention. This is due to the Development of the structure of the Convention, the respon importance of maintaining agricultural Responsibilities of the Parties sibilities of the parties and a clear philo biological diversity for ensuring sustaina sophical basis or intellectual m o d u s ble use of biological diversity and a dra The effectiveness of any international o p e ra n d i for the process ensuring that matic impact that unsustainable agricul treaty is dependent upon the extent that each one of these key elements properly tural practices have had on biodiversity it is respected and implemented by its par reflects the needs of the process and is generally. Since the third meeting of the ties'. With over 95% of biodiversity loca fully developed, which is crucial if the COP, a multi-program of activities to ted within existing national jurisdiction, Convention is to be effective and achieve arrest the decline of agricultural biodi this means that the Convention is dealing its aims. versity has been implemented. The objec with the management of an essentially This emerging focus on implementa tives of the work program include to domestic resource. In contrast, interna tion reflects a wider trend throughout promote the positive effects and mitiga tional environmental instruments nor international communities. The general te the negative impacts of agricultural mally address the use or abuse of inter frustration and disappointment associ practices on biological diversity in agro national or shared resources such as pro ated with many of international processes ecosystems and there interference with tection of the world's oceans, the ozone centers around the lack of implementa other ecosystems. Further, it seeks to pro layer and the global climate. A conse tion, the lack of commitment to turn the mote the conservation and sustainable quence of this difference is that the role rhetoric of international diplomacy into use of genetic resources of actual or of parties is emphasized in that not only concrete actions which will materially potential value for food and agriculture are they responsible for implementation address the issues currently facing society. and, last but not least, to promote the fair but they also have an important role Many eminent commentators have and equitable sharing of benefits arising through domestic activities, as distinct begun to explore alternative ways and out of the utilization of genetic resour from international activities to develop means of achieving the aims of sustaina ces. The COP of the Convention recogni policy for the international level. The ble development to the international zes the central role that the FAO has to international policy of the domestic conferencacy. Many have suggested that play in this area and has sought to work activities of parties is often overlooked civil society turn to the courts and the closely with their programs. due to the perception that as a Frame legal system to break the empires which ■ Another issue which is of significance work Convention the provision of the seems to emasculate the capacity of the to the Convention would be indigenous Convention are merely exhorted theory international community to respond to knowledge embodied in article 8(j) of the and require for elaboration before they issues in a timely fashion. The Conven CBD. In this, the CBD recognizes the can be implemented. It does also mean tion as the legally binding instrument has importance of indigenous and local com that much of the implementation work a vital role to play in translating the well- munities to the conservation and sustain already undertaken by parties is over meaning rhetoric of the international able use of biological diversity in several looked in assessment of the effectiveness community into action, both in the tradi of its provisions which stresses the right of the Convention. Although many of the tional sense and the alternatives being for indigenous and local communities to provision of the Convention require con explored. The success of the CBD process share in the benefits derived from ideas siderable development before it can be in making the transition towards an and innovations they have developed described as having any normative con implementation phase will therefore not that proved useful to others and calls sequence, many aspects of the Conven only be important for the Convention it upon parties to respect, protect and tion are currently being implemented by self but will provide valuable lessons and encourage customary use of biological parties without further elaboration at the experiences for other international pro resources. As of COP 4, an ad hoc Working international level. This implementation cesses. Indeed, if the CBD can rapidly Group has been established with direct provides important proceedings or key move into this implementation phase reporting to the COP. studies for other parties which, to the then it would make a valuable contribu In terms of implementation it is evi extend that they are relied upon by these tion to a renewed credibility and revita dent that development so far within the other parties, develops detail of the pro lizing of the international order. CBD process had been focused on estab visions of the Convention. lishing the institutional structure and Author's address: clarifying the scope of the Convention. It Conclusion is expected that this process of establish Professor Dato' Zakri A. Hamid ment will be largely completed by orsince In conclusion I might see that the chal Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia May 1998 in Bratislava. The focus of the lenge for the process as it moves into its 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia process thereafter is expected to shift to implementation phase is to develop an e-mail: [email protected] my implementing the COP decisions and pro- approach which will find a balance be visionsofthisConvention. Inthis light, the tween pursuing a truly holistic and inte convention process can be characterized grative approach demanded by the Con as moving from an establishment phase, vention whilst at the same time being the dominant feature of COP 1 to COP 4 focus enough to allow development of period, into an implementation phase in its provisions. This will require close atten the post COP 4 period. tion to the international institutional

17 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

species. He thereby readjusted his earlier Biodiversity - The Uneven Distribution estimation o f 80,000 species (Humboldt 1806), which had already been quite of a Treasure* remarkable, considering that Willdenow (1797-1807) had only listed 17,457 species W ilhelm Barthlott, Gerold Kier & Jens Mutke of phanerogamic plants in his edition of Species plantarum. These reflections are just one example for Humboldt's modern A b stract research potential that is needed for the way o f thinking and his generalistic view, task already exists to a high degree in which led him to statements at the begin Biodiversity and its dramatic change play industrialised countries. This situation ning of the 19th century on problems and an increasingly im portant role in research gives rise to many chances but also char questions th a t actually came into focus in and public discussions. Its protection and ges us w ith considerable responsibility. the last decades, e.g., in the context of sustainable use require knowledge about Keywords: Biodiversity, Biogeogra global environmental change. its geographical distribution. One promis phy, Mapping, Endemism, Invaders, Bio Today our knowledge of vascular ing approach in this direction is the inves logical Globalisation plants is much better: it is estimated that tigation of indicator groups, since sub there are ca. 320,000 species of which stantial progress in the exploration of Introduction about 80% are already known. In the approximately 2 0 Mio species can hardly early 1980s most taxonomists were con be expected in the near future. The well- Biodiversity is a special quality of life, the vinced that animals, fungi and bacteria investigated vascular plants, which com exploration of which has recently moved were also very well investigated. The prise approxim ately 300,000 species, are into the centre of both scientific and poli extrapolations made by Erwin (1982) then comparatively well suited as an indicator tical interest. One important reason for suggested th a t more than 30 Mio species group in terrestrial habitats. Several the increased attention paid to biodiver o f insects remain to be discovered. Today examples show the good correlation of sity is the increasing recognition of its estimates fo r insect species numbers are their diversity with overall diversity. essential functions for the survival of generally somewhat lower but it is now Despite the amount of accumulated data mankind as well as of its immense direct accepted th a t the 1,75 M io species of ani on vascular plants, only relatively few sur and indirect economic significance. mals, plants and micro-organisms de vey studies on continental and global The direct and vital significance of scribed today represent less than 2 0 %, scales have been carried out. Maps of bio biodiversity predominates in the areas of maybe even less than 5% o f the species diversity can be produced using either an nutrition and medical provision. More living on earth. approach based on data for the individu over, biological diversity forms an impor It will doubtlessly be one of the major al taxa (taxon based approach) or an tant, often the central basis of entire eco challenges to biodiversity research in the approach based on summary data for nomic branches such as tourism and trade following decades to fill this gap of knowl whole geographical units (inventory in ornamental plants. In order to clarify edge, particularly in research on system- based approach). The latter was used for questions o f legal rights in connection atics and taxonomy. However, already mapping the global diversity of vascular with the use of biodiversity and to com today, even before the greater part of still plants. In the resulting map the six diver bat the threats biological diversity faces, unknown species have been described sity maxima are all located in the humid the international community of states and investigated in their geographical tropics and subtropics. Additional centres agreed on the Convention on Biological distribution, scientific curiosity and poli can be found in Mediterranean-type re Diversity (CBD) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. tical decision processes in particular re gions, especially South Africa. Comparati Despite its far reaching economic and quire substantial data on biological diver vely high species numbers can be found political significance, only a small part of sity as a whole. One of the most impor especially in non-arctic mountainous re global biodiversity has been investigated. tant ways to achieve substantial results is gions, showing that high geodiversity Alexander von Humboldt already reflec the investigation of indicator groups. Vas increases biodiversity. Apart from species ted upon the discrepancy between the cular plants are highly suited for this kind richness, other criteria of quality play a number o f plant species known to man of investigation in terrestrial biomes for role, especially when assessing the value kind and the total number of species different reasons: of the biodiversity contained within a living on our planet. Humboldt (1850) sta ■ As stated above, about 80% of their region. The proportion of allophytes, i.e. ted that "three questions must be careful- species are already known to science, of introduced plants, is a criterion of qua lydistinguishedfromoneanother: 1. How making them an extremely well re lity which has increasingly been receiving many species o f plants have been descri searched group. This is especially true when attention. It is a manifestation of growing bed in printed works? 2. How many of compared to the species-richest group of biological globalisation, which changes those discovered - that is to say included organisms, the arthropods, of which only natural habitats and results in the dis in Herbariums-still remain undescribed? 3. How many species probably exist on the placement of indigenous species. If the foun * This paper is a slightly enlarged and revised translation dations for the protection and sustaina surface of the earth?" He estimated a o f a m anuscript presented at th e 1. annual m eeting o f the ble use o f biodiversity are to be laid, con total o f 213,000 vascular plant species, G erm an Society fo r Biological System atics: W ilhelm B arth lott, G erold Kier & Jens M utke (in press): G lobale A rten while also mentioning the poor knowl siderable and co-ordinated efforts in vielfalt und ihre ungleiche V erteilung. C ourier Forschungs basic research will have to be made. The edge of insects and their relation to plant institut Senckenberg.

18 Barthlott et al. • Biodiversity - The Uneven Distribution of a Treasure

6 % are known as yet. Our knowledge the whole ecological context. For the lat which is shown in Fig. 1 is based on a con about the geographical distribution of ter, the definition of ecology by Krebs siderably larger database of about 1,400 vascular plants is comparatively good, (1972) may serve as one example: "Ecolo records (see below). documented by an estimated 5,000 rele gy is the scientific study of the inter A further approach which relies on vant inventories like floras, checklists and actions that determine the distribution another aspect besides numbers of taxa, databases world-wide. and abundance of organisms." namely the range sizes o f the taxa in ■ The vascular plants as the most im por The most exact method for mapping volved, was described by Usher (1986). ta n t producers in terrestrial ecosystems biodiversity as well as for further analy Maps based on this approach have been form the basis for total biological diversi ses is the exact survey of the distribution published e.g. by Williams et al. (1994). It ty. There is a lot of evidence that their ranges of all occurring species and the is also implemented in the computer pro diversity - at least w ith regard to species superimposition of the results into diver gramme WORLDMAP (Williams 1997). richness - is in fact relatively strongly cor sity maps under several d iffe re n t aspects. Apart from vascular plants, the sub related to total diversity (see below). For Europe should be m entioned, apart jects of surveys on continental up to g lob ■ Since vascular plants form the basis of from the works o f e.g. Meusel et al. (1965, al scale are often groups o f particularly human existence, in particular w ith 1978,1992), the various f loristic grid map conspicuous organisms like butterflies or regard to food, they are of especially ping projects (e.g. Perring & Walters 1962, birds (compare e.g. Bibby et al. 1992). great economic importance. This fact Jalas & Suominen 1972-94, Haeupler & Geographical information systems (GIS) makes them good indicators for the eco Schonfelder 1989, Jalas et al. 1996). In play an ever increasing role in all these nomic significance of total diversity in te r these projects a great number of bota analyses as well as in the elaboration of restrial areas. nists have compiled extensive data on the models of the spatial distribution of However, it is sometimes surprising in distribution of the individual taxa over biodiversity (compare e.g. Skov & Borch- which geographical areas and in which several decades. These data are im senius 1997; M iller 1994; W ohlgem ut taxonom ic groups those new species are mensely valuable for, among others, species 1996). The at present probably most com discovered that belong to the estimated and nature conservation purposes. Still, prehensive overview on the current state 2 0 % of vascular plants still to be de even in well investigated areas these very of biodiversity mapping is given by scribed. It was only 1997, when Moroccan detailed and finely scaled surveys may Gaston (1998). and French botanists discovered a popu create their own problems. Lahti & Lam- Apart from the above-mentioned lation comprising thousands of trees of a pinen (1997) estimate th a t by applying concepts, emphasis should also be given new subspecies o f Dracaena drago grow constant methods the project "Atlas to investigations which are aimed at iden ing in the south of Morocco, only some Florae Europaeae" will need at least 150 tifying "hot spots" (endangered regions 80 kilometres south of Agadir (Benabid & years until its conclusion. Furthermore, in with high species diversity) or priority Cuzin 1997). Until then, the famous dra projects which already finished their areas for conservation. Important studies gon tree, one of the most conspicuous first phase (e.g. Perring & Walters 1962, were accomplished by, amongst others, and renowned plant species fo r centuries, Haeupler & Schonfelder 1989), the natu Myers (1988, 1990), Bibby et al. (1992), was thought to be endemic to Macaro- ral diversity distribution patterns in the Davis et al. (1994,1995,1997) or Olson & nesia. And it was only 1998, when Mar resulting maps are strongly superimposed Dinerstein (1998). rero et al. described a new arboreal spe by patterns of the different degrees of However, it has to be concluded that cies of Dracaena found on the Island of study of the area concerned (see Fig. 3). in terms of exactness most survey studies Gran Canaria, one of the most visited sum In view of these problems different only use a small fraction of the data al mer resorts for European tourists. Those approaches exist to achieve a first analy ready available. While taxonomists, trees were always thought to belong to sis of diversity distribution in a short time florists and faunists as well as ecologists Dracaena drago, the long known dragon by reduction of information. One of these and geobotanists have compiled valuable tree of the Canary Islands. Nevertheless, is the analysis o f the distribution o f whole data on many diffe re n t groups and areas, the new analyses showed them to be a families or genera. For example, Williams the synoptic analysis of these data is still quite distinctive new species closer rela et al. (1994) present a relatively rough very much at the beginning. Blake & ted to the east African members of the map showing the numbers of vascular Atwood (1942) and Blake (1961) have dragon tree group. plant families on global scale (grid cell already listed in the two editions of "Geo area of about 611,000 km2). Another stra graphical Guide to the Floras of the State of research tegy is to use summary data available for W orld" almost 6,800 floras, checklists and numerous regions from floras, checklists f loristic surveys w ith com plete species lists Despite the good data situation fo r vas or vegetation surveys instead of using forsome regions. Many herbariums, natur cular plants mentioned above, only few data for each individual taxon. Applying al history museums and other collections works have dealt with the global distri this approach, Lebrun (1960) compiled a are recording their complete collections bution o f species diversity. In particular, map of the species richness o f vascular in data bases, making them accessible for there is a lack of detailed maps of the spa plants in Africa with still relatively low a comprehensive evaluation under bio- tial distribution of vascular plant diversi spatial differentiation. The first world geographical and biodiversity-related ty. This is all the more amazing as the dis map of vascular plant diversity, also com aspects. The critical evaluation o f this vast tribution of biodiversity is of central sig paratively rough, was elaborated by am ount o f data which has been pub nificance with regard to the Convention Malyshev (1975) on the basis of about 400 lished or gathered in collections could on Biodiversity as well as with regard to records. The w orld map o f vascular plants even now render fresh knowledge for

19 Barthlott et al. • Biodiversity - The Uneven Distribution of a Treasure an efficient protection of global bio diversity. Geographical units Conversion of species numbers with known taxon to a standard area size using Methods of biodiversity mapping numbers species-area models (e.g. Arrhenius 1920) The projects and concepts presented in the previous section can be allocated to two basic approaches which start either from the individual taxa or the observed units, i.e. geographical areas as their pri mary information. In a taxon based approach data on the individual taxa is superimposed under consideration of different aspects into diversity maps. On the other hand, ap proaches based on summary data fo r geo graphical units (inventory based approa ches) allow the direct processing o f these summary data for different regions. Both strategies involve, to a different extent, a Maps of D iversity m ap reduction of information. vegetation, In case o f the taxon based approach, it is o f course usually not possible fo r each precipitation, relief, etc individual specimen to be considered in the analyses. One way of reducing the data amount to be gathered and pro cessed is to just record the occurrence of the taxon in whatever kind of greater spatial unit offers itself (grid cell, state, natural spatial unit, etc.). The other possibility is to assess a limited selection of exactly pin pointed and in their conditions recorded habitats, from which an idealised occur rence over the complete area is assessed or extrapolated by various procedures. A lo t o f classic distribution maps such as of Meusel et al. (1965, 1978, 1992) w ould fit into this group. Recently, several projects have been initiated in order to standard Fig. 2: Methods of producing diversity maps using an approach based on summary ise this extrapolation in Geographical data for geographical units (inventory based approach). The taxon numbers for dif Inform ation Systems, such as the ERIN ferent geographical units are converted into numbers per standard area using taxon- project in Australia (compare Chapman & area-models. Due to often politically rather than naturally defined regional units, Busby 1994). the exact boundaries of diversity zones have to be adjusted by superimposition with The second, inventory based vegetation maps and data sets on physical geofactors. The exemplary phytodiversi approach o f mapping species diversity, ty map of Africa demonstrates the result of the revision of the corresponding sec which oftenallowsafasterovervieweven tion in Fig. 1 with an improved method (Kier & Barthlott, unpubl. data). for less investigated regions (compare also Gaston 1998), is based on summary minary diversity maps can be created in a the comparison of taxon numbers of dif data fo r specified regions. Hence, it usual rather short tim e and the centres of diver ferent regions. However, since species are ly uses a stronger reduction o f inform a sity can be delineated. Since the data only very seldom equally distributed w ith tion compared to the taxon based structure is often strongly determined by in an area, the result is no more than an approach. Here, data such as total species political units, it is necessary to adjust the approach to the natural conditions. In or fam ily numbers in a region, but also boundaries of diversity zones by super addition, different habitats and land taxon numbers of selected groups are imposition with vegetation maps and scapes often show quite d ifferent taxon- recorded. These numbers may be estima data sets on physical geofactors (Fig. 2). area-relations. These are integrated in ted relatively reliably by specialists long This procedure is also applied to the diver the renowned species-area-model of before all involved taxa are exactly and sity map in Fig. 1. Arrhenius (1920, 1921) by a parameter systematically assessed. After standardi The standardisation of taxon numbers indicating the floristic heterogeneity of sation of taxon numbers of regions of dif per standard unit area on the basis of the study areas. This parameter z, fo r vas fe re n t sizes to a defined area size, preli taxon-area-models is a necessary step fo r cular plants mostly on the level of 0.1-0.3

20 Barthlott et al. • Biodiversity - The Uneven Distribution of a Treasure ------ae 130000000 0 0 0 0 0 38°S 0 3 und :1 1 38°N cale S arallels P Standard R obinson Projection Projection obinson R - p i t ------t s i p o r t o GLO ACLR LN SEIS UBR VRU BTNC EERH INSTITUTIONS RESEARCH BOTANIC VERSUS NUMBERS SPECIES PLANT VASCULAR BAL BIODIVERSITY - A CHALLENGE FOR DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH AND POLICY: AND RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT FOR CHALLENGE - A BIODIVERSITY BAL t i M I I □ i ~ r Diversity Zones (DZ): Number of species per 10 000km2 10 per species of Number (DZ): Zones Diversity DZ □ 4 z d 3 z d 2 z d 1 500- ) 0 0 0 -1 0 0 (5 500) - 0 0 (2 200) - 0 0 (1 (<100) '1 D 8( - 4000) - 0 0 0 (3 8 DZ 1 ' ' J] 1 D Z 6 (1 5 0 0 - 2000) - 0 0 5 (1 6 Z D 1 Z 1500) - 0 0 0 1 ( 5 DZ DZ 7 (2000 - 3000) - (2000 7 DZ s forsi regions ristic flo is s n e p a C 1 D Z 9 (4000 - 5000) - (4000 9 Z D 1 1 DZ 10 (>5000) 10 DZ 1 f " e ufc tmper ure tu ra e p tem surface sea J ' ( * Z 27°C 7 >2 ) 2° >29°C W Batlt 1996,1998 arthlott B W. © ol c r ts n rre cu ld co tncGarden G otanic B f o e l a P / s i p o r 1 ------r">A Irkutsk 1^ W . B arthlott, G. Rauer, M. von den D riesch & J. M utke 1998 1998 utke M J. & riesch D den von M. Rauer, G. arthlott, B . W . rhot N Bldne, Ban F Fi,G Kier, G. Feig, F. 1998 utke Braun, M . G J. & r e u La ledlnger, B W. N. arthlott, B W. after iest onn B f o eography niversity G U f o ologne t C n e rtm ent, a ref p G e D M. stablishm E artography: esearch C R ce a sp ro e A an erm G eography onn B G f o and y rsity n ta ive o n B U f o ent epartm D « .o H* ■c £ o in o f 5 H- ■C -Q >> ■c .O' c s c S a o £ s ■C o 3 o c o E o 1 CD &

(Malyshev 1991, 1993) can fluctuate be taken from literature, demonstrates the The general diversity-increasing role tw een 0.01 in arcticareas (Malyshev 1991) species diversity of vascular plants on a of mountains outside arctic climate re up to 0.5, e.g. in the tropical Andes standard area of 10,000 km2. This is a gions is also significant. All of the six (Mutke & Barthlott, unpublished data). It slightly altered version of the map of above-mentioned global species maxima can be determined from raw data by B arthlott et al. (1996). The species are situated in orographically richly struc regression calculations. numbers have been extrapolated for tured regions of the humid tropics and The appropriate taxonomic level for the standard area using the equation subtropics. diversity mapping according to this o f Evans et al. (1955) under the simplified approach w ill be in most cases the species assumption o f an uniform species-area- Biodiversity versus Geodiversity level because of the data availability. relation world-wide. For a complete Under certain aspects in well investigated revision o f the map which is already in As already stated in the previous section lim ited areas such as in Central Europe it process, the species-area-model of and demonstrated in the method section may be sensible to include infraspecific Arrhenius (1920, 1921) w ill be used since by the example of tropical high mountain taxa such as subspecies as well. However, it offers the possibility of a differentiated ranges, the biodiversity of a region is, these depend even more than species extrapolation by including parameters apart from historical factors, also parti numbers on the assessment level of the fo r spatial heterogeneity (compare also cularly a result of its geodiversity (the flora in question (compare Fig. 3). The Fig. 6 ). diversity of abiotic factors). Geodiversity genus and fam ily levels, by contrast, have The species numbers shown in the map constitutes in addition to its mostly biodi the disadvantage, apart from less pub correspond basically to the current eudiversity-increasing effect a quality of an lished data, th a t much less is known about versity of vascular plants, although this area in its own right of the same order as the genus and family-area-relations than aspect cannot be maintained throughout biodiversity (compare Barthlott et al. about species-area-relations. due to the heterogeneity of the data 1996) . Both together we designate as the Above all, a distinct emphasis must be situation. Here we define eudiversity as ecodiversity of an area in accordance with put on the fact that there will not and the diversity of indigenous species (auto- a landscape-ecological concept (compare cannot be a single correct diversity map, phytes) plus the diversity of archaeophytes Leser 1992) which subsumes and contrasts completely irrespective of the approach (see section 'Biological Globalisation'). the biotope and the geotope under the chosen and the data base available or the In addition to some new patterns term 'ecotope' (Tab. 1). The alternative investigated organism group. The com (compare Barthlott et al. 1996), trends geographical term of 'landscape diversi parison of lowland rain forests of the already known are shown in the map: The ty' should not be used as in biodiversity western Amazonian region to the eastern diversity in general increases from the research it is generally defined as a syno slopes of the Andes is one example which poles towards the equator (compare nym for the gamma-diversity in the shows th a t biodiversity is scale depend Fischer 1960, Gaston 1995). The poorest system o f W hittaker (1972, 1977). ent. In an area o f 100 x 100 m in the low regions w ith respect to species richness The biodiversity raising effect of a land rain forest o f Cuyabeno in Ecuador, (DZ1-3) are the Tundras and the boreal higher geodiversity becomes also evident almost 500 tree species and probably conifer forest biomes. All global diversity when comparing the taxon numbers of more than 800 species o f vascular plants maxima w ith more than 5,000 spp. per the floristic survey (following Haeupler can be found altogether (Valencia et al. 10,000 km 2 (DZ10) are located in the re 1997) o rth e species numbers o f mosses in 1994) - numbers which correspond in gion of the humid tropics and subtropics. the federal states o f Germany (Dull 1977) mountain rain forests to those of com All in all, six species maxima can be distin respectively with the boundaries of the plete nature reserves o f hundreds o f ha. guished: 1. Choco-Costa Rica-Centre, 2. highlands. (Fig. 3, 4). W hile in the North A t the same time, 4,430 species o f vascu Tropical East Andes Centre, 3. Atlantic German plains taxon numbers of vascular lar plants (Jorgensen & Ulloa Ulloa 1994) Brazil Centre, 4. East-Himalayan-Yunnan- plants o f few er than 1,300 per 3 x 3 Ord have been recorded in the Ecuadorian Centre, 5. North Borneo-Centre, 6 . New nance Survey Maps can be found almost Andes above 2400 m above sea-level in an Guinea Centre. throughout, those in the low mountain area of about 45,000 km 2 so far - more A part from these six maxima of diver ranges, with only a few exceptions, may than Balslev & Renner (1989) estimate fo r sity zone 1 0 , there are also regional be as high as a little more than 2 , 0 0 0 taxa the whole Amazonian lowland area of maxima o f some significance in the area o f vascular plants. The situation o f species Ecuador (Oriente) with more than 70,000 of diversity zone 7-9. In Europe this is the Tab. 1: Schematic description o f the ter km2, where about 3,000 species have region surrounding the Mediterranean minological concept of bio-, geo- and been recorded until now (Renner et al. Sea and here particularly the Sierra Neva ecodiversity by Barthlott et al. (1996). 1990). Similarexamples can also be found da, the Pyrenees, the Sea Alps, and the in other regions. Thus, a cartographic mountains of the Balkan as well as the Ecodiversity depiction o f alpha-diversity in some areas mountains in South and Central Greece. would show distinctly different patterns On a global level as well, regions with a / \ from a gamma-diversity map. Mediterranean climate are of outstand Geodiversity Biodiversity ing significance. The Capensis in south Abiotic Factors: Biotic Factors: Centres of global biodiversity ern Africa or the south-west of Australia Climate/Water Producers belong to the most important centres of Geology / Chemistry Consumers The map shown in Fig. 1 (Barthlott et al. diversity w ith their species-rich flora and Morphology/Orography Decomposers 1999a,b), based on about 1,400 records high degrees of endemism.

22 Barthlott et al. • Biodiversity - The Uneven Distribution of a Treasure

< 1300 taxa Germany: *Federal State, □ towns w ith research per 3 x 3 MTB > 400 species o f mosses per 10,000 km 2 institutions intensively > 1300 taxa working on floristics per 3 x 3 MTB Germany: *Federal State, □ < 400 species o f mosses per 10,000 km 2 > 1750 taxa highland boundary ■ per 3 x 3 MTB highland boundary

Fig. 3: Taxon numbers o f the identified vascular plants in 3 x 3 Fig. 4: Average species numbers of mosses per 10,000 km2 in ordinance survey maps (MTB) (Haeupler 1997) in comparison the individual states of Germany compared to the highlands to the highland boundaries and the location of towns with boundaries. As is the case with vascular plants (Fig. 3), higher research institutions intensively working on floristics. species numbers occur throughout the area of the highland. For the conversion of the species numbers (following DJ11977) numbers o f mosses fo r a standard area of the most impor to the standard area, the species-area model by Arrhenius 10,000 km 2 in the individual states of Ger tant primary produ (1920) was used with a z-value of 0.24. The z-value was deter many is similar. cers as well as im mined by regression calculation based on data for 43 Europe The problem o f scale which was men portant structu an regions. tioned in the section "Methods of biodi ral shapers of the *for Lower Saxony DJI states different numbers for the high versity mapping" is to a large extent a habitats. The over lands and the Lower Saxony plains incl. Bremen. result of the different geodiversity of the whelming diversity investigated areas. of animals in the highly structured cano the high animal diversity and the produ pies of tropical rain forests may serve here cers' essential role fo r the system (compa Vascular plants as indicator group as only one example. Due to the numer re Adey 1998), the species numbers o f the for the total diversity of terrestri ous, often specialised plant animal inter producers, i.e. algae, appear to be com al systems? actions, a close linkage between animal paratively low (Adey 1998, Rowan 1998). and plant diversity seems to be exceed The question whether this close, uni As already mentioned in the introduction, ingly probable. versal relationship between vascular a mapping of the total global biodiversi However, it must be emphasised that plant diversity and total diversity in ter ty based on other groups o f organisms, these statements only refer to terrestrial restrial systems exists, how strong it is and like e.g. the arthropods is impossible at habitats. In marine habitats, where vascu w hat its possible exceptions are cannot be least in the near future due to the data lar plants generally play a minor role, the answered here conclusively because of situation. For terrestrial systems, the com basic relationship between the species the data situation already mentioned. paratively well known vascular plants are numbers of producers and consumers fol Nevertheless, the species numbers fo r vas particularly suitable as indicator group lows different rules than in terrestrial cular plants and major animal groups to because o f their significance fo r the eco systems. The coral reefs, often compared be found in literature show high correla systems. A part from extreme habitats to tropical rain forests because of their tions on the country level (Fig. 5). The such as the arctic lichen tundra, they are high diversity, are a case in point. Despite comparison between the diversity map of

23 Barthlott et al. ■ Biodiversity - The Uneven Distribution of a Treasure

South American birds (Fjeldsa & Rahbeck Often the species number fo r an area is Haeupler 1982) of the distribution of 1998) or the tiger beetles (Coleóptera: known, w hile other data, e.g. the system individuals over the species is a character Cicindelidae) o f India and Australia (Pear atic composition, are not available. The istic o f the whole observed species com son & Cassola 1992) and the correspon species number dominates the diversity munity in the area of investigation. ding patternsin Fig. 1 also show basic con concept, not least because it is easier to Evenness can be combined w ith species formities. However, other organism handle and more graphic than other richness in diversity indices (e.g. Shannon- groups (e.g. aphidoidea, hemiptera or aspects o f diversity. In addition it plays tra Index). As the abundance distribution of apidae, hymenoptera, compare Gaston & ditionally an important role in the eva a systematic group fo r larger areas is avail Williams 1996) evince significantly diffe luation o f areas, e.g., under conservation able in just a few cases, it plays only a role rent distributions or even completely con aspects. in diversity investigations on small scale. trary trends. However, the problem with In a more differentiated discussion, 3. Taxonomic, phylogenetic and charac all these comparisons is that they are however, some other aspects of biodiver te r diversity. These diversity conceptions, always only comparisons with a single sity apart from species numbers can be including the systematic, phenetic and other group, each with its own ecology identified. This list is even more extensi cladistic diversity as well as the taxic diver and corresponding own distribution pat ve when evaluating the biological diver sity, are closely interrelated. They are dis tern but not with total diversities. After sity of an area by means of quality crite cussed in detail by Williams & Humphries all, the question is not whether the diver ria. A great number of such criteria are (1994,1996) and Faith (1994). The term of sity of vascular plants is a good indicator mentioned in literature, some of them taxonomic diversity is based on the idea for the tiger beetle diversity - e.g. for already playing an im portant role in na that, in simple words, for instance a North America this would in fact consti ture conservation practice (Usher 1986). system o f 2 species o f different genera tute a highly dubious statement. Seven quality criteria appearto be of basic shows a higher diversity than a system of Therefore it is at present not possible significance for us: 2 species o f the same genus. As a solid to ultimately prove the suitability of vas 1. Taxon richness. The majority of inves taxonomy aims at the reflection of the cular plants as indicator group for the tigations here concentrates on the num phytogeny, taxonomic diversity can be total diversity with numbers. Neverthe ber of species. However, for different ques defined as an approximation of phyloge less, the principle considerations (see tions particularly in the area of biogeo netic diversity. The conception of charac above) as well as the trends within larger graphy and evolutionary research the ter diversity (or feature diversity), by con groups (Fig. 5) strongly support this genus or family number is also significant. trast, is based on the concept that a assumption - along with a simultaneous 2. Abundance structure. The share of the system is the more diverse the more lack of significant evidence against it. number or biomass of individuals per spe (genetic, phenetic, functional) features cies is discussed in various approaches. its species show. Feature diversity can be Quality of biodiversity Regarding rarity w ith respect to local approximated by taxonomic and phylo population size (Rabinowitz 1981, Gaston genetic diversity and is a possible indica The terms 'biodiversity' and 'species num 1996) the abundance of a species is com tor for the potential use of biological bers' are often used as synonyms. Thissim- pared to the abundance of other species. diversity (Faith 1994). plification may have d ifferent reasons. By contrast, the evenness (Pielou 1975,

a) b) 3500 C/> o 3000 Q. E % 2500 M—

° 2 0 0 0 CD f 1500 3 w 1000 o g. 500 cn o

0 20000 40000 60000 Species numbers of vascular plants Species numbers of vascular plants

Fig. 5: Comparison of species numbers of vascular plants (following WR11996) to a) the sum of species numbers of land verte brates (birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibious animals) on the country level (data taken from WR11997), b) estimated species numbers of insects for different regions (countries, archipelagos) world-wide (following Table 4.5 in Gaston 1996).

24 Barthlott et al. ■ Biodiversity - The Uneven Distribution of a Treasure

Species richness C s - V a l u e

>640 ■

Fig. 6: Diversity o f vascular plants in Africa. The species richness is shown on the left, a combined index which comprises spe cies richness and endemism (Cs-value) on the right. Both maps show some significant differences, such as in West Madagascar, where a medium value for species richness coincides with a relatively high Cs-value because of the high degree of endemism. The Capensis, already striking at first sight because of its species richness, shows by far the highest Cs-value. However, compa rison is difficult since the Cs-values for the 19 regions represent averages which are not further differentiated. Further expla nations in the text. (Kier & Barthlott, unpubl. data).

4. Range sizes and degree of endemism. 6 . Relevance w ith in ecosystems. An conceivable. Often, a combination of two The range sizes o f occurring species in a aspect, above all recognised in the re criteria in one index is possible. In case of region are an im portant criterion for qual search of global change, is the relevance grid related data, for instance, the reci itative studies: the occurrence o f species of species fo r the functioning o f ecosys procal value o f the range sizes o f all the w ith small distribution ranges raises the tems, particularly with respect to global occurring species may be defined fo r each value of a region. One assessment proce biogeochemical cycles. The ecosystematic grid cell and the sum of these reciprocal dure, which is in many respects impre relevance as a quality criterion of biodi values may be calculated. The resulting cise, is the determination of the percent versity designates in this sense the func index (Usher 1986) is a com bination o f age o f endemic species, i. e. o f species tion of a species or a species comm unity two quality criteria: it reflects the degree which occur only in the area of investiga forthe ecological integrity of a largerspa- of endemism as well as the species rich tion. Several disadvantages o f this index, tial unit. ness. It can be calculated and cartographi- particularly with respect to its mapping, 7. Actual and potential economic value. cally depicted for instance with the com are eliminated by newer calculation This aspect represents a central quality cri puter program WORLDMAP (Williams methods (Usher 1986, W illiams et al. terion from an anthropocentric point of 1997) on the basis of grid data (i.e. fo llo w 1994). They are based on the range sizes view. ing a taxon based approach, see above). of all occurring taxa and thus enable a The four last-mentioned criteria can, It is also possible to calculate the index continuous and area-related calculation strictly speaking, not be considered as with an approach based on summary data of the degree of endemism (see below). pects o f diversity. It is hardly correct to say for geographical units. For this method 5. Share of allodiversity. An important that two regions show a different degree the number of species fo r each region as characteristic and quality criterion of the of biodiversity because its species d iffe r in well as their classification in chorological biodiversity within a region is the share the degree of endemism (Williams & groups are taken as basis. The map on the of allodiversity, i.e. the organisms intro Humphries 1994). Nevertheless, they are rig h t in Fig. 6 presents the calculated duced by man. It has a significant medi- important quality criteria in the compa values according to this method (here cal um-to long-term influence on total diver rative evaluation of the biodiversity of led Cs-Values) fo r the 19 regions o f A fri sity as indigenous species are often re regions. ca defined by White (1983) (Kier & Barth placed or extinguished by alien species For all seven quality criteria, indices lott in preparation, see also for a discus (see below). have been either defined or are at least sion of the relevance for setting priorities

25 Barthlott et al. • Biodiversity - The Uneven Distribution of a Treasure

in the protection and conservation of phytes", "neozoa", etc. However, terms 1600, organisms introduced by human biodiversity). The subtropics and the for the corresponding diversities such as kind are said to be responsible (Groom- mountains of Africa as well as Madagas the diversity of neophytes have been bridge 1992). These effects occur particu car show particular high values. The missing so far. In order to fill this gap a larly in the first phase after the arrival of Capensisfor instance has a Cs-value about term inology system - based on existing humankind. In Central Europe today, m il 15 times higher than an area of the same terms - is suggested (compare Tab. 2, for lennia after the first settlement and cen size in the equatorial rain forest. Yet we a detailed presentation compare Barth turies after the establishment of inter must note that at this first stage of sur lott et al. 1999a). The following state continental connections, they are no veying only mean values have been cal ments should also be valid also fo r zo ticeable only in a diminished way. culated for the regions. A more differen ology, though here terms of botany are used. However, another effect results in the tiated study would presumably lead to At last since the beginning of the frequent difficulties for biodiversity re higher results in some regions, e.g. in motorised mass- and long-distance trans search and nature conservation practice Cameroon and Gabon. ports, people have transported and car to demonstrate the negative impact of ried off species over long distances to an neophytes. Settlement of foreign plants Biological globalisation increasing extent - intentionally or unin leads to a net increase of local species tentionally. At the same time humans richness - at least in the short to medium The fundamental change in global biodi foster the settlem ent of species in areas run. Global biodiversity, by contrast, versity caused by the activities of mankind altered by their activities. This happens, decreases due to the often resulting is a w ell-known problem. Discussion in above all, by increasing structure diversi extinction o f indigenous species (see the past covered mainly the issues of frag ty and thereby geodiversity, i. e. the diver above). Thus the total diversity of vascu mentation and destruction of habitats. sity of abiotic factors. For example, road lar plants in Germany - measured by taxa These are still the main problems regard construction in a formerly closed forest richness - has increased by about 1 0 % ing the loss of biological diversity. Only area creates a suitable habitat for many (Korneck et al. 1996). Their eudiversity, 1999, Nepstad et al. found the deforesta ruderal plants. Thus, neodiversity is however, has decreased due to the tion rate of amazon forest to be twice as increased to a substantial extent, since extinction o f some species. high as been calculated from rem ote sens the organisms settling in the newly con ing data. Nevertheless, another pheno structed habitats are often neophytes and Research potential and menon of anthropogenic change of neozoa. The species introduced by man responsibility biodiversity has generally been acknowl settle preferably in habitats like this. edged for a long time, but has been devel However, in many cases neophytes also Biodiversity research contributes consi oped only recently into a central topic of spread in natural habitats and displace derably in many respects: the scientific debate about the threat to indigenous plants. A South African study ■ To a large extent it is basic research. global species richness: the displacement of of 2 0 0 endangered or already extinct fyn- Thus, it has also the potential fo r econo indigenous by introduced species. This "bio bos plant species revealed that in 54% of mic uses which are not yet foreseen at the logical globalisation" leads to far-reaching the cases introduced species caused tim e o f research. consequences for biodiversity research. endangerment or extinction (cited after ■ It forms a central basis fo r the sustain An indispensable basis fo r its descrip Kidd 1996). In 39% o f the cases of ani able use o f biological resources, e.g. by tion is a suitable terminology. Indeed, mals becoming extinct the reasons fo r bioprospection. there are plenty of terms like "neo extinction being known since the year ■ It supplies the necessary data and knowledge needed for the protection Tab. 2: Classification of plants and their diversities according to their mode of intro and conservation of biodiversity. duction. The description here refers to plants. An analogous classification e.g. for the The relevant potential for biodiversi fauna or for all organisms taken together is easily conceivable, corresponding terms ty research exists to a considerable extent have partly been introduced already (e.g. neozoa). Whether the classification into in the industrialised nations. Besides a eu- and neo-diversity or alternatively into auto- and allo-diversity is chosen for the large number of research institutions, a rough classification depends on the data situation and the purpose of the investi considerable rate of ex-situ diversity is gation. (after Barthlott et al. 1999a) available: collections and gardens contain about 80,000 species or 33% of all de scribed species and 85% of the families of Overall diversity vascular plants (Barthlott et al. 1999b). Eudiversity | Neodiversity Moreover, an enormous potential is atthe Autodiversity Allodiversity individual nations' disposal with respect

Archaeodiversity Neodiversity | Neoterodiversityl to herbariums and zoological collections. The in-situ diversity by contrast is largely A u to p h y te s A llo p h y te s located in the tropics, i.e. above all in the Archaeophytes Neophytes I Neoterophytes \ developing countries. This discrepancy is shown in Fig. 1, where the distribution of without human natural unmotorized, motorized mass interference migration long-distance and long-distance more than 500 significant botanical gar of man transport transport dens is indicated in comparison to the spe cies richness o f vascular plants (Barthlott

26 Barthlott et al. • Biodiversity - The Uneven Distribution of a Treasure et al. 1999b). This situation results not Blake, S.F. & Atwood, A.C. (1942): Geogra nal gradients. - Progress in Physical only in great chances but also in consi phical guide to the floras of the world, Geography, 20 (4): 466-476, London. derable responsibilities. Part I. - 1-336; Washington, D.C. Gaston, K.J. (1996): Species richness: mea (reprint 1963: New York, London (Haf- sure and measurement. - In: Gaston, References: ner)). K.J. (Ed.): Biodiversity. A Biology o f Chapman, A.D. & Busby, J.R. (1994): Link Numbers and Difference.: 77-13; Adey, W.H. (1998): Coral reefs: algal struc ing plant species inform ation to con Oxford (Blackwell). tured and mediated ecosystems in tinental biodiversity inventory, cli Gaston, K.J. (1998): Biodiversity-the road shallow, turbulent, alkaline waters. mate modeling and environmental to an atlas. - Progress in Physical Geo - J. 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(1997): Zur Phytodiversität Barthlott, W.; Biedinger, N.; Braun, G.; ton, A.C. (Eds.) (1997): Centres of Plant Deutschlands: Ein Baustein zur globa Feig, F.; Kier, G. & Mutke, J. (1999): Ter Diversity. A guide and strategy fo r their len Phytodiversitätsbilanz. - Osnabr. minological and methodological conservation. Vol. 3: The Americas. - Naturwissenschaft!. M itteilungen, 23: aspects of the mapping and analysis of I—XIV, 1-562; Cambridge (WWF & 123-133; Osnabrück. global biodiversity. - Acta Bot. Fenni- IUCN). Haeupler, H. & Schönfelder, P. (Eds.) (1989): ca, 162: 103-110.; Helsinki. Dull, R. (1977): Die Verbreitung der deut- Atlas der Farn- und Blütenpflanzen der Barthlott, W.; Rauer, G.; Ibisch, PL.; von den schen Laubmoose (Bryopsida). - Bot. Bundesrepublik Deutschland. 2. Aufl. - Driesch, M. & Lobin, W. (1999): Biodi- Jahrb. Syst., 98 (4): 490-548; Leipzig. 1-768; Stuttgart (Ulmer). versität und Botanische Gärten. - In: Erwin, T.L. (1982): Tropical forests: their Humboldt, A. v. (1806): Ideen zu einer Phy Bundesamt für Naturschutz (Ed.): richness in Coleoptera and other siognomie der Gehölze. Tübingen Botanische Gärten und Biodiversität. arthropod species. - Coleopterists Bul (Cotta). Erhaltung Biologischer Vielfalt durch letin, 36: 74-75. Humboldt, A. v. (1850): Views o f nature: or Botanische Gärten und die Rolle des Evans, F.C.; Clark, P.J. & Brandt, R.H. (1955): contemplations on the sublime phe Übereinkommens überdie Biologische Estimation of the number of species nomena of creation with scientific illu Vielfalt (Rio de Janeiro, 1992). - 1-24; present in a given area. - Ecology, 36: strations. (English translation by E.C. Münster (Landwirtschaftsverlag). 342-343; New York. Otte & H.G. Bohn); London (Henry G. Benabid, A. & Cuzin, F. (1997): Populations Faith, D.P. (1994): Phylogenetic diversity: a Bohn). de dragonnier (Dracaena drago L. ssp. general framework for the prediction Jalas, J. & Suominen, J. (Eds.) (1972-1994): ajgal Benabid et Cuzin) au Maroc: of feature diversity. - In: Forey, P.L.; Atlas Florae Europaeae. - Vol. 1-10; valeurs taxonomique, biogéographi Humphries, C.J. & Vane-Wright, R.l. Helsinki (The Committee fo r M apping que et phytosociologique. - Comptes (Eds.): Systematics and Conservation the Flora of Europe & Societas Biologi- Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Evaluation.: 251-268; Oxford (Claren ca Fennica Vanamo). Paris, Sciences de la vie, 320: 267-277.; don Press). Jalas, J.; Suominen, J. & Lampinen, R. (Eds.) Paris. Fischer, A.G. (1960): Latitudinal variations (1996): Atlas Florae Europaeae. - Vol. Bibby, C.J.; Collar, N.J.; Crosby, M.J.; Heath, in organic diversity. - Evolution, 14: 11; Helsinki. (The Committee fo r Map M.F.; Imboden, C; Johnson, T.H.; Long, 64-81; Lancaster, PA. ping the Flora of Europe & Societas Bio- A.J.; Stattersfield, A.J. &Thirgood, S.L. Fjeldsa, J. & Rahbek, C. (1998): Priorities for logica Fennica Vanamo). (1992): Putting biodiversity on the Conservation in Bolivia, illustrated by Jorgensen, P.M. & Ulloa Ulloa, C. (1994): map: priority areas fo r a global con a continent-wide analysis o f bird dis Seed plants o f the high Andes o f Ecua servation. - 1-90; Cambridge (ICBP). tribution. - In: Barthlott, W. & Winiger, dor - a checklist. - AAU Reports, 34: Blake, S.F. (1961): Geographical guide to . M. (Eds.): Biodiversity - a challenge for 1-443; Aarhus (Aarhus University the floras of the world. Part II. -1-742; development research and policy.: Press). Washington, D. C. (U.S. Dept, of Agri 313-327; Berlin u. a. (Springer). Kidd, M.M. (1996): Cape Peninsula.-South culture) Gaston, K.J. (1995): Biodiversity - la titudi African Wild Flower Guide, 3: 1-239;

27 Barthlott et al. • Biodiversity - The Uneven Distribution of a Treasure

Kistenbosch (Botanical Society of 259-421; Jena (Fischer Verlag). Valencia, R.; Balslev, H. & Paz y Mino C, G. South Africa). Meusel, H.; Jäger, E.J. (1992): Vergleichen (1994): High tree alpha-diversity in Korneck, D.; Schnittler, M., Vollmer, I. de Chorologie der zentraleuropäi Amazonian Ecuador. - Biodiversity and (1996): Rote Liste der Farn- und Blü schen Flora. Bd. 3 (Text und Karten). - Conservation, 3: 21-28; London tenpflanzen (Pteridophyta et Sperma- l-IX, 1-333 + l-IX, 422-688; Jena, Stutt White, F. (1983): The vegetation of Africa: tophyta) Deutschlands. - In: Bundes gart, New York (Fischer Verlag). a descriptive memoir to accompany amt fü r Naturschutz (Ed.): Rote Liste Miller, R.l. (1994): Mapping the diversity of the Unesco/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation gefährdeter Pflanzen Deutschlands. - nature. - 1—XVII, 1-218; London (Chap map of Africa. - Natural Resources Schr.-R. Vegetationskunde, 18:21-187; man & Hall). Research, 20: 1-356; Paris (Unesco). Bonn-Bad Godesberg (Bundesamt für Myers, N. (1988): Threatened biotas: "Hot Whittaker, R.H. (1972): Evolution and mea Naturschutz). spots" in tropical forests. - Environ surement of species diversity. - Taxon, Krebs, C.J. (1972): Ecology. The experi mentalist, 8 (3): 187-208; London. 21: 213-251; Utrecht. mental. analysis of distribution and Myers, N. (1990): The biodiversity chal Whittaker, R.H. (1977): Evolution of Spe abundance . - 1-694; New York (Har lenge: expanded hot-spots analysis. - cies Diversity in Land Communities. - per & Row). Environmentalist, 10: 243-256: Lon Evolutionary Biology, 10: 1-67; New Lathti, & Lampinen, R. (1997): The Atlas don. York. Florae Europaeae database. - In: Nepstad, D.C., Verissimo, A., Alencar, A., Williams, PH. (1997): WORLDMAP public Chorological Problems in the Europe Nobre, C, Lima, E., Lefebvre, P, Schle demo version 4.18.01 (computer pro an flora - VIII Meeting o f the Commit singer, P., Potter, C, Moutinho, P, Men gram including help files). - London tee fo r Mapping the Flora o f Europe, doza, E., Cochrane, M. & Brooks, V. Williams, PH. & Humphries, C.J. (1994): August 8-10, 1997: Abstracts. (1999): Large-scale impoverishment of Biodiversity, taxonomic relatedness, Lebrun, J. (1960): Sur la richesse de la flore Amazonian forests by logging and fire. and endemism in conservation. - In: de divers territoires africains. - Bull. - Nature 398: 505-508; London. Forey, P.L.; Humphries, C.J. & Vane- Séance Acad. Roy. Sei. Outre-Mer, 6 (2): Olson, D.M. & Dinerstein, E. (1998): The W right, R.l. (Ed.): Systematics and Con 669-690; Brussels. Global 200: A representation approach servation Evaluation.: 269-287; Oxford Leser, H. (1992): Ökologie wozu? Der graue to conserving the earth's most biologi (Clarendon Press). Regenbogen oder Ökologie ohne cally valuable ecoregions. - Conserva Williams, P.H.; Humphries, C.J. & Gaston, Natur. - I—XII, 1-362; Berlin. tion Biology, 12 (3): 502-515; Boston. KJ. (1994): Centres of seed-plant diver Malyshev, L.l. (1975): The quantitative ana Pearson, D.L. & Cassola, F. (1992): World- sity: the family way.-Proc. R.Soc. Lond. lysis of flora: spatial diversity, level of Wide Species Richness Patterns of Tiger B, 256: 67-70; London. specific richness, and representativity Beetles (Coleóptera: Cicindelidae): Williams, P.H. & Humphries, C.J. (1996): o f sampling areas (in Russian). - In: Indicator Taxon for Biodiversity and Comparing character diversity among Botanicheskiy Zhurn., 60: 1537-1550; Conservation Studies. - Conservation biotas. - In: Gaston, K.J. (Ed.) (1996): Moskau, Leningrad. Biology, 6 (3): 376-391; Boston Biodiversity. A Biology of Numbers and Malyshev, L.l. (1991): Some quantative Perring, F.H. & Walters, S.M. (1962): Atlas Difference.: 54-76; Oxford (Blackwell approaches to problems of comparati of the British Flora. - l-XXIV, 1-432; Science). ve floristics. - In: Nimis, P.L. & Crovello, London (Botanical Society of the Bri Wohlgemut, T. (1996): Ein floristischer T.J. (Eds.): Quantative approaches to tish Isles). Ansatz zur biogeographischen Gliede phytogeography.: 15-33; Dordrecht Pielou, E. (1975): Ecological Diversity. - rung der Schweiz. - Bot. Helv., 106 (2): (Kluwer Academic Publishers). 1-165; New York (Wiley and Sons). 227-260; Zürich. Malyshev, L.l. (1993): Ecological back Rabinowitz, D. (1981): Seven forms of rari WRI (World Resources Institute) (1996): ground of floristic diversity in northern ty. - In: Synge, H. (Ed.): The Biological W orld Resources 1996-97. - 1-380; Asia. - Fragm. Flor. Geobot. Suppl. 2 Aspects o f Rare Plant Conservation.: Oxford University Press). (1): 331-342; Krakau. 205-217; Cambridge (Wiley & Sons). Marrero, A., Almeida, R.S. & Gonzalez- Renner, S.S.; Balslev, H. & Holm-Nielsen, Authors' address: Martin, M. (1998): A new species of the L.B. (1990): Flowering Plants of Ama w ild dragon tree, Dracaena (Dracae- zonian Ecuador - a checklist. - AAU Prof. Dr. Wilhelm Barthlott, Jens Mutke, naceae) from Gran Canaria and its Reports, 24:1-43; Aarhus (Aarhus Uni Gerold Kier taxonomic and biogeographic implica versity Press). Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms- tions. - Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 128: 291-314.; Rowan, R. (1998): Diversity and ecology of Universität Bonn London. Zooxanthellae on coral reefs. - J. Phy- Botanisches Institut und Meusel, H.&Jäger, E.J. & Weinert, E. (1965): col., 34 (3): 407-417; Baltimore. Botanischer Garten Vergleichende Chorologie der zentral Skov, F. & Borchsenius, F. (1997): Predicting Abt. Systematik und Biodiversität europäischen Flora. Bd. 1 (Text und plant species distribution patterns Meckenheimer Allee 170 Karten). - 1-583 + 1-258; Jena (Fischer using simple climatic parameters: a D- 53115 Bonn Verlag). case study o f Ecuadorian palms. - Eco- e-mail: [email protected] Meusel, H.; Jäger, E.J.; Rauschert, S. & Wei graphy, 20: 347-355; Kopenhagen. www.botanik.uni-bonn.de/system nert, E. (1978): Vergleichende Choro Usher, M.B. (Ed.) (1986): W ildlife conser logie der zentraleuropäischen Flora. vation evaluation. - I—XII, 1-394; Lon Bd. 2 (Text und Karten). - 1—XI, 1-418 + don (Chapman & Hall).

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Serengeti with Kilimanjaro and Ngoron- Supporting Biodiversity: goro, and the Danube Delta are some of them . The Ayers Rock National Park in Taking the Benefit of Tourism Australia, the Coto Donana in Andalusia, the Everglades in Florida, Yosemite into Account National Park. Examples of extraordinary natural beauty! W olf Michael Iwand The World Heritage Convention puts the focus on the protection and preser vation of these unique natural sites. So 1. The WWF has given itself an admism. i The common denom inator in our should we promote them touristically? rable mandate: "In the interest of na company today is: "Quality Manage Wouldn't we then be the cause of addi tu re ". A company like TUI puts it more ment" - and this definitely includes envi tional pressure from holiday-makers and pragmatically: "In the interest of our ronmental quality standards, quality con visitors? customers!" But without any doubt we trols and quality assurance. Question: Do you regard "man and do have something in common: our We started by concentrating on more the biosphere" as a contradiction? Since customers put intact nature at the cen or less technological eco-aspects such as the UNESCO "Man and the Biosphere" tre of their dreams. What do holiday sewage treatment and disposal, waste program's founding in 1976, 337 bio makers expect of nature? They certainly deposits, renewable energies. But then sphere reserves (April 1996) have been have no dream about biodiversity! That we found the real issue: the capital asset established in 85 countries, with the goal is a completely unknown political slogan, of tourism which is the beauty, the of preserving biodiversity while at the or - at best - a media buzzword. Dreams uniqueness and attraction of nature, the same time promoting the economic about "Paradise", on the other hand, is diversity of fauna, flora, habitat, land development of the local population. a pretty precise (!) definition of our scape, scenery. Nature conservation and economic devel customers' desires. This is exactly w hat I am going to be opment while preserving the specific cul Today, international tourism is one of talking about: the capital which nature, tural values of the region. Man and na the fastest growing sectors of the world landscape, biodiversity constitute fo r to u r ture together, on a fair and balanced foot economy. According to various forecasts, ism. This is not the trivial platitude about ing. Compatibility is achieved by zoning tourism already is or will become the the branch we are perched on which the area into a main zone, a buffer zone world's most significant economic activi nobody is about to saw off, it is the in and a development area. This concept ty within the very next years. It is by this sight that we must handle our capital implies what is where to be protected, dynamics that mass tourism is hold re investment, capital wealth, our natural and where economic operations may take sponsible for world-wide environmental treasures, values, assets more economi place. Not only protection against people, pollution, for nature degradation, forthe cally and more profitably. This kind of but, just as important, development of loss o f species and landscape diversity, tourism does not need just green mana these areas for people. especially in sensitive coastal and alpine gers, but - so to say - eco-investment One result o f such zoning regulations areas. trustees who secure this capital and make is the setting aside of nature conserva In 1990, TUI, the European market lead more o f it and prevent losses at all costs. tion areas in varying categories o f protec er in organized package holidays, crea Therefore, it is very much to the tourism tion. For TUI, designated protected areas ted voluntarily as the world's first tour industry's own vital interest to support are highly significant touristic indicators operator a Corporate Department of the aims of a global, not only regional fo r assessing the quality o f nature, land Environment in order to establish a feasi nature conservation strategy! scape and biodiversity in holiday regions. ble management system to reduce the For example, the 40.4% protected areas impact o f some m illion TUI clients peryear 2. Question: What do Cologne Catheon the Canary Islands or the 39.7% on the on the environment in holiday regions. dral and the Galapagos Islands have in Balearic Islands. Compare these to 8.4% Since seven years, we force our contract common? Both are examples of the in total Spain, 2.7% in Switzerland and ing partners - destination authorities, "W orld Heritage o f M ankind". In 1972, 11.9% in Germany (according to OECD tourism boards, hoteliers, transport com UNESCO adopted the World Heritage statistics)! panies - around the world to implement Convention for the protection of unique Surprisingly, there are also 40 bio procedures to reduce or avoid waste and cultural and natural treasures. sphere reserves on the list o f the w orld sewage, over-consumption of water, Question: When was the last time you heritage treasures of mankind. Here, the energy, land, beaches, nature. We did not used the words unique, outstanding, preservation of the beauty and the devel decide for so-called "ecotourism" for the exceptional - and you really meant it? opment of diversity by man converge. politically correct happy few. We decided These are the very criteria fo r the super From the standpoint of tourism, some for an integrated systematic approach of latives, the crown jewels o f the W orld striking examples are the Everglades and environmental care w ith in the business Heritage of Mankind! Today, 552 sites are Yellowstone, Coto Donana and the Seren processes such as m onitoring, product included in this world heritage. Of those, geti. So you see, we are circling in on this planning, product development, purchas 134 are counted to the "World Natural kind of area where nature conservation ing, education, training, information to Heritage": unique natural treasures. The interests and those of touristic develop reduce the environmental impact of tour Grand Canyon, the Great Barrier Reef, the ment overlap. Model regions!

29 Iwand • Supporting Biodiversity: Taking the Benefit of Tourism into Account

3. Astonishingly, Yellowstone Nationabsurd road-construction projects in idyl Council for sustainable forestry and the al Park and the Florida Everglades are lic landscapes. Marine Stewardship Council for sustaina among the most endangered ones. The TUI respects very much that many tour ble fishery point to the future as models Everglades are dying. Not from tourism. ism countries are increasingly im plem ent for the development of industries under Because of enormous population pres ing conservation projects. The indig strong environmental stress. sure and the density of population and enous population in these countries is Moreover, within this context we are traffic in South Florida and enormous taking an ever more active role in finding approaching UNEP and UNDP. Here in water consumption of the population sustainable forms of dealing with nature. Germany, we are in close contact w ith the and agriculture. So many tourism countries discovered Federal Agency for Nature Conservation It is urgent that we must quickly find a new kind of tourism, ecotourism. Eco- and - when it comes to developing coun economic ways of securing the natural tourism includes a wide variety of highly tries - with the GTZ. capital of tourism. For example by a con creative tourism alternatives which fea Taken only these examples it is a glob sistently and continuously funded "valua ture closeness to nature while sparing it al network of impressive competence! tion strategy" by the tourism industry. at the same tim e as far as possible. There The common denominator with tourism At a WTO Asian-Pacific Minister Con is no stringent definition, neither in the now actually becomes possible. Through ference at Male in February 1997 the Pres newcomers amongst the tourism coun the economic insight of "Protection by ident of the Maldives Islands presented a tries, particularly the developing coun use"! Protection of biological diversity by calculation which gives much food for tries, nor in the traditional tourism coun sustainable use! In my view a highly sig thought. At the fishmarket on the tries of Europe, America or the Pacific nificant concept of the tourism industry Maldives, a fisherman gets about 32 U.S. region. UNEP has calculated the market and conservationists. Now, beyond the dollars for a shark; as an attraction for volume of ecotourism to be millions of stage of dialogue, networking by co-ope scuba-diving tourists - in the under holiday-makers and thousands of million ration can be realized: with the "right" water area of Ari Atoll, under protection dollar. TUI regards ecotourism to date as experts and the "rig h t" selection of steps since 1995 - a shark brings about 33.500 a niche market for creative minorities, for sustainable use. U.S. dollars in revenue per year to the always for small to very small groups of Maldives. A thousand times as much in people. So beware of false prophets who 5. Rememberfora moment "El Niño". one year! One shark! A group of sharks preach this as a futuristic picture for tour The Christmas aquatic phenomenon of living there thus can be calculated to ism as a whole. It cannot w ork fo r the Peruvian fishermen has grown into a amount to about three quarters of a 600 million holiday-makers today and "Satan" for people world-wide. In South million U.S. dollars per year to the approximately 1 thousand million of east Asia alone, more than 20 million peo Maldives coffers. them by the year 2010. On the contrary: ple were affected by smog and haze of And this kind of sustainable funding th a t w ould be a disaster! A t best, eco burning rainforests. More than 20 mil is precisely what I am driving at! The con tourism is an additional option, as a rule lion! And many more millions of hectares cept behind is "valuation", finding the in particularly sensitive zones with respect of tropical rainforests, containing an equivalent, in financial terms, of natural to ecology and also frequently in the abundant diversity of life which was incin beauty and uniqueness, upgrading na hitherto untouched hinterland. So be erated. ture, putting-on-stage and marketing its careful! Ecotourism requires far stricter Because o f the smog impacts on to u r value, putting a benefit tag on it. Why do regulations and controls than tourism in ism in Southeast Asia we had to start at consumer goods always have a monetary the traditional urban zones, or else it w ill TUI w ith "crisis management" to avoid value? What about their natural value, if become a "Pandora's box". health risks fo r our customers. We quick this yields more profits? ly became familiar with API and PSI - Air For example: if whale-watching by 4. In the past we did not take muchPollution Index and Pollution Standard tourists already generates more income notice o f the IU C N -until recently. We are Index. But not with the question how to today than whaling, this tourist attraction learning! But this Internationale of con evaluate the immense loss of biodiver is profitable. What is true for whales also servationists is also learning. The Director- sity or to understand the word "irre goes for the African elephant or the General of the IUCN, David McDowell, versibility". Sequoia tree. energetically demanded: "Let's talk eco In the "Asia Disaster Preparedness So the "valuation strategy" is about nomics! We conservationists must learn to Center" in Bangkok, experts from 17 the conception, managementand control think economically! We have to learn the Asian countries discussed the connection of sustainable plans for using resources in language and argumentation of busi between fire disasters and El Niño, the order to generate steady income, quality ness!" And he hired a chief economist greenhouse effect and climate change. of life and to avoid long-term economic who is carrying out cost-benefit calcula That is the core of the matter: the ef or ecological losses. tions fo r nature, landscape and biodiversi fects of unscrupulous economic activities To enable this valuation of nature, ty. Highly remarkable and futuristic. on nature, on biodiversity, on climate, on landscape and biodiversity to take place, A similar invaluable influence is exer people and on their interaction w ith each adequate funds for conservation pro ted by the WWF and its "in situ" conser other by way of total deforestation, fire jects must be set aside from the foreign- vation work as well as its international clearances, energy consumption and currency revenues of tourism countries on campaigns - such as the current "The emissions. a stable, reliable, long-term basis. For Living Planet" with the issues forestry, Vast forest fires around the globe: in nature, not for gigantic, often downright fishery, climate. The Forest Stewardship Indonesia, Malaysia, Australia, Brazil,

30 Iwand • Supporting Biodiversity: Taking the Benefit of Tourism into Account

Mexico, all of them are megadiversity endangered species. Our customers par the IUCN comes in! Let us make one thing countries. The consequence is loss of rain ticipate in these projects - and they do clear: if the public till is empty, private forests, genetic resources, ecosystems - learn in the process: com m itm ent! And so funding must ensure nature conservation and loss of tourism revenues as in Florida do we: for example the interrelationship - or nature will be lost! just now. They call it "wildfire of the cen of cultural and biological diversity, the But the eco-competition in upgraded tury" and "a glimpse of hell". The El Niño interconnection w ith ecosystems, such as nature has its good sides, too: caused fire blaze destroyed more than was recently the case with mangrove 1. It shows successful strategies of the 2 0 0 . 0 0 0 hectares of forests, bushes and forests. But even more we learn about the private sector which can be imitated. scrub until now. The consequence again causes and consequences of water short 2. It increases the interest o f holiday is habitat destruction and tourism loss. age, soil erosion, forest fires, deforesta makers and visitors in nature. tion and desertification. 3. It achieves ecological relief of such 6 . Two months ago I have been invi TUI's real "fu n d in g " is by investing valuable natural areas which must defi ted by the German Governmentto attend year after year into a persistent process of nitely remain protected. the Bratislava Fourth Conference of the growing eco-efficiency to reduce envi Parties (COP) and to present to the parti ronmental impact and to avoid the loss of 9. Some time ago we posed the pro cipants our company's considerations on biodiversity. At the same time all our vocative question: "Can tourists save the incorporation of the Convention on diverse and numerous environmental nature?" And our answer was: "Yes, by Biological Diversity by tourism. At the activities contribute by raising the cus establishing and marketing the value of final day, a plenary decision was adopted tomer's awareness and aiming on the nature!" Protection by utilization, or bet to initiate a process o f exchange o f expe customer's willingness to pay for the ter: protection by better utilization! That riences, knowledge and best practices on value of nature! Because this is the real found consensus: acknowledged experts sustainable forms of tourism and the fur gate-keeper of funding biodiversity. on nature conservation and leading inter ther implementation of the Convention. national ecologists now describe tourism For myself, it was interesting to learn 8 . Notwithstanding all the capitalizaas their ally. In the German news magazi that the German delegation's initiative tion strategies for protecting nature and ne DER SPIEGEL (32/1997), the "appeal for for a proposal of establishing a working biodiversity by means of planned use, mass tourism" was summed up: "The travel group on global guidelines for sustaina there is one aspect which should not be industry has the power to become a world ble tourism and biological diversity was overlooked. There is - like nearly every wide nature conservation agent." DER by far not welcomed by a large number where else - competition! A very active, SPIEGEL drew the conclusion that "the eco of developing countries because they innovative and successful competition, at logical balance sheet fortourism is positive". seemed to fear to lose their own right to a specific sector. I am not talking about My belief is that by tourism develop establish economic activities unrestric other industries, I am talking about the ment there are "sustainable" perspec tedly. Those countries have to be con modern leisure entertainm ent factories, tives for prosperity, growth and nature vinced by a broad bottom-up-approach including artificial worlds to be experi conservation, proved in some different that they will gain with sustainable tourism enced under a glass roof. Subtropical ways and increasingly accepted by the and not lose. As far as I understand, the beach paradises which copy nature so well holiday destinations. United Nations Commission on Sustaina that you can hardly tell the difference. Is this also one-sided, blue-eyed, ble Development (CSD) is preparing an Nature and super-sophisticated tech opportunistic optimism towards future? international action programme on nology are aesthetically and emotionally Indeed! Can we achieve sustainability sustainable tourism until April next year. melted into one. These are no surrogates if an indigenous community chief in a CSD will do this with the support of the of nature, they are modern lifestyle, na third world country says to me: "But we German Government (and the German ture fairy tales. It may even be that holi have hunger! We have to survive!"? Can tourism industry) which understand their day-makers find these are betterthan the sustainability succeed with a world popu role as Germany being the "lead country" real thing. They are not dangerous, unclut lation which keeps on growing, with in terms of sustainable tourism develop tered, clean, hygienic, accessible. There, global poverty, with terrorism and ment guidelines. For the Fifth Conference naturecan betouched. Entry desired-not belligerent conflicts, with millions of o f the Parties in May 2000 in Nairobi one prohibited! The question is: Which na people, children, fighting for survival? o f thethree key issues w ill be "sustainable ture experience is more intense, more Can sustainability succeed with the wish use, including tourism". satisfying to the senses, enjoyable, - and right! - of billions of people for an entertaining? The original or the copy? economic catching up-development 7. What about funding for supporting So you see: the competition with up which rectifies the present unbalance? biodiversity? So far, we do not have expe graded nature, be it artificial or artistic, Who is to give the answers? Global rienced yet financial instruments such as wild or uncluttered, is already in full governance? Corporate governance? Or eco-pricing, eco-taxes, certificates or swing. The more ideological dispute as to communitarism? dept-for-nature-swaps. There is a brutal whether nature-protection areas or price battle on the tourism market. The national parks should be run by private 10. There is one final recommenda profit margin averages in Germany a- companies, with the danger of commer tion: Take the ecological and the econo round only 1 %. Eco-sponsoring of TUI is cialization, can in my opinion only end up mic benefit potential of tourism into done only for rather small scale projects to nature's disadvantage: "no dough - no account! Nature conservationists should such as afforestation or protection of g o "! This is where the chief economist of join forces with tourism organisations.

31 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

From my point of view, there is no other son to other industries (agriculture, fo Author's address: economic sector which depends so much restry and timber industry, raw material, on the value and diversity of nature. My oil, chemistry, manufacturing, energy and Dr. Dr. W olf Michael Iwand experiences show that organised respon transport) sustainable tourism develop TUI Departm ent of Environment sible tourism might be the vanguard of ment creates necessary economic deve Karl-Wiechert-Allee 23, sustainable development in many coun lopment whilst safeguarding nature, D-30625 Hannover, Germany tries. And that in a cost-benefit-compari- landscape and biodiversity. e-mail: [email protected]

overall effects, there is a natural hope and Conservation of Biological Diversity, belief that simple solutions, such as w ith drawing all human intervention, orsegre- with Special Reference gating land uses into strict, separable compartments, will solve the problem to the Conservation of Forest (Namkoong 1996). Unfortunately, the fact is that a sim Genetic Resources ple, uniform answer and a single strategy for genetic conservation is not available. Christel Palm berg-Lerche Especially when the popular term, "biodiversity", is used in calls fo r action, it is frequently not specified which level Introduction ing programs benefiting mankind. Simi o f diversity is discussed, nor w hat the u lti larly, conservation efforts must be placed mate aim or aims of conservation of in Most organisms in nature are, inherently, into the context of specified aims and trinsically dynamic natural systems will variable. Conservation of biological diver accompanied by regular monitoring to be. This w ill make it difficult, if not impos sity and genetic resources, in essence, ensure that progress is being achieved, sible, to respond in a scientifically and means ensuring that variation will be through management or through non technically sound manner. kept available and allowed to develop intervention, towards reaching these It can be concluded that, from a tech and evolve through both natural proces aims. Inthis regard it should be noted th a t nical and scientific point of view, there is ses and through the direct or indirect there may be no single objective meas an urgent need to gain more informa intervention or influence by man. ure of biodiversity, only measures appro tion on ecosystem dynamics, on genetic It is acknowledged, at technical and priate fo r specified and, by necessity, variation available in species, and on the scientific levels, th a t the values derived restricted purposes (Williams et al. 1994). way diversity is spatially and temporally from diversity are associated with the dif Debate on conservation at both policy organized within and among popula ferent levels of organization of diversity and popular levels has been greatly inten tions. Such information should form the in plants and animals th a t exist. These sified over recent years in the light of basis fo r decisions on how to conserve, levels include the main components of actual and perceived losses of diversity. In manage, sustainably utilize and enhance ecosystems, species, populations, indivi the current discussions, it is often incor existing diversity. More generally, there is duals and genes. It is also acknowledged rectly assumed that diversity in plant and an urgent need to inform politicians, deci that varying and complex interactions animal communities, by definition, con sion-makers and the public at large of the exist between these levels. fers resilience (Holdgate 1996); th a t strategies and methodologies available to As managers, technicians and scien strong functional relationships exist respond to the challenge, and o f the steps tists we know that, in considering action among all organisms and among all levels needed to carry out well-targeted and in any field, the first step is always to clear of diversity; and that there are relatively efficient conservation programs. The mes ly specify objectives aimed at. In the case few ultimate causes of threat to diversi sage must be clear, convincing, inform a of genetic conservation, the levels of ty. It is also frequently thought that any tive and technically sound. Its aim must be diversity targeted for conservation must intervention by man will, without fail, to help dispel the misinformation prevail be clearly specified. This is of utmost cause unwelcome influences and destruc ing in much of the public debate of today, importance, since it is possible to conserve tive, or at least highly disruptive and which is a source o f pressures and hasty an ecosystem and still lose specific spe negative, effects. If this were true, then policy decisions which are not always cies; and as it is possible to conserve a spe managers and policy makers would not based on facts, and which may be damag cies and still lose genetically distinct need to know much about the structure ing rather than constructive. Among the populations, or genes which may be of and dynamics of diversity, since single myths to be dispelled soonest are those value in adaptation and future survival of actions w ould have largely predictable related to the belief that nature is static a species, or which w ill facilitate the gene effects. With the perception of a broad, and that lack of human intervention or tic im provem ent o f the species in breed common threat with largely predictable management will ensure a status quo in

32 Palmberg-Lerche • Conservation of Biological Diversity, w ith Special Reference to the Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources ecosystems; that the present state of d ¡ver for their present-day utility for man, and genetic resources, are conservation in situ sify isthe ideal one; and th a t human action less than 40 are being actively bred (Anon and conservation ex situ; these two stra can only diminish, never help maintain, or 1991; FAO 1990), it is also true to say th a t tegies are complementary, and should be enhance, genetic diversity (Eriksson et al.; a range of d iffe re n t species are used in used in parallel, whenever possible. Palmberg-Lerche 1993b). different countries and regions to pro In situ conservation implies "the con The present paper reviews available vide the same goods and services, even in tinuing maintenance of a population strategies for the conservation, manage the case of programs focused on inten within the community of which it forms ment, enhancement and sustainable use sive forestry production. In contrast to crop a part, in the environment to which it is of forest genetic resources, and the link breeders (see e.g. Frankel 1976; Holden adapted" (Frankel 1976). It is most fre ages of genetic conservation w ith the and Williams 1984), foresters do not quently applied to wild populations management of forests on the one hand, generally attempt to change the envi regenerated naturally in protected areas and with tree improvement and breeding, ronment to suit a specific species or or managed forests, but can include arti on the other. It is mainly focused on the variety, but will aim at identifying species ficial regeneration whenever planting or conservation of genetic resources of trees and provenances which can provide some sowing is carried out, without conscious and shrubs found in forest ecosystems. levels of the goods and services required selection, in the same area in which the Such ecosystems also house a range of also without major selection and im seed was collected (FAO 1989). Ex situ con other plant and animal species, and great provement; and which, intrinsically, are servation includes conservation in seed numbers o f insects, microbes and other buffered against variations in soil, aspect banks; in live collections such as arboreta organisms. This complexity adds to their and microclimate at the site on which and clone banks; in specially established overall value and importance, which need they are used (Ouedraogo 1997; Palm ex situ conservation stands; and as pollen to be maintained and enhanced for the berg-Lerche 1993a). This gives some assur or tissue. The two strategies of in situ and benefit of present-day and future gene ances of the conscious, or at tim e uncon ex situ conservation, methodologies in rations. International co-operation, co scious, diversification at species and their implementation, and their compar ordination of efforts and possible future intra-specific levels in the use o f forest ative advantages and complementarity, strategies of action are briefly touched genetic resources in national and region have been amply covered in recent liter upon in concluding the overall review. al programs. ature (see e.g. FAO 1975, 1989, 1990, In the present paper, the concept of However, such assurances alone are 1993a,b; Holden and W illiams 1984; Ledig genetic resources refers to the environ not enough. The conservation of forest 1986; Ouedraogo 1997; Palmberg 1987, mental, social, economic and scientific genetic resources is today rightly a sub 1993b). values of the heritable materials contain ject of greatest concern, mainly due to Definition of the amounts and pro ed w ith in and among species. Conser habitat destruction and alteration, and to portion of extant genetic variation which vation is defined as the actions and poli undocumented and uncontrolled move needs to be retained, in the long term, to cies th a t assure the continued availabili ment of germplasm, oblivious of prob ensure th a t species and populations are ty and existence of these resources (FAO lems of potential loss o f genetic identity able to adapt to future changes in envi 1989). of diversified, local populations (Palm ronmental conditions (including changes berg-Lerche 1987, 1994a, 1997). in climate, and occurrence and pathoge- Basic considerations in the nity o f pests and diseases), is central to the conservation of forest genetic Strategies for the conservation of question of conservation. A similar ques resources forest genetic resources tion in tree improvement relates to con- cernsto meet shifting needsand demands Forest trees are long-lived, outbreeding While some losses in present-day biologi o f users overtim e, in addition to ensuring and generally highly heterozygous orga cal diversity over time are inevitable due adequate buffering of breeding and pro nisms, which have developed a number of both to natural and man-made causes, duction populations to environmental natural mechanisms to maintain intra diversity can be managed through a wide change. specific variation. These mechanisms, range of human activity, from the estab In relation to in situ conservation in combined with the often variable envi lishment of nature reserves and managed protected (nature) reserves and in gene ronm ent (in tim e and space) in which resource areas, to the inclusion o f con management areas, the concept o f "ade foresttrees occur, have contributed to the servation considerations in improvement quate size" has caused over the years a fact that, with a few exceptions, forest and breeding strategies of species under lot of confusion, having been used fre trees are among the most genetically intensive, human use (see e.g. Namkoong quently in an unspecified manner to re variable of all living organisms studied to 1986; Namkoong, Barnes and Burley late to ecosystems, species, intra-specific date (Libby 1987). 1980; Kemp 1992; Kemp and Palmberg- variation and/or genes, at times even to A large number o f genera and species Lerche 1994a; Palmberg-Lerche 1993b; landscapes. When the focus is on the con can provide the goods and services gener Wilcox 1990, 1995). servation of genetic resources, considera ally sought from forests and trees, such The strategy of conservation and tion must be given to the num ber o f unre as timber, wood, food, fodder, shade, exact methodologies applied will depend lated, inter-breeding individuals needed shelter, environmental stabilization, and on the nature of the material, the time- to constitute a viable genepool o f species amenity, cultural and spiritual values. scale of concern, and the specific objec targeted for conservation, rather than to A lthough it is true th a t less than 500 tree tives and scope o f the program. The tw o the physical size o f the area in which they species have been systematically tested main strategies for the conservation of are contained. The minimum number of

33 Palmberg-Lerche • Conservation of Biological Diversity, w ith Special Reference to the Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources individuals, in turn, is in the case of forest Conservation of forest genetic sity among and between species and spe trees related to basic issues such as flo w resources and forest management cific populations (provenances). Within ering phenology, breeding system, and improvement and breeding programs, pollen and seed dispersal mechanisms. Especially in the case of forest trees, it is the search for populations and individu Further to size, correlated w ith the evident that large-scale and lasting con als useful as sources o f desired characte number of inter-breeding individuals in servation can only be achieved if the ristics and genes, is similarly based on the gene pool targeted for conservation, resources - in this case the forests and locating genetic variation and under the number and siting of conservation woodlands targeted for conservation - standing variation patterns in the species areas (or o f populations which w ill be used have a value in the present time. This and populations concerned. In either in sampling fo r ex situ conservation), is of implies the application of forest man case, provenance and progeny testing are crucial importance. In addition to the fact agement methods which will allow the the scientific methods and practical work th a t individual species possess varying, resources to be sustainably utilized for ing tools used to distinguish levels of total levels of genetic variation and that the development of nations, as well as for variation (Anon 1991). As both basic the intra-specific distribution o f such the direct benefit of human communities needs and methodologies, in principle, variation differs between them, differing living in or close to the forests. Fortu are the same whether the focus of action variation patterns seem to exist even nately, genetic resources and the forests is on conservation or on breeding, it is w ith in any one species: morphological which provide these resources are renew clear that pooling of resources and join characteristics tend to be more evident at able, if adequately managed: they can be ing efforts in programs aimed at genetic the provenance, and less at the individu used w ith o u t ever being used up (Ledig conservation and those aimed at tree al stand levels; isozymes tend to concen 1986). improvement, w ill make best use of trate more than 90% of their variability in Over the past years FAO, as well as a resources and will more quickly help fill the within-stand component; while varia number of other organizations and agen the considerable gaps in information pre tion in components of growth, survival cies, in line w ith the above, have stressed vailing in the forestry field. and susceptibility to various physical and that management for the production of A common, early approach will also biotic events, is important in all of these goods and services from the forest is help ensure that the continued flow of categories (Libby 1987, 1995). generally compatible with the conserva genetic materials from conserved status In this kind of situation it is clear that tion o f genetic resources o f the species into breeding populations, and vice versa, conservation of diversity can only be being utilized, provided that some basic, is feasible and practicable, and that it achieved to any degree of satisfaction genetic and silvicultural principles are forms an integral part of the dynamic through systematically including conser applied (see e.g. FAO 1989, 1993a; Kemp development of both conservation and vation considerations in overall landuse 1992; Kemp and Palmberg-Lerche 1994; breeding strategies over time. plans, and through managing genetic Wilcox 1995). In practice, this means that Selection and intensive breeding variability of target species within a prevailing forest management prescrip without due concern to conservation is mosaic of economically and socially tions must be examined in the light of likely to lead to allelic losses and to loss acceptable land use options, ranging guidelines available for the conservation of the ability of populations to respond from protected areas to managed forests o f genetic resources of the species being to future shifts in selection objectives. On and agro-ecosystems (Kemp and Palm utilized; and that management interven the other hand, a sound breeding stra berg-Lerche 1994; Wilcox 1990, 1995). tions are adjusted so that both forest tegy can help create greater diversity Conservation action can be further management and genetic conservation among populations and can, fu rther enhanced through developing and man aspects are considered in a balanced man more, enhance the utility of available aging, in parallel, an array of multiple ner. Needless to say, m onitoring and con genetic resources by careful management populations of species and provenances trol of forest management operations of an array of breeding populations included in tree improvement and must be in place to ensure that recom (Anon 1991; Burdon and Namkoong breeding programs (Burdon and Nam- mended practices are followed. Similarly, 1983; Namkoong et al. 1980). From the koong 1983; Namkoong 1989). monitoring of effects of implementing point of view of continued improvement In presently little-used forest tree spe given forest management prescriptions and breeding to enhance utilitarian cies, a netw ork o f in situ conservation will be necessary to ensure that observed values of forest genetic resources, inte areas and protected reserves, which are changes in species composition and gene gration of genetic conservation concerns placed under varying intensities of man tic variation in component species are into tree improvement and breeding stra agement intervention, should be demarca within acceptable limits from a conserva tegies is thus an absolute and obligate ted or established. Such genetic conserva tion point of view. must. tion areas should cover central as well as outlying populations. For species and prov Conservation of forest genetic Conservation of forest genetic enances under intensive domestication resources and tree breeding resources and seed procurement and use, managed conservation areas should be complemented by ex situ con As already stressed, the definition of pri With growing attention being paid to servation stands and/or a range of breed orities and strategies for the conserva tree planting and the development of ing populations subjected to divergent tion and management of forest genetic forest plantations to meet present-day and varying selection pressures (Nam resources, requires an understanding of needs fo r goods and services available koong 1986,1989; Palmberg-Lerche 1989). the degree and patterns of genetic diver from the forest, national and internation

34 Palmberg-Lerche • Conservation of Biological Diversity, w ith Special Reference to the Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources

al movement of forest reproductive safeguarded through parallel, active con al or provincial land use polices, have materials has greatly increased over the servation measures. Such measures may, lead to increased reforestation efforts, years. Movement o f germplasm must be at times, imply the establishment of ex including afforestation of areas earlier carried out using only well-documented situ conservation stands outside of the used fo r agricultural production. Such seedlots, and must at all times be based range o f polluting pollen sources. subsidized or mandated changes in land on conscious decisions taken with a full In relation to movement and exchange use may occur at to o short a notice fo r the understanding of actual or potential of "genetically improved" germplasm, it national Forest Services, or com petent genetic consequences o f such action. is important to remember that "improve provincial level entities, to be able to re In view o f the basic need to be in m ent" means, in essence, th a t the spond through the provision of ade formed of the genetic characteristics and genetic base of the material thus named quate quantities of well-adapted, certi value o f the reproductive materials used, has been artificially and purposely nar fied or source-identified planting materi it is evident that any seedlot moving w ith rowed to meet specific end use require als. This can lead, and has led, to the un in or outside of national boarders with ments, when used in given environmental controlled and unsupervised importation out documentation on origin, prove conditions and under specified manage and use o f exotic seeds, seedlings and nance and genetic quality (including ment regimes. "Improved" reproductive clonal material, frequently without information on number of mother trees materials brought in from different con knowledge of their origin or their genetic from which the seed or scions have been ditions within the country, or from an worth. Not only may these reproductive collected), must be disqualified from use other country, will therefore seldom, if materials be badly adapted for the areas and discarded. This basic principle is not ever, provide a suitable starting point fo r o f intended use, but th e ir use may also negotiable, ever. local improvement and breeding. Such lead to genetic pollution and potential In addition to general risks implied by material can, however, at times, be used loss of local gene pools once the trees the use o f unknown, possibly sub-stand to enrich a locally generated breeding start flowering and widely disseminating ard genetic materials in tree planting population o f the same species and prov large amounts of pollen. and, at times, even as a starting point for enance, provided th a t it has proved its The frequently expressed opinion, selection and improvement programs, a value in local field trials, and provided "any seed is better than no seed at all", more subtle, but no less real, danger in that its genetic base, selection criteria, se could not be more misguided, outright the movement of forest germplasm re lection intensity and other parameters wrong, and potentially of great and non- lates to the risks o f pollution o f local related to its development, are known, reversible harm to our genetic patrimony. genepools by pollen from introduced recorded and considered acceptable by At the present time, the development populations o f hybridizing species or prov the receiver. of prescriptions and rules governing the enances. Decades o f provenance re Movement of clonal material can, at movement and use of genetically en search has shown th a t most forest tree times, be of scientific interest for experi gineered plants is receiving considerable species exhibit considerable population mental purposes. Introduction of clones policy level attention, w orld-w ide. In fact, divergence in genetically based traits. has, in some lim ited cases, also been used also the movement of non-engineered, This inter-population differentiation to underpintree planting programs on an but non-native, reproductive materials (provenance variation) means that cer operational scale (e.g. in the case of could with advantage be included within tain alleles, or combinations o f alleles, are poplars, which are usually grown in inten the framework of emerging national more common in some populations than sively managed plantations on better- legislation on "biosafety" in forestry, as in others. Losing local populations, or than-average sites, on relatively short this issue relates directly to frequent, losing their genetic identity through rotations thus reducing the calculated manifested offences against sound, gene pollen contamination, will influence risks associated w ith the employment of tic principles, and poses obvious and evolution based on specific alleles or genetically narrowly based materials). known dangers in this regard. allelic combinations, and is likely to Importation of foreign clones must, as in diminish the possibilities of adaptation of the case of import of other, genetically Future co-ordinated action populationsto continuing environmental narrowed-down materials, be supple changes. It w ill also decisively increase the mented by locally made selections from As evidenced above, international discus amount of effort needed to breed for wider genepools. It is important to note sion on the conservation of plant genetic enhancement o f such alleles fo r their that such selection work, related to seed, resources has been pursued at national, immediate use. seedling as well as clonal material, is never regional and international levels formore In view of the above, the introduction a one-time effort, but a continuing one, than th irty years (see e.g. Anon 1991; of genetic materials from elsewhere must which must be carried out within the Palmberg-Lerche 1994b). The FAO Panel always be based on a conscious an well- framework of a sound, local breeding of Experts on Forest Gene Resources, estab informed choice. Reproductive materials program. lished in 1968, provides advice to FAO must not be introduced on a large scale The above considerations on seed pro and, indirectly, to the international com until they have proven to be of more curement and the movement of forest munity, on country-based programs and value, in all aspects tested, than local prov reproductive materials, are today of con priorities in the field of forest genetic enances. Should introductions prove siderable significance in regions such resources (FAO 1997). The FAO Commis necessary or desirable to meet present- Europe, where economic and market- sion on Genetic Resources for Food and day needs, the genetic identity of local related pressures and subsequently pas Agriculture and the International Under provenances must be, in all instances, sed laws and regulations governing nation taking it oversees, explicitly includes con

35 Palmberg-Lerche • Conservation of Biological Diversity, w ith Special Reference to the Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources sideration of forest genetic resources in The overall goal of the planned region will be developed in the planned work its mandate. Within the Convention on al and sub-regional workshops on the shops and which will serve as dynamic Biological Diversity, with which FAO has conservation, management, sustainable tools underpinning action by countries entered into a formal agreement of colla utilization and enhancement of forest concerned could later, if countries so wish, boration, forest biological diversity is in genetic resources, is the development of be placed within a larger context, contri cluded in discussions on "Terrestrial Eco dynamic, country-driven and action-ori buting to a comprehensive, international systems". A number of regional and spe ented regional and sub-regional plans, to framework. A coherent global frame cies specific networks have been estab be used in countries concerned to help work for action on forest genetic resour lished over the past years, such as the ensure that forest genetic resources are ces could decisively help promote overall European Forest Genetic Resources Net conserved and sustainably utilized as a co-ordination of action and help further w ork, EUFORGEN, co-ordinated by IPGRI1) basis fo r local and national development, co-operation between and among geo in collaboration with FAO; and the Dry- including food security, poverty allevia graphical regions and, above all, between Zone Acacia and Prosopis Network, the tion, environmental conservation, econo and among countries in ecological re International Neem Network and the inci mic and social advancement, and the gions of the world in which environmental pient Mahogany Network, co-ordinated maintenance of cultural and spiritual conditions and social and economic aims by FAO, in collaboration with a range of values. These action plans should, w ith and aspirations are similar, and in which national and international partners21. out fail, be compatible with national and such collaboration could therefore bring The Fourth International Technical regional strategies in other fields, contri tangible benefits to all concerned. Conference on Plant Genetic Resources, buting together with these to dynamic, In line with priorities expressed by held in Leipzig, Germany in June 1996, multi-disciplinary plans aimed at overall countries in international fora in which adopted a Global Plan o f Action fo r the sustainable development. the issue has been discussed, IPGRI, ICRAF Conservation and Sustainable Utilization National forest genetic conservation and FAO have joined forces and plan to o f Plant Genetic Resources fo r Food and programs will constitute the building help organize, in September 1998, a Agriculture which stated that forest blocks of regional and sub-regional Workshop on the Conservation, Manage genetic resources would not be included action plans. In this regard, it is acknowl ment, Sustainable Utilization and Enhance in the plan, but that the need for action edged that national plans and programs ment o f Forest Genetic Resources in in this field should be reviewed in the will vary according to local biological, Sub-Saharan Dry-Zone Africa. This coun light of the outcome of the work of the social and economic environments and try-driven workshop and its follow-up will Inter-Governmental Panel on Forests according to national needs and priori be carried out in close collaboration w ith (IPF)1 23). The IPF, which held its fourth ties. The purpose of the planned work the Secretariat of CILSS, and w ith the sup and final session in February 1997, did shops is to help streamline concerted port of other concerned international n ot address the issue o f forest genetic action at regional level; the aim is not the and bilateral organizations with an inter resources. development of one, single model for est and know-how in the subject. In view of the urgency of the matter, conservation, but the elaboration of a Experience and information from the FAO raised the issue of forest genetic framework for co-ordinated action, valid Sub-Sahelian workshop will help facili resources for substantial discussion at the at sub-regional and regional levels. tate planning of a second, similar work Thirteenth Session o f the Committee of While national plans are at the bases shop in Eastern and Southern Africa, in Forestry (COFO) held in Rome in March of regional and sub-regional action plans collaboration with the SADC Secretariat 1997. In line w ith the recommendations these latter ones can, in turn, provide a and, pending identification o f necessary o f COFO, subsequently supported and point of reference for national activities resources for this purpose, further work further elaborated upon bytheTenth Ses in the exploration, collection, evaluation, shop in countries and regions which sion o f the FAO Panel o f Experts on Forest conservation in and ex situ and improve have requested support in this regard Gene Resources, FAO has initiated action ment and breeding of forest genetic (initially, tentatively, the Pacific, Central to help plan and co-ordinate a series of resources. Common agreement on princi America). regional and sub-regional forest genetic ples and mechanisms for the determina resources workshops, to be carried out in tion o f priorities for species and specific, Concluding remarks close consultation and collaboration with conservation-related activities, and on national and international partners. optional strategies for action, will help Genetic erosion is today occurring at an justify such w ork and w ill help strengthen increasing pace, mainly due to changes in the impact of national activities also at land use leading to habitat loss and de 1) List o f Acronym s is given at the end o f the paper. 2) Inform ation on these and other FAO coordinated regional level. gradation, and to selection and breeding program s in the field of forest genetic resources can be Co-ordination of action at regional carried out without including in the found on the FAO Forest Genetic Resources Homepage: level will, furthermore, help make best breeding strategies necessary elements http://w w w .fao.O rg/w aicent/faoinfo/forestry/fpgem res/h om epage/content.htm use o f scarce resources by avoiding dupli of genetic conservation. Large-scale, un or from the author o f this paper. cation and overlap of effort, and by facil controlled movement of germplasm and 3) The IPF was established by the Econom ic and Soci itating the sharing of technologies, infor consequent genetic contamination and al Council o f the United Nations (ECOSOC) in June 1995, follow ing a recom m endation of the Third Session of the mation, know-how and genetic materi potential loss of local genepools aggra UN Commission on Sustainable Developm ent in June the als, on mutually agreed terms. vate this problem in the forestry field. sam e year. The IPF held a to ta l o f fo u r sessions. It has been The sub-regional and regional action Active and vigorous measures are recently succeeded by the Inter-Governm ental Forum on Forests (IFF). plans on forest genetic resources which needed to reverse this trend. These must

36 Palmberg-Lerche • Conservation of Biological Diversity, w ith Special Reference to the Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources be based on improved technical and oration w ith relevant CGIAR Centres, FAO (1997). Report on the Tenth Session scientific understanding of ecosystem IUFRO and other international players, is o f the FAO Panel o f Experts on Forest functions, and of the extent, distribution a first step towards concerted action in Gene Resources. FAO/FGR/Rep.10. and dynamics of biological diversity and response to these urgent needs (Palm FAO, Rome. 6 8 pp. genetic resources directly and indirectly berg-Lerche 1997). Frankel, O.H. (1976). Natural variation used by man. Strong and continuing Manifestation of the above needs by and its conservation. In: A. Muham- policy level support is needed to carry out countries concerned, and requests for med, R. Aksel and I. von Bostel (Eds). related activities. In this regard, there is support received in this regard, is a clear Genetic Diversity in Plants, pp. 21-44. an urgent need to better inform decision indication of a growing acknowledge Plenum Press, New York (USA). makers and the public at large of facts ment of the fact that conservation is not Holden, J.H.W. and W illiams, J.T. (Eds). and available alternatives for action. a limiting factor for development, but a (1984). Crop genetic resources: con Neither natural ecosystems nor breed precondition for lasting well-being. servation and evaluation. George ing programs are static. Genetic conser Allen and Unvin, London (U.K.). vation must not be aimed at freezing a 296pp. given state, which would imply an References: Holdgate, M. (1996). The ecological sig arbitrary fixation, or a haphazard snap nificance of biological diversity. shot in time, of a dynamically evolving, Anon. (1991). Managing global genetic Ambio 25 (6):409-416. living system. Similarly, it should be recog resources: forest trees. Board on A gri Kemp, R.H. (1992). The conservation of nized th a t since economic, social and culture, U.S. National Research Coun genetic resources in managed tropical environmental requirements continually cil. Committee on Managing Global forests. Unasylva 43 (169):34-40. shift, objectives and aims of breeding for Genetic Resources: Agricultural Imper Kemp, R.H. and Palmberg-Lerche, C. utilitarian purposes will continuously atives. National Academy Press. (1994). Conserving genetic resources change in tim e and space. Washington D.C. (USA). 228 pp. in forest ecosystems. In: "The Chal Efforts to conserve and enhance Burdon, R.D. and Namkoong, G. (1983). lenge of Sustainable Forest Manage forest genetic resources for present-day Short Note: multiple populations m ent". FAO Forestry Paper 122. pp. and future use, will involve action related and sub-lines. Silva Genetica 35 101-117). FAO, Rome. to the management o f protected areas, (5-6):221-222. Ledig, F.T. (1986). Conservation strategies the management of productive forests, Eriksson, G., Namkoong, G., and Roberds, for forest gene resources. Forest Eco and the management of breeding popu J.H. (1993). Dynamic gene conserva logy and Management 14: 77-90. lations. This "tripod" of action offers the tion for uncertain futures. Forest Eco Libby, W.J. (1987). Genetic resources and only lasting solution to the challenge of logy and Managem ent 62: 15-37. variation in forest trees. In: Improving conservation. The key to success will thus FAO (1975). M ethodology o f conserva vegetatively propagated crops, lie in the development of programs har tion of forest genetic resources. pp. 199-209. Academic Press Ltd, USA. monizing conservation and sustainable Report on a Pilot Study. FAO/FGR/75/8. Libby, W.J. (1995). How knowledge o f utilization of forest genetic resources FAO, Rome. 187pp. population structure and mating pat within a mosaic of land use options; and FAO (1989). Plant Genetic Resources: their terns of forest tree populations can including in such programs a strong ele conservation in situ for Human Use. help improve genetic conservation ment of active gene management. FAO, Rome. 38pp. procedures. In: Ph. Baradat, W.T. As stressed by a number o f countries FAO (1990). Biological Diversity: its con Adams and G. Muller-Starck (Eds). at the Thirteenth Session o f COFO and a servation and use fo r sustainable agri Population Genetics and Genetic Con number of other international fora, cultural, forestry and fisheries devel servation o f Forest Trees, pp. 1-2. SPB including the XI W orld Forestry Congress opment. FAO Working Paper pre Academic Publishing, Amsterdam, held in Turkey in October 1977, action to pared under the direction of the Netherlands. safeguard and sustainably utilize forest IDWG Sub-Group on Biological Namkoong, G. (1986). Genetics and the genetic resources is an urgent priority. Diversity, based on the w ork o f G. future of the forests. Unasylva 38 Delays in the conservation o f forest eco Namkoong. Forest Resources Division, (152):2-18. systems, species and genetic resources of FAO, Rome. 41pp. Namkoong. G. (1989) Population genetics trees and shrubs will be costly, implying FAO (1993a). Conservation o f genetic and the dynamics of conservation. In: environmental, economic and social risks, resources in tropical forest manage L. Knutson and A.K. Stoner (Eds). Bio needs for expensive and at times difficult ment: principles and concepts. FAO tic diversity and germplasm preserva remedial action, and foregone opportu Forestry Paper 107. Based on the w ork tion: global imperatives, pp. 161-181. nities in management and sustainable of R.H. Kemp, w ith scientific review by Beltsville Symposia in Agricultural resource utilization in support of overall G. Namkoong and F. Wadsworth. FAO, Research n1 13. Kluver Academic national development Rome. 105pp. Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London. The regional and sub-regional, coun FAO (1993b). Ex situ storage o f seeds, pol Namkoong, G. (1996). Genetic diversity try-driven and action-oriented work len and in vitro cultures o f perennial fo r forest policy and management. In: shops on the conservation, management, woody plant species. FAO Forestry F. Bunnell (Ed). Proc. Conference on sustained utilization and enhancement of Paper 113. Based on the w ork o f Ben Measuring Biodiversity for Forest forest genetic resources which FAO plans S.P. Wang, P.J. Charest and B. Downie. Policy and Management. Vancouver to help co-ordinate and organize in collab FAO, Rome. 83pp. B.C. (Canada) February 1994.

37 Palmberg-Lerche • Conservation of Biological Diversity, w ith Special Reference to the Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources

Namkoong, G., Barnes, R.D. and Burley, J. o f Tropical Forest Seed. Chiang Mai, Author's address: (1980). A philosophy of breeding stra Thailand 14-16 June 1993. ASEAN/ tegy for tropical forest trees. Tropical Canada Forest Tree Seed Centre, in Christel Palmberg-Lerche Forestry Papers n1 16. Department of collaboration with the Thai Govern FAO-Forestry Resources Development Forestry, Commonwealth Forestry ment, FAO, The Forestry and Fuel- Service Institute, University o f Oxford (U.K.). wood Research and Development Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 67pp. Project (F/FRED) and the International 1-00100 Rome, Italy Ouedraogo, A.S. (1977). Conservation Development Research Centre (IDRC). e-mail: [email protected] and use o f forest genetic resources. pp.78-101. ASEAN-Canada Forest Invited Paper, XI W orld Forestry Con Seed Centre, Muak-Lek, Saraburi gress, Turkey. Proc. XI WFC, Vol. 2: 18180 Thailand. 173-188. M inistry of Forestry, Ankara, Palmberg-Lerche, C. (1997). Towards a Turkey. coherent framework for the conser Palmberg, C. (1987). Conservation of vation and sustainable utilization of genetic resources o f w oody species. forest genetic resources. Forest Gene Paper presented at the "Simposio tic Resources No. 25:15-18. FAO, sobre Silvicultura y Mejoramiento Rome. GenJtico", Buenos Aires, Argentina 6 - Wilcox, B.A. (1990). Requirements fo r the 10 April 1987. Conference Proceed establishment of a global network of ings, CIEF, Buenos Aires, Argentina. in situ conservation areas fo r plants 20pp. (Available also with the Forest and animals. Report prepared for the Resources Division, FAO, Rome). Forest Resources Development Palmberg, C. (1989). Research needs in Branch, Forest Resources Division, forest tree breeding and improve FAO (Rome), December 1990. 41pp. ment in developing countries. Agro Wilcox, B.A. (1995). Tropical forest resour forestry Systems 9 (29-35):29-35. ces and biodiversity: the risks of forest Palmberg-Lerche, C. (1993a). The conser loss and degradation. Unasylva 46 vation of forest genetic resources: (181): 43-49. issues and programs. Diversity 9 Williams, Paul H., Gaston, Kevin G. and (3):26-29. Humphries, Chris J. (1994). Do conser Palmberg-Lerche, C. (1993b). Conserva vationists and molecular biologists tion o f genetic resources as an integral value differences between organisms part of forest management and tree in the same way? Biodiversity Letters improvement (including special consid 2:67 -78. erations related to seed procure ment). In: Proc. International Sympo sium on Seed Procurement and Legal Regulations for Forest Reproductive Materials in Tropical and Sub-Tropical Acronym s Countries, organized by KEFRI/ GTZ/IUFRO in Nairobi, Kenya 4-10 CGIAR Consultative Group on Interna October 1992, in technical collabora tional Agricultural Research tio n w ith FAO. pp. 169-180. GTZ/KEFRI (Washington D.C., USA) Forest Seed Centre, Muguga (Kenya). CIFOR Centre fo r International Forestry Palmberg-Lerche, C. (1994a). FAO Pro Research of the CGIAR (Jakarta, grammes and activities in support of Indonesia) the conservation and monitoring of FAO Food and Agriculture Organiza genetic resources and biological tion o f the UN (Rome, Italy) diversity in forest ecosystems. Invited IPGRI International Plant Genetic Paper. IUFRO "Symposium on Measur Resources Institute of the CGIAR ing Biological Diversity in Tropical and (Rome, Italy) Temperate Forests". Chiang Mai, Thai ICRAF International Centre for Rese land 28 August - 2 September 1994. arch in Agroforestry of the FAO, Rome. CGIAR Palmberg-Lerche, C. (1994b). Internation (Nairobi, Kenya) al programs for the conservation of IUFRO International Union of Forestry forest genetic resources. In: R.M. Drys- Research Organizations dale, E.E.T. John and A.C. Yap (Eds). (Vienna, Austria) Proc. International Symposium on UNEP United Nations Environment Genetic Conservation and Production Programme (Nairobi, Kenya)

38 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 271999

genetic resources established in Europe, Regional Collaboration on Forest Africa and Asia are presented. They illus trate the development of long-term Genetic Resources: gene conservation strategies for indivi dual species and fo r the ecosystems to Conserving a Common Heritage which these species belong. The strate gies, fo r example those focusing on Noble Jozef Turok Hardwoods in Europe, try to integrate efforts undertaken at a national level and suggest realistic ways of implementation. Abstract information and experience be exchan The international networks also develop ged. To ensure good conditions fo r future ed minimum common standards that The biodiversity debate usually takes an evolution, the genetic variation of tree were agreed by all countries. The techni ecosystem or a species conservation species needs to be conserved in their en cal guidelines help forest officers to approach. However, preserving an ecosys tire distribution ranges. Although coun manage stands with consideration given tem is sometimes ineffective in saving tries are not dependent on each other for to genetic concerns. Information plat certain species it contains. Saving species the availability of genetic material, the forms linking national databases have may similarly not conserve their genetic exchange of germplasm may result in eco been established. Research projects spe resources, defined as the useful logical benefits or better economic use. cifically targeting on genetic variation genes/alleles of actual or potential value. Although the actual knowledge of were initiated, including a field experi The high levels of natural genetic varia genetic variation is still very scarce, an ment for cork oak provenances in the tion existing in forest trees result from increasing attention has been paid to Mediterranean. Public awareness about adaptations to changing conditions of forest genetic resources at both scientific forest genetic resources has been prom ot the environment. This variation is often and political levels during recent years. ed by various means. threatened, for example when popula International agreements were adopted Considering the importance of gene tions are decreasing or are exposed to air which provide a necessary basis fo r devel tic resources - a common heritage - and pollution. It is argued that the genetic oping joint, practically oriented activities. the growing concern for their conserva diversity w ithin individual species, and Criteria and indicators of the genetic tion and sustainable use w orldw ide, a the processes th a t m aintain it, are essen variation in forests become important practical collaborative response is urgent. tial for the future evolution of forest eco for characterizing sustainable forest systems. The conservation and proper management. management of genetic resources can Networking is a tool which brings Author's address: also contribute to meeting human needs together partners from different back for timber and other forest products and grounds, facilitates exchange of informa Jozef Turok benefits. tion, helps to analyze common needs and International Plant Genetic Resources International collaboration is needed priorities, stimulates the development Institute (IPGRI) in managing genetic resources. Forest and coordination of projects and activi Via delle Sette Chiese 142 trees are distributed over areas which are ties. The main goal of networking must 00145 Rome, Italy larger than countries. Similar tasks and be to strengthen national programmes. e-mail: [email protected] common problems faced require that Examples from networks on forest

39 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

distinctive examples of biodiversity for a The Global 200: A Representation given MHT (Table 1). The boundaries of terrestrial ecore Approach to Conserving the Earth's gions for the Global 200 are taken from intensive regional analyses of biodiversi Most Biologically Valuable Ecoregions* ty patterns across five continents under taken by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) David M. Olson and Eric Dinerstein, presented by James M artin-Jones Conservation Science Program and others. These assessments were conduc ted in collaboration with hundreds of The current extinction crisis requires dra though they may not support the rich regional experts and included extensive matic action to save the variety of life on communities seen in tropical rainforests literature reviews. Earth. Because funding fo r conservation or coral reefs, they contain species assem Freshwater ecoregions were based on action is limited, governments, donors, blages adapted to distinct environ several regional analyses and consulta and conservation groups must be strate mental conditions and reflect different tions with regional experts. Marine eco gic and earmark the greatest amount of evolutionary histories. To lose examples regions delineated by the Global 200 are resources for protecting the areas richest of these assemblages, and the ecological nested within a large marine ecosystem in biodiversity. Most conservation biolo processes and evolutionary phenomena framework, derived from several global gists recognize that, although we cannot they contain, would represent an and regional analyses. save everything, we should at least ensure enormous loss of biodiversity. Within each MHT and biogeographic that all ecosystem and habitat types are Although conservation action typical realm, ecoregions are classified by their represented within regional conservation ly takes place at the country level, pat biological distinctiveness at one of four strategies. terns of biodiversity and ecological pro levels: globally outstanding, regionally The "representation" approach has cesses (e.g., migration) do not conform to outstanding (e.g., Nearctic), bioregional- been applied at a number of geographi political boundaries. Thus, we used the ly outstanding (e.g., Caribbean), or local cal scales, from single watersheds to en ecoregion as the unit of analysis in creat ly important. Biological distinctiveness, as tire continents. Here we introduce the ing the Global 200. We define an ecore a discriminator, evaluates the relative Global 200, the first attempt to achieve gion as a relatively large unit of land or importance and rarity of different units representation of habitat types on a glob water containing a characteristic set of o f biodiversity. It can be used to estimate al scale. Our primary objective is to pro natural communities that share a large the urgency o f action based on the oppor mote the conservation of terrestrial, fresh majority of their species, dynamics, and tunities for conserving distinct units water, and marine ecosystems harboring environmental conditions. Ecoregions around the world. On a global scale, globally important biodiversity and eco function effectively as conservation units and w ith in each biogeographic realm, we logical processes. The Global 200 addres at regional scales because they encom chose the set o f ecoregions w ith the grea ses this goal by identifying the world's pass similar biological communities and test biological distinctiveness based on most outstanding examples w ithin each because their boundaries roughly coin the fo llo w in g parameters: species rich major habitat type (e.g., tropical dry cide with the area over which key ecolo ness, endemism, taxonomic uniqueness forests, large lakes, coral reefs). gical processes most strongly interact. (e.g., unique genera orfamilies, relict taxa The representation approach, accep To maintain representation of biodi or communities, primitive lineages), un ted by a growing number of conserva versity at a global scale, we first stratified usual ecological or evolutionary pheno tionists, is soundly based in conservation ecoregions by realm (terrestrial, freshwa mena (e.g., intact large vertebrate faunas biology. It integrates the goal of maintain ter, and marine) and then further divided or migrations, extraordinary adaptive ing species d ive rsity-th e tra d itio n a l focus realms by major habitat types (MHTs), radiations), and global rarity of MHT. We of biodiversity conservation - with an which describe different areas of the compared only the biodiversity value of other level of conservation action, the world that share similar environmental ecoregions sharing the same MHT becau preservation of distinct ecosystems and conditions, habitat structure, and pat se the relative magnitude of parameters ecological processes. Although more than terns o f biological complexity (e.g., beta such as richness and endemism varies half o f all species are likely to occur in the diversity) and that contain communities widely among MHTs. For ecoregions of world's tropical moist forests, the other w ith similar guild structures and species equal biological distinctiveness in the 50 % o f all species are found elsewhere. adaptions. The MHT classifications are same MHT and biogeographic realm, we To conserve that half, a full representa roughly equivalent to biomes. We identi selected the ecoregions that had more tion of the world's diverse ecosystems fied 12 MHTs in the terrestrial realm, 3 in intact habitats and biotas based on assess must be the goal. the freshwater realm, and 4 in the mari ments of their conservation status. Tundra, tropical lakes, mangroves, ne realm (Table 1). Each MHT was further We identified 233 ecoregions whose and temperate broadleaf forests are all subdivided by biogeographic realm (e.g., biodiversity and representation values unique expressions of biodiversity. Al- Nearctic, Indian Ocean) in order to repre are outstanding on a global scale (Table sent unique faunas and floras of different 1, Figs 1 & 2). They represent the terres continents or ocean basins. Finally, we trial, freshwater, and marine realms, and *(Extract o f a publication in: Conservation Biology, Pages

502-515, Volum e 12, No. 3, June 1999. The text has been identified ecoregions w ithin each bio the 19 MHTs nested w ithin these realms. shortened, references are excluded here.) geographic realm that representthe most Among the 3 realms, 136 (58 %) are te r

40 Olson & Dinerstein: The Global 200: A Representation Approach to Conserving the Earth's Most Biologically Valuable Ecoregions restrial, 36 (16 %) are freshwater ecore ments to estimate conservation status. Global 200 cannot address all aspects of gions, and 61 (26 %) are marine. Ter Terrestrial ecoregions were classified into biodiversity conservation. The Global 200 restrial ecoregions outnumber those of one of three broad conservation status does not explicitly target hemisperic-scale the other realms largely because there is categories: critical/endangered, vulner ecological phenomena such as m igrations more localized endemism in terrestrial able, or relatively stable/relatively intact. of marine mammals, sea turtles, birds, or than in marine biotas. Gaps in biogeo- Among terrestrial Global 200 ecore fish; intratropical migrations of bats, graphic information for freshwater and gions, 47% are considered critical or birds, and insects; widespread and dyna marine biodiversity also account for some endangered, 29% vulnerable, and 24% mic pelagic ecosystems; hydrotherm al of the variation. relatively stable or intact (Table 1). Terres vent communities; abyssal ecosystems; The results of the analysis target a trial ecoregion boundaries approximate cave and groundwater ecosystems; or number of well-known biodiversity prio original extent, showing extensive habi global ecosystem dynamics such as car rities. For example, The Western Arc tat loss, fragmentation, and degradation bon sequestration. More-detailed, fine- forests o f the Amazon Basin, The Atlan within. In ecoregions that have been dra scale analyses are essential to identify tic Forest ecoregion o f Brazil, the Choco- matically altered, characteristic species important targets within ecoregions. Darien ecoregion of north-western South and communities survive in only a few One tactical concern about the Global America, Peninsular Malaysia, and the remaining small blocks of habitat. Among 2 0 0 is that it is too ambitious; that is, by northern Borneo forest ecoregions are the terrestrial MHTs, ecoregions falling focusing on 233 ecoregions rather than among the richest tropical moist forests within the tropical dry forests, tempera on a handful of conservation units we run on Earth. Similarly, the forests o f Mada te grasslands, Mediterranean shrublands, the risk of placing less emphasis on the gascar and New Caledonia were also re and temperate broadleaf forests are the most diverse and distinct ecoregions. We cognized as highly distinctive at global most threatened. Island ecoregions are argue that the broad geographic reach of scales, partly because of the number of projected to experience a wave of extinc the Global 200 makes almost every na endemic higher taxa (e.g., families and tions over the next two decades because tion on Earth a stake-holder in a global genera). Other results highlight less well- of the fragility of island ecosystems, the conservation strategy. From the global known areas. For example, Mexico har sensitivity and endemicity of island spe scale to regional and national conserva bors both the world's richest and most cies, and the severe threats native island tion strategies, the Global 200 lends complex subtropical conifer forests and biotas face worldwide from introduced weight to shared priorities and provides the most diverse dry forests in the world; species and habitat loss. a global perspective for lobbying efforts the moist forests of Sulawesi display some We have not completed an assess by local conservation groups. The Global of the highest levels of mammal ende ment of the status of freshwater and 2 0 0 also can help major development mism in the Indo-Pacific region, and the marine ecoregions, but preliminary ana agencies to better recognize and mitiga Congolian Coastal forests are Africa's lyses show th a t freshwater ecosystems, te the effects of projects that result in richest moist forests and exhibit pro particularly seasonally flooded forests, land-use change or to forego develop nounced narrow endemism. Results for cataracts, and freshwater communities in ment activities in particularly sensitive marine and freshwater ecoregions also xeric areas, are endangered worldwide. ecoregions. For these reasons we see the confirmed documented patterns and Moreover, most temperate freshwater Global 200 as a map guiding conserva highlighted many less recognized priori biotas are threatened by invasion of exo tion investments so that a comprehen ties, such as the extraordinary temperate tics, pollution, dams, and habitat degra sive plan eventually can be achieved by freshwater biotas of the streams of south dation. In marine MHTs, upwelling areas the global conservation community and eastern North America and the Yangtze are heavily overfished, enclosed seas are the nations of the world. River headwaters in central China, and degraded, and coral reefs and mangroves The widespread destruction of the the unusually high levels of endemism of are severely affected by habitat destruc Earth's biodiversity occurring today must temperate marine invertebrates in the tion, degradation, and overfishing a- be matched by a response an order of South Australian coastal ecoregion. round the world. m agnitude greater than currently exists. Ecoregions vary greatly not only in The Global 200 is an effective tool for The Global 200 provides a necessarily their biological distinctiveness but also in ( 1 ) targeting distinctive biogeographic ambitious template for a global conser their conservation status. Conservation units of biodiversity and (2 ) promoting vation strategy. status represents an estimate of the cur ecosystem-level representation at global rent and future ability of an ecoregion to scales. The Global 200 broadens the goals Presenter's address: maintain viable species populations, to of conservation from a primary focus on sustain ecological processes, and to be preserving species diversity to an encom James Martin-Jones responsive to short-and long-term envi passing view o f habitat diversity, ecologi WWF Global 200 Initiative ronmental changes. We conducted con cal processes, evolutionary phenomena, 1250 24thSt NW servation status assessments fo r the te r and adaptions of species to different envi Washington DC 20037, USA restrial Global 200 ecoregions based on ronmental conditions around the world. Fax: +1-202-2939211 landscape-level features, such as total In some cases, it also distinguishes repre e-mail: [email protected] habitat loss and the degree of fragmen sentative ecoregions that are more intact tation, and estimates of future threats than others, highlighting the best oppor and degree of protection. We drew hea tunities for long-term conservation. vily from regional conservation assess Like any e ffo rt to set priorities, the

41 4^ Ecoregions Valuable Biologically Most Earth's the Conserving to Approach Representation A 200: Global The Dinerstein: & Olson ISJ

Tropical & Subtropical Moist Boreal Forests & Taiga Flooded Grasslands & Savannas Broadleaf Forests Arctic Tundra Tropical Montane Grasslands & Savannas Tropical & Subtropical Dry & Monsoon Broadleaf Forests Temperate Grasslands, Savannas & Deserts & Xeric Shrublands Shrublands Tropical & Subtropical Conifer Forests Mediterranean Shrublands & Woodlands Tropical & Subtropical Grasslands, M angroves Temperate Conifer & Broadleaf Forests Savannas, & Shrublands

Fig. 1: Terrestrial realms o f The Global 200 ecoregions. Olson & Dinerstein: The Global 200: A Representation Approach to Conserving the Earth's Most Biologically Valuable Ecoregions

43 Olson & Dinerstein: The Global 200: A Representation Approach to Conserving the Earth's Most Biologically Valuable Ecoregions

Table 1. The Global 200 ecoregions organized by terrestrial, freshwater, or marine realm; m ajor habitat type; and biogeographic realm /

Conservation Realm and ecoregion Biogeographic realm status'

Terrestrial ecoregions Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Neotropical 1. Atlantic forests - Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina CE 2. Northern Andean montane forests - Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru CE 3. Andean Yungas - Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, Peru V 4. Coastal Venezuela montane forests - Venezuela CE 5. Greater Antillean moist forests - Haiti, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Puerto Rico CE 6. Chocó-Daríen moist forests - Colombia, Panama, Ecuador V 7. Varzea flooded forests - Peru, Brazil, Venezuela CE 8. Talamancan and Isthmian Pacific forests - Costa Rica, Panama V 9. Napo moist forests - Ecuador, Colombia, Peru RS 10. Rio Negro-Juru- moist forests - Colombia, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela RS 11. Southwestern Amazonian moist forests - Peru, Brazil, Bolivia RS 12. Guayanan forests - Venezuela, Brazil, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana RS Afrotropical 13. Madagascar moist forests - Madagascar CE 14. Guinean moist forests - Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Togo CE 15. Eastern Arc montane forests - Tanzania, Kenya CE 16. East African coastal forests - Tanzania, Kenya, Mozambique, Somalia CE 17. Albertine Rift highland forests - D.R. Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, Burundi, Tanzania CE 18. East African highland forests - Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda CE 19. Seychelles and Madagascarene Islands forests (e.g., Mauritius, Seychelles, Comores, Reunion, Rodrigues) CE 20. Gulf of Guinea Islands forests - Sao Tomé and Príncipe, Equatorial Guinea CE 21. Macaronesian forests (Azores, Madeira, Canary, Cape Verde Islands) CE 22. Congolian coastal forests - Cameroon, Gabon, R. Congo, Nigeria, Equatorial Guinea, Benin CE 23. Western Congo Basin forests - Central African Republic, Cameroon, R. Congo, Gabon, D.R. Congo, Equatorial Guinea 24. Northeastern Congo Basin forests - D.R. Congo, Central African Republic, Sudan, Uganda 25. Southern Congo Basin forests - D.R. Congo, R. Congo, Angola Indo-Malayan 26. Annamite Range moist forests - Laos, Vietnam, Thailand V 27. Western Ghats moist forests - India CE 28. Sri Lankan moist forests - Sri Lanka CE 29. Kayah Karen/Tenasserim moist forests - Thailand, Myanmar, Malaysia RS 30. Peninsular Malaysian lowland and montane forests - Malaysia, Thailand CE 31. Sumatran-Nicobar Islands lowland forests - Indonesia, India CE 32. Sumatran montane forests - Indonesia V 33. Central Borneo montane forests - Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei RS 34. Northern Borneo-Palawan moist forests - Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Brunei CE 35. Philippines moist forests - Philippines CE 36. Sulawesi moist forests - Indonesia RS 37. Moluccas moist forests - Indonesia RS 38. Northern Indochina subtropical moist forests - Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, China V 39. Southeast China subtropical forests - China CE 40. Northeastern India and Myanmar hill forests - India, Myanmar, Bangladesh RS 41. Andaman Islands forests - India V 42. Taiwan montane forests - Taiwan V 43. Hainan Island forests - China CE 44. Nansei Shoto Archipelago forests - Japan CE Australasian 45. New Caledonia moist forests - New Caledonia, France CE 46. New Zealand tropical forests - New Zealand CE 47. Queensland tropical forests - Australia V 48. New Guinea montane forests - Papua New Guinea, Indonesia RS 49. New Guinea lowland forests - Papua New Guinea, Indonesia RS 50. New Guinea outer islands/Solomons moist forests - Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands RS 51. Lord Howe and Norfolk Island forests - Australia CE Oceanian 52. Hawaii moist forests - United States CE 53. South Pacific Island forests - Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, I Sisito, American Samoa CE

Tropical, subtropical dry, and monsoon broadleaf forests Neotropical 54. Bolivian lowland dry forests - Bolivia, Brazil CE 55. Tumbesian and North Inter-Andean Valleys dry forests - Ecuador, Peru, Colombia CE 56. Southern Mexico dry forests - Mexico CE continued

44 Olson & Dinerstein: The Global 200: A Representation Approach to Conserving the Earth's Most Biologically Valuable Ecoregions

T a b l e 1 . (continued) Conservation Realm and ecoregion Biogeographic realm status1

Afrotropical 57. Madagascar dry forests - Madagascar CE 58. Maputaland-Pondoland dry forests - South Africa, Swaziland, Mozambique CE Indo-M alayan 59. Eastern Indochina dry and monsoon forests - Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia V 60. Lesser Sundas dry and monsoon forests - Indonesia V 61. Eastern Indian monsoon forests - India V Australasian 62. New Caledonia dry forests - New Caledonia, France CE O c e a n ia n 63. Hawaii dry forests - United States CE

Tropical and subtropical conifer forests Neotropical 64. Mexican pine-oak forests - Mexico, United States CE 65. Greater Antillean pine forests - Haiti, Cuba, Dominican Republic CE

Temperate conifer and broadleaf forests N e a r c t i c 66. Klamath-Siskiyou coniferous forests - United States CE 67. Appalachian and mixed mesophytic forests - United States CE 68. Pacific temperate forests - United States, Canada CE 69. Sierra Nevada conifer forests - United States CE 70. Southeastern conifer and broadleaf forests - United States CE Neotropical 71. Valdivian temperate rainforests - Chile, Argentina P a le a r c t ic 72. Russian Far East temperate forests - Russia, China V 73. Altai-Sagan montane forests - Russia, Kazakstan, Mongolia, China RS 74. Caucasus and Northeast Anatolia temperate forests - Georgia, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Russia, Iran, Armenia V 75. Middle Asian mountains temperate forests and steppe - Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakstan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, India, Mongolia, China, Iran V 76. Western Himalayan temperate forests - Pakistan, India, Nepal CE 77. Southern European montane forests - Bulgaria, Greece, Spain, Italy, France, Andorra, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Czech Republic, Germany, Romania, Ukraine, Yugoslavia CE 78. Central China temperate forests - China CE 79. Eastern Himalayan broadleaf and conifer forests - Bhutan, India, Nepal, Myanmar, China V Australasian 80. Eastern Australia temperate forests - Australia V 81. Tasmanian temperate rainforests - Australia CE 82. South Island temperate rainforests - New Zealand RS

Boreal forests and taiga N e a r c t i c 83. Canadian boreal taiga - Canada RS 84. Northern Cordillera boreal forests - Canada RS P a le a r c t ic 85. Central and Eastern Siberia boreal forests and taiga - Russia RS 86. Ural Mountains boreal forests and taiga - Russia RS 87. Kamchatka boreal taiga and grasslands - Russia RS

Arctic tundra Nearctic and Palearctic 88. Alaskan North Slope coastal tundra - United States, Canada V 89. Low Arctic tundra - Canada RS 90. Chukotsky coastal tundra - Russia RS 91. Taimyr coastal tundra - Russia RS 92. Scandinavian apline tundra and taiga - Norway, Sweden, Finland V

Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands Neotropical 93. Patagonian steppe and grasslands - Argentina, Chile V N e a r c t i c 94. Tallgrass prairies - United States CE P a le a r c t ic 95. Eastern Himalayan alpine meadows - Bhutan, Nepal, India, Myanmar, China RS 96. Tibetan Plateau steppe - India, China RS 97. Daurian steppe - Mongolia, Russia, China RS

c o n tin u e d

45 Olson & Dinerstein: The Global 200: A Representation Approach to Conserving the Earth's Most Biologically Valuable Ecoregions

Table 1. (continued) Conservation Realm and ecoregion Biogeographic realrrT status'

Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands Neotropical 98. Llanos savannas - Venzuela, Colombia V 99. Cerrado woodlands and savannas - Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay V 100. Beni savannas - Bolivia V Afrotropical 101. Angolan Escarpment woodlands-Angola CE 102. Zambezian woodlands and savannas-Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Angola, Namibia, Botswana, D.R. Congo, Burundi V 103. Sudanian savannas - Central African Republic, Chad, Uganda, Ethiopia, D.R. Congo, Cameroon, Sudan, Nigeria, Eritrea V 104. East African acacia savannas - Kenya, Tanzania, Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda V Indo-M alayan 105. Terai-Duar savannas and grasslands - Nepal, India, Bhutan, Bangladesh CE P a l e a r c t i c 106. Arabian fog woodlands and grasslands - United Arab Emirates, Oman, Yemen, Saudi Arabia V 107. Red Sea fog woodlands - Egypt, Sudan, Djibouti, Eritrea CE Australasian 108. Northern Australia and Trans-Fly savannas - Australia, Papue New Guinea, Indonesia RS

Flooded grasslands and savannas Neotropical 109. Pantanal flooded savannas - Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay V 110. Everglades flooded grasslands - United States CE Afrotropical 111. Sahelian flooded savannas - Mali, Chad, Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon, Senegal, Mauritania V 112. Zambezian flooded savannas - Botswana, Namibia, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique CE 113. Sudd flooded grasslands - Sudan, Ethiopia V

Tropical montane grasslands and savannas Neotropical 114. North Andean paramo - Ecuador, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru V Afrotropical 115. East African moorlands - Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, D.R. Congo, Rwanda RS 116. Ethiopian highlands - Ethiopia, Somalia, Eritrea, Sudan CE 117. Zambez. mont. savannas and woodlands - Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia, Tanzania CE 118. South African montane grasslands and shrublands - South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland CE Indo-M alayan 119. Mt. Kinabalu montane and alpine scrub and forests - Malaysia RS Australasian 120. Maoke Range alpine heathlands - Indonesia RS

Deserts and xeric shrublands Neotropical 121. Sonoran and Baja Deserts - Mexico, United States V 122. Chihuahuan and Tehuacán Deserts - Mexico, United States V 123. Galápagos Islands scrubs - Ecuador V 124. Atacama Desert - Chile CE Afrotropical 125. Namib and Karoo deserts and shrublands - South Africa, Namibia CE 126. Kaokoveld Desert - Namibia, Angola V 127. Madagascar Spiny Desert - Madagascar CE 128. Horn of Africa deserts - Somalia V 129. Socotra Island Desert-Yem en V P a l e a r c t i c 130. Central Asian deserts - Turkmenistan, Kazakstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan CE Australasian 131. Sandy Australian deserts and central ranges - Australia RS

Mediterranean shrublands and woodlands Neotropical 132. Chilean matorral - Chile CE 133. Californian chaparral and woodlands - United States, Mexico CE

c o n tin u e d

46 Olson & Dinerstein: The Global 200: A Representation Approach to Conserving the Earth's Most Biologically Valuable Ecoregions

Table 1. (continued) Conservation Realm and ecoregion Biogeographic realm status

Afrotropical 134. Fynbos - South Africa CE P a l e a r c t i c 135. Mediterranean shrublands and woodlands - Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Monaco, Greece, Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Albania, Turkey, Libya, Lebanon, Israel, Morocco, Algeria, Tunesia, Malta, Cyprus, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Slovenia, Gibraltar CE Australasian 136. Southwest Australian shrublands and woodlands - Australia CE

Freshwater ecoregions Small rivers and streams N e a r c t i c 137. Mississippi piedmont rivers and streams - United States 138. Southeastern rivers and streams - United Sates 139. Pacific Northwest coastal rivers and streams - Unites States 140. Gulf of Alaska coastal rivers and streams - United States, Canada Neotropical 141. Guayanan highlands freshwater ecosystems - Venezuela, Brazil, Guyana, Colombia 142. Greater Antillean streams-Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic 143. Upper Amazon and Orinoco Rivers and streams - Ecuador, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Brazil, Bolivia 144. Upper Paran River - Brazil, Paraguay Afrotropical 145. Madagascar freshwater ecosystems - Madagascar 146. Gulf of Guinea rivers and crater lakes - Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, Nigeria, Benin, Togo, R.Congo, D.R. Congo, Central African Republic, Ghana 147. Congo Basin piedmont rivers and streams - D.R. Congo, R. Congo, Angola, Zambia, Central African Republic Indo-M alayan 148. Sri Lanka rivers and streams - Sri Lanka 149. Sundaland rivers and swamps - Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei 150. Western Ghats rivers and streams - India P a le a r c t ic 151. Russian Far East rivers and wetlands - Russia, China, Mongolia Australasian 152. New Guinea rivers and streams - Papua New Guinea, Indonesia 153. New Caledonia rivers and streams - New Caledonia, France 154. Eastern Australian rivers and streams - Australia

Large rivers N e a r c t i c 155. Colorado River - United States, Mexico Neotropical 156. Varzea and Igapo freshwater ecosystems - Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela 157. Brazilian Shield Amazonian rivers and streams - Brazil, Bolivia Afrotropical 158. Congo River - D.R. Congo, R. Congo, Angola Indo-M alayan 159. Mekong and Salween Rivers - Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, China 160. Yangtze River and lakes - China

Lake and closed basin freshwater ecosystems N e a r c t i c 161. Great Basin lakes and springs - United States

Neotropical 162. Chihuahuan rivers and springs - Mexico, United States 163. Mexican Highland lakes - Mexico 164. High Andean lakes - Chile, Bolivia, Argentina, Peru Afrotropical 165. Rift Valley lakes-D.R. Congo, Uganda, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Kenya, Rwanda, Malawi, Mozambique, Burundi, Zambia P a le a r c t ic 166. Lake Baikal - Russia 167. Yunnan lakes and streams-China 168. Lake Biwa - Japan Indo-M alayan 169. Palawan and Mindanoa streams and lakes (Lake Lanao) - Philippines 170. Lake Inle - Myanmar 171. Central Sulawesi lakes - Indonesia Australasian 172. Lakes Kutubu and Sentani - Papua New Guinea, Indonesia

c o n tin u e d

47 Olson & Dinerstein: The Global 200: A Representation Approach to Conserving the Earth's Most Biologically Valuable Ecoregions

Table 1. (continued) Conservation Realm and ecoregion Biogeographic realm status'

Marine ecosystems Large deltas, mangroves, and estuaries Nearctic 173. Chesapeake Bay and Delaware Bay - United States Neotropical 174. Central American mangroves - Belize, Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Panama, Guatémala, Costa Rica 175. Panama Bight mangroves - Ecuador, Panama, Colombia 176. Orinoco-Amazon mangroves and coastal swamps - Ecuador, Panama, Colombia Afrotropical 178. Senegal and Gambia river mangroves and wetlands - Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau 179. Guinean-Congolian coast mangroves - Nigeria, Cameroon, Benin, Togo, Ghana, R. Congo, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tomé and Príncipe, D.R. Congo, Sierra Leone, Angola 180. East African mangroves - Kenya, Tanzania, Somalia, Mozambique Palearctic 181. Volga River Delta - Russia, Kazakstan 182. Mesopotamian Delta and marshes - Iraq, Iran, Kuwait 183. Danube River Delta - Romania, Ukraine, Moldavia 184. Lena River Delta - Russia Indo-Malayan 185. Mekong River Delta mangroves - Vietnam, Cambodia 186. Dundabans mangroves - India Bangladesh 187. Sundaland and Eastern Indonesian archipelago mangroves - Indonesia 188. Indus River Delta and Rann of Kutch - Pakistan, India Australasian 189. New Guinea mangroves - Papua New Guinea, Indonesia

Coral Reef and associated marine ecosystems W estern Atlantic 190. Mesoamerican Reef - Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico 191. Southern Caribbean Sea - Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, Netherlands Antilles 192. Greater Antilles and Bahamian marine ecosystems - Jamaica, Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Cayman Islands, Bahamas, United States, Turks and Caicos W estern Indian Ocean 193. East African marine ecosystems - Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Somalia 194. Western Madagascar marine ecosystems - Madagascar 195. Red Sea marine ecosystems - Egypt, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Eritrea, Djibouti, Sudan, Jordan 196. Agulhas Current marine ecosystems - Mozambique, South Africa Northern Indian Ocean 197. Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf - Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Oman, Iran, Pakistan, Yemen 198. Maldives, Lakshadweep, and Chagos marine ecosystems - Maldives, India, United Kingdom 199. Andaman and Nicobar Islands marine ecosystems - India Eastern Indian Ocean 200. Western Australian marine ecosystems - Australia W estern Pacific Ocean 201. Isthmus of Kra marine ecosystems - Thailand, Malaysia 202. Nansei Shoto marine ecosystems - Japan 203. Sulu Sea - Philippines, Malaysia 204. Sulawesi Sea - Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia 205. Banda-Flores Sea marine ecosystems - Indonesia 206. Northern New Guinea and Coral Sea marine ecosystems - Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Solomon Islands 207. Micronesian marine ecosystems - Palau, Federated States of Micronesia Eastern Pacific Ocean 208. Panama Bight marine ecosystems - Panama, Colombia, Ecuador Southern Pacific Ocean 209. South Pacific marine ecosystems (Vanuatu, Fiji, New Caledonia, Samoa, Tonga, Tuvalu) 210. Great Barrier Reef - Australia 211. Eastern Polynesian Island marine ecosystems (particularly, Hawaii, Marquesas, Easter Island, Societies and Tuamotus) 212. Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island marine ecosystems - Australia

Coastal marine ecosystems Northern Atlantic Ocean 213. Icelandic and Celtic marine ecosystems - Iceland, France, Ireland, United Kingdom, Denmark 214. Grand Banks - Canada, United States 215. Wadden Sea - Denmark, Germany, Belgium, The Netherlands c o n tin u e d 48 Olson & Dinerstein: The Global 200: A Representation Approach to Conserving the Earth's Most Biologically Valuable Ecoregions

Table 1. (continued) Conservation Realm and ecoregion Biogeographic realm status1

W estern Atlantic Ocean 216. Northeast Brazilian coast marine ecosystems - Brazil Eastern Atlantic Ocean 217. Gulf of Guinea marine ecosystems - Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, R. Congo, D.R. Congo, Angola, Cameroon, Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Sao Tomé and Principe 218. Western Guinea current marine ecosystems - Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Cape Verde, Liberia, Mauritania Southern Atlantic Ocean 219. Benguela Current - Namibia, South Africa, Angola 220. Southwest Atlantic coast marine ecosystems - Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil Mediterranean Sea 221. Mediterranean Sea W estern Pacific Ocean 222. Yellow Sea and East China Sea - China, North Korea, South Korea, Japan Eastern Pacific Ocean 223. Californian Current - United States, Mexico 224. Sea of Cortez - Mexico 225. Peru Current - Peru, Chile 226. Galápagos Islands marine ecosystems - Ecuador 227. Magellanic marine ecosystems - Chile, Argentina Southern Pacific Ocean 228. South temperate Australian marine ecosystems - Australia

Polar and subpolar marine ecosystems Antarctic Seas 229. Antarctic Peninsula and Weddell Sea 230. New Zealand marine ecosystems - New Zealand Arctic Ocean and Seas 231. Bering and Beaufort Seas - Russia, United States, Canada 232. Sea of Okhotsk and Northern Sea of Japan - Russia, Japan 233. Svalnbard/FranzJoseph Land marine ecosystems - Russia, Norway

a We anticipate that there will be some minor modification of the Global 200 list in the future as new information becomes available and on-going ana lyses are finalized.

b Numbers of ecosystems correspond to Figs. 1 and 2.

c CE, critical or endangered; V, vulnerable; RS, relatively stable or intact.

49 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

ther elaboration. Studying extremes of The Impacts of Human Activities on exploitation intensities is not very useful, as the results are self-evident. Where log Biodiversity in Natural Tropical Forests ging is aimed at a single or a few extre mely valuable species in a policy environ Timothy Boyle ment lacking effective regulation - as, for example, with mahoganies in Cen tra l/South America, or with Aquillaria malaccensis in S.E. Asia, the consequences Abstract in tropical regions. Secondly, human are obvious. These situations are not ty p i population growth is concentrated in cal o f logging in tropical forests, yet most The conservation of biodiversity is both developing nations of the tropics and in of the anecdotal evidence for the negati an indicator of, and an essential compo most tropical countries the population ve impacts of logging relate to just such nent of sustainable forest management. remains more closely rooted to a rural cul situations. Equally, the study of especial Management systems that are more ture, resulting in closer and more varied ly benign interventions is obviously unli effective at conserving biodiversity are interactions w ith forests than in the more kely to shed much light on real-life situa consequently more likely to be sustaina developed temperate and boreal regions. tions. ble over the long term. Although the Since the topic is so widely recognized This paper reports on some of the negative consequences of certain cata as being critically important, it might at results generated from CIFOR's research strophic human activities are well publi first seem surprising that so little is known on impacts of human activities, in the con cized, relatively little is known of the about the consequences of human activi text of previous and current studies by impacts resulting from the majority of ties for forest biodiversity. However, other institutions. Some of the research is human activities. Recent research at the because there is such a variety of forest still underway, or the data are still being Center for International Forestry Re types in the tropics and so many different analyzed. Most of the results are also search has focused on different types of forms of human activities in forests, the being prepared for publication elsewhe human activity and the assessment of combination of forest types and activities re, so some o f the details th a t w ill appear impacts on components of biodiversity. is almost infinite. Furthermore, the in other publications are omitted here. Although the sheer variety of human degree of impact will depend on a com activities and forest ecosystems means bination of factors, including the intensi Impacts of Logging that generalizable results are hard to ty of the activity, the length of time it has determine, certain patterns have become been undertaken in the locality, the other Lee et al. (1996) studied the impact of se evident. For example, while logging is activities in the same area and, if the lective logging on genetic diversity of a perhaps the most prominent activity in activity has ceased, the length o ftim e th a t range o f plant species, including both tropical forests, impacts on biodiversity has elapsed since. Given these complexi those which are harvested, and those are often not as severe as is sometimes ties it may be surmised that it should be which are not. They recorded losses in assumed. More significant than the pro virtually impossible to generalize about genetic diversity fo r all species, and those cess of logging itself is the degree to the impacts of human activities. losses were greatest for harvested, rare which management guidelines are Nevertheless, in recent years the Cen species, and least fo r non-harvested, com ignored or exceeded. These same prob te r fo r International Forestry Research mon species. Similarly, Tsai and Yuan lems apply to other types o f activity, such (CIFOR) has attempted to shed some light (1995) recommended that in order to as non-timber forest product harvesting, on this daunting problem. In order to reduce negative impacts on genetic diver or grazing. overcome the complexities listed above, sity, harvest levels should be adjusted in CIFOR adopted a research strategy th a t proportion to the census numbers of Introduction sought to simplify the problem while mature and sub-mature individuals for maintaining sufficient flexibility to yield each commercial species. There is widespread agreement that one generalizable conclusions. Central to this Although the impacts of logging, of the most critical issues affecting forest strategy were the following principles: based on the research done in Malaysia, biodiversity is the need to understand the ■ A focus on typical activities in typical were evident on all species sampled - not impacts of human activities. This is reflec forest types for example, logging in low only on those which were harvested - the ted in guidance from the SBSTTA that was land humid forests, and NTFP collection loss of genetic diversity, measured as adopted by the Conference of the Parties in both humid and seasonal forests. expected heterozygosity, did not exceed to the Convention on Biological Diversi ■ The use of gradients of intensities of 24%. Similarly, research in Thailand ty, and it has also been the subject o f much exploitation, but: where there was harvesting of wood for discussion and speculation in scientific ■ Centering these gradients on „stand construction and fuel, the only significant and popular literature. Concern over the ard" intensities of exploitation impact occurred at very high intensities of impacts of human activities has focused ■ An inter-disciplinary approach, and harvesting. most sharply on tropical forests, for two ■ A focus on processes that maintain The Thai research also clearly demon reasons. Firstly, tropical forests contain diversity, rather than on assessing current strated that the intensity of impact is very high levels of biodiversity, so any status. dependent on the reproductive ecology deleterious impacts will be more serious The third point, above, deserves fu r o f the species (Ghazoul etal. 1998).Those

50 Boyle • The Impacts of Human Activities on Biodiversity in Natural Tropical Forests species which are pollinated by weakly information that can be obtained from and non-woody lianas were also impor flying insects show increased levels of GIS and remote sensing would therefore tant for small mammals. The various inbreeding as the density of reproductive be a valuable management tool. In addi decay states classes of coarse woody individuals decreases, w hile species affec tion such prediction w ould assist in sur debris were all related to some species ted by more strongly flying insects are less vey design for further biodiversity studies. variables. These results suggest that log affected. Depending on the behavior of Elevation is known to be an important ging operations designed to minimize pollinators, and the degree of host-polli factor in determ ining species composi changes in these key vegetation struc nator specificity, there may also be clear tion, topography may also have significant ture variables may reduce the impacts on thresholds in the intensity of disturbance influence on the ecological resources and diversity of various groups of animals. that affect the mating system and, con resultant biodiversity of an area. There is sequently, genetic diversity. a need to include these parameters in Impacts of NTFP Collection Research on the impacts o f logging biodiversity research to increase the rele has also been conducted in Central Kali vance and applicability of results. CIFOR The impacts of non-timber forest product mantan, Indonesia, at both the genetic is conducting research in Central Kali (NTFP) collection are often considered to and higher levels. Since dipterocarps did mantan to assess the impact of logging be more benign than logging impacts not flow er locally in 1997, sample collec operations on biodiversity in lowland dip- (e.g. Panayatou and Ashton 1992), tion of Shorea parvifolia was made from terocarp forest and to identify the rela though Hall and Bawa (1993) concluded leaves o f seedlings grow ing underneath tionship between topographic variation th a t there are few, if any, examples of each of these mother trees. The locations and biodiversity. sustainable NTFP collection systems. In a of the seedlings were mapped within This study investigated the effect of series of comprehensive studies on NTFP their presumed mother tree crown dia topographic variation and logging on collection in the Biligiri Rangan Hills of meter. Only small seedlings were selected several species o f w ild life (small mam south India, Hegde et al. (1996) demon (height less than 30 cm) so as to ensure mals, birds and primates) and the com strated a negative correlation between that they originated after logging. About ponents of their habitat as represented the amount of time spent collecting 1400 seedlings have been analyzed using by vegetation structure. These variables NTFP's and the availability of salaried both isozyme and RAPD, making it possi had been chosen as indicators of biodi labor, while Murali et al. (1996) found a ble to obtain estimates on outcrossing versity to enable rapid assessment and to significant impact on recruitment of the rates and genetic diversity parameters include a range of interrelated elements. harvested species, especially where har in the regeneration after logging Topographic variation was used to predict vest levels were highest. The negative (manuscript in preparation). These results various environmental parameters and relationship between time spent collect indicate a significant increase in inbreed these were sampled in compartments ing NTFP's and availability of salaried ing following logging, though levels of with different logging histories. labor is a consequence of the seasonality genetic diversity were not significantly Logging was the most important fac and unreliability of NTFP collection, affected. to r in determining vegetation structure in where crops in some years may be very The impact of logging on quantita the study area. The aspects o f vegetation low, and also the low value of the crop at tive characters was investigated by plant structure affected may be grouped as fol the point of collection. Uma Shaanker et ing S. parvifolia seedlings collected from lows: canopy / understorey structure al. (1996) and Uma Shaanker and Ganes- beneath each mother tree in a field trial. (height and furcation index of trees, fre haiah (1997) concluded that non-sustain- This progeny test was established at 2 quency of poles and saplings); abun able harvest levels were inevitable given locations, i.e., one nearby the origin of dance of lianas, volum e and state o f dead these low value-added benefits accruing the seedlings and the other a little fur wood and leaf size classes. In general the to the collectors. There are also numerous ther away, w ith 2 0 replications in each site. landscape factors predicted by the envi other examples of overexploitation of Since it was only assumed th a t the seed ronmental model had little effect on NTFP's (e.g. Browder 1992, Nepstad et al. lings were originated from mother trees vegetation structure in the analysis. This 1992). While most of these studies focus grown above them, molecular maternal does not necessarily imply th a t no rela on the direct impacts on the harvested analyses are required to establish their tionship exists but th a t the landscape as species, Boot and Gullison (1995) use the true maternal parent. However, results of predicted by the environmental model example of collection of brazil nut early survival and growth rates based on does not have a great effect, and th a t any (Bertholletia excelsa Hunb. and Bonpl.)to pooled samples from the tw o sites show effect was overwhelm ed by logging point out that there may be both direct ed no difference between the logged effects. and indirect impacts on non-harvested and unlogged sites. This suggests that Vegetation structure variables were species. High removal rates o f brazil nuts adaptive traits are not affected by log correlated w ith various indices o f species may directly affect squirrels and agouti - ging. diversity and the species richness w ithin the main consumers and seed distributors The need for accurate predictive different bird guilds. Height was the o f the species, and this may have indirect information for forest management plan single most important variable in deter consequences on other plant species if ning is vital. Detailed biodiversity survey mining bird species diversity. Crown these frugivores substitute other species ing over more than a fraction of a forest depth added little information, but dbh, into their diet. management unit is impractical. The abil furcation index and crown radius were Preliminary results provide some inter ity to predict species occurrence and also important factors. Litter depth and esting insights concerning the interaction habitat type from simple environmental the frequency of bryophytes, epiphytes between people and forest genetic

51 Boyle • The Impacts of Human Activities on Biodiversity in Natural Tropical Forests resources. For example, the socio-econo ly to be - due to the volume of slash and Hall, P. and Bawa, K. 1993. Methods to mic research in India indicated that, in dead wood. assess the impact of extraction of non general, it is the poorer households which timber forest products on plant popu maintain a greater reliance on collection Conclusions lations. Economic Botany 47: 234-247. of NTFPs. Members of the wealthier house Hedge, Ravi. Role o f forests in a forest holds often have access to salaried in Determining the impact of human activi fringe household economy: A case come, which not only provides potential for ties in biodiversity in tropical forests is study from Mudumalai W ildlife Sanc greater income, but is also more depend very complex due to the interaction of tuary, Southern India. able than seasonal NTFP collection, numerous factors, including micro and Hegde, R., Suryaprakash, S, Achoth, L. and yields of which can vary widely from year meso-scale variation in topography and Bawa, K.S. 1996. Extraction of non to year. With the incorporation of many associated environmental variables, spa timber forest products in the forests NTFPs into a market economy, there is a tial and temporal variation in the inten o f Biligiri Rangan Hills, India. 1. Con marked tendency for unsustainable har sity of the activities, and interaction ef tribution to rural income. Economic vesting, even when the harvesting is fects among several activities taking place Botany 50: 243-251. undertaken by indigenous communities in the same area. Nevertheless, recent Lee, C.T., Wickneswari, R., Norwati, M. which have traditionally relied on these research conducted by CIFOR suggests and Boyle, T.J.B. Effect of logging on products for their livelihoods. Conse that significant impacts on biodiversity the genetic diversity of three rainfo quently, regeneration o f species such as resulting from logging and collection of rest species w ith different life history Phyllanthus emblica and Terminalia che- non-timber forest products may be lim it strategies in a lowland dipterocarp bula is almost completely absent in areas ed to those species directly targeted, and forest. Pages 319-325 In: Proceedings of highly intensive harvesting, and gene to high intensities of harvesting. These of the 2nd Malaysian National Gene tic diversity o f these species is conse results suggest that it should be possible tics Congress, Kuala Lumpur, Nov. 13- quently eroded. to integrate production systems and 15, 1996. conservation of biodiversity, most likely Murali, K.S., Uma Shanker, Uma Shaanker, Impacts of other Activities through a combination of m odification of R., Ganeshaiah, K.N. and Bawa, K.S. existing harvesting practices, and zoning 1996. Extraction o f non-tim ber forest In addition to logging and collection of uses of the forest to avoid the most products in the forests of Biligiri Ran non-timber forest products, there are a sensitive areas. gan Hills, India. 2. Impact o f NTFP wide variety of other human activities in The useof environmental modelingto extraction on regeneration, populati tropical forests, including grazing and identify sensitiveareas within a landscape on structure, and species composition. burning. The problems associated with may assist in conservation of biodiversity. Economic Botany 50: 252-269. studies on logging and collection of non Further insights into the impacts of hu Nepstad, D.C., Brown, I.F., Luz, L., timber forest products, namely the need man activities can be derived from pro Alechandra, A. and Viana, V. 1992. to take into account the combination of cess modeling. The adaptation of models Biotic impoverishment of Amazonian time and intensity, and the confounding designed to predict forest productivity to forests by trappers, loggers and cattle effect of other activities, is usually much incorporate indices of biodiversity is cur ranchers. Pages 1-14 In: Nepstad, worse for activities such as grazing and rently a field o f research at CIFOR. D.C. and Schwartzman, S. (eds.). Non burning, which are seldom dominant timber forest products from tropical activities. References: forests: evaluation of a conservation Consequently, research results are and development strategy. Advances much harder to generate. From the lim it Boot, R.G.A. and Gullison, R.E. 1995. in Economic Botany 9. New York Bota ed am ount o f research conducted in Approaches to developing sustaina nical Garden, NY. Thailand and India, the impacts of graz ble extraction systems fo r tropical Panayatou, T. and Ashton, P.S. 1992. Not ing can be assumed to be similar to those forest products. Ecological Applica by timber alone: Economics and eco for logging, in that those species directly tions 5: 896-903. logy for sustaining tropical forests. targeted are much more adversely affect Browder, J.O. 1992. Social and economic Island Press, Washington, DC. ed than species only indirectly affected. constraints on the development of Tsai, L.M. and Yuan, C.T. 1995. A practical The nature and severity of the impact of market-oriented extractive reserves in approach to conservation of genetic fire will also depend on the degree to Amazon rain forests. Pages 33-42 In: diversity in Malaysia: Genetic resource which the ecosystem is adapted to fire. Nepstad, D.C. and Schwartzman, S. areas. Pages 207-218 In: Boyle, T.J.B. Thus, the seasonal forests of Indochina (eds.). Non-timber forest products and Boontawee, B. (eds.). Measuring are likely to be less affected than when from tropical forests: evaluation o f a and monitoring biodiversity in tropi unusual and catastrophic fires affected conservation and development stra cal and tem perate forests. Center fo r humid tropical forest in several parts of tegy. Advances in Economic Botany 9. International Forestry Research, Borneo in 1997 and 1998. Here again, New York Botanical Garden, NY. Bogor, Indonesia. however, the actual impact of fire is not Ghazoul, J., Liston, K.A. and Boyle, T.J.B. Uma Shaanker, Uma R. and Ganeshaiah, easy to assess, since fires tend to occur (1998) Disturbance-induced density- K.N. 1997. Mapping genetic diversity more often in fo re stth a t has already been dependent reproductive success in a o f Phyllanthus emblica: Forest gene logged, and the greater the intensity of tropical forest tree. Journal of Ecolo banks as a new approach for in situ logging, the more intense the fire is like gy 86(3): 462-473. conservation of genetic resources.

52 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

Current Science vol. 73 no. 2:163-168. Author's address: Uma Shanker, Murali, K.S., Uma Shaanker, R., Ganeshaiah, K.N. and Bawa, K.S. Timothy J.B. Boyle 1996. Extraction o f non-tim ber forest UNDP Regional Office fo r Asia & the Paci products in the forests of Biligiri Ran- fic gan Hills, India. 3. Productivity, extrac DC-1-2364 One UN Plaza, tion and prospects of sustainable har New York NY 10017, USA vest of amla Phyllanthus emblica e-mail: [email protected] (Euphorbiaceae). Economic Botany 50: 270-279.

W orkshop: B iodiversity as Value in S ociety

The Link between Value, Biodiversity Loss and Policy Design: A Case Study in the Bajo Atrato, Colombia

Aurelio Ramos

Abstract ceive this total amount in orderto choose Author's address: the best option. The question this paper wants to answer Neoclassical economic theory has A ureiio Ramos Borrero is: described the mentioned phenomenon as Instituto Alexander von Humboldt „Why does biodiversity loss occur in a consequence of market failure. Imme Apta. Aero 8693 many places if it is socially better to give diate policies have to be designed in order CO-Santafe de Bogota, Colombia it a persistent use?" to counteract this situation. New fields of e-mail: [email protected] A natural resource (biodiversity) will economic theory are searching for alter be conserved or used in a persistent way native ways of explaining why societies if its present net value is greater than the are not able to choose the best option and present net value of it been used or con why they come up with other forms of verted into a new form of capital. Never strategies. Section 2 of this paper will pre theless, many times natural resources are sent and combine both approaches in a being diminished even though it is better simple model. It will give insights on how to use them in a persistent way. This to explain the case study, presented in means that there are valuation distor Section 3, where decision makers (local tions which do not allow society to choose communities, multinationals, NGO and its best available alternative at that government officers) in El Bajo Atrato moment. Section 1 of this paper will (Colombia) chose an inefficient option explain what constitutes the total econo when the best alternative was to use the mic value of biodiversity and why it is „Cativales Forests" in a persistent way. important for decision makers to per

53 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

of life and evolution on earth. On the con Biodiversity - trary, it might work the other way around. Several times during the history of this pla Source of Inspiration and Innovation net biodiversity had been reduced by catas trophes. Each time living nature recover Werner Nader ed and reached an even higher degree in development and diversity than before, because those species had been elimina Since its beginning mankind uses inspira and w ith it the necessity fo r solutions. ted, which prevented further evolution tions from biodiversity for inventions and Conservation of biodiversity becomes a due to their dominance. The extinction of technical solutions. Biodiversity offers matter of human survival and inventors the once dominating dinosaurs opened three principal sources for innovation: have to take responsibilities to maintain the path for the development of mam DESIGNS, GENETIC INFORMATION and the source for their inspirations. mals. Thus the current endeavor of man CHEMICALS. Bionics is a branch of to extinguish himself seems consequent. engineering and analyses designs and Biodiversity - Basis of Life and Biodiversity is more than a treasure in mechanisms from living organisms like Development the world's forests: it is the key for man wings, sensors and flig h t. Architects have kind to adapt to the needs of the future used structural elements like the principal Biodiversity refers to the variety and varia and a necessity for future survival. of radial ribbing of Victoria regia for the bility of living material and ecological construction of buildings like the crystal complexes in a given area and comprises Biodiversity - Source of Inspira palace in London. Genetic engineering species, genetic and ecosystem diversity. tion and Innovation uses genes from wild living organisms for Biodiversity is not only the basis of life on the development of new pharmaceuticals, earth, but also provides the goods and Creativity needs diversity. This is true in transgenic crops and catalysts. Biotechnol services essential to support every type of nature and in all aspects related to human ogy promises to solve many problems of human endeavor. Accordingly, biodiversi life including economy, politics and culture. mankind. Its real potential is not yet ty enables societies to adapt to different To be creative man needs inspirations and untapped, but is already threatened by needs and situations (US National Re these come from traditions, culture, history, the current destruction of the genetic search Council, 1992). Thus extinction of science, technology and the living and life pool offered by biodiversity. The chemical species and reduction of genetic and less nature. The more diverse these re diversity of natural compounds is needed ecosystem diversity destroys the basis of sources are, the more creative man can be. for the development of drugs, pesticides, future human development. Living nature offers three sources o f plastics, oils and cosmetics. The problems Extinction of biological diversity by inspiration: DESIGNS, GENETIC INFOR of mankind are increasing exponentially man w ill not necessarily destroy the basis MATION and CHEMICALS.

Fig. 1: B io diversity - Source for Inspirations and Innovation

54 WS Biodiversity as Value in Society - Nader • Biodiversity - Source of Inspiration and Innovation

Designs: cretization, the glider airplane (Hill, cessing o f animal feed, human food and The Shark and the Airbus 1997). textiles, for laundry detergents and for the diagnosis o f diseases. Today enzymes First men probably used designs from Insects - Masters in Design and can be produced at low costs and high nature to develop their primitive weap Engineering yields by the fermentation of genetically ons after teeth and claws of wild animals. engineered microorganisms. Engineers created the science of bionics A huge potential in tropical biodiversity Examples fo r some successful prod to deduce principles from living nature for the inspiration of the engineer is still ucts are: fo r solution finding (Hill, 1997). In most untapped: the insect world in the tropics. - Hydantoinases from soil and ther of these technical concretizations we do Insects are the most diverse group o f mophilic bacteria are used for the cleav not recognize the prototype from nature, organisms in nature with over 5 million age of chemically synthesized hydantoines. take inspirations for granted and as an species. Only a m inor fraction o f insect D-amino acids are generated, which are offspring of the human genius, and do species is known and characterized. They building blocks forthe production of half not recognize the importance of living have reached this diversity by adaptation synthetic antibiotics like ampicillin and nature for our everyday life. Josef Baxton to countless ecological niches. Every amoxillin. Particularly useful are those discovered the principal of radial ribbing adaptation requires a different design of from thermophilic bacteria with ther in the structure of the giant sea anemo claws, grabs, mandibles, wings, legs, sen mostable enzymes. Hydantoin is poorly ne (Victoria regia), and created the cupo sors etc.. Insects are the masters in mecha soluble in w ater and solubility increases la o f the crystal palace in London (Fig. 2). nical engineering, lightweight construc with higher temperatures. The Yellow The nose of the dolphin was the proto tion and sensor technology. They are per stone National Park proved to be an excep type fo rth e torus bow o f ships and the skin fect designers (Nader and Hill, in press). tionally rich source for new thermostable of the shark for a kerosene-saving sur hydantoinases (BASF AG, 1987). face of an Airbus prototype (Nachtigall, Genetic Information: - Approximately 7 % of all food for 1992, Fig. 3). Numerous other inventions poultry and pigs is processed with phyta- were made through inspirations from Genes from plants and animals have been ses from micro-fungi like Aspergillus nature and numerous others are to be used by man fo r the breeding o f cattle, niger. This enables these monogastric ani made. Successful inventorship through pets and crops. Gene technology opens mals to assimilate the phosphorous from inspirations from biodiversity requires revolutionary new opportunities for man, plants, diminishes the amount of phos careful observation and analysis of natu if one can count also in the future on the phorous in the manure and subsequent ral phenomena. Otto Lillienthal studied gene potential in the biodiversity of our ly entering the environment (Wodzinski over years the flight of birds, analyzed forests (Tamayo et al., 1997). and Ullah, 1996). their wing structure and the principle of - The enzyme Taq polymerase from air lift (Lilienthal, 1889), before he star Billion dollar enzymes from the the thermophilic bacterium Thermus ted fo r man's first successful gliding flig h t Yellowstone National Park aquaticus from the Yellowstone Park is in the year 1891. The process of invention the key ingredient of the Polymerase and inspiration comprises the definition Man has used traditionally enzymes, bio Chain Reaction (PCR, Mullis, 1987). This of the problem (humans cannot fly), the catalysts, for the production o f cheese reaction revolutionized gene technology observation of a prototype in nature, (renin from the calf stomach), softening and clinical diagnosis. The company Hoff- which has solved the problem (the stork), of leather (proteases from the beef pan mann-La Roche bought the patent fo r the abstraction of its function (flight), its creas), ferm entation o f tea and tobacco PCR for over US $ 450 millions and the analysis (wing structure and principle of and many other applications. In modern market potential for PCR based diagnosis the air lift), the synthesis (artificial wing industry enzymes are gaining increasing is estimated to be far over $ 3,000 millions structure ) and finally the technical con- importance in chemical engineering, pro per year.

Fig. 2: From the giant sea anemone (Victoria regia) to the crystal palace o f London (Hill, 1997). The Principle o f Radial Ribbing enabled the construction of this building within 9 months.

55 WS Biodiversity as Value in Society - Nader • Biodiversity - Source of Inspiration and Innovation

With the Vampire Bat against the heart attack from the saliva of the Latin developed with higher potency against Heart Attack American vampire bat (Desmodus rotun- pathogens and undegradable by plant dus) (Schleuning et al., 1992). The pro proteases. These can be genetically Leeches (Hirudo medicinalis) have been blem, the heart attack, is caused by blood expressed in plants to confer resistance used in traditional medicine to treat coagulation. The prototype from nature, against fungal and bacterial pathogens thrombosis. Their saliva contains the pro the vampire bat, prevents coagulation by (Everett, 1994). tease inhibitor hirudin, which inhibits a protease in his saliva, while sucking Biotechnology will be a dominating blood coagulation. Hirudin was among blood from his victims (observation and technology in the new millennium. It can the first proteins produced by recom abstraction). This protease is related to the solve many problems of health, the envi binant DNA technology at large scale in tissue plasminogen activator, which ronment, agriculture and nutrition and it bioreactors (Fortkamp, 1986). Calcitonin occurs in the human body (analysis). The might generate new problems. Whether is the peptide hormone in the human gene from the bat can be transferred by solutions outnumber problems at the end, body, which inhibits the release of cal genetic engineering into mammalian cell depends on how humans will apply the cium ions and phosphate from the bones. lines (synthesis) and the bat's tissue plas new technology. The potential of bio As a synthetic drug it hastherapeutic uses minogen activator produced by fermen technology will at the end depend on the against osteoporosis. The investigation tation at large scale as a pharmaceutical genetic pool, which will be available for of hormones from animals revealed that (the technical concretization) against the genetic engineer. Careless destruction the salmon calcitonin is even more heart attack. of biodiversity today reduces this pool and potent and has a longer half-life within thus our opportunities to find solutions the human body (MacIntyre et al., 1987). Frog Skin against Insect Pests for the future. Since over a decade chemically synthesi zed salcatonin is on the market. A lthough frogs live in a w et environment, Chemicals: The potential to develop new phar their skin gets scarcely infected by bacte maceuticals from proteins and peptides ria and fungi. This observation inspired Since its beginning mankind is using che from wild living animals is boundless. Simi inventors to transfer this resistance to micals from nature for survival. Natural lar to the invention of the first glider (Lili crops. In the skin of the frogs anti-bacte polymers like cellulose, lignin and wool enthal, 1889) successful and innovative rial and anti-fungal peptides were discov are used fo r clothing and construction, product development in genetic engineer ered, the magainins. The analysis of their fats and oils of plant and animal origin for ing is a biorational process rather than a amino acid sequence revealed the mecha lubrication and heating and secondary random screening. nism of their toxicity against bacteria and metabolites from plants and microorga Researchers from the Schering AG fungi. By reshuffling of the amino acid nisms as medicines and pesticides (Tamayo recently developed a medication against sequence new magainin variants were et al., 1997).

Fig. 3: From the shark to the Airbus (Nachtigall, 1992). Small spikes on the surface of the shark prevent the formation of micro turbulences. The same principle applied to the surface o f an aircraft saves up to 2 % of kerosene.

56 WS Biodiversity as Value in Society - Nader • Biodiversity - Source of Inspiration and Innovation

Chinese Red Rice competes with a High-Tech Drug Problem : Heart Attack

Lovastin ($ 1,250 millions ) and pravastin ($ 1,115 millions) lower the blood choles Analysis Synthesis ------t e - . terol level and are lactons, derived from natural compounds from micro-fungi. Source of lovastin is the soil fungusAsper- gillus terrestris. Lovastin can be also Abstraction found in the fermented Chinese red rice. Concret ization Here a yeast produces lovastin and its extract is sold in the USA as the choleste Function: Prevention of blood coagulation rol lowering dietary supplement Cho lestin. A chemical derivative of lovastin is simvastin w ith $ 1,960 m illions o f sales. Augmentin ($ 1,300 millions) is a plactamase inhibitor from the soil bacteri um Streptomyces clavuligerus and is used to break resistance of bacterial pathogens Prototype from nature: the Vampire Bat Technical solution: rProtein against antibiotics of the cephalosporin- and penicillin-group. Cefaclor ($ 1,430 Fig. 4: Application of nature-orientated invention techniques on the development of million) is a chemical derivative of the a pharmaceutical against heart attack (modified after Hill, 1997) antibiotic cephalosporin from the fungus Cephalosporium spec. Ciclosporin ($ 1,200 millions) is a Palm Kernel Oil from the Midwest Report of Monsanto promises: Previous powerful immunosupressant and a cyclic ly, industrial and consumer products com peptide from the filamentous fungus Examples for fats, waxes and oils in panies relied on coconut or palm kernel Tolypocladium inflatum Gams. It is also modern industry are: oils from tropical regions. Laurical pro produced by other fungi including Chau- ■ Coconut and palm kernel oil for the vides an alternative to coconut and palm nopycnis alba. production of soaps, chocolate and can kernel oils at a reduced cost. Laurate Not included in the 1995 Top Twenty is dies. In 1992, the US alone imported canola can be grown in m ultiple geogra taxol, a powerful drug against solid tumors 600,000 tons of these oils, which contain phies globally, eliminating the concerns and derived from a plant, the North Ame up to 50% of trilaurin, a medium-chain of seasonability and the pressure on tro rican yew Taxus brevifolia. This drug has dodecanoic unsaturated fatty acid. pical rain forests. probably achieved billion dollar sales by ■ Long-chain wax esters for a variety of What is good news for the farmers of now. A billion dollar anti-cancer drug in industrial applications including pharma the North American plains, is bad news spe is currently undergoing clinical trials: ceuticals, cosmetics, detergents, plastics for the oil palm growers in the tropics. Combretastatin from Combretum caf- and lubricants. Such products, especially Laurical might cut off their export mar frum, a plant species indigenous to South long-chain wax esters, have previously kets on short term and destroy their in Africa and used in th e tra d itio n a l medicine been available from sperm whales. Hun come. of the Zuiu (Pettit et al., 1995). ted because of their valuable content This Top Twenty of the best selling these whales soon became endangered. The TOP TWENTY of Pharmaceuti drugs reveals the importance of micro Fortunately a plant, the desert shrub jojo cal Industry fungi and bacteria of the Actinomycete ba (Simmondsia chinensis or californica) family for the development of new drugs was found to contain similar waxes. Of the 20 best selling non-protein drugs from natural compounds. Bioactive Genetic engineering will revolutio in 1995 (PharmaPipelines, 1996), eight secondary metabolites from these micro nize the production of these commodity were either derived from, or developed organisms had been nearly exclusively products. In the Californian biodiversity, as the result of leads generated by natu found by a random screening approach in the undomesticated bay Umbellularia ral products. These include the angioten without using knowledge from tradition californica, a gene has been recently sin-converting enzyme inhibitors enala- al uses or observations of natural phe detected, which transforms the common pril and captopril with antihypertensive nomena. rape seed to a producer of high laurate activity and yearly sales o f $ 2,310 m il Even in plants the value o f tra d itio n a l canola oil, a perfect substitute for tropi lions and $ 1,540 millions in 1995, respec knowledge is limited. Taxol was found by cal palm kernel and coconut oil (Voelker tively. Enalapril had been derived from a random screening. Topotecan is a new et al., 1992). Seeds are already on the peptide in the venom of the Brazilian fer- cancer-drug, derived from camptothecin market under the trade name Laurical de-lance Bothrops jararaca. The old rule from the bark of Camptotheca acumina and 70,000 acres under cultivation (num of Paracelsus (1493-1541) o f a poison to ta. This tree was extensively used in China ber from 1997) in the USA and Canada. become a medicine at low concentrations as an ornamental and as a source of fire The Plant Biotechnology Performance remains valid in the high-tech age. wood with no medicinal applications

57 WS Biodiversity as Value in Society - Nader • Biodiversity - Source of Inspiration and Innovation being reported. Even the frequently cited vinca alkaloids from the Madagascan Research and D evelopm ent Process periwinkle, Catharantus roseus, have been found randomly. The traditional use fo r Catharantus roseus is against diabe tes, whereas vinca alkaloids are most suc P ro d u ct cessful anti-cancer drugs. surveillance P h a s e I V A Deadly Snake saves Lives

P h a s e I I I A most remarkable example for a biorational approach in drug discovery is the Clinical Trials development of enalapril. The venom of (H u m a n s) P h a s e I I the Brazilian fer-de-lance Bothrops jara- Y e a r s raca decreases the blood pressure o f its P h a s e I victim (observation) and a peptide was isolated, which inhibits the angiotensin Predincal Trials converting enzyme (ACE) in the human (A n im a ls ) body (abstraction). The enzyme-product, angiotensin II, is a potent vasoconstrictor. L Synthesis Investigation of the mode of action of the ^^^Examination snake peptide (analysis) led to the devel ^ ^ c r e e n in g opm ent o f a series of chemically synthe sized ACE inhibitors including captopril, INBio Source: Pharmaceutical Manufacturers enalapril, perindopril, rampril, quinapril Association and lisinopril (synthesis and technical concretization) (Wyvratt, 1988). Fig. 5: Development of a new pharmaceutical The tropical forest offers for the inventor many more opportunities than snakes and vampire bats to observe bio wood o f Quassia amara, ryanodine from Bacteria against Plants logical prototypes for solutions in medi leaves, stems and roots of the tree Ryania cine. We have to maintain this potential speciosa, azadirachtins from the Asian The herbicide Basta is chemically synthe for future investigators and developers. neem tree and pyrethrinsfrom the peren sized after phoshinothricin or glufosate, a Development of pharmaceuticals is nial Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium, ori secondary metabolite from soil bacteria of risky and expensive. From 10,000 chemi ginated from Dalmatia and Montenegro the genus Streptomyces. The enzyme cals, which enter a screening program, (Wink, 1993) . Phosphinothricin-N-Acetyltransferase in only 1 has a chance to get through to the A fte r 1848 until the advent of DDT, activates this compound and the gene has market (Fig. 5). The statistics on plant rotenone became one of the most wide been cloned from a Streptomycete from extracts looks similar. During 1960 to ly used insecticides worldwide. The USA soil in Cameroon. Transformed into crop 1982, the National Cancer Institute o f the imported substantial amounts of Derris this gene confers resistance to the herbi USA tested over 114,000 extracts o f some roots from South East Asia, alone in 1947 cide. Basta-resistant canola, Soya, cotton 35,000 plants species in their anti-cancer 6727 tons. In Europe Derris extracts were etc. require less cycles o f herbicides than screens (Cragg et al., 1994). Today only usually combined with pyrethrins. conventional plants with less chemicals two drugs from this gigantic screening Synthetic derivatives of pyrethrins, brought into the environment. e ffo rt are on the market, taxol from Taxus the so-called "pyrethroids", are up to a fac brevifolia and topotecan, a derivative of to r o f 1 0 0 0 more potent than the natural Biodiversity and Economic Values camptothecin from the bark of Campto- products and in addition stable against theca acuminata (see above). The costs fo r light. They became the most important Markets related to products derived from the development of a new pharmaceuti and successful insecticides o f this decade biodiversity are huge (Table 1). One suc cal are by now probably above US $ 400 due to low toxicity in mammals and good cessful pharmaceutical derived from a millions and the development process biodegradibility. But more and more in natural compound can sell fo r over 2 , 0 0 0 lasts over at least a decade. sect species are developing resistances millions dollars (see above). The market for and the discovery of new insecticides is pyrethroids alone is estimated to be in the Plants against Insects urgently needed. Again plants (of the range of several billion dollars. Biodiversi genus Calceolaria) provided an important ty in itself has no commercial value, but Traditionally secondary metabolites from inspiration: a new class of naphtoquino- has the potential to turn markets up-side- plants have been used in agriculture as ne derivatives (British Technology Group, down through inspirations for innovative natural pesticides. Examples are nicotine 1995). These new compounds had been product developments. from tobacco leafs, rotenone from roots found by random screening and not of the genus Derris, quassin from the through traditional knowledge.

58 WS Biodiversity as Value in Society - Nader • Biodiversity - Source of Inspiration and Innovation

Table 1: Markets, related to biodiversity resource for pharmaceutical innovation fungal peptides for agricultural appli (modified after ten Kate, 1995, and Griin- and for the obligation to share benefits cations. In: Natural and Engineered wald, 1995) from future products with the source Pest M anagement Agents (eds. P.A. country to support conservation. Mean Hedin, J.J. Menn & R.M. Holling- Markets US $ while royalty obligations for conserva w orth). ACS Symposium Series 551, billion tion are becoming an industrial standard. 278-291 $ Drug Market, 1997: 295 But more important than royalties and Fortkamp, E., Rieger, M., Heisterberg- $ Drugs from plants, 1993 59 money is the building of research capaci Moutses, G., Schweitzer, S. and Som $ Phytomedicines, 1993 12.4 ties in the source countries. Awareness mer, R. (1986) Cloning and expression $ Pesticides w orld-w ide 47 about the value of biodiversity for inno in Escherichia coli of a synthetic DNA $ Seeds (estimate for 2000) 7 vation and human future survival can be for hirudin, the blood coagulation $ Horticulture (UK, 1991) 1 .6 only generated through science educa inhibitor in the leech. DNA 5, 511-517. $ Enzymes (199?) 1 tion and this awareness has to be formed Hill, B. (1997) Innovationsquelle Natur - $ Cosmetics (USA, 1994) 2 0 in the source countries. A new generation Naturorientierte Innovationsstrate $ 2.5 % natural cosmetics >0.5 o f scientists has to be enabled to use the gie für Entwickler, Konstrukteure und $ Tourism (global, 1995) 3.400 inspiring potential of biodiversity for Designer. Shaker Verlag, Achen. $ Nature tourism, 1988 1 2 solution finding. This is the major MacIntyre, I., Alevizaki, M., Bevis, P.J. and achievement of INBio, of the INBio-Merck Zaidi, M. (1987) Calcitonin and the agreement and of 8 other agreements peptides from the calcitonin gene. Cli Recently several attempts had been with international industry (Nader and nical Orthopedics 43, 45-55. made to put a price tag on natural resour Mateo, 1998). Mendelsohn, R. and Balick, M.J. (1995) ces, including biodiversity. The idea is to Acknowledgements: The author The value of undiscovered pharma express the pharmaceutical potential of thanks his colleagues at INBio, particular ceuticals in tropical forests. Economic biodiversity in dollars and to add it to the ly Dr. Nicolas Mateo, and Dr. Jasper Kocke Botany 49 (2), 223-228. per hectare value of tropical forests (Men of the Center for International Migration Monsanto (1997) Plant Biotechnology delsohn and Balick, 1995). This effort and Development (CIM) fo r th e ir conti Performance Report. St. Louis, Mis might be worthwhile from the view of an nues support of his work. This work is sup souri, USA economist, but is futile from the view of ported by a grant from CIM, Frankfurt, Mullis, K.B. (1987) Process fo r am plifying an inventor. It is simply not predictable Germany. Dr. Werner Nader is an integra nucleic acid sequences. United States how many inspirations an inventor needs ted expert of that center at INBio and re Patent Nr. 4,683,202 fo r solution finding. It is also not predicta sponsible for the business development Nader, W. and Rojas, M. (1996) New Rules ble how many solutions mankind will need activities of the bioprospecting division. for Natural Compound and Biotech in the future to survive. Considering the nological Research a fte r INBio and serious global threats like global warming Rio. BIOForum (Darmstadt), 9,374-378 and overpopulation one can predict that and 10, 414-418 the need for inventions w ill increase expo Literature: Nader, W. and Mateo, N. (1998) Biodiver nentially. Future generations will need all sity -Resource for New Products, Deve available resources on earth and one of BASF AG (1987) Verfahren zur Herstel lopm ent and Self-Confidence. In: the most important is the innovation lung von mesophilen Mikroorganis Biodiversity: a challenge for develop potential from biodiversity. The value of men, die eine bei höhererTem peratur ment research and policy (Barthlott, biodiversity is no longer a matter of dollars, aktive D-Hydantoinase enthalten. W ilheim & M atthias W iniger eds.). but of long-term survival of mankind. German Patent Nr. 3535987. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, New British Technology Group (1995) Napht York, Tokyo, 181-197 Industry and Biodiversity Conser hoquinone derivatives. PCT Patent Nader, W. and Hill, B. (in press) Der Schatz vation Application Nr. WO 95/32176 im Tropenwald - über die Bedeutung Cragg, G., Boyd, M.R., Cardellina, J.H., tropischer Biodiversität für die Up to recently inventors and industry Newman, D.J., Snader, K.M. and Zukunft der Menschheit, Erfurt took the existence of biological diversity McCloud, T.G. (1994) Ethnobotany Lilienthal, Otto (1889) Der Vogelflug als on this planet for granted. The tropical and drug discovery: the experience of Grundlage der Fliegekunst, Jena forests were far away from their labora the US National Cancer Institute. Ciba Nachtigall, W. (1992) Technische Biologie tories and samples from plants and micro Foundation Symposium 185 (Ethno und B io n ik-W a s ist das? Bionareport organisms could be obtained without any botany and the Search fo r New 8 : Technische Biologie und Bionik, obligations at low prices. It was the re Drugs), John W iley & Sons, Great Bri Stuttgart, Jena und New York search agreement between Merck and tain, pp. 178-190, pp. discussion 191- Pettit, G.R., Singh, S.B., Boyd, M.R., INBio, which send out a signal to the 196. Hamel, E., Pettit, R.K., Schmidt, J.M. scientific and commercial world (Nader Grünwald, J. (1995) The European phyto and Hogan, F. (1995) Antineoplastic and Rojas, 1996). For the first tim e in the medicines market: figures, trends, agents. 291. Isolation and synthesis of history of drug discovery a pharmaceuti analyses. HerbalGram (Austin, Tx.) Nr. combretastatins A-4, A-5 and A - 6 (1 a). cal company acknowledged its responsi 34, 60-65. Journal of Medical Chemistry 38(10), bility for the conservation of a major Everett, N.P. (1994) The design of anti 1666-1672

59 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

PharmaPipelines (1996) Pharmaceutical ten Kate, Kerry (1995) Biopiracy or Green T.A. and Breteler, H. (eds.) Proceedings Global Review, PMSI International, Petroleum? Expectations & Best Prac of the Phytochemical Society of Euro Lehman Brothers tice in Bioprospecting. Overseas Devel pe: Phytochemistry and Agriculture. Schleuning, W.D., Alagon, A., Boidol, W., opment Administration, London. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Bringmann, P., Petri, T., Kratzschmar, US National Research Council (Panel of Wodzinski, R.J. and Ullah, A.H. (1996) J., Haendler, B., Langer, G., Baldus, B. the Board on Science and Technology Phytase. Advances in Applied Micro and W itt, W. (1992) Plasminogen for International Development) biology 42, 263 - 302 activators from the saliva of Desmo- (1992) Conserving Biodiversity: A W yvratt, M.J. (1988) Evolution o f angio dus rotundus (common vampire bat): Research Agenda fo r Development tensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. unique fibrin specificity. Annals of the Agencies. National Academy Press, Clinical and Physiological Biochemi New York Academy o f Sciences 667, Washington D.C. stry 6(3-4), 217-229 395-403. Voelker, T.A., Worrell, A.C., Anderson, L., Tamayo, G., Nader, W., and Sittenfeld, A. Bleibaum, J., Fan, C, Hawkins, D.J., Author's address: (1997): Biodiversity for the Bioindu Radke, S.E. and Davies, H.M. (1992) stries. Chapter 11 in: Biotechnology Fatty acid biosynthesis redirected to Dr. Werner Nader and Plant Genetic Resources: Conser medium chains in transgenic oil seed Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad, INBio vation and Use. (eds. B.V. Ford-Lloyd, plants. Science 257, 72-74. Aptda. Postal 22-3100 H.J. Newbury and J.A. Callow) CAB Wink, M. (1993) Production and applica Santo Domingo de Heredia, Costa Rica International, Wallingford, Oxon, tion of phytochemicals from an agri e-mail: [email protected], England, 255-280 cultural perspective. In: van Beeek, [email protected]

Conserving Biological Diversity in ty as well as to promote sustainable and environmentally sound economic devel Cameroon's Forests: Problems and opm ent in all countries. These plans resulted in the establishment of Agenda Prospects for the Future 2 1 - an international community response and a comprehensive programme of John W. Forje action. The central notion of the plan is that humanity has reached a crucial moment in history. Humanity's numbers have now become so large and their Abstract sionists and conservationists) arising out activities so pervasive that they are having o f the kind o f policies articulated and significant environmental effects at both Cameroon's biological potentials cannot aggregated by government which direct the national and global scale. Earth's land be questioned. It harbors a major pro ly or indirectly promotes rapid socio-eco cover is increasingly converted or domi portion of the planet's biological diversi nomic development through accelerating nated by human activities, the world ty. Unfortunately this biological potential forests loss - thereby harming the inter wide decline in biodiversity is accelera is under serious threats and destruction. ests of forest-dwellers and eroding the ting, the composition of the atmosphere The portion of diversity of actual or biological diversity base of nature's gift to is changing, and climate apparently being potential use to people are freely availa society. modified because of anthropogenic influ ble for exploitation to support develop The conclusion is that of an urgent ences. Given this evidence o f unsustaina ment. However, the trend of socio-eco need for both sides to adopt a more bility, there are grow ing calls fo r changes nomic transformation in the late 2 0 th humane (human-centered development) to human development to place it on century makes us to realize that biologi approach to the socio-economic transfor more sustainable pathways. cal resources have limits, and that we are mation of the country which eventually The word forest is ambiguous since it exceeding those limits and thereby, redu leads to the protection and conservation refers to a set of often greatly differing cing biological diversity. of biological diversity. In this vein, proac plant formations that may be considered The paper looks at the extraordinary tive strategic policy measures are recom from two quite separate view points: change in the relationship between peo mended. ■ First, a forest is a part o f a complex ple and the biological resources upon ecosystem w ith a tree cover varying in which their welfare depends and why The Underlying Issues density; there is urgent need to take actions now ■ Second, a forest is an area producing to protect threatened biological resour The Rio Earth Summit of 1992 developed various natural resources, including ces. The premises of departure is that of plans to reduce the effects of environ wood, that are exploited by man for eco a conflict situation (between the expan mental degradation, threat to biodiversi nomic purposes.

60 WS Biodiversity as Value in Society - Forje ■ Conserving Biological Diversity in Cameroon's Forests: Problems and Prospects for the Future

Forests are d ifficu lt to manage becau gement methods have been developed to should the governm ent take such a lead? se these two view points must be simul achieve this goal especially in the develop Two factors are outstanding in this con taneously taken into account to ensure ed countries. text; the economic and social perspec sustained development. Hence a state of 4. Intensive Tree Growing: When cultives. The economic uses of forests are conflict exist between these two view tivation techniques are used intensively numerous and have varied greatly with points. In addition, one should also bear (planting of selected varieties). This is a different civilizations and periods of in mind th a t forests also constitute diffe r system where tree grow ing increasingly history, some o f these use have been m en ent ecosystems (for example, dry tro p i resembles crop farm ing. tioned and included (animals living in cal forests, moist tropical forest, moun The term gathering is appropriate as forests providing meat; forest plants for tain forests, savanna regions in Came long as the removal rate is less than the gathering as food and providing medici roon): These different forests form com renewal rate; if the latter rate is exceed nal properties). Forests as providing food plex and diversified ecosystems in which ed, there is a risk o f depletion. for domestic use; forest wood for con numerous factors interact; climatic fac Generally Cameroon has embarked struction etc. Secondly, from the perspec tors (temperatures, winds); geological on Non-Renewal Exploitation (NRE) and tives of the "social" role of forests. Like and pedological factors (nature of parent gathering because the removal rate their economic uses, the social uses of rock, soil composition and depth), topo exceeds the renewal rate. This is an indi forests are numerous. Their availability graphical factors (altitude, slope exposu cation that Cameroon's unique area of for recreational activities, sports, gather re); and biotic factors (type o f w ild life) all rainforest is under threat from the very ing, hunting. In addition to these "objec interact in different ways to influence the government th a t has been charged w ith tive" uses, the forest has a very strong nature and structure o f the forest cover. protecting it for future generations. emotional and symbolic conception in the Conversely, the forest cover influences Cameroon's forest, and all the life that many great cultures of the Cameroon the microclimate, soil characteristics and depends upon it, are being sacrificed for society. The forest is seen as a special place plant and animal life. the potential wealth of foreign timber lying outside the everyday social ambit in Different methods of forests exploi companies and supported by individual the symbolism of these cultures, the tation exist. Action by man has in fact left Cameroon interests. Very soon there forest is perceived as a permanent rather its mark for thousands of years and, com would be great pressure from the mining than a temporary feature, and sacred as bined with natural factors, has contribu industry (once minerals are discovered) to opposed to profane. ted greatly to establishing the forest evo divide most of the forest areas up be This relationship w ith the forest has lutionary process. Mankind's impact on tween the mining and logging corpora persisted in modern societies: the forest forests has constantly increased over the tions. When competition and exploitation is seen by town-dwellers, fo r instance, as centuries. Whilst the Cameroon forests attain this stage, the implicit partners will something natural in contrast to the arti were intact with ancient rural civilization, for more than ever before ignore the ficiality of everyday urban and industrial the new wave and clamourfor good living rights of the indigenous peoples who live life. The current longing for nature is very and industrialization within and outside there, and ignore as well all the national closely associated with forests. This emo the country is moving in the direction and international agreements they have tional relationship may explain why peo were they would soon be practically no signed agreeing to protect the area. ple react so sharply when forests seem to virgin forests left in Cameroon. Sad Cameroon's resources and territory be in danger, especially if the danger is enough, serious efforts are not being should be seen as protected status intend caused by something artificial like pollu made to regenerate these forests. Four ed to strike a balance between conser tion or building sites. The forest's social main stages can be distinguished in the vation and economics. Long-term logging role thus far exceeds its directly observa way human societies use forest resources, and other industries have been allowed ble recreational uses, for attachment to depending on the amount of timber in many parts o f the country. forests is part of the overall feeling for removed and the type of forestry opera Opposition to the destruction of nature which is now becoming more pro tions. These include: Cameroon's forest and biodiversity base nounced in developing countries. From 1. Gathering: This is the spontaneous has been growing across the country. Indi this perspective, the attachment of indi form o f resources utilization by both pri genous groups and peoples whose very genous peoples to the forests is clear and mitive and advanced societies when the future is threatened by Government's should not be compromised in any way. It resources exceed needs. inconsistent forestry action pl^n have in is all the more difficult to take this role 2. Non renewal exploitation:Thissitua- different ways taken up the struggle to into account since it goes beyond ratio tion arises when resource regeneration savetheforest forthe indigenous people, nal considerations, such as economic uses, no longer offsets timber removals. If it "the forest is our home, our laboratory, to symbolic and emotional aspects. That persists, the resource may disappear, at our hospital, our university. It is the sour is why it is extremely important that least locally. In response to this risk, ce of the knowledge we need to survive." forests be conserved, protected and nur management rules are frequently impo (Earth Action, June 1998); tured for the benefits of present and fu sed, often by governm ent in order to Cameroon's rainforests, with their ture generations. ensure resource renewal. wealth of ecosystems and biodiversity, are Cameroon's biological potentials can 3. Classical "Rational replacement" rivaled by few places on Planet Earth. For not be questioned. It harbours a major exploitation: Its purpose isto ensure regu this reason, the Cameroon Government proportion of the planet's biological di lar use of the resource in a way compa should show global leadership in protect versity. U nfortunately this biological tible w ith its regeneration. Forest mana ing this invaluable inheritance. Why potential is currently under serious threats

61 WS Biodiversity as Value in Society - Forje • Conserving Biological Diversity in Cameroon's Forests: Problems and Prospects for the Future and destruction. The portion of diversity not. The country has also witnessed a Cameroon possesses some of the most of actual or potential use to people are sharp decline in GNP per capita from US$ im portant protected areas in Africa. Some freely available for exploitation to sup 960 (in the 1980s) to less than US$ 600 in of the area include the lowland rainfor port development. However, the trend of 1996. Poverty is written on the faces of ests: Korup National Park, Takamanda socio-economic transformation in the the majority of the population following Forest Reserve, Mbam et Djerem, and late 2 0 th century makes us to realize that the degree o f economic recession th a t Pangar-Djerem Game Reserve, Dja Forest biological resources have limits, and that has ravaged the country in the past deca and Game Reserve, Douala-Edea Game we are exceeding those limits, and there de or so, as a result of the World Bank/IMF Reserve and Campo Game Reserve. There by, reducing biological diversity. imposed structural adjustment program are other biologically interesting forests To meet the goals o f Agenda 21, th a t (SAP); tw o months o f unpaid salaries to in the country which require protection is, to sustain the rich biological poten workers in 1993, a 70 percent cut in sala for the survival and sustainability of the tials of Cameroon's forests, the scientific ries as if this was not enough, 1 0 0 per country's rich biological heritage. For understanding of the interactions be cent devaluation of the CFA francs in example, in the West, forests like Ejag- tween humanity and the forestry envi 1994, and above all, government's incom- ham, Manne River, Nta ali, M okoko River, ronment of Cameroon must be strength prehensive and disarticulated policy Barombi Mbo, and Bonepoupa. In the ened. Proactive policy measures contri approaches. remote Southeast, the following forests are butes to this goal by describing and stu It cannot be gained said th a t human of importance; Nki, Bownba Bek, and Lake dying the interactive physical and biolo population growth has a very negative Lobeke. The savanna zone has four nation gical processes th a t regulate the forestry effect on the environment particularly in al parks - Waza, Benoue and Bouba-njida system of the country, the unique envi underdeveloped regions like Cameroon. are of high priority which include some ronment that it provides for life espe This is so because while the former internationally important large mammals. cially for the forest dwellers and indige remains progressive, the latter is The conservation of the mountain nous people, the changes that are occur stagnant. The situation is more forests in Western Cameroon is of great ring, and how they are influenced by complicated given the state of under importance due to the number of endem human actions. development and corruption in the ic species th a t live in the area. For exam It becomes imperative, in this light, to country which puts the poor at a very ple, Mount Cameroon in the Bamboko take a look at the extraordinary change disadvantageous situation of living far Forest Reserve, and, in the North West, in the relationship between people and below the poverty line. As indicated Mount Kilum (Oku) forest is severely the biological resources upon which their earlier, the situation is further com threatened and a home to number of welfare depends and why there is urgent pounded by the fact that man's survival rare species. Other areas blessed w ith vast need to take action nowto protect threat greatly depends on the exploitation of potentials include the Bamenda High ened biological resources. The premises the physical environment whose lands; Oshie blessed w ith vast and d iffe r of departure is that of a conflict situa resources are mostly exhaustible. ent fauna and flora. The Mount Mane- tion between the expansionists and con The effects are many and different in guba, Bakossi M ountain, M ount Nlona- servationists arising out of the kind of magnitude; perhaps one of the most dan ko, the Rumpi Hills etc. all harbor signifi policies articulated and aggregated by gerous ones is deforestation, which also cant biodiversity potentials. Apart from government and stake holders which has its attendant consequences: An their unique biological values, Came directly or indirectly promotes rapid exhaustible resources like wood is exploit roon's forests constitute essential water socio-economic development through ed not only for construction and furni catchments for Nigeria and Cameroon. accelerating forests loss - thereby har ture, but also as a source of energy. A very The Centre, East and South Provinces are ming the interests of forest dwellers and large proportion of the country's popula endowed with enormous biodiversity eroding the biological diversity base o f tion particularly in the rural areas use potentials. nature's gift to society. wood as a source of energy for cooking. This is an urgent need fo r both sides Thus, x-raying the rate of population Some existing problems to adopt a more humane (human-cen growth in Cameroon, the risk of the tred development) approach to the socio country loosing all its forest in no distant A number of problems can be associated economic transformation of the country future is very great. The degree of logging with the state of Cameroon's forests; for but through a conscious protection and seriously add to the problems of defores example, its administration lacks proper conservation of biological diversity. In tation. management and silvicultural techniques this vein, proactive strategic policy mea By and large, forests and their influ for the complex-structured tropical rain sures are recommended. Political will ences constitute important economic and forest. Secondly, most o f the forest exists being necessary to see through such a rti environmental factors. The forestry sec on what is known as public domain as culate policy measures which should be a to r occupies the first place in export to n opposed to state-owned forest reserves, social contract between civil society and nage and third place in foreign exchange where access is open to anyone for the State. earnings. It accounts for four percent of purpose of agriculture. Cameroon has a population of 15 m il the gross domestic product and fo r about Thirdly, there is the problem of over lion inhabitants with a 2 . 6 percent annual 45.000 jobs. This performance is judged accessibility to available forests which has g ro w th rate, doubling tim e 26 years. It below expectation for forests as rich in led to over- exploitation by both author covers an area of 475.500 km2. There is a species and as extensive in area as Came ized and illegal users. Increasing rapid population increase but land does roon's. demand by urban dwellers for wood pro

62 WS Biodiversity as Value in Society - Forje • Conserving Biological Diversity in Cameroon's Forests: Problems and Prospects for the Future ducts and sources of energy and backed Existing Forest Policy spectives of: with the increasing industrialization of -th e extent and location of biodiver the forest sector have in different ways Cameroon, Bawak (1992:37) points out, sity "hot spots" intensified the exploitation of the has no specific formal forest policy to - status of protected and non-protec- forests. Fourthly, faced by a rapid declin unify all operations and strategies in the ted areas; ing economic situation, the govern forestry sector. The guiding principles of -th e status, use and management (if ment has turned to forestry exploitation the existing policy can be inferred from any) of forests outside protected areas as a means of foreign earnings. Fifth, the forestry law and regulations as well and their implication for biodiversity con Governments forestry logging policies as from the sixth-five year development servation; have equally contributed to deforesta plan. From the Cameroon Forestry Law of - the main policy issues affecting tion and with it, the destruction of the 1992, "forests shall be used rationally for biodiversity conservation (Wencelus biodiversity base o f the forest. Sixth, lack maximum production, on a sustained 1992:22). of the necessary human capacity to pro yield basis, of all the products and bene Cameroon's tropical forest areas are mote conservation, management and fits obtainable from them for the grea confronted with serious problems of de sustainable use of the forest. There has test good of all the people of Cameroon gradation. This constitutes the m ajor cause been the tactical error of opening up in perpetuity". The country sees the pri of the rapid decline in its rich biodiversi more of the forest for logging than the mary role of the forest in these terms: ty potential. The rate of deforestation is forestry service has the personnel, means - to provide revenue for the state, in tremendous. The main direct causes o f and capacity to supervise. Wrong policy particular, foreign earnings; deforestation and biodiversity degrada approaches have contributed to compro - to provide revenue and food for the tion being: mising the rich biodiversity potential rural populations; - Conversion of the natural forest resources of the forest. The result is that - to provide wood for energy as well coverage into perennial cash crops. This is much of the logging is unsupervised, as for construction; effectuated either under large-scale indus hence certain monitoring functions are - to provide opportunities for public trial schemes or through individual farms not undertaken. In the seventh place, education, research and creativity; w ith slash and burn activities destroying forest dwellers are constantly exploited - to provide food and shelter for ani the biodiversity structure. Logging in by the loggers, uprooted from their habi mals, protect watersheds and conserve Cameroon has a direct impact and influ tat. Eighth, the search for more farm biodiversity; ence on the amount of deforestation as lands either by big plantation owners or and it opens the way for farmers and is thus individual small farm holders leads to - to provide raw materials for indu detrimental to the natural forest covers. rapid destruction of the biodiversity base stries (and thus enhance employment and - Shifting cultivation - also slash and of the country's forest. population stability in rural areas). burn method farming contributing Given this and other obstacles, spe Prime Minister Peter Musonge seriously to the erosion of the biodiversi cies and habitats should be safeguarded (1998:2-4) in his budget speech fo r the ty base. to the extent that it is technically, eco 1998-99 financial year presenting to the The tw o causes are accelerated by nomically, culturally, naturally and politi National Assembly on the environment land-grabbing process, penetration into cally feasible. Determining priorities is a and forestry section had only one sen the hinterlands which often consumes complex task. The genetic landscape is tence, "the implementation of a national more forest land than is needed by agri constantly changing through evolutio biodiversity management program" (see culture. These direct causes can be traced nary processes which require explicit con Cameroon Tribune June 1998:1-3). Given through (a) rapid population grow th, (b) servation programs and especially draw the degree of deforestation, logging and industrial expansion which puts great ing from the indigenous knowledge of environmental degradation of the coun demands on raw resources; and (c) man's the people. These people constitute a try's forests are subjected to, the state quest and rightly so for good quality treasure and library of knowledge that ment indicates clearly that a comprehen living standard which puts great pressure te xt books cannot provide. In many cases, sive policy on th e development, conser on more consumer goods - housing, trans the capacity of governments and private vation and protection of the forestry sec portation, energy etc. organizations to deal with environ tor, the environment and its biodiversity Following the theory of the "forest mental problems is limited. The various does not exist or is not seriously taken by refuges" a number of biodiversity "hot bodies seeking to conserve biological the state. Yet, the forest remains one of spots" can be located as: diversity must be selective, and ask which the majorsource of foreign exchange earn - Low land rainforest areas which species and habitats most m erit a public ing; in addition, it is a delicate area th a t include the Korup National Park; Taka- involvement in protective measures. The if not properly attended to will compro manda Forest Reserve, The Mbam et Dje- Cameroon Government has demonstra mise the situation o f fu tu re generations rem, Dja Forests, Campo, Kilum and ted gross incapability in handling the in many respect. Douala-Edea forest reserves. issue of biodiversity destruction through Looking at the present state of biodi - Highland savanna areas being threat its forestry policies and general gover versity conservation and management in ened by desertification; extreme dense nance system characterized by corrup the country, we are confronted with the forest regions seriously threatened by tion and mismanagement particularly fact and reality of serious threat due to pressure from agriculture and the impact concerning the award of contracts to rampant deforestation and other forms of logging. logging companies. of degradation specifically from the per - Where biodiversity in the savanna

63 WS Biodiversity as Value in Society - Forje • Conserving Biological Diversity in Cameroon's Forests: Problems and Prospects for the Future and dense forest zones will very soon be species th a t need protection. Existing pro It should further be noted that forests threatened by the construction of the tected areas cover about 50% of the sites that are not gazetted - "domaine protè Chad-Cameroon Pipeline Project Cons identified as crucial for biodiversity pro ge" other than TPA, WRA and gazetted truction activities. tection and conservation. Furthermore, forests (GF) still belong as state property. The Chad-Cameroon Pipeline is likely there is urgent need to widen the range These DF are not property managed, to have a major impact on the Mbere Rift o f protection areas. In addition, existing regulations on logging give little consi Valley, a region known to be the home of areas are poorly protected, lacking com deration to technical forestry prescrip significant biodiversity and wild life, prehensive management plans, buffer tions and biodiversity conservation and including elephant populations, bongos zones, actual participation by local popu existing regulations are often poorly rein and hippopotam us. Possibly, Cameroon's lations and security guard force. forced. Logging concession are not estab small population of endangered black Efforts have been made to develop a lished according to a clear strategy. rhino might be impacted as well. Medici comprehensive management plan fo r the nal plants will be destroyed. Indigenous country's protection areas, fo r example: Impact of Logging people depend on this for their health The Korup National Park, Dja Reserve and well-being. have been experimenting with the buffer There is a serious impact of logging on zone concept. Unfortunately, legislation forestry and the biotic canopy of Came Status of Protected Areas remains inexplicit in respect of provisions roon. The same applies to the impact of regarding core areas. However, a major silvicultural treatments and of hunting. Cameroon has made some efforts to estab draw back is that local populations near Over 10 percent of the forest canopy is lish protected areas. Unfortunately the protected areas including forest dwellers destroyed as a result of logging depend existing systems of protected areas are not have not been thought to be interested ing on the volume felled and the extensive enough and very often poorly in forest management and protection. methods of exploitation. The regenera managed. Most of Cameroon's protected The system in practice forces them not to tion of forests after extensive logging is areas are gazetted as state forests but develop one. They are sideline. hardly practiced. The tendency and con receive many different types of legal sta sequence is that forest regions are fast tus and various levels of actual protection. Status of Forests Outside Protec becoming deserts with grave impacts on These areas fall within two categories (a) ted Areas plant biodiversity. The Centre, East and w ild life reserves areas (WRA) and (b) to ta l South provinces are seriously affected ly protected areas (TPA). So far nothing is done in forest outside with the rate of uncontrolled logging and W ildlife Reserve Areas (WRA): These protected areas to ensure the sustainabi non-regeneration of the forests. Planta comprise different types of protected lity of the country's biota. The permanent tion agriculture adds new and serious areas where existing legislature provides multi-purpose forest state, i.e. gazetted dimensions to forest and biodiversity at best, for total protection of wild life or state forests has come under serious log depletion. what is known as "reserves de faune" in ging. The actual impact of logging on In some cases, forests degraded by Cameroon. However, many of the WRA biodiversity depends on the intensity of logging provide improved habitats for are victims to encroachment and poach logging. Logging issupposedto be carried some animal species, fo r example gorillas, ing. In addition, these areas seem to exist out under the direct responsibility of the but intensive logging as is the case now only on paper being completely invaded forestry administration. Very often it fails in die East, Centre and South provinces is and taken over in many of the WRA. to leave up to that responsibility. Logging proven detrim ental to species th a t live in Logging is legally authorized or per is done mainly by private companies. Top tall trees. mitted de facto by the State. The most administrative officers, political figures As earlier mentioned, the impact of affected areas include the Centre, South, and other personalities are either share traditional hunting on biodiversity is East and Southwest Provinces. holders in these companies, have special generally becoming serious. Significant Totally Protected Areas (TPA): Provi interests or do derive special benefits from degradation of wild life, to supply urban sion is made within existing legislation for whatever transactions and other activities centers with bush meat now affects large total protection of the forests. This is of these companies which do not meetthe areas; poaching equally has intensified meant to provide security to biodiversity regulations laid down by the government. the degradation of the biodiversity of and to resist encroachment from surround The interests of the people in the forest these forests. ing populations. Totally protected areas areas and the country are compromised by include the Korup National Park, The these unethical civil servants. Indigenous Peoples Kilum M ountain Forest Reserve, Dja Forest The actual impact of hunting for bush Reserve and the Campo Game Reserve meat depends on human population den Extensive logging and deforestation has amongst others. sities. W ith rapid decline in the purchas serious impact on indigenous peoples ing power o f the people, many can no particularly in the Centre, South and East Common Issues Related to longer afford to pay fo r the cost of "cow provinces. The Chad-Cameroon Pipeline TPA/WRA m eat" and fish. This has increased the Project constitute a serious threat to both demands fo r bush meat. As such, most of biodiversity and the lives of the indige A m ajor issue in biodiversity conservation the forest areas are subjected to serious nous peoples. Along the Mbéré Rift Val is th a t these areas do not cover the whole encroachment and the eventual degra ley region, the country's small population range of forest ecosystems and wild life dation that goes along with it. of endangered black rhino will be impact

64 WS Biodiversity as Value in Society - Forje • Conserving Biological Diversity in Cameroon's Forests: Problems and Prospects for the Future

ed. Korinna Horta and N guiffo (1998) Pressure on the government to meet changeamongstthe population. Astrong note that the Mbere Rift Valley as "one its international obligation - payment of commitment at the highest political level area that is relatively less degraded than debts has made inaccessible forests to be to biodiversity conservation has yet to the other savanna region in the Northern exploited as well, leaving no forest sector emerge and crystallize in the country. sector of Cameroon" will be affected by untouched. Proper efficiency in the use of W ith o u t such com m itm ent it is impossi the new road and the bridge over the forest resources m ight be defined as ble that environmental sustainability can Mbere River to be built by the project. encompassing other ecological and social be rigorously attained in the country. Pygmy settlement and pygmy popu- functions of forest resources. Biological National forestry policies developed . lations would be disturbed by the con diversity is being rapidly lost through under the Tropical Forestry Action Plan struction activities of the pipeline. Pyg extinction of species and populations, (TFAP) falls short in giving the necessary mies are recognized groups w ith a social and human alteration of the ecosystems. protection and priority to biodiversity and cultural identity distinct from the As the living component of the earth's conservation. majority of society and require particular ecosystems, w ild life helps to regulate the Existing legislation in the forestry sec attention and whose indigenous knowl cycles of energy, water, oxygen, nutrients tor needs to be dramatically improved to edge of the forests are vital for the con and other basic elements. Loss of plants take better account of biodiversity con servation of biodiversity. Unfortunately or animals can disrupt that function. The servation and participation of the popu the alignment and construction of a road threat of global climate change, trigger lation at the local level. Cameroonians in Southern Cameroon which will be built ed by increasing amounts o f carbon diox should not evolve in isolation of nature. or rehabilitated by the Chad-Cameroon ide and other "greenhouse" gases in the The forest remains an inherit part of the Pipeline indicates that increased logging atmosphere, has brought to public atten society. in previously inaccessible forest areas is tion the role of forests in regulating CO2. The main fiscal issue is that the present likely to occur as a result of the project Growing forests absorb more CO2 than levels of forestry taxes pertaining mainly with very serious consequences to the they release, whereas forest clearing and to logging and hunting do not reflect the biodiversity base o f the country. burning does the opposite - hence the actual value of forest resources. Other The Brundtland Report (1987) strong widespread calls for more tree planting issues being that collection of forest reve ly advocated an extremely careful and and less destruction of the country's nues is poor and that procedures to make sensitive consideration of the interests forests. That tow ns like Buea, Ndu, local populations benefit from a share of and role of isolated, vulnerable groups as Bamenda etc have become hot is the these revenues are diverted from their a touch-stone of a sustainable develop result of the rapid decline in the forest objectives or simply do not exist. ment policy. The indigenous people base of the country and is no surprise. Existing institutional arrangements should be seen as a library fo r the con Therefore, vegetation in all forms also need considerable readjustments to servation of biodiversity in the country's must be maintained and nurtured to ensure effective improvement by govern forest whose knowledge Cameroon can ensure balance in our ecosystem. Plants ment, local populations, NGOs, the pri not afford to shy from but which unfor and animals have evolved together, in a vate sector and civil society in general in tunately the government is doing every system of checks and balances. Human- conservation and management of biodi thing possible to destroy through its log caused loss of any part o f this system versity - treasures -in the country's forests. ging policy. The governm ent is destroying results in rapid increase or disappearance In this connection, one should also add the fountain of knowledge of biodiversi or other parts, producing imbalance (such the need for more effective and efficient ty treasures in the Cameroon's forests, as insect outbreak) that is often harmful enforcement of legislation by the courts, thus contributing to unsustainable devel to human interests. Wild life affects eco for better integration of government opment of the country. A policy that con nomies in ways both obvious and subtle. administration in charge of forest man tributes to global warming. Wild life, whether perceived as individu agement and biodiversity conservation. al plants and animals or viewed collec Participatory management approach Policy Issue - Inadequacies tively as "nature", is important to people should be encouraged. simply because it comprises other forms The absence of a long-term vision Efficiency in the use of forest resources of life that share the same planet. Man is land-use planning constitutes a serious can be judged initially by examining the attracted by wild life. Wild life is more setback in forestry and biodiversity con ratio between annual increment and than a resource, it is a part o f the human servation. Thus, there is urgent need for annual harvests: when greater than one psyche. Thus the more reason why con the development of a "land-use plan it shows that these resources have not serving the forests and biodiversity is ning" policy which should embody a been over-utilized, when less than one it more important. And this requires com national vision of the best use o f the coun indicates that they have been over-uti prehensive, concerted and long-term try's resources. It will guide sectoral poli lized and that the sustained development policy. There is need for crystallizing a cies as well as operational mechanismsfor of the resource is in danger if the trend new vision on man-nature relationship. the ultimate realization of the vision. persists. Over-logging is destroying the Biodiversity conservation is affected Such a land-use planning policy necessi country's forests. In some cases, the by political, legal, fiscal and institutional tates the developing of agro-ecological forests and its resources are not managed issues that call fo r more com m itm ent on zoning of the country. It would constitute with a view to sustainable development. the path of the government of Came a coherent framework for land-use and In many cases, economically accessible roon and also fo r policy reforms including national resource management. The pur forests are over-exploited. the behaviour, attitude and mentality pose of agro-ecological zone would be to

65 WS Biodiversity as Value in Society - Forje • Conserving Biological Diversity in Cameroon's Forests: Problems and Prospects for the Future demarcate: local population, government agents, pri - clarify the concept and role of buf - areas that need to be fully protect vate entrepreneurs and decision-makers fer zones around protected areas ed for biodiversity conservation in forestry and biodiversity conservation - articulate concise specifications - areas that should be preserved for and protection; and finally about the content of management plan forest dwellers for example the Centre, e) assessing the value of biologicaland other technical regulations regard South and East provinces resources. ing forest exploitation - areas best suited for sustainable - put in place clear guidelines and pri agriculture development, including agro Policy Reforms and Strategies ority fo r assessing the value of biological forestry and live stock resources - areas that should stay under per The increasing national and international - encourage indigenous population manent forest cover and be managed for interest in biodiversity stems from the as partners in the developm ent process. production and/ or protection grow ing dangers of species extinction, For the Government of Cameroon to - areas which have been subjected to depletion of genetic diversity and disrup successfully assess the priority accorded serious desertification, requiring serious tion to the atmosphere - water supplies, to investment in conservation of bio reforestation (South, Southwest, North fisheries and forests. As climatic, political logical resources, there is the need to west, West, Centre, South and East pro and economic conditions change over the have a firm indication of the contribu vinces) coming decades, the various populations tion of these resources to the national - areas which have been subjected to of "homo sapiens" are going to be chal economy. For example, Barret 1988; serious desertification - the encroaching lenged to live up to their name. Biologi McNeely 1988, Cooper 1981 and others desert - requiring reforestation, for ex cal diversity provides the construction pil outline the value of biological resources ample the three Northern provinces - lars w ith which each human groupcan use in respect of: Adamawa, North and Far-North. its intelligence and acquire wisdom to - Assessing the value of nature's pro - the need for a new land tenure act adapt to change and having more blocks ducts - such as fire wood, fodder and or system, and the empowerment of the to new conditions without, of course, meat, that are consumed directly, with female gender. destroying the main foundation sustain out passing through the market "con Land use planning and agro-ecologi- ing our existence on planet earth. sumption use value". cal zoning has to be compatible w ith Policy reforms are crucial to improving - Assessing the value o f products th a t other government sectoral policies, for the legal, fiscal, and institutional envi are commercially harvested such as game example urbanization - de-ruralization, ronment geared toward the efficient and meat sold in market, timber, fish, ivory re-ruralization and de-urbanization; effective management of the biological and medicinal plants ("productive use transportation infrastructure, popula base of the country. In order to implement value"). tion, location of industries and other new action for conserving biological - Assessing indirect values of ecosys development projects. Furthermore, it diversity in a time when the Cameroon tem functions such as watershed, pro should beconstrued on adopting a m u lti Government is confronted with and feel tection, photosynthesis, regulations of disciplinary approach, aggregated and ing the squeeze of external debt, the climate, and production of soil, ("non developed through mechanisms that activities of the various interested stake consumptive use value") and along with ensure inter-ministerial consensus and holders - both national and international the intangible values of keeping options civil society participation. As regards governmental and non-governmental - open for the future and simply knowing related forestry policies and biodiversity need to reinforce each other rather than that certain species ("option value" and conservation, a national system of work in opposition born of ignorance. "existence value" respectively). protected areas and multi-purpose Seen within these parameters, inter Cameroon's heritage of indigenous gazetted forests should be planned and national agencies should support posi forests has been severely depleted. Yet designed according to the zoning areas tive and progressive government actions these indigenous forests are significant and taking into consideration the right of and policies, and NGO activities need to fo r a number of varied reasons, namely: indigenous people and civil society. stimulate new approaches at both nation - they constitute part of the nation's The success of any land-use planning al and local levels creating awareness on heritage policy rests on the development of the the need for conserving biological diver - they maintain the integrity of eco necessary instruments to make it efficient sity. The governm ent of Cameroon should logical systems, help soil stabilization and and effective. These instruments include: take the first and bold move in respect of flood control a) methods and mechanisms for par reforming existing legislation to adequa - provide scenic value as a major to u r ticipatory planning and management of tely respond to the need to: ist attraction land use and natural resource - ensure a coherent and comprehen - they absorb carbon dioxide thereby b) institutional and regulatory frame sive set o f legal provisionsand regulations providing their share to mitigate the work to implement land-use plans regulating land-tenure and use of natural "green house" effect. c) a system o f m onitoring land use and forest resources Thus Cameroon's forest requires natural resource use throughout the - encourage civil society participation "sustainable management" in a way that country and management of forests and biologi it maintains its ability to continue to pro d) concerted and comprehensive cal resources as well as engaging private vide products and natural amenities in efforts towards training and educating companiesto be involved in management perpetuity, while retaining or enhancing civil society in-general and in particular, o f production forests the forests natural ecological processes

66 WS Biodiversity as Value in Society - Forje • Conserving Biological Diversity in Cameroon's Forests: Problems and Prospects for the Future and genetic diversity for the benefit of greater public support for conserving the Civil society must also embark on a both present and future generations. forest and biological diversity policy action campaign plan to save - articulate the right legislation with Cameroon's forests and its contents; in Proactive Policy Strategies and a follow-up action plan for the conserva the South, Centre and East provinces were Recommendations tion of the forestry and biodiversity sector indigenous people, the Bakas, etc. and a - promote the further development huge variety of wild life and medicinal The growing awareness about the impor of local, national and thematic action use plants are on the verge of extinction. tance of biodiversity on the part of the of forests and biological diversity, and Tackling the problems of environmental state and civil society has to a large extent promote their implementation depletion and conservation also requires resulted in a desire to ensure that no part - articulate policy measures that a democratic governance system. Came of the country's natural heritage is lost seriously and systematically work in the roon is in dear need of this, as is the need through inadvertence or ignorance. Biodi direction of narrowing the gap between of a concerted forestry action plan orient versity converges together in a variety of "the expansionist and the conservation ed towards preserving the biodiversity constituencies: forest agronomy, biotech ist" perception of the country's eco riches o f the society. nology, pharmaceuticals, international system Prospects for the conservation of trade, amongst many others. - promote a comprehensive action biodiversity in Cameroon remain bleak as A national strategy for conserving the plan for conserving habitats, for example, long as the Government continues imple greatest possible biological diversity is the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP) in menting existing inconsistent and extra- required to provide the framework for tandem with a Cameroon National Envi overt expansionist policy approach at the local and national efforts, and to provide ronment Action Plan (CNEAP) focused on expense of nature's gift to mankind. A vision, concise direction and guidance on the conservation of the diversity of the policy approach that builds on the vision the options and opportunities for the Cameroon forests and ecosystems. of future generations - conservationist necessary actions capable of achieving attitude - provides signs of hope for the national goals while addressing local Conclusions state of biodiversity in Cameroon. Any fail priorities. A proactive policy strategy is ure to move in the direction of conser- necessary for seeking comprehensive Conflict between the "expansionist" and vationism and sustainable development solutions to the problems facing "conservationists" abounds in Cameroon. signals serious trouble not only this but Cameroon's depleted forests and the What is important is to balance the con future generations as well. Civil society destruction of its biological diversity, flicting views and approaches. The has to be vigilant to guide the Govern include: various methods of forest management ment in the direction of maintaining a - articulate and aggregate appropria have different effects on the environ true balanced policy between "expansion te policy reform and management action ment: non-renewal exploitation which ism" and "conservationism". Develop plans in areas outside the "conservation Cameroon has embraced is embedded ment or industrial growth and nature sector" as traditionally perceived, that with many negative results and serious must be partners in the process of socio have major and significant impacts on bio consequences on air, climate, water, soil, economic transformation. In no way will logical diversity - for example: tourism, the diversity of flora and fauna, recrea Government be reducing poverty and agriculture, forestry, transport, communi tional activities and the symbolic value of underdevelopment by destroying nature cation, education, defense etc. Ensure forests. and all that it holds for humanity. that "traditional" development activities Inadequate policy approach by govern Some lessons from th e Cameroon are carried out in such a way th a t they con ment and the attitude of the forest state of "Biodiversity" - Treasures of the tribute to conserving biological diversity. exploiters explain the hostile reactions Forests" remains eminent in that Came - embark on civil society participatory from the indigenous people and the com roon has now entered into a period of approach, drawing from the indigenous munity who closely identify forests with political, economic, and societal structur knowledge - the living laboratory of the nature and themselves being part of it. To al adjustments, and - hopefully - human- people - in the conservation, and devel find effective solution to these and the centred development and transforma opment of the biodiversity heritage of other remaining problems identified tion. This is a social, cultural and political Cameroon necessitates both continuity and innova as well as an economic necessity. Equally -creating and enabling environment tion in environmental policies. Cameroon inevitably is the part of nature - environ for enhancing the role of development has been slow in this direction thus m ent - in th a t transform ation process. agencies and indigenous NGOs in contri enhancing the expansionists approach Prominent among the waves of action buting directly to the conservation of bio which depletes the biodiversity base o f include: human-centered oriented devel logical diversity the country. Policy integration and new opment, proper use of natural resources - operate on the basis o f people - strategies are thus needed to deal with and human capacity, partnership be centred development approach with a the critical issues of resources depletion. tween civil society and as important in focus on improving the quality of life of Civil society and indigenous people shaping sequences and development the people should not be sidelined but be an integral trends, avoid complexity and parallel lines -strengthening the institutions in the part of the process as they constitute the of operation. Safety nets are needed with "conservation sector" through enhanced fountain and living library of knowledge innovative thinking and action from the training (manpower capacity building), needed for conserving the biodiversity people, coherence and coordination and financial mechanisms as well as building and othertreasures of the country's biota. collaboration within and across national

67 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999 frontiers, democratic governance, and, Korinna Horta & Samuel N guiffor (1998) W orld Wide Fund fo r Nature (WWF) 1993. particularly in community-basing mat The Exxon in Shell-EIF Oil and Pipeline Proceedings of the Workshop on ters, power to the people approach with Project. Comments on the Envi Community Forest / Protection Area responsibility and sense o f direction ronm ental assessment (EA) Cameroon Management. Cameroon, Yaounde, coming also from the people. Portion, May 1998. Centre Pour I'En- October 12-13. As fo r the future and lessons to be vironement et le Développement, W orld Bank (1994) Cameroon: Biodiversi learned - biodiversity conservation re Yaounde and Environmental Defense ty Conservation and Management quires affirmative action which basically Fund Washington, D. C. Project Memorandum and Recom includes "empowering and participa Gro Harlam Brundtland (1987) World mendation of the Director of the tio n " in the development process - Commission on Environmental Devel Central African and Indian Ocean sustainable development being the goal. opment (Our Common Future) Oxford Department, Report 13083-CM. University Press. London. Agriculture and Environment Opera References: Scott Barret (1998) Economic Guidelines tions Division. for the Conservation of Biological W orld Bank (1995) Cameroun - Diversité, Cameroon Tribune (1998) Peter Mafany Diversity. Paper presented at W ork Croissance et Réduction de la Pau Musonge - How My Government will shop on Economics, IUCN. General vreté. Report N° 13167-CM Washing Reduce Poverty - The Government's Assembly4-5 February 1998, Cost Rica. ton DC. Economic, Financial, Social, Cultural G. M. Brown and Jon H. Goldstein (1984) Program Cameroon Tribune, 22 June A Model fo r Valuing Endangered Spe Author's address: Sopecam, Yaounde, pp 1, 2 & 3. cies Journal of Environment Econo Joseph Bawak Besong (1992) New Direc mics and Management, 11. 303 -309. Dr. John W. Forje tions in National Forestry Policies- J. A. McNeely (1988) Economics and Bio Center of Action-Oriented Research on Cameroon, in Mary Dyson, et al (1992) logical Diversity: Developing and African Development Conservation of West and Central Using Economics Incentives to con B.P. 13429 African Rainforests, World Bank Envi serve Biological Diversity, IUCN Gland Yaounde, Cameroon Republic ronm ent Development Paper. Switzerland. Fax: +237-231-825

Conserving the Tropical Resource Base: w ork has been done to test this principle, which we refer to as the Land Tenure Do we Title Land or Organize Security Paradigm (TSP) hypothesis. This paper reports on results of a statistical Community? assessment o f the role o f land tenure in affecting small farmer logging activities Robert Walker and Charles Wood on their properties along the Transama zon Highway in the State o f Para, Brazil. Also addressed is fire contagion, a major Tropical deforestation represents a major rural poverty and the needs of small farm factor in current de-struction of the tro threat to biodiversity, given the wide ers, who often represent a serious pical forest resource base. spread ecological changes that occurwith threat to the integrity of forest lands. Al Statistical analysis was undertaken on forest clearance. Such changes often though small farmers may be kept out of data generated from a survey of 347 pro represent biomass and species reductions, well-protected areas on a local level, it is perties along the Transamazon Highway particularly when human-dominated unrealistic to assume that such an in the state o f Para, Brazil, undertaken in landscapes replace natural systems. Even approach would be effective at regional the summer of 1996. Data was collected when forest land is sustained under low scale. on a variety of demographic, economic, intensity fallows, with cyclic regeneration The key then is to encourage farmers and agronomic variables, and owners o f secondary forest, tree species are to engage in resource conserving agricul were queried about the type of document appreciably reduced from numbers found tural activity. A commonly advanced set they possessed with respect to land in old growth and primary forest. One key of policy instruments advanced in this ownership. On the basis of these respon to controlling biodiversity loss is to redu regard revolve around the issue of land ses, logit models and spatial statistics were ce rates of tropical deforestation, which tenure security. Many have argued that implemented to assess the role of titling requires policy intervention on the part when farmers possess land tenure securi in resource conservation outcomes. of government. An obvious approach is ty, they are more likely to make land con Results from the statistical w ork show to set aside land in forest reserves, as serving investments, since they are guar that secure land tenure reduces small hold parks or as forests managed for sustaina anteed long-run access to the fruits of er sales of timber from land holdings, ble exploitation. However, such policies their labor. Although the theoretical promotes the long-term conservation of may not adequately address the issue of arguments are cogent, little empirical valuable trees on their properties, and

68 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999 increases the likelihood of reforestation. The statistical findings suggest cau Authors'addresses: Ironically, small producers w ith secure tion should be used in designing incentive- land tenure are more likely to experien based policies fo r resource conservation Dr. Robert Walker, ce destructive fire contagion from neigh in tropical areas. Incentives arising from Resources fo r the Future boring properties, however. The statisti secure tenure are im portant, but com 1616 P Street, NW, W ashington, cal findings suggest th a t this result does munity incentives also appear to play a DC 20036, USA not stem from conflict between titled role. In particular, community organiza Fax: +1-202-939 3460 owners and squatters, or because the spa tion may develop the social relations e-mail: [email protected] tial organization of properties would essential to internalizing environmental tend to induce greater fire risk among the externalities. This point is especially Charles Wood - Center for Latin American titled holdings. Rather, community orga important with respect to fire, which Studies University of Florida nization seems to m itigate fire conta crosses property boundaries and there gion, and organizational work is more fore cannot be effectively managed by pronounced among those who do not individual land holders. hold title.

Role of the Media in League of Environmental Journalists was established to mobilize and motivate Biodiversity Conservation: Challenges journalists and the mass media to take a better and more serious interest in and Opportunities environm ent and developm ent issues that are actually relevant to the lives of Mike Anane the people. The LEJ also aims at initiating regular dialogue with policy/decision makers and both local and international The world is witnessing a major imbalance estation, experts believe that the forest scientists, researchers and conserva in the components of the environment area w ill be destroyed w ith in 31 years. tionists. due to man's over-exploitation of resour Factors responsible fo r this alarming In fact the role of the media in addres ces. Natural systems are increasingly rate of deforestation are the increasing sing the lack of awareness of biodiversity under pressure; species are becoming demands for agricultural lands, cutting of issues should not be underestimated as it extinct; the climate is also changing with trees for fuel wood, logging, bushfires is widely acknowledged that the media is fewer of nature's goods and services avail and lately surface mining. an effective instrument for environ able to local people who need them for The lands and forestry departments in mental education and management as survival. Ghana has already confirmed that Ghana reflected in the growing popularity of In most developing countries includ will become a net importer of wood in the environmental journalism. ing Ghana, the extent of exploitation of 2 1 st century if immediate afforestation Reporting on the importance of biodi natural resources to meet socio-economic programs are not pursued taking into versity in forest related plant, animal needs has exerted negative impacts on account the country's growing popula microorganism species as w ell as th e ir biodiversity. Statistics from the forestry tion and dwindling forests. genetic diversity can increase the aware department of Ghana for instance sug A critical examination of the factors ness of threats they face, possible solu gest that only about 2 million hectares of that account for the deplorable state of tions and further establish an informed the country's closed forest remain, of this the country's forest treasures would re and active participation of individuals in about 0.4 million hectares lie outside veal that lack of environmental awareness their protection and the judicious use of lands set aside as forest reserves meaning on the part of the public is largely to natural resources. that over 70% of the original 8.2 million blame as majority of people are not aware Citizens are also im portant and th e ir hectares of closed forests have been de of the need to conserve the country's rich expressed needs and desires have to be stroyed. It is estimated that forests are biodiversity, and this holds not only for taken into account and treated seriously being depleted at a rate of 2 2 , 0 0 0 hecta the uneducated but literates as well. In if conservation ideals are to be realized. res annually of the remaining 6 . 2 million fact people do not understand the close All citizens also have a right to be invol hectares outside the forest reserves. In the ties between human activities and the ved in decision making processes th a t Western region alone, about 20% of threatened biodiversity resources. affect their lives and for them to make forest reserves (133,000) hectares is said It is essentially to meet the challeng intelligent decisions about public biodi to be damaged. This part of Ghana is ing task of raising consciousness regard versity policies, they need accurate, tim e known to contain 44% of the country's ing the country's threatened biodiversi ly and unbiased information on the true closed forest and with the rate of defor ty and environment in general that the state of their planet's resources.

69 WS Biodiversity as Value in Society - Mike Anane • Role of the Media in Biodiversity Conservation: Challenges and Opportunities

Opinions also diverge and the elector resources on which people's basic live media training institutions offer courses in ate need access to a wide range of view lihood and health of our planet depend. environmental reporting which isa special points on biodiversity issues, particularly However, it is no secret that existing ized area; as such, stories pertaining to where few voters will have the opportu relationships between the scientific com biodiversity and forest issues are handled nity to see much less talk with political m unity and the media in both developing by general assignment reporters. party candidates in person when general and developed countries has been char This lack of specialized training is elections are approaching, especially in acterized by mutual mistrust with the indeed a drawback for many journalists our part of the world. Undoubtedly, they former almost convinced that the media in that one really needs an insight into the must rely on the massmedia to explain is only looking out for hot sexy news as nature of biodiversity problems and their threats facing treasures in our forests and such press releases sent to the media are relatedness to be able to cover them for characterize the respective positions of throw n into the bin orw hentheyare used a wide audience. General assignment candidates and their political parties; at all, they are either distorted or tucke reporters often lack depth in their cover more so when over the years these issues red away in some obscure corner of the age of issues as they swing between eco have not been part of manifestoes of po newspaper. nomics, entertainment, politics and envi litical parties. The media have also not hidden its dis ronm ent. The role of the massmedia in the dain for conservationists whom they Promoting a global dialogue and net struggle to conserve the last shreds of often see as doomsday prophets who working among media, conservationists, biodiversity of this planet is perhaps also have no sexy news to offer except w ild and scientists in general is crucial to the significant because of the complex scien theories. As an African proverb goes: success of global efforts to conserve biodi tific and technical arguments which envel "w hen tw o elephants fig h t it is the grass versity but the reality is th a t the media in op most biodiversity issues. It must be that suffer", the health and welfare of the most biodiversity rich areas in the south borne in mind that public participation in earth's inhabitants cannot be separated in particular appear to be handicapped as activities relating to these issues is large from that of the planet itself and yetthere they lack the basic tools: computers fo r ly dependent on the extent to which is insufficient inform ation on these issues; instance, cost far more in developing arguments, analysis and evidence can be in fact the wealth of information that countries and therefore gaining access to broken down, explained and dissemina experts have circulate within the scienti a working computer capable of connect ted to the general public, particularly fic community, if anything gets to the ing to the internet can be a dream. where the biodiversity convention itself media at all the language is technical and The average cost of a low volume inter has le ft in its wake a host of im portant full of jargons which media practitioners net account in North America is less than and very interesting issues at the cutting often find difficult to break down to the $20 per m onth compared to about $65 in edge of environment and development understanding of the ordinary man who Africa. as usual with winding drama and debate is therefore often kept in the dark. Inter It also remains a fact that the news along North-South lines filling the air views I have conducted in some Europe paper business and in fact the media in when issues like the sharing of benefits of an capitals and Africa suggest that this general thrives on advertising revenue the sustainable use of biodiversity and "cold war" between the media and re but where big time advertisers who can also the rights to those genetic resources searchers is the same. provide the succour badly needed by the rear its ugly head. Given the alarming rate of loss of media for their sustenance are often big Given that the role of the print and biodiversity around the world, the need time industrialists whose activities impact electronic media is crucial for the enhan for cooperation cannot be ignored and negatively on biodiversity reserves, then cement of biodiversity, one would not be fo rth isco o p e ra tio n to be meaningful and the newspaper editor finds himself in a far from right to assert that conservatio productive, both sides would have to dilemma as these businessmen would not nists, biologists, researchers and other appreciate the constraints under which give you adverts for you to turn around experts working on biodiversity and they w ork. For example, it is true to some and expose their environment unfriend forest issues should see the media as part extent th a t the media does not seem to ly activities. This lack o f adverts is indeed ners in development. ,be interested in issues relating to the envi contributing to the refusal of some edi If scientists and conservationists invol ronm ent but this lack of interest can large tors and media owners to devote their ved in the promotion of the mainte ly be attributed to the complex nature of pages and airtime to reporting on the nance, conservation and appropriate impro environmental issues as journalists who threats facing nature's gifts lest they saw vement of biological diversity in forest dare are often intimidated by the com at the hands that feed them. ecosystems are to succeed in mobilizing, plex terminologies that often involve a Generally, environm ent news has also informing and organizing society to pre cocktail of atmospheric physics, organic been labeled as a non-seller by most edi serve our natural resources for a more chemistry and the use of natural resour tors. Self censorship on the part of repor sustainable development than coopera ces. ters is therefore to satisfy editors' priori tion with the media is imperative. In fact This intimidation that journalists face ties. Some editors are even known to turn the attainment of success in their efforts can be partly attributed to the fact that down offers from writers willing to con would largely depend also on the level of few journalists in some developing coun tribute stories on biodiversity even for awareness of problems and solutions tries and developed as well have any for free at no cost to the newspaper. among the public, notably grassroot com mal environmental education but are Despite these constraints under which munities and policy/decision makers in forced to absorb complex ideas in the the media operates, I must say th a t the relation to the state of what is left of these field. In Ghana for instance, none o f the future is bright as more and more jour

70 WS Biodiversity as Value in Society - Mike Anane • Role of the Media in Biodiversity Conservation: Challenges and Opportunities nalists are showing interest in covering Invitation fo r press coverage o f events governments in most developing coun these subjects. The LEJ in Ghana is in itia t relatingto biodiversity should also encour tries euphemistically termed 'redeploy ing a program to organize workshops for age the reporters to stay throughout the ment' in response to IMF structural adjust editors to sensitize them to the need to program if they so wish instead of stating m ent policies (SAP) has pushed a large coverthese issues. Similar workshops con that they should cover the opening and contingent of young men and women to tinue to be organized for reporters. closing ceremonies. Sitting through the rivers and forested lands to plunder and To solve the problem o f lack o f relia discussion can be a learning process fo r search for gold in a desperate bid to feed ble and updated information on forests the journalist who needs to understand their families. Not only have these victims and other issues, the LEJ has established the issues and as such can do fo llo w ups o f SAP been putting th e ir lives at risk, but the Center for Environmental Journalism or develop a story line. Inviting the media also they are destroying the rich biodi which is a resource center for environ (at least I have met tw o other journalists versity in these areas in their desperation mental reporting. It consists of a library here who have also been invited by the to survive. Indeed we in the developing and reading room where journalists inter organizers to participate in the confer world are caught in a spiral of environ ested in covering these issues can find ence) alongside the experts is very com mental degradation that is mutually rein background information for the stories mendable as we have learnt a lot. forced by poverty and economic growth. they want to write; case studies from These initiatives could fundam entally Not until this vicious cycle of debt, pover other countries are also very relevant. transform the prospects of journalists in ty and environmental destruction is bro In the area o f computers and internet the south. Most Africans for instance are ken, the genuine desire of using the connectivity, the LEJ believes that this is constantly bombarded by conservation media to promote biodiversity conserva also very relevant as these information messages from the US and Europe but sel tion and thereby creating the enabling resources could facilitate the accessing dom are westerners exposed to the Afri environment for sustainable develop and exchange of information on current can point of view. Through these initia ment will be an uphill task. It is time the research, provide the opportunity to tives between conservationists, scientists developed world also realized that they contact both local and foreign experts and the media, African environmental are in the driver's seat and that we share and also search the profiles o f thousands journalists in particular can devise inno this planet and in exploiting it, we are all of others working on similar issues. In vative means o f transm itting their news digging our graves. There has to be a view of the prohibitive costs, internet and success stories on conservation and change around in the present pattern of development for environmental report sustainable development while bringing resource transfers which are essentially ing in our part of the world would count the African perspective to the fore and from the south to the north largely be largely on donor support and the LEJ is counteracting the doom and gloom pic cause o f debt service payments and terms exploring the possibilities. ture of Africa often portrayed in the o f trade. The developed w orld has to stop Indeed sustaining and maintaining western media. the over-consumption of the world's re the planet's biodiversity as a natural basis Despite the high hopes that environ sources at the expense of others inability of life for future generations is certainly mental journalism offers, stumbling to meet even their basic needs. The bitter a challenge the whole world should face blocks abound that could retard the real truth is that poverty-stricken nations will as a people. The threats are so enormous ization of the noble objectives of aware not be able to finance their development if that no group of persons can hope to ness creation: Poverty, for instance, is they are burdened with enormous foreign tackle them alone: they require that we certainly a major cause and effect of our debts and if prices for their commodities act together as a world community and environmental problems and one would remain low on the world market. Indeed, forge a global partnership. Without a be merely chasing the w ind in an attem pt southern countries should also be given a concerted and united approach one could to deal with environmental problems fair chance to develop since this is also a undo the gains of the other. without a broader perspective that prerequisite to sustainable development. It would therefore be appreciated for encompass the factors underlying world What is more, it is increasingly becom instance if conservationists who under poverty and international inequality. Is ing clear that the idea of biodiversity take regular foreign trips to conferences sues like the debt crisis and impact of struc conservation is not a recent phenome and meetings could organize press con tural adjustment and other IMFA/Vorld non. Our fore fathers knew of the finite ferences to brief the media on important Bank loan conditionalities continue to nature of our natural resources and the issues th a t were discussed or conventions reinforce the vicious cycle of debt, pover need for preservation. W ith conservation that were signed at these meetings as to ty and environmental degradation. The ideas shrouded in traditional religious enable them keep the public abreast of debt crisis for instance is indeed escalat practices, our ancestors used forests, global developments. Further more, most ing and most southern countries like water and land resources sustainable for northern Egos working on these issues Ghana are increasingly being forced to many years thus promoting conservation publish press releases often w ith a north orient their economies paying debts. The of vegetation, biodiversity and ecological ern bias which they send to journalists in last shreds of the country's forests are balance. Sadly, various governm ents par Africa and other developing countries. It being exploited or given out to mining ticularly in developing countries continue is im portant th a t these press releases at firms to do surface mining as a way of earn to use scientific, political, geographical least have an African slant no m atter how ing foreign exchange. The truth is that and economic methods to contain the small as without this, there is a greater even basic food production is neglected alarming environm ental crisis; the issues chance o f the press release not being used for the sake of generating export earn of culture, particularly traditional reli more so when it is full of scientific jargon. ings. The mass dismissals o f workers by gious practices and indigenous knowl-

71 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999 edge seem to have been ignored as a media, scientists, researchers and ecolo Author's address: major factor in biodiversity conservation. gists would greatly facilitate the enhance In their writings particularly editorials ment of biodiversity conservation M ike Anane and features, media practitioner can com perhaps what is needed most is how to League of Environmental Journalists pare and contrast indigenous knowledge strengthen the dialogue and optimize P.O. Box 2062, GH-Accra, Ghana systems with other global knowledge contacts and communication between Fax: +233-21-665002 /-301184 systems with a view to creating the these parties on a regular basis and to e-mail: [email protected] awareness of the strength and weakness build m utual respect between them. For o f each system. now the question remains: Scientists are But despite these seemingly insur often wary of talking to journalists; how m ountable hurdles partnerships between do we break this myth?

W orkshop: B iodiversity as a Resource

Requirements for Improved and Many o f those species have become over utilized and threatened by total eradica Sustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity: tion from the wild. In South Africa several concentrations Examples of Multiple Use of Forests in o f rural people occur in the vicinity of the forests, such as in the Amatole m ountain South Africa region (form er Ciskei), along the W ild Coast (form er Transkei), in KwaZulu/ Coert J. Geldenhuys Natal, and in eastern Mpumalanga and north-eastern Northern Province. Some of the population and socio-economic Abstract development of a lucrative fern industry, issues which relate to sustainable man based on harvesting of fern leaves as agement of the forest resources in these Forests have always been a source to pro greenery in the florist industry, both areas include land tenure systems, vide in the daily livelihood of people. In locally and abroad, is described as a model intellectual property misuse, and popula South Africa several concentrations of for sustainable commercialization of tion growth and demography. Extreme rural people live in the vicinity of the other non-timber forest products. In conclu poverty in many of the communities lead forests. The mixed evergreen forests sion, requirements for sustainable re to increased pressure on the forests, and cover a small area and have been frag source use and an approach fo r develop even forest clearing. Urbanization and mented due to natural fires in the gene ment o f alternative production systems changed life styles cause the loss o f local rally dry landscape, and their survival are which will also contribute to restoration indigenous (traditional) knowledge. threatened by landuse practices, and by o f forest biodiversity, are discussed. There seems to be a relationship between the resource use by rural people. Howev satisfying rural resource use needs and er, more than 70% of the forests are Background biodiversity conservation. At least in the under some form of government control short to medium term there is a real need and enjoy a good conservation status. The Forests always have been, and still are, a for commercialization and domestication forests contain about 1500 plant species traditional resource for daily livelihood of o f indigenous forest products to assist in of all growth forms. A large proportion people. In rural communities traditional rural socio-economic development and o f the w oody species have been used, or knowledge systems exist on the charac environmental conservation. are still used for various timber, medici teristics of the species and what they are Many international initiatives, lead nal, food, crafts and other uses, by both good for. Generally formal statistics only ing from the UNCED Earth Summit in Rio people in rural areas and by the more provide data for commercial use and de Janeiro in 1992 (Keating 1993), have a fflu e n t part o f the South African society. value of a few species, and usually only generally accepted the following defini A brief discussion is provided of the dif for the timber species. Ethnobotanic sur tion of sustainable forestry: "the stew ferent uses. The current multiple-use veys show that traditionally many forest ardship and use of forests and forest management system which is controlled species are used fo r a wide range of land in a way, and a rate, that maintains by the forestry departm ent is discussed in needs, particularly subsistence needs, but biodiversity, productivity, regeneration more detail. The management activities very few of these are currently used for capacity, vitality and their potential to ful include a scientifically-based single tree commercial gain intheform al sector. Such fil, now and in the future, relevant eco selection system on a 1 0 -year felling cycle, surveys usually list only the species and logical, economic and social functions, at fern harvesting, ecotourism develop their uses, and mostly provide no infor local, national and global levels, and does ments, and conservation of nature re mation on their relative use-value and not cause change to other ecosystems." serves and other protected areas. The th e ir use impacts on the natural resource. The definition requires policies that inte 72 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Geldenhuys • Requirements for Improved and Sustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity: Examples of Multiple Use of Forests in South Africa grate forests in rural development per 1985; Geldenhuys 1991a). Smaller iso cene and was not induced by forest clear efforts, and has environmental, economic lated but geographically important ing over the last 100 to 300 years. For and social components. It requires also forests occur in the areas between the lar example. Iron Age farmers in Transkei th a t environmental and economic needs ger forest complexes around Knysna, the settled in high density in preferred sites be balanced among local, national, Amatole forests, the Kwazulu-Natal coas in presently wooded areas for at least the regional and global interests. tal and montane forests, and the Trans last 1 400 years. Forest and scrub forest The purpose of the paper is to vaal Escarpment forests (Cooper 1985; have been continuously cleared and ■ briefly describe the mixed evergreen Anonymous 1987; Von Breitenbach 1990; exploited for timber, plant foods and forests in South Africa and their man Geldenhuys 1991a, 1992; Cooper & Swart medicines. The fragmentation had been agement; 1992; Everard & Hardy 1993). aggravated by current landuse practices, ■ discuss a few case studies o f resource The relic nature o f the forests w ith in such as clearing fo r agriculture, forestry use from the forests; the fire-adapted sclerophyllous shrub- and subsistence utilization, and veld burn ■ recommend a framework for sustain lands (Fynbos) in the south-western re ing practices for grazing and improved able multiple resource-use from the gions, and grasslands and deciduous wood water runoff in catchments (Phillips 1963; forests. land in the summer-rainfall areas, had Cooper 1985; McKenzie 1988; Gelden been attributed to the destructive activi huys etal. 1986,1988; Geldenhuys 1991a). Forests and forest biodiversity in ties of man during the relatively recent The forest interior is subject to regu South Africa 100 to 300 years. However, patterns of lar small-scale disturbances causing gaps forest distribution were affected by cli about 0,005 to 0,1 ha in size (Geldenhuys Forest biogeography matic and landscape changes over geolo & Maliepaard 1983). Lightning and man- gical time scales (Deacon et al. 1983; induced fires, flooding and landslides on Mixed evergreen forests form the smal Scholtz 1986). Geldenhuys (1994a) de steep slopes during heavy rainstorms lest, most w idely distributed and most monstrated that environmental factors (Bosch & H ewlett 1980; Pammenter et al. fragmented biome in southern Africa (the (rainfall and substrate) determine the 1985; Geldenhuys 1994a,b) occasionally area south of the Kunene and Limpopo potential limits of forest distribution, but expose larger areas in the forests. Various rivers) and covers only about 3000 km2, that actual forest location pattern is studies have been conducted to under or 0,08% of the country (Anonymous determined by the fire pattern, which in stand the processes o f recovery from 1987; Geldenhuys 1996a). Forests occur turn is determined by the interaction be these disturbances and to apply them in along the eastern coast and escarpment tween the prevailing winds during dry practice (Geldenhuys et al. 1988; Gelden of the region, with high rainfall, from the periods and terrain physiography. Berg- huys 1994c,d, 1995; Van W yk et al. 1995). Cape Peninsula (34° S) to the Soutpans- wind direction is locally changed due to berg (22° 40' S) and the Tongaland coast barriers posed by the position and form Forest composition and biodiver (27° S) (Cooper 1985; Anonymous 1987). of the mountain ridge to the windward sity patterns High forest (10 to 35 m tall) and scrub (northern) side of the forests, and is chan forest (3 to 10 m tall) persist in areas w ith neled through valleys running from the The mixed evergreen forests in South mean annual rainfall >525 mm with mountains. Forest persist in the wind- Africa represent two main forest types strong winter rain and >725 mm with shadow areas. Feely (1986) indicated th a t whose floras have strong affinities to the strong summer rain (Rutherford & West- most of the present southern African tropical forest flora of Africa (White fall 1986). They occur on a wide range of grassland existed throughout the Holo 1983): forests of the A from ontane Region geological formations (Geldenhuys 1996a). Few large forest complexes occur and Table 1: Number o f species by growth form in the mixed evergreen forests o f South these are widely separated. The largest Africa, based on 14 selected forests or forest complexes (adapted from Geldenhuys single forest (25 706 ha) occurs around 1992) Knysna in the south (east of George) and % o f to ta l is part o f a complex o f 60 560 ha at 34° S Growth form category Number o f species and between 22° E and 24° 30' E (Gelden Canopy trees 109 7.6 huys 1991a). The Am atole forests in the Sub-canopy trees 185 12.9 Eastern Cape covers 40 550 ha between Woody shrubs 274 19.2 32° S and 33° S latitude, and 26° E and Soft shrubs 58 4.1 27° 30' E longitude (Thompson 1991) w ith Woody climbers (Manes) 77 5.4 a single unit of > 8 000 ha in the Pirie-lsi- Vines 1 2 2 8.5 denge-Kubusie area. In Kwazulu-Natal Ferns (erect rhizome) 58 4.1 the Dukuduku forest is the largest (3 500 Ferns (creeping rhizome) 38 2.7 ha) but is seriously threatened by uncon Epiphytes 58 4.1 trolled settlement of people. The Wood- Geophytes 75 5.2 bush-De Hoek forest ( 6 626 ha) is the lar Graminoids 94 6 . 6 gest forest along the Transvaal Escarp Herbs 282 19.7 ment (Cooper 1985). The majority of 1430 1 0 0 . 0 forests are less than 100 ha in size (Coo TOTAL

73 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Geldenhuys • Requirements for Improved and Sustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity: Examples of Multiple Use of Forests in South Africa along the escarpment; and forests of Firstly, forests share many more of their Forest conservation status the Tongaland-Pondoland Regional species w ith foreststo their north and east Mosaic along the coastal dunes and low than with forests to their south and west. Conservation status implies the extent to lands. They are composed of a diverse This indicates the erosion o f species from which populations, species or communi range o f species and grow th forms. Gel the tw o tropical source areas (in East A fri ties have been modified by the influences denhuys (1992) listed 1 438 species ca). Secondly, forests share many more of man and the degree to which they which had been recorded for 14 forests species w ith th e ir nearest neighbors than might be expected to maintain their or forest complexes representing the with forests further away. Thirdly, the genetic diversity and ecological processes geographic range of the mixed ever Afromontane forests (including those in the medium term (10 to 100 years). Con green forests in southern Africa. These near the coast in the south) share relative servation of the forests and forest biota included 155 families and 661 genera. ly fewer species with the forests of the has two major components: mainte The forests cover only 0.08% of the area subtropical coastal areas. A large propor nance of the components and critical and 7.1% o f the vascular species, but tion o f the species are unique to indivi processes w ith in a forest ecosystem have a relatively rich 0.58 species/km2. dual forests: 33% of the woody and 42% through appropriate systems fo r sustained Onlyfynbos exceeds the forest value with o f the herbaceous species. utilization of forest products and values, 1.36 species/km2 (7 316 species). The th ird Direction and rate of change in spe and maintenance of gene flow between richest biome is grassland with 0.25 spe cies richness also vary with type, intensi the different forests through management cies/km2 (3 788 species). Table 1 shows the ty and frequency of disturbance. The of land surrounding the forest and forest composition of the forests in terms of general patterns suggest that undisturb corridors. growth forms. ed forest is somewhat richer than disturb Ownership determines the type and Species richness remains relatively ed forest, and that mature forest is richer quality of forest management and possi constant along the tropical-temperate than regrow th or serai forest. Further ble impacts on the vegetation (Phillips gradient of southern Africa except for the more, along the serai stages from scrub, 1963; Cooper 1985; Cawe 1986; McKenzie south-western extreme (Geldenhuys & through bush clumps and forest margin 1988; Cooper & Swart 1992). The Nation Macdevette 1989; Geldenhuys 1992). to mature forest, the floristic and struc al and Provincial Governments and stat Forests o f the east coast (Natal north coast tural composition continually change and utory bodies manage and control a very and southern Natal/Pondoland Umtam- species richness increase (Geldenhuys large proportion (>70%) of the forests vuna sandstone complex with a large pro 1993b). The major disturbances of the and the largest forests, and only a small portion of endemic plants) have the high forests which relate to conservation portion is privately owned (Cooper 1985; est number of woody species (254 and 338 requirements are of three types: Geldenhuys 1991a). species respectively) and the south ■ Selective harvesting of forest pro Conserved forests in southern Africa western Cape and Cape Peninsula forests ducts (Phillips 1963; Scheepers 1978; range from forests in private and tribal and a high-altitude escarpment forest Geldenhuys 1980; Cunningham 1985), ownership that are in good condition, to have the lowest number (78, 48 and 76 which cause different types of vertical and forests in conservancies and natural heri species respectively). In the southern horizontal gaps in the forest by removing tage sites, through to forests in nature Cape, the mountain and coastal forests large canopy trees, layer communities or reserves and wilderness areas proclaimed are continuous in places (Geldenhuys particular growth forms, must have long under the Forest Act. There are many 1991a) and contain elements of both the term consequences on forest dynamics. forests outside the proclaimed areas coastal and montane zones of further However, Geldenhuys (1993c) recorded which are well conserved but with inse north and of the southern temperate ele prolific regeneration of Podocarpus lati- cure conservation status. The forest types ment (Geldenhuys 1993b). folius in the southern Cape forests after and forest complexes in southern Africa Species richness varied more w ith in a excessive preferential utilization of this are generally well conserved (Geldenhuys forest than between forests (Geldenhuys species at the turn of the century (Phillips & MacDevette 1989). Along the entire & Macdevette 1989). M ontane forests, in 1963). South African coast the seaward slopes of general, havefewerspeciesthan lowland, ■ Fire is mentioned by many as the the coastal dunes and the dunes within a coastal and dune forests, both in KwaZu- major cause for the rapid decline of the 1 km restricted area are proclaimed under lu/Natal and the southern Cape. Further forests (Granger 1984; Cooper 1985; Ever- the Environmental Conservation Act. In more, drier (warmer?) forests are richer in ard 1986). Plantation forestry requires KwaZulu/Natal where many forests are on species than wetter (cooler) forests. The protection against fire and as such con private land, the Conservancy system and different growth forms also show clear tributed to forest spread with the exclu the Natural Heritage System hold out patterns amongst the different forest sion o f fire (Geldenhuys 1997a; Gelden hope for conservation. It is noteworthy types. Relative richness of herbaceous huys et al. 1986). that controlled utilization of reserved plant species is greater in the moister ■ Clearing of forest for agriculture, trees and ferns on private land through a areas, and of woody plant species is grea development of infrastructure and dune permit system contributed to forest con te r in the drier areas. Species richness fo r mining causes the loss o f species and frag servation in many areas. A series of na w oody plants increases more sharply than ments gene flow. Riverine and rare ture reserves provide fo r the conservation for herbaceous plants from montane to swamp forest in KwaZulu/Natal which of large areas of forest. platform (lowland) forests. contain many rare species have been Various sources still exert pressures on Taxa shared between forests show at cleared fo r sugar cane and other purposes indigenous forests (Geldenhuys & Mac least three patterns (Geldenhuys 1992). (Cooper 1985). devette 1989):

74 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Geldenhuys • Requirements for Improved and Sustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity: Examples of Multiple Use of Forests in South Africa

■ Growing human needs in rural tribal and low potential for commercial exploi o f the forests (R. Hassan & J. Havemann, areas. tation. Management of the forests range pers com 1997). The survey used local ver ■ High intensity farming interests such from a low income subsistence utilization nacular names, which means that the as in the eastern Cape lowlands cause the of the headmen's forests applied in rural number o f species covered is as yet un clearing of scrub forest and riverine forest areas fo r building material, fuelw ood and known. Some common names cover more for agriculture. household goods, and the sophisticated than one species, or one species may have ■ Economic pressures cause uncontrol multiple-use management system (tim several common names. A to ta l o f 140 led exploitation, grazing and burning of ber, minor forest products, ecotourism) tree and shrub "species" were recorded, forests on farms. applied in the State Forests. Recognition some of which are more widely and gene ■ Mining of forested dunes continue of the uses and values of forests is one of rally used than others, but not all are indi along the KwaZulu/Natal north coast. the basic requirements in order to reduce genous species. The uses include a variety ■ Development of infrastructure (roads, conflicts in landuse options. McKenzie of poles (mainly for construction), fire powerlines, dams) and township and (1988) recognized many direct uses and wood, crafts (from timber and non-tim resort developments (Geldenhuys et al. indirect values of the South African ber species), binding and weaving, food 1988; Geldenhuys 1993d). forests. A species list fo r 14 forests and sources (vegetables, fruits, and meat), forest complexes in South Africa (Gel and traditional medicine (bark, roots and Use of Forest Biodiversity in denhuys 1992) were used to summarize other sources). South Africa the uses recorded by Palmer and Pitman (1972) fo r the tree and shrub species in Direct uses General patterns South Africa (Table 2). A recent survey of 21 villages for forest resource accounting Many o f the species are still used by peo The forests in South Africa play a role in in the Eastern Cape Province (w ith many ple living in the rural areas. Poverty o f the the welfare of society which is dispropor forests in poor rural areas) showed much rural people and their inability to afford tionately greater than their small extent informal commercial and subsistence use alternative commodities cause a contin-

Table 2: Number of tree and shrub species in the South African forests which have been or are still used, traditionally and/or commercially, according to Palmer and Pitman (1972).

Category and uses Canopy trees Sub-canopy trees Woody shrubs Total in forests 109 185 274 Total used 1 0 2 143 1 2 0 Timber: Furniture 43 13 - Construction 40 26 6 Poles 15 2 2 6 Fuelwood 18 25 4 Ornamental 45 42 18 Traditional medicine (by plant part used): Leaves 1 0 2 2 15 Fruit 2 5 2 Bark 34 34 4 Roots 1 0 17 13 Other 18 16 13 Food (by plant part used): Leaves 3 3 Fruit29 38 29 Roots 2 - 2 Other 2 2 - Crafts (from other than timber): Basket 2 3 Weaving 1 - - Binding 2 7 6 Other (including dyes) 6 1 2 2 O ther uses: Horticulture 83 1 0 0 93 Floristic - 2 - Other 15 1 0 1 2

75 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Geldenhuys • Requirements for Improved and Sustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity: Examples of Multiple Use of Forests in South Africa uous use o f goods they use from the which are valued targets of communal resolve the conflicts and to ensure forests and increased forest clearing to (for food) and recreational hunting. Due sustainable resource use and socio-eco grow crops to support their families. Climb totheiraestheticvalue there isan increas nomic development. ers, leaves, leaf petioles and tree bark ing demand for rare birds, butterflies and With the settlement of the European are sources of binding materials (Cun moths some of which occur in forest in southern Africa since 1652, large dia ningham & Gwala 1986). W ood use fo r (McKenzie 1988). meter trees o f selected species were har building varies with building style and Several home crafts are based on sour vested for building and furniture timber, availability of materials but a variety of ces from the forest (McKenzie 1988). and for railway sleepers (Phillips 1963; species have been recorded (McKenzie Various palms, reeds and climbers are McKenzie et al. 1977; Scheepers 1978; 1988). Livewood is cut for tall straight used, mainly fo r baskets and mats. Forest Cawe 1986). The number of species used poles and laths. Selection for durable, ter hardwoods are used fo r sticks, grinding fo r furniture tim ber has declined drama m ite resistant species results in cutting of mortars and domestic items such as meat tically. Furniture timber is currently pro species w ith low annual increment. Fuel- dishes. Commercial sale of wooden items vided mainly from the relatively large wood represents the highest volume of probably accounts for higher localized southern Cape forests (Geldenhuys forest products used by rural people. Fuel- use of wood than minor use for utilitari 1996b) where this industry has an annual wood gathering focuses on forest where an purposes. Around Port St Johns along turnover o f >15 m illion Rand (about US$ they are not surrounded by woodland or the W ild Coast (former Transkei) over 100 4 million) and employs about 650 people, plantations and woodlots of introduced people are directly employed in craft and from the Amatole forests. Today com species. Where wood resources are abun work and they earn an annual income mercial plantations of pines, eucalyptus dant, hardwoods from the native ever over one m illion Rand or 0.2 million US$ and wattles, covering >1.4 m illion ha, pro green forest, producing little smoke, are (Obiri & Lawes 1997). However, that craft vide in the structural timber needs of the selected. When fuelwood resources are trade is considered as unsustainable region. They were established in the grass depleted, people either travel greater because marketing is poor, prices are lands and shrublands surrounding the distances to collect preferred wood, or cut unrealistically low, wood wastage is high forests, and rarely in areas where ever less preferred species and livewood from and tree poaching is prevalent. Along the green forest were cleared. The planta the same area, or reduce firewood con W ild Coast (former Transkei), a local tions aided the rehabilitation of the sumption by using alternative but expen craftsman sells wood carvings fo r R200 to forests, and expansion in places, released sive fuels (McKenzie 1988). R400 a piece, but is often not allowed to pressure on the forests for timber, fibre Traditional medicines are important collect his preferred species. Some indivi and firewood needs, and protected forest to rural communities for medical, psy duals earn about R600 a month from bas margins against frequent fires (Gelden chosomatic and economic reasons ket making. huys et al. 1986). (McKenzie 1988). Traditional medicinal Resource use from forests in many of For some species new uses were devel forest plants include trees, shrubs, climb the rural areas causes conflicts with oped, such as the plants used fo r garden ers, epiphytes and parasites. Some of the government authorities who have the ing (see Table 2) and by florists. Many characteristic faunal elements of forests responsibility to ensure the conservation nurseries focus in parto re n tire ly on indig are also important for this purpose, par of the forests. The authorities control the enous species, many o f which are forest ticularly pill millipedes, baboons, genets, harvesting o f resources through a perm it species. Fronds of the fern Rumohra adi- and snakes. Urbanization of people who system, but even the very low perm it rates antiform is are used extensively in the flo m igrate from the rural areas causes the exceed w hat the locals can pay, which rist trade, both locally and abroad. Epi loss of their traditional knowledge and leads to illegal activities. In many areas phytic mosses have been harvested from dependence on some of the forest spe deforestation is continuing at an alarm Transvaal forests as packing material for cies. However, their dependence on spe ing rate, primarily for maize cultivation, flowers, forfloral arrangementsand exhi cies used fo r traditional medicine gene to provide in the daily food needs of the bition purposes (Jacobsen 1978). rated a local and countrywide multimil very poor people. Cutting trees for con Forests play an increasingly im portant lion Rand annual trade between rural struction poles and firewood is a second role in providing for the recreation and source areas and urban markets and ary cause o f forest degradation, but con aesthetics of the growing urbanized and shops (Cunningham 1986; W illiams et al. sidered essential as the rural people have industrialized societies o f southern Africa. 1997). This trade increased the pressure no money to buy such products. This de Many picnic sites, view points, camping on the forests in the rural areas. gradation of the forest causes the loss of sites, forest walks and hiking trails in Edible fruits, wild spinaches, honey other sources o f income such as wood forests offer unique experiences (Levy and edible fungi provide important crafts and the basket industry. The Eastern 1987; Vermeulen 1993). The availability of dietary supplements to rural people in Cape Resource Accounting survey indica such trails are also im portant in the tourist less developed areas, providing nutrients ted a number of wrong perceptions on industry and in conservation education. deficient in the starchy staple diet. This both sides which relate partly to the real Forests also have cultural importance role is increased during drought periods, meaning of sustainability, and partly to as burial sites such as Thathe forest of the particularly in marginal agricultural areas the true dependence of the poor rural VHavenda (Netshiungani et al. 1981) and (G rivetti 1979). Fruits are prim arily a sour communities on the forests for their daily the burial site of the Zulu chief Dingaan ce o f vitam in C and are poor sources o f Ca livelihood. This accentuates the need for in Hlatikulu Forest (McKenzie 1988). Undis and nicotinic acid (Cunningham 1985). implementation of joint resource man turbed forest and wooded copses persist Forests provide habitat fo r animal species agement strategies in the rural areas to around major grave sites in many parts of

76 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Geldenhuys • Requirements for Improved and Sustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity: Examples of Multiple Use of Forests in South Africa southern Africa due to the acknowledged current pressures o f a grow ing poor rural commercially valuable species. Critical importance of the role that ancestral spir population. The initial timber exploita elements of the management system are: its play in daily life and the value o f ensur tion and destruction of the forests was ■ Timber is harvested by the State for ing them peace (Parker 1982). followed by forest protection and the estry personnel to control impacts on the development of scientific management forest; Indirect values systems (Phillips 1963; Geldenhuys 1980). ■ Large utilizable trees are topped Today timber and other minor but impor before felling to reduce canopy damage Anecdotal evidence suggests that a pro tant forest products are utilized conser and ensure minimize gap disturbance tective forest cover ensures a sustained vatively from ecologically suitable but (Geldenhuys & Maliepaard 1983); flow of water from catchments more small areas of State Forest in the southern ■ Special extraction equipm ent is used evenly throughout the year (Cooper and eastern Cape (Geldenhuys & Van der to minimize soil compaction and drain 1985). The forest cover prevents soil ero Merwe 1988, 1994; McKenzie 1988; Mil- age disturbances; sion and driftsand form ation in coastal ton 1987a,b; Seydack et al.. 1990; Van ■ Timber is sold by auction to realize the and inland areas (Bosch & Hewlett 1980; Daalen 1991; Vermeulen 1993; Seydack best timber prices through the supply- Tinley 1985). Faunistically and floristical- 1995). Scientific and m ultiple use man demand mechanism on the price. ly forests are amongst the richest biomes agement principles are applied in orderto Through this system high quality silvicul known and are thus extremely important sustain utilization of forest products, eco- tural management can be practiced and in terms of conservation of genetic diver tourism, and conservation. Five manage the scarcity value of the tim ber is acknowl sity. Preservation o f plants which may still ment classes determine the management edged. have im portant u tility is also im portant in objectives (indicated as proportion of the In the optim al productivity harvesting order to allow experimentation and re total area): production o f tim ber and system single trees are selected from a search. Some forest tree species have been ferns (19.7%); protection of ecologically stand for removal proportional to the identified as potential crop plants on the fragile areas (55.8%); nature reserves relative density of species in diameter basis o f their palatability, nutritional with enhanced conservation status to classes above 300 mm. Large non-utiliza- value and appearance (Cunningham maintain ecological diversity and genetic ble trees are girdled to die standing and 1985). Similarly, plants which have great resources (23.0%); recreation facilities fo r gradually release shade (Geldenhuys potential to modern pharmaceutical intensive public use (0.4%); and ecologi 1982). In the m ortality retrieval har medicine may be restricted to forests. cal and silvicultural research ( 1 .1 %). vesting system dead and dying trees of Forests are often affected by alterna commercially valuable species such as tive land uses. They are used as winter Timber harvesting Ocotea bullata (Lauraceae)and Podocar- shelter and grazing for livestock. Grazing pus latifolius (Podocarpaceae) are utili by cattle causes soil erosion in upland Timber harvesting, the main manage zed. This method is also applied in the areas in the eastern Cape and Natal mid ment activity, is done on 26% of the total Amatole forests in the eastern Cape. lands, destroy understorey vegetation to area of state-owned forests (35 700 ha), Forest inventory data have been used a larger degree than the natural browsers i.e. only part (49%) of the moist to medi asa basisof yield regulation for sustained- in many areasand open up the forest inte um-moist forests. The yield regulation use of the forests (Geldenhuys 1991b). rior, and render them more prone to fire system is based on Senility Criteria Har The data are recorded on 400 m 2 plots damage and invasion by alien invaders vesting and otherscientific principles, and sampled on a grid of 1 0 0 m x 80 m which (Phillips 1963; Geldenhuys et al. 1986). is aimed at providing sustainable yields cover the areas identified for timber Agriculture, forestry, power-lines, road over a 10-year felling cycle. Of the 20 harvesting. All trees 10 cm DBH are building and township development do potential canopy tree species in the moist recorded per plot by species and DBH. The cause some loss of forest cover (Cooper to medium-moist forests, five species are sampling data can be used to assess at 1985; Geldenhuys & Macdevette 1989; in high demand on the timber auctions, least four components of the forests (Gel Geldenhuys et al. 1988; Geldenhuys and seven others are in more lim ited denhuys 1993a): 1991a, 1993d). demand. Of the 20 potential sub-canopy ■ Forest communities and the impor tree species, only one used to be in great tance o f different species in the d iffe re n t Case study of multiple-use man demand forthe export trade, but that use communities; agement system of the southern has declined to zero. During the 1994/95 ■ Grain, i.e. the relationship between Cape forests financial year, about 1 1 0 0 m3 of indige composition of canopy species in the nous timber and 1500 m3 of Australian regeneration and in the canopy of the Two large forest complexes, the Knysna- blackwood (an invader tree in forest same stand to gain some understanding Tsitsikamma (southern Cape) forests and gaps) were sold fo r about 1.9 m illion Rand of the scale o f forest disturbance proces the Amatole (eastern Cape) forests, are (US$ 0.38 million). ses (Midgley et al. 1990; Geldenhuys mainly state-controlled and managed Two systems fo r the removal o f mar 1996c; Everard et al. 1995); under a formal multiple-use system, with ketable timbers are in use in the single ■ Shape of diameter distributions with close monitoring to ensure sustainable tree selection system applied in State in species over d ifferent communities, use. The southern Cape forests had fo r Forests: optimal productivity harvesting which provide useful insights into the merly been heavily exploited by Europe of trees selected from a stand on the basis resource status and recruitment require an settlers until 1939, but have never of species growth and m ortality rates; and ments or constraints for the specific spe been, and are not subjected to recent or harvesting of dead and dying trees of cies (Geldenhuys 1993a,c,e, 1996b);

77 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Geldenhuys • Requirements for Improved and Sustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity: Examples of Multiple Use of Forests in South Africa

■ Standing grow ing stock (stand basal ■ Growth rate through leaf develop duce damage to the young leaves. area/ha, volume/ha) of useful species. The m ent stages ■ The total age of mature leaves varied form of the diameter distribution indi ■ Allometric relations between leaf considerably, i.e. 23 to 32 weeks. Har cates the ecological behaviourof a species size, stalk length and rhizome thickness vesting frequency (cycle) therefore had to in relation to the typical disturbance re ■ Harvesting frequency impacts on be longer than this period. gime of each forest community as indicated grow th rate and size of the leaves and ■ Fern density was highest in forest in a by the analysis of grain (Geldenhuys nutrient content of plant parts as de regrowth stage, from the mountain to 1993a, 1996b; Everard et al. 1995). For pendent variables the coastal forests. The fern prefers moist, example, the inverse J-shaped curve in ■ Long-term m onitoring plots in harves well-drained sites, but dense stands are evergreen forest is typical of the shade- ted areas to assess potential impacts on typical o f fire-disturbed sites. Its density is to le ra n t species o f the small-gap forest, the resource and changes in the fern low in forest w ith a dense shrub layer, i.e. whereas the bell-shaped curve is typical population and forest regeneration in mature forest. This means that har o f dom inant species o f forest w ith regu ■ Study of fern composition in different vesting may increase the rate of succes- lar large-scale disturbances. forest types. sional development of the forest after A small set o f long-term study sites Interim results from the fern study disturbance. This was particularly evident were established since 1987 to provide and from the monitoring by the forest during dry periods. data on recruitment, growth and morta management personnel were implemen Through the joint fern harvesting lity for the South African indigenous ted where necessary and after consulta and adaptive management research foreststo improvetheyield regulation for tio n w ith the contractor. A fter three years approach it was possible to ensure a sustainable timber harvesting (Seydack et a thorough assessment was made of the sustainable fern harvesting from the al. 1990; Van Daalen 1991, 1993a,b,c; Ver- fern harvesting practices. The main results forest. Within the first three years the har meulen 1993; Geldenhuys 1997b, 1998). were as follow s (Geldenhuys & Van der vest cycle was increased from 5 weeks to Growth data in relation to tree crown char Merwe 1988, 1994; M ilton 1987a,b): 15 months, and the harvesting intensity acteristics were used to develop the senil ■ In the controlled field experiment leaf was reduced from 100% to 50% of ma ity criteria for selection of trees for har size decreased with frequent harvesting. ture leaves. The harvesting area was gra vesting, i.e.trees which will mostlikelydie M onthly harvesting reduced leaf size to dually increased from 4 000 ha (1982) to during the next 10 years (Seydack 1995). 24% of the controls (no harvesting) and 20 000 ha (1994). Harvesting was done by Fuelwood is prepared from branch- 5-m onthly harvesting reduced leaf size to two private contractors to ensure some wood of utilized trees and of trees remo 51% of the controls. Maximum number competition between them. The allowed ved for which there is no timber market. of buds produced in the controls was sustainable harvesting levels in the forest about double those produced in harves did not produce enough leaves to satisfy Fern harvesting ted plots, but harvested plants produced the market needs. Interested persons in new buds over a longer period. In the the area were encouraged and assisted to Fronds (leaves) o f Rumohra adiantiformis commercially harvested fern stands there grow the fern outside the forest. Farmers fern, a protected plant which was for was no difference in the production of and other people started to grow the fern merly illegally harvested, are now com buds and mature leaves between the har on their property, with irrigation, in the mercially harvested on a controlled and vested and unharvested areas. The effects understorey of existing small forest pat sustainable basis from about 2 0 0 0 0 ha of on bud production and leaf size were ches and plantation stands o f mainly the southern Cape forests, fo r greenery in attributed to the high content of potas pines. Othersgrowthefern in shade-cloth the florist trade. The fern has a wide dis sium (K) and a disruption in the internal nurseries. The industry contributed to the tribution in the forests, and is particular nutrient cycling within the plant of both following: i) a farmer-based co-operative ly abundant in some parts of the forest. phosphorous (P) and K. P and K declined to facilitate fern harvesting, packing and During 1982 interested people in the flo w ith increasing leaf age. K levels are par exporting; ii) extra job opportunities for rist industry asked for approval to harvest ticularly high in young tissue and plant several hundred members of farm worker the fern. Initially the request was declin parts of intense metabolism, and pro families; iii) better protection of the small ed by the forest managers, whereas the motes w ater content of the leaves. Too forest patches on the farms because of researchers were in favour of a pilot trial frequent harvesting of all mature leaves their added use value; iv) direct revenue to harvest the fern. The conflict was par deplete the nutrient resources in the for the forest service which amounted to tially resolved by agreement on a joint plant, decrease leaf size and decrease leaf US$0.1 m illion in 1994/95 plus several m il fern harvesting practice. This consisted of longevity. Leaf size determined leaf qua lion US$ for the farm-based industry. implementing a research programme on lity on the market and therefore provided assumed critical aspects of fern ecology, a basis fo r easy monitoring. Bark harvesting harvesting by the contractor along agreed Both buds and mature leaves develop practices and a "conservative" harvest ed th roughout the year, but maximum Historically the southern Cape forests frequency and intensity, and monitoring numbers developed during particular were not surrounded by indigenous peo by forest management personnel. No seasons, i.e. maximum bud production in ple who depended on the forest resour information was locally available and it spring to early summer, and maximum ces. Recently people migrated from rural was decided to adopt an "adaptive mana mature leaves during mid to late summer. areas to the east to look fo r job opportu gem ent research" approach. The research Harvesting was therefore reduced during nities in the towns in the area. Bark har programme focussed on the spring - early summer period to re vesting for traditional medicine from this

78 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Geldenhuys • Requirements for Improved and Sustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity: Examples of Multiple Use of Forests in South Africa forest complex is not supported, but hap the income from visitor use o f some of basis fo r developm ent o f strategies fo r pens illegally. Thirty five of the canopy these facilities (two sites with big trees better use o f forest products in rural areas. and sub-canopy tree species o f this area and two forest walks) was 0.56 million In the rural areas a process needs to be are ethno-botanically used in the Kwa Rand (US$0.112 m illion). Several local pri implemented to resolve conflicts between Zulu-Natal area, mostly the bark and/or vate tour operators are almost totally resource users and resource managers, to roots. Of these, the bark o f nine species dependent on the forest for their small improve diverse commercial use of the have been illegally used from both state- industries. Sale of indigenous plants from natural resources and to ensure sustain controlled and private forests in this area the forest nurseries amounted to 0.029 able resource management. Figure 1 shows (in 1989/90), and it is likely th a t this ille million Rand (US$0.006 m illion) fo r the the relationship between different com gal use has increased since then. A preli same period, but many other private nurs ponents of sustainable resource use. minary study was conducted to assess the eries in the area also sell plants o f indig The process to im plem ent sustainable potential to use bark from the harvested enous forest species. resource use should consist of the follow trees to sell to the traditional healers (Gel ing components and activities: denhuys & Lübbe 1991). Itwas also consid Conclusion: Requirements for ■ a survey amongst rural communities ered possible to develop a joint venture Sustainable Resource Use of current tree and non-tree products between some traditional healers and the used from natural forest, in particular forest management authorities to har The multiple-use system practiced in the why they use the particular species fo r vest bark from the forest on a sustainable southern Cape forests provide fo r a specific products; basis, integrated w ith the other forest sustainable use o f the biodiversity o f the ■ identification of high potential, high management activities. It w ill be neces forests. It is based on resource informa impact species fo r com m ercialization; sary to conduct further studies to support tion, on a knowledge of the ecological pro ■ implementation of a series of studies such a jo in t venture. cesses (such as disturbance and recovery, of the selected species to cover biologi recruitment, growth and mortality of the cal, ecological, genetic, production and Ecotourism key species, and nutrient cycling), a mon socio-economic studies; itoring system to timeously detect adverse ■ support of the development of small, Ecotourism is intensively practiced in the impacts, a supporting ecological research micro and medium enterprises, along forest through activities such as pic programme, a knowledge of the market with potential business partners, to the nicking and camping, forest walks, hikes needs, and a price structure fo r products benefit of the rural communities and and views from vantage points, all of which relate to the scarcity value of the biodiversity conservation of the forests in which have the rich biodiversity of the forest components. The process to com the area. forest as the basic attraction. In 1994/95 mercialize the use o f the fern provides a The study of a specific species should

Construction Energy Food Household Medicine Culture

Commercial/Subsistence use 1 Socio-economic use-value of Target Specie(s) iz R Plant community Ecology containing the of the Target Specie(s) f ------Target Specie(s) I I Community process/structure Population status/requirements

Composition Distribution Conservation status Site preferences Distribution Structure Site conditions Regeneration Disturbances Life cycles Development stage Productivity

Figure 1. Relationship between the components of sustainable resource management.

79 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Geldenhuys • Requirements for Improved and Sustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity: Examples of Multiple Use of Forests in South Africa incorporate the following studies: grow ing, light-demanding species from verdingen, Germany, and to present this ■ Ecology and resource status of the rainforest or other sources. They protec paper. species (population dynamics, biophysical ted forest margins against frequent fires site relations, key constraints of life cycle (because of the plantation fire protection References: [development] stages, eco-physiological practices) (Geldenhuys et al. 1986). They requirements, rates of growth) facilitated the establishment of the Anonymous 1987. Map o f South African ■ Ecology and status of the vegetation shade-tolerant forest species, as was Indigenous Evergreen Forest. Forest in w hich the species occurs (key ecologi shown from a study in the southern Cape Biome Project, Ecosystem Program cal processes, species composition in d if (Van Wyk et al. 1995) and in the northern mes, FRD:CSIR, Pretoria. ferent development stages) Province (Geldenhuys 1997a). They could Bosch, J.M. & Hewlett, J.D. 1980. Sedi ■ Socioeconomic value and use of the also be used to convert stands of alien ment control in South African forests species - including invader plants to regrowth indigenous and mountain catchments. South - local indigenous knowledge of spe forest (Geldenhuys et al. 1986). This nur African Forestry Journal 115, 5055. cies (names, why specific uses) sing role of alien invader plants were Cawe, S.G. 1986. A quantitative and qual -tra d itio n a l practices of resource har shown to be similar to that of the indi itative survey of the inland forests of vesting genous pioneer trees. The initial pure Transkei. MSc thesis, University of - local benefits stand of the indigenous or alien pioneer Transkei, Umtata. - market needs tree is gradually colonized and enriched Cooper, K.H. 1985. The conservation sta ■ A lternative production systems to by the shade-tolerant species of middle to tus o f indigenous forests in Transvaal, supplement or substitute production late serai stages (see Figure 2). Litter Natal and O.F.S., South Africa. Wild from the forest, and biodiversity/produc- accumulation in the serai stages after life Society of Southern Africa, Durban. tio n restoration systems. Recent studies of disturbance restore the nutrient cycling 108 pp. the catalyzing effect of tree plantings to and determine the rate of colonization Cooper, K.H. & Swart, W. 1992. Transkei restore forest biodiversity and produc and recovery. Forest Survey. W ildlife Society of tiv ity provide a basis fo r combining forest ■ Core conservation areas (reference Southern Africa, Durban. 96 pp. restoration and production of the plants areas) Cunningham, A.B. 1985. The resource used by rural communities for their daily ■ Monitoring of resource use impacts value of indigenous plants to rural livelihood (Geldenhuys et al. 1986; Gel ■ Ecological and socio-economic re people in a low agricultural potential denhuys 1996b, 1997a; Parrotta 1995, Par- search programmes to support and guide area. PhD thesis, University o f Cape rotta et al. 1997). In the southern Cape sustainable practices. Town, Rondebosch. forests this process is used to restore Cunningham, A.B. & Gwala, B.R. 1986. forest. Many introduced tree species were Acknowledgements Building material and plant species planted as commercial timber plantations used in Tembe-Thonga hut construc in forest gaps, and in grassland and shrub- The organizers o f the WELTFORUM WALD tion. Annals of the Natal Museum 27, land along the forest margins, since the forum on „Biodiversity - Treasures in the 491-511. late nineteenth century. The species se World's Forests" are thanked for financial Deacon, H.J., Hendy, Q.B. & Lambrechts, lected were generally easily raised, fast support to attend the meeting in Schne- J.J.N. (eds) 1983. Fynbos palaeoecology:

Stage 1: S ta g e 2 ; S ta g e 3: S ta g e 4 : Dense pioneer stand Growing up & self-thinning Further development/thiming Pioneer stand totally removed Kb understorey Sparse understorey Young regrowth forest Mixed regrowth forest

^ Invader plant, or 4« Invader plant or planted rt Forest trees and other i j Planted tree for t woodlot tree removed / \ species establishing i timber, fru it, etc. i fo r use or other purpose naturally or interplanted » i (th in n in g ) If (potentially traditionally used species)

Figure 2: Conceptual model of the stages In restoration of the biodiversity and Increase in potential use value of a woodland planted and 'manipulated' on the forest margin (adapted from Geldenhuys 1995).

80 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Geldenhuys • Requirements for Improved and Sustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity: Examples of Multiple Use of Forests in South Africa

a preliminary synthesis. South African tution of Civil Engineers, 19-21 April ers, Dordrecht, p.317-322. National Scientific Programmes Report 1993, Durban. Geldenhuys, C.J. 1997a. Native forest No 74, FRD:CSIR, Pretoria. 216 pp. Geldenhuys, C.J. 1993e. The use o f dia regeneration in pine and eucalypt Everard, D.A. 1986. The effects o f fire on meter distributions in sustained use plantations in Northern Province, the Podocarpus latifolius forests of management of forests: examples South Africa. Forest Ecology and the Royal Natal National Park. South from southern Africa. In: Piearce, G.D. Management 99, 101-115. African Journal o f Botany 52, 60-66. & Gumbo, D.J. (eds). The ecology and Geldenhuys, C.J. 1997b. Growth patterns Everard, D.A. & Hardy, S.D. 1993. Compo management o f indigenous forests in and composition trends in mixed ever sition, structure and dynamics of the southern Africa. Proceedings of an green forests in South Africa. In: Foli, Amatole forests. Report FOR-DEA International Symposium, Victoria E.G., Vanclay, J.K. & Ofosu-Asiedu, A. 810, Division o f Forest Science and Falls, Zimbabwe, 27-29 July 1992. (eds). Proceedings o f IUFRO Confer Technology, CSIR, Pretoria. 50 pp. Zimbabwe Forestry Commission & ence on Growth studies in Tropical Everard, D.A., Midgley, J.J. & Van Wyk, G.F. SAREC. pp 154-167. Moist Forests o f Africa, Kumasi, 1995. Dynamics o f someforests in Kwa Geldenhuys, C.J. 1994a. Bergwind fires Ghana. November 1996. p.79-92. Zulu-Natal, South Africa, based on and the location pattern of forest pat Geldenhuys, C.J. 1998. Long-term m oni ordinations and size-class distribu ches in the southern Cape landscape. toring plots show trends in the com tions. South African Journal o f Botany South Africa. Journal of Biogeogra position, growth and mortality of 61, 283-292. phy 21, 49-62. mixed evergreen forest in South Afri Feely, J.M. 1986. The distribution o f Iron Geldenhuys, C.J. 1994b. Lightning: a ca. In: F. Dallmeier & J.A. Comiskey Age farm ing settlem ent in Transkei: disturbance factor in the mixed ever (eds). Forest Biodiversity Research, 470 to 1870. MA thesis, University of green forests o f the southern Cape. Monitoring and Modeling: Concep Natal, Pietermaritzburg. 224 pp. Report FOR-DEA 833, Division of tual background and Old World Case Geldenhuys, C.J. 1980. The effect of Forest Science and Technology, CSIR, Studies. Man and the Biosphere management for timber production Pretoria. Series, Volume 20. UNESCO, Paris & on floristics and growing stock in the Geldenhuys, C.J. 1994c. Growing useful Parthenon Publishing, p.457-479. southern Cape forests. South African indigenous species on the forest mar Geldenhuys, C.J. & W.A. LJabe, 1991. Forestry Journal 113, 6-15, 25. gin: Potential and requirements. In: Sustainability of bark production Geldenhuys, C.J. 1982. The culling of Everard, D.A. (ed). Dynamics, function from the southern Cape forests: pos large, non-utilizable trees in the south and management of forest ecotones sible alternatives. In: Van W arm elo, W. ern Cape forests. South African For in the forest-plantation interface. (ed). Proceedings of a workshop: Tra estry Journal 120, 55-62. Environmental Forum Report, Proceed ditional medicine and plant manage Geldenhuys, C.J. 1991a. Distribution, size ings of Forestry Forum Research Meet m ent in the western Cape, Kirsten- and ownership of forests in the south ing, Sabie, May 1994. pp. 104-113. bosch. Flora Conservation Committee ern Cape. S. Afr. For. J. 158, 51—66. Geldenhuys, C.J. 1995. Modeling stand Report No 91/1. pp 12-16. Geldenhuys, C.J. 1991b. Inventory of indig development to manipulate forest Geldenhuys, C.J. & MacDevette, D.R. enous forest and woodland in south restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO 1989. Conservation status o f coastal ern Africa. South African Forestry XX World Congress, August 1995, and montane evergreen forest. In: Journal 158, 77-88. Tampere, Finland. Huntley, B.J. (ed) Biotic diversity in Geldenhuys, C.J. 1992. Richness, composi Geldenhuys, C.J. 1996a. Southern African southern Africa: concepts and conser tion and relationships of the floras of forests: their biogeography, conserva vation. Oxford University Press, Cape selected forests in southern Africa. tion and utilization. Proceedings of Town, p.224-238. Bothalia 22.2, 205-233. the MAB/UNESCO Regional Seminar Geldenhuys, C.J. & Maliepaard, W. Geldenhuys, C.J. 1993a. Composition and on Forests o f the Humid tropics of 1983. Causes and sizes o f canopy gaps dynamics of plant communities in the South and South-east Asia, 19-22 in the southern Cape forests. South southern Cape forests. FOR-DEA 612, March 1996, Kandy, Sri Lanka. African Forestry Journal 124, 5055. Division o f Forest Science and Tech Geldenhuys, C.J. 1996b. The Blackwood Geldenhuys, C.J. & Van der Merwe, nology, CSIR, Pretoria. 56 pp. Group System: its relevance fo r C.J. 1988. Population structure and Geldenhuys, C.J. 1993b. Floristic composi sustainable forest management in the growth of the fern Rumohra adianti- tion o f the southern Cape forest flora southern Cape. South African Forestry formis in relation to frond harvesting with an annotated checklist. South Journal 177, 1-15. in the southern Cape forests. South African Journal o f Botany 59, 26-44. Geldenhuys, C.J. 1996c. Forest manage African Journal of Botany 54,351-362. Geldenhuys, C.J.t1993c. Reproductive ment systems to sustain resource use Geldenhuys, C.J. & Van der Merwe, C.J. biology and population structures of and biodiversity: examples from the 1994. Site relations and performance Podocarpus falcatus and P.latifolius in southern Cape, South Africa. In: L.J.G. o f Rumohra adiantiformis in the sou southern Cape forests. Botanical Jour van der Maesen, X.M. van der Burgt, thern Cape forests. Report FOR-DEA nal o f Linnean Society 112, 59-74. and J.M. van Medenbach de Rooy, 759, Division of Forest Science and Geldenhuys, C.J. 1993d. Development of (eds.). The Biodiversity o f African Technology, CSIR, Pretoria. 33 pp. infrastructure in forest environments: Plants. Proceedings of the XIVth AET- Geldenhuys, C.J., Le Roux, P.J. & Cooper, resolving the conflicts. Proceedings of FAT Congress, Wageningen, The K.H. 1986. Alien invasions in indige Annual Congress, South African Insti Netherlands. Kluwer Academic Publish nous evergreen forest. In: Macdonald,

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I.A.W., Kruger, F.J. & Ferrar, A.A. (eds) Palmer, E. & Pitman, N. 1972. Trees of Van Daalen, J.C. 1991. Forest growth: A 35- The ecology and management of bio southern Africa. Balkema, Cape Town. year southern Cape case study. South logical invasions in southern Africa. 2235 pp. African Forestry Journal 159:1-10. Oxford University Press, Cape Town, Pammenter, N.W., Berjak, M. & Macdo Van Daalen, J.C. 1993a. The effect of com pp 119-131. nald, I.A.W. 1985. Regeneration of a petition on timber growth in a mixed Geldenhuys, C.J., Kotze, D. & Van der Natal coastal dune forest after fire. evergreen forest stand. South African Merwe, C.J. 1988. Road-building and South African Journal of Botany 51, Forestry Journal 165:21-28. the survival of indigenous forest. South 453-459. Van Daalen, J.C. 1993b.Thevalueof crown African Forestry Journal 145, 13-24. Parker, I.S.C. 1982. Conservation, realism position and form as growth indica Granger, J.E. 1984. Fire in forest. In: Booy- and the future. 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82 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

plying vegetational surface (substrat), Importance of Vertical Stratification structures and biomass (cover, food) as - simultaneous - by reducing distances be and Horizontal Patchiness Concerning tween ground layer and tree-crown (refu- gial distance). Species-Diversity in Managed Forests - From an aut-ecological point of view surprisingly we find very view species - in A Comparison instance of avifauna - which will profit by a rich stratification (2 Non-Passerines/18 Wolfgang Scherzinger Passerines - w ith in 41 selected species o f forests), but vertical structures allow a drastic increase in species diversity of a Concepts fo r species preservation in (like a-b-g-diversity) and upon different stand coincidentally, as a consequence of managed forests require knowledge of dimensions of habitat (like area, space, interlocking of elements of species-specif tw o basic data: time). ic habitats! - the species sample - specific to 2.1 As structural characters of forests The horizontal structure of patchiness forests; in natural long-term development, which support much more species directly ( Non- -th e characters of forests, -significant are im portant fo r species-diversity, I point Passerines/21 Passerines-within 41 selec to habitat quality. out: ted species o f forests), showing a clear Both questions should be discussed in - Characters of old growth ("rough positive correlation, as long, as patches relation to natural - respectively primary ness" of tree bark and canopy, massive w ill not transgress a medium size, as dead - woodland, as these ecosystems repre branches, tall grow ing stems, dead wood wood makes at least 10-30% of tree-bio- sent a remarkable part of our natural and undergrowth, long lasting conditions mass and stands of old growth are part of heritage! in a constant biotope, especially in devel the mosaic. In horizontal structure the 1.1 Classical attempts to "nature con opment of treestands and soil). function of patch-diversity is important, servation in forests" consider floral and -Gaps in canopy and stands, including including short-distance neighborhood faunal species o f old grow th in so called open clearings (full of sunshine, rich in o f different phases w ith in forest devel steady state or climax-phase. This means nutrients, highly productive understorey). opment, and the texture of a divers clear a focussing on ecosystems mature and - Vertical stratification (as effect of ing-system as well. old, with a high level of constancy - and non-even-aged tree stands, high diversi Comparing the importance of vertical therefore a point o f gravity in species of ty in tree species, rejuvenation, tolerant and horizontal structures in relation to a complex canopy and of ground-litter - to shadow under storey). diversity - what should be topic of this usually in deep shadow - as well. - Horizontal patchiness (as effect of "round table"- the separation of these 1.2 Following a dynamic aspect of disturbance, reorganization and consoli both parameters is not so clear, as within forest development I recommend, to dation - respectively of the dynamic the horizontal mosaic the patches of old number the sum of all the potential char development of forest stands, building a growth always represent also rich vertical acters o f forest - w ith in its natural devel mosaic of different phases in space and structures (see: mosaic-cycle-concept in opment - as its specific diversity of habi time). REMMERT 1991)! In this context, vertical tats and species (this means successional 2.2 Although the plenty o f structural and horizontal structures are not really stages, secondary forest, edges and gaps parameters of stand-texture determine contrasting but additional characters. or even clearings created by disasters) - in species diversity in woodlands mutually, I In contrast to popular meaning, para addition to the sector of closed old will pickout7(8)singledimensions, which meters o f "naturalness" and species- growth with relatively poor diversity seem to be most im portant - and there diversity do not show a positive correla under a shadowing canopy. fore dominate the discussion on nature tion automatically. Looking at a very different grade of conservation regularly: 2.3 Which strategies are suitable to rarity in the phases o f forest development Characters like dead wood, propor establish such structural characters in our (like old growth-, die back- and break tions of forest edges, patch-size and central European woodlands ? down-phases) and a very different grade degree of canopy cover-support species- A model of "integration" engages the of threat to single ecological guilds (like diversity up to a certain threshold - and forest authority to maintain or develop old xylobiontic and epiphytic organism, big maximizing them will not automatically growth, inclusive rich edges, a divers pat Non-Passerine birds), the discussion lead to a maximum of diversity! tern of gaps in canopy and clearings and dead should select all these species, which are This also is the fact w ith the pregnant wood. In practical forestry the structures of not able to resettle in the "w ake" of con structural character of vertical stratifica vertical stratification looks equivalent to the ventional forestry or cultured landscape tion, which means in its maximum devel layering in selection forest (Plenterwald), in respectively. opment a dense forest in deep shadow coppice-with-standards-system (Mittel- 2. Species-diversity is bound to a plenand a cramped canopy-which f.i. will be wald) or age-structured forests (hiebsreifer ty of criterias, determining habitat quali hindering the flight of large birds (ex Altersklassenwald). Management should ty of woodland. This paper will focus on treme types in selective cutting forest (like promote a high degree of this characters, structural characters - in a wide sense, „Plenterwald" o f beech, fir and spruce). - but not a maximum, which may mean dense drawing upon different levels of attempt Its beneficial effect is induced by multi and dark woods.

83 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Scherzinger • Importance of Vertical Stratification and Horizontal Patchiness Concerning Species-Diversity in Managed Forests - A Comparison

Cultivated forest may integrate concepts must aim at foundation of na - To maintain a high diversity of spe structures of a horizontal mosaic in age- ture reserves, free of lumbering and large cies in the forests we need a high diversi structured-forest, in creating small clear- enough, to get the broad scale of habi ty o f silvicultural systems and manage cuts (Femelbetrieb, Saumschlag) and tats and conditions, which are typical for ment types. selective cutting of tree-cohorts, in the primary forests - and necessary to pre - It does not make much sense to course of which the diversity of age- serve diversity of highly specialized and draw a strict dividing line between verti classes and certain structures should get less adaptive species. cal and horizontal structures, as both pre maximized. 3. Instead of summing up I depositsuppose each other - or could be inter I will point at the practical experience, three basic statements: preted as the contrasting end-sectors of that historical types of utilization and -In spite of a high level of habitat qual a continuum of patchsizes with gradual exploitation can induce an impressive ity and -requisites some forest species in differentiation. level of species-diversity (like perforation flora and fauna do require, actually no of canopy, extraction of nutrients, f.i. strict specialists of real primary forest Author's address: forest litter utilization, coppice cutting, exist, what helps some of them to survive pasture woodland), what we could most in adequate secondary habitats (like Dr. Wolfgang Scherzinger ly maintain by conservational manage parks, cemeteries, gardens or avenues), National Park Bavarian Forest ment today. respectively what helps us to compen Freyunger Str. 2 As every silvicultural system excludes sate structures by forest management (as D-94481 Grafenau, Germany the development of real structures of it is the case in sustainable forest [Dauer Fax: +49-8552-1394 forests fundamentally, conservational wald] f ¡.).

Tab. 1: Importance of vertical stratification and horizontal patchiness for quality of habitats for European woodland birds.

Non-Passerines Passerines + - O + - o + - O + - o Total = 41 species 2 1 2 24 27 0 13 Total = 46 species 18 13 5 2 1 0 23 Assignment 0? (3) (14) (18) Assignment =? (23) (18) (2 2 ) (24)

Tab. 2: Species diversity as a function o f structural architecture of habitats, induced by disturbances within different dimensions o f habitat - like area, space and time.

Potential o f species Dimensions of habitat Structural architecture "Disturbances" Natural history Area Species-Area-Interrelation "n a tu ra l" Climate Fragmentation climatic fluctuations Geology/Soil Isolation abiotic disturbances Landscape morphology Space Horizontal patchiness biotic disturbances Landscape pattern vectical stratification "anthropogenous" History of exploitation dead and down wood/ global change Quality of forest stands special properties forest exploitation Faunal geography interlocking w ith special forest culture Faunal history habits (meadows, rocks, water) Time „stready state" (climaxforest, old growth, longlasting colonisation) "change" (succession, species-turnover, phases of forest development)

84 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

sity to assess the ecological status and Impact Assessment of Working of regeneration and growing stock to assess the economic status. Western Ghats Forests Sacred grooves which are locally called "Devarakadu's" are forest areas C. G. K ushalappa and K. A. K ushalappa owned by government but protected by local people for very long period of time. There are 1214 such sacred grooves The Western Ghats are a chain of high accounts for 32.76 percent of the total ranging from 0.01 to 125 hectares. Over lands running along the Western edge of geographical area. The district has some the years due to policy changes by the India. This hill range contains some of the of the best evergreen rain forests known government and changes in the attitude most im portant tropical forests in the sub for its ecological importance and some of of local people these community lands continent covering an area of 160,000 the most economically rich moist decid have either been fully encroached and square kilometers. Western Ghats has uous and deciduous forests. The district deforested or shrunk in area and tree overall effect on the South Western mon has 1332 species o f flow ering plants cover. Studies have been undertaken to soons, which has resulted in very distinct which includes many rare and endemic asses the present status of these sacred and unique biological diversity in this plants. The district is also rich in medici grooves and undertake intensive field area. Vegetation ranges from scrub jun nal plants, which are endemic. studies in areas above 1 0 acres to em pha gles and grasslands at low altitudes to The forests in the district were wor size the need fo r conserving these sacred deciduous forest areas in middle eleva ked as in other parts of the Western Ghats grooves which have become islands of tion and tropical rain forests at upper rea and the excessive fellings undertaken biodiversity amidst changing land use ches. The Western Ghats have 3,500 floral resulted in the complete ban o f green fe l pattern in the district. species which account fo r one third of the ling in the governm ent forests from 1986. There are large forest areas in the high flowering plants in India. The floristic ele A scientific study was undertaken by altitude region of the district, which were ments are not only unique but are high the College o f Forestry w ith assistance leased by the local kings and later by Brit ly endemic, the percentage of endemism from state government with the follow ish for promoting cultivation of coffee ranging from 40-63% in different areas. ing objectives: and cardamom, which were in great The faunal diversity is also exotic and 1 . To study the impact o f w orking in demand. These areas which were leased endangered, like Lion tailed macaque, different forest areas like long time back have undergone a distinct Nilgiri thar and Great Indian Hornbill. This 1. Government owned forests man change in ownership, extent and con diverse and unique biodiversity has resul aged by forest department dition due to clear-felling and conversion ted in declaring Western Ghats as one of II. Government owned sacred grooves to coffee and cardamom. There are two the 18 "hot spots" of biodiversity in the managed either by forest or revenue major kinds o f such leases. "Coffee Sagu- world, which means this hill range is a department in association with local peo vali Malais" are areas w here the lease has outstanding eco-region where conserva ple. rights over the land and "Jamma Malais" tion effort is of utmost priority. III. Forest areas leased fo r cultivation which are long term hereditary leases The Western Ghats also produce cof of coffee or cardamom where the leases does not have rights over fee, tea, pepper, cardamom, rubber and 2. To study the impact of working on land. In both cases trees are absolute minerals like iron ore, manganese and species diversity, regeneration and grow property of the government. bauxite. Forests have been cleared fo r ing stock The studies initiated under the project these developmental needs. Forests in 3. To identify over worked areas and funded by Department of Ecology and Western Ghats have been worked system deviation from working plan Environment of the government of Karna atically w ith the advent o f British Rule 4. To suggest suitable management taka is an effort towards study of the around 1886 by means o f approved w ork practices for managing these forest. impact of working in a fragile and ecol ing plans. Excessive fellings during the The studies with respect to forests ogically important forest area in the world w orld wars has resulted in changes in managed by the forest department and undergoing a change in extent and con structure and composition. The forests worked on selection system were under dition due to man induced changes that were worked later based on selection fel taken in 3 ranges and the worked area are common to any developing country. ling system mainly for plywood industries were selected from 1965 till 1985 at 5 where large areas were leased out for years interval. These areas were worked Authors' address: w orking when selected soft wood species mainly for the plywood species and the were removed. details like extent of worked area, major Dr. Chepudira Kushalappa Kodagu is a district in the state of species felled and quantity o f wood rem o College o f Forestry, University Karnataka. The entire area of 4,107.75 ved were collected from the forest o f Agricultural Sciences square kilometers is under Western department. Field studies were underta Ponnampet, Kodagu Karnataka - Ghats, Forests constitute 1,345.97 square ken to compare worked and adjoining 571216, India kilometer of the total land area which unworked areas w ith respect to biodiver Fax: +91-8274-49365

85 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

cies are under actual management and Is Normal Forest Management Able to only 2 % may be of potential interest in near future. Conserve Rare Species? Tree species represent only 15 % of the higher plants and mosses, they have Jochen Kleinschmit however associated species complexes which in number surpass by fa r their own numbers. Some are very specific, others 1. What is "normal" forest man must be restricted due to human needs of more general. agement in the present world? wood, and their ecological conditions may Therefore rare tree species are only an change due to unintended human influ indicator fo r complexes o f other species. At present forest management ranges ences, they are not sufficient to guarantee form exploitation as expressed by an the survival of all rare species. 3. Situation in boreal, temperate annual loss of forest cover of more than and tropical forests 15 m illion hectares (Tab. 1), over planta 2. Rare tree species as examples tio n forestry w ith single tree species, eco for their associated species com Species diversity is lowest in boreal forests, logically oriented forest management plexes increases towards tem perate forest and with prevailing natural regeneration to has a maximum in tropical forests. To en selective logging in virgin forests, some There exist overall guesses fo r the annual sure the conservation of rare species by times associated by enrichment planting. loss o f species. Of course these figures normal management is therefore easier in It is quite clear, th a t exploitation and include a lot of speculation since even the boreal forests and temperate forests as monospecies plantation forestry are not existing number of species is not known compared to tropical forests, where the able to conserve rare species. They cover (Tab. 2). most drastic changes in forest surface are today however the most extended part of Most of the species are not evaluated occurring and where the knowledge of managed forests. With an increase of and if they are evaluated the data are de rare species is most restricted. natural regeneration and a decrease of ficient. Only in few cases adequate data For tem perate forests the noble hard human interference the conservation of are available (Fig. 1). Those tree species woods, which include most rare tree spe rare species becomes more probable. The which are under regular forest manage cies in Central Europe, may serve as an participation of rare species can be one ment, have the lowest risk of extinction. example. An EUFORGEN network coordi intention of an ecologically oriented If we look to the tree species which nates the conservation activities with forest management as usual in some Cen are under actual management (140 spe these species in Europe. Table 4 explains tral European countries. cies) or those w ith more intensive breed the reasons for endangerment of noble It is most probable, that rare species are ing programs, where sufficient genetic hardwoods in Germany. Small population conserved in unmanaged natural reserves information is available (Tab. 3) it be size, unregulated seed im port, hybridiza and virgin forests. But since their surface comes clearthat only 0,3 % of thetreespe- tion and diseases are major causes. Small

Tab. 1: Present world forest inventory and related changes (DIXON et al. 1994, see also for literature references and deduction of individual values).

Areas in Million ha Geographic latitude Total Protected Forests Plantation Annual changes in surface

Boreal Russia 884 178 43 -0,2 Canada 436 9 3 -0,5

Alaska 52 2 1 - Total 1372 189 47 -0,7 Temperate USA 241 14 2 -0,1 Europe 283 40 1 + 0,3

China 118 - 31 + 0,6 Australia 396 18 1 -0,1 Total 1038 72 35 + 0,7 Tropical Asia 310 49 22 -3,9 Africa 527 113 2 -4,1 America 918 105 6 -7,4 Total 1755 267 30 - 15,4

Overall Total 4165 528 1 1 2 - 15,4

86 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Kleinschmit ■ Is Normal Forest Management Able to Conserve Rare Species? population size endangers the genetic Tab. 2: Number o f known and estimated number of unknown species (Conversion of base by inbreeding (loss o f vitality) and a figure presented by the author). genetic d rift (loss o f genetic inform ation). Therefore ex situ measures (Fig. 2) Species Number in Million l were necessary to reestablish genetical known unknown variable breeding populations and to Vires 0.40 Bacteria 1.00 conserve the available genetic diversity Funqi 0.07 1.50 for utilization and for the future. Microbes 0.05 0.20 The present situation of the conser Alqes 0.06 0.40 vation program in Germany, coordinated Higher Plants 0.25 0.35 by a Federal-State workshop, is reflected Worms 0.02 0.40 in Table 5 and 6 . Crabs 0.05 0.15 To establish similar programs in tropi Spiders 0.06 0.75 Insects 0.95 8.00 cal countries is much more difficult and Molluscs 0.05 1.00 expensive, therefore natural reserves can Vertebrates 0.06 0.06 be an intermediate means to ensure the Others 0.10 0.25 conservation o f most rare species there, until normal forest management can include those more than it is possible ■ Lack of control of biodiversity in most ■ Control if management improves the today. applied programs especially in practical situation o f rare tree species. forestry, ■ Establish regulations for minimum 4. Deficits, necessities ■ Lack of regulations for minimum requirements concerning rare species as and restrictions requirements to ensure that biodiversity elements of sustained forestry. is really an element of sustained forestry. ■ Improve the utilization of minor spe There exists a number of gaps in the knowl These gaps must be closed, which is cies to rise the economic interest in these edge o f rare species and there is a lack of much easier and partly on the way in tem species. control, th a t these species are maintained perate regions but difficult at the ■ Establish a netw ork o f nature reserves in normal forest management: moment in most tropical countries. The regionally and ecologically at least as an ■ Lack o f knowledge of the present necessities are: intermediate step until the above prints range and frequency of most rare tree ■ Improve the knowledge of the pre are performed. and shrub species, sent range of rare tree species. The establishment of a network of ■ Lack o f knowledge of the genetic ■ Improve the knowledge of the gene nature reserves seems to be the only pos structure o f biodiversity fo r most species, tic structure of rare tree species. sibility as an intermediate step. ■ Lack of activities w ith m inor species in ■ Include m inor tree species into forest With increasing population pressure most countries, management plans. the pressure on the reserves w ill increase

E xtinct Extinct in the W ild

-(Threatened) -Endangered -Vulnerable (Adequate Data)- -Conservation D ependent Low er Risk -Near Threatened E valuated- -Least Concern

Data Deficient Specie

Not Evaluated

Fig. 1: Threatened species categories (The World Conservation Union).

87 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Kleinschmit • Is Normal Forest Management Able to Conserve Rare Species?

Tab. 3: Estimated number o f tree species (Sources: Board of Agriculture 1991, FAO as well. Therefore a combination of con 1996) (Conversion of a figure presented by the author). servation of genetic resources of rare and other species in conjunction w ith the pro estimated duction of utilities, especially wood, will number of tree be the only sound solution and this species implies th a t forest management has to be tree species with more intensive breeding programme 60 able to conserve rare species as well. tree species under actual management 140

tree species of potential interest in near future 1 , 0 0 0 Author's address: to ta l number o f existing tree species 50,000

Dr. Jochen Kleinschmit Lower Saxony Forestry Research Institute Ex situ measures Forstamtstr. 6 , D-34355 Escherode, Germany Plantations in the field Fax: +49-5543-940861 Seed orchards — technically simple e-mail: [email protected] Clonal archives not sophisticated

Storage o f - seed under controlled conditions - pollen technically susceptible - tissue increasingly sophisticated - DNA sequences

Fig. 2: Ex situ measures in hardwood conservation.

Tab. 4: Common species of noble hardwoods in Germany.

Species Impor Seed Unregu Reason of endangering tance Legis lated lation Seed Import Native species Hybridisation Hybridisation Small Disea- with other with cultivars population size ses species O Inbreeding, genetic drift Acer campestre * * * * Acer platanoides ** * * * Acer ***** * pseudoplatanus Alnus glutinosa * * * * * Fraxinus excelsior ***** * Malus sylvestris * * *** * * * Prunus avium * * * * * * * * Pyrus pyraster * * *** *** Sorbus domestica * * * ** Sorbus torminalis * * * * Tilia cordata *** * * Tilia platyphyllos * * * * * Ulmus glabra *** * * * *** Ulmus laevis ** * * * * * * Ulmus minor * * * * * **** Non native species Jug la ns regia * * Juglas nigra * *

88 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Kleinschmit • Is Normal Forest Management Able to Conserve Rare Species?

Tab. 5: Conservation o f genetic resources of noble hardwoods in Germany in situ /e x situ.

Conservation of genetic resources of noble hardwoods in Germany in situ/ex situ (31. 12. 97) Species Conservation in situ Conservation ex situ Stands Single trees Stands Single trees Number ha Number Number ha Number Acer campestre 10 19,85 1236 - - - Acer plata no id es 14 4,69 692 - - - Acer pseudoplatanus 68 68,09 226 6 10,45 - Alnus glutinosa 84 234, 13 216 - - - Carpinus betulus 81 134, 48 117 2 0,9 - Castanea sativa 2 3,2 10 - - - Fraxinus excelsior 101 141, 49 145 - - - Jug la ns regia 1 0, 1 272 - - - Malus sylvestris 2 1, 1 2024 20 4,4 1985 Prunus avium 40 21, 66 620 6 2,61 700 Pyrus pyraster 6 2,75 967 1 0, 1 400 Sorbus aria 1 0,2 259 4 2,6 - Sorbus aucuparia 4 3,5 251 7 2,3 - Sorbus domestica 1 0, 1 1928 7 2,8 4243 Sorbus torminalls 244 4,8 1661 13 6,2 4707 Tilia cordata 122 124, 75 204 - - - Tilia platyphyllos 125 21, 19 198 - - - Ulmus glabra 90 49,63 3189 7 6,65 4625 Ul mus laevls 82 50, 78 3598 13 4, 13 120 Ulmus m inor 3 10, 16 671 - - 270

Tab. 6: Conservation o f genetic resources of noble hardwoods in Germany: Seed orchards and clone archives.

Conservation of genetic resources of noble hardwoods in Germany Seed orchards and clone archives (Stand 31.12. 97) Species Seed O rchards Close A rchives Number ha Families Clones Number Clones Acer campestre ------Acer platanoides 2 4,4 - n o - - Acer pseudoplatanus 17 29,6 - 781 3 58 Alnus glutinosa 19 37,97 - 822 1 21 Carpinus betulus 2 4,4 - 157 - - Castanea sativa - - - - 1 20 Fraxinus excelsior 11 23,8 - 719 1 52 Jug la ns regia 1 1,5 - 39 1 9 Malus sylvestris 22 21, 05 232 514 1 28 Prunus avium 18 33,6 N 1 1069 8 205 Pyrus pyraster 16 12,87 40 400 2 57 Sorbus aria 3 2,04 53 50 - - Sorbus aucuparia 4 3,57 48 111 - - Sorbus domestica 6 4 ,8 128 236 2 76 Sorbus torminalis 8 9,6 100 282 2 41 Tilia cordata 19 39,38 - 582 2 102 Tilia platyphyllos 2 4, 1 - 191 1 11 Ulmus glabra 9 11, 1 37 287 18 688 Ulmus laevis 1 2 - 109 3 80 Ulmus minor 1 1,5 - 50 1 21

89 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

2. The ingrowth into the smallest dia Successful Examples of Multiple Forest meter class has to be high enough to gua rantee the long term steady state. Use - the Model of Selection Forests 3. The sum of the harvested volume has to be equal to the volume increment. Marc Hanewinkel 1.1 Selection forests as multiple use forests of high stability Abstract 3. Can the management of selection forests be economically efficient? Selection forests show several elements The paper deals with selection forests as 3.1 Economic input and output indi that characterize them as multiple use a successful example o f m ultiple forest ces o f selection forests forests of high stability: use. Firstly a short definition of selection 3.2 Comparison of selection forests ■ Selection forests are the perfect exam forests as stated in the paper is given. A with even-aged forests ple of continuous cover forests with no selection forest is here defined as a type 4. Conclusions clearcuts executed during the normal har of permanent forest where trees of dif 5. References vesting activities. ferent age and dimension grow together ■ They comply particularly with the on a minimal restricted area in a perma 1. Definition of selection forests demands of forest visitors for recreation nent and steady state structure (Schütz, and are due the very large trees looked 1989, p.2) and where the only form of A selection forest is here defined as a type upon as "virgin forests", although there harvesting executed is - single tree - se of permanent forest, where trees of structure is almost purely artificial and has lective cutting. The type of selection forest different age and dimension grow to be maintained by constant harvesting especially discussed in this statement is together on a minimal restricted area and interventions. dominated by silver fir (Abies alba. Mill.). fill completely the whole vertical crown- ■ Selection forests deliver a very effec Selection forests as m ultiple use forests of space in a permanent and steady state tive protection function (e.g. against soil high stability fulfilling recreation, pro structure (Schütz, 1989, p.2). The only erosion, avalanches,...). This is due to the tective and economic functions are pre harvesting executed in this forest type complete lack of clearcuts but is as well sented. is single tree - selective cutting. The type a result of the low risk of calamities Secondly, implications of selection of selection forest investigated in this (w indfall, icebreakage, insects ...) th a t forests concerning biodiversity are stated. study is dominated by silver fir (Abies characterizes selection forests. Some aspects of habitat quality and con alba. Mill.) Table 1 shows the results o f an inves servation o f "threatened" species w ith Fig. 1 shows the typical stem-distribu tigation (Hanewinkel & W illmann, 1996) the example of silver fir (Abies alba, Mill.) tion of a single-tree selection forest with in two selection forests (District XVII and are briefly discussed together w ith criti an inverse J-curve. Farm Forest Y) and tw o even-aged forests cal points (the low rate of decidous trees The steady-state structure of a selec (State Forest B and Group I). and the concentration on shade tolerant tion forest is based on three precondi The results clearly point out that the species). tions (Schütz, 1989): percentage of incidental exploitations Thirdly the question whether the 1. Each tree leaving a diameter class(due to w indfall, snow-breakage, insects) management of selection forests can be due to harvesting, mortality or diameter in the selection forest enterprises is dis economically efficient is discussed. Impor increment has to be replaced by a tree tinctly lower than in the even-aged forest tant economic input and output indices from a smaller diameter class. enterprises. of selection forests are presented and compared to those of even-aged forests. The conclusions of the presented aspects lead to the statement that selec tion forests can be looked upon as a very successful example o f m ultiple forest use which - with small modifications - respects the main aspects of biodiversity.

Structure

1. Definition of selection forests 1.1 Selection Forests as m ultiple use forests of high stability 2. Implications of selection forests con cerning biodiversity 2.1 Habitat quality and conservation o f "threatened" species Fig. 1: Stem distribution of a selection forest (N = num ber o f stems, DBH - d i a m e t e r 2.2 Critical points a t 1 .3 m ).

90 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Hanewinkel • Successful Examples of M ultiple Forest Use - the Model of Selection Forests

Tab. 1: Planned annual cut, harvested volume, percentage o f incidental exploitations and stem w ood In the Investigated survey- and comparative enterprises and groups. W eighted mean o f the years 1980 (1984) to 1994.

Index Enterprise/Group Planned Annual Cut Harvested Vol. Incidental Stemwood (%) (m3/ha *a) (m3/ha *a) Exploitations (%) District XVII 6,1 6,1 29,0 87,8 Farm Forest Y 6,7 7,5 20,4 93,8 State Forest B 7,5 8,2 62,2 82,3 Group I 7,1 7,2 44,3 74,7

2. Implications of selection forests In the 1980s during the discussion about perature and drought), this decrease is concerning biodiversity "forest decline" in central Europe, silver fir due to inappropriate forest manage (Abies alba) one of the dominant tree spe ment. Particularly silvicultural systems 2.1 Habitat quality and conserva cies in selection forests, was looked upon as with short regeneration times will lead to tion of "threatened" species a "dying species" (Bo Larsen, 1986). Very forests with a high percentage of Norway recently, one of the major NGOs in Germany spruce (P/cea abies, Karst.) and a loss o f Concerning habitat quality and species proposed silverfirto be put on the "red list" silver fir. composition it can be considered that se of threatened species. The highest percentage of silver fir lection forests consist of trees with differ Figure 2 shows the distribution of the (more than 40%) can be found in the se ent sizes and hights on a minimal area main tree species in the Black Forest re lection forests, where the continuous which results in many edge effects and a gion, one of the most important areas of crown cover promotes the shade tolerant distinct vertical and horizontal structure. the extension o f silver fir in Germany, in species like silverfir. Selection forestry can Furthermore, selection forests are different age-classes and in selection therefore looked upon as a way to con dominated by - compared to even-aged forests. It can be realized that the per serve silver fir (Abies alba, Mill.). forests - unusually large trees, which is of centage of silver fir distinctly decreases particular interest for the habitats of with the age of the forests in the Black 2.2 Critical points many birds or insects (Scherzinger, 1996). Forest region. Whilst forests stands elder Looking at the natural vegetation poten than 140 years (Age class VIII+) have more However, at least two elements of selec tial, selection forests tend to have a more than 25% of silver fir, the percentage tion forests must be considered as to be "natural" composition o f species (e.g. less decreases to less than 1 0 % in the stands critical concerning biodiversity: Firstly, the disturbance indicators) than even-aged below 40 years. Besides other reasons like concentration on coniferous trees (s. Fig. forests under similar site conditions. sensitivity to air pollution or climatic 2 ) in forests where the natural w ood asso (Walentowski, 1998). changes (mainly a rise in the mean tem ciation would bedominated by deciduous

100%

80 %

60 %

40 %

2 0 %

0 % I II III IV V VI VII VIII+ Sfo Su. Age class

Fig. 2: Distribution o f species in different age classes (I - VIII) o f even-aged forests and in selection forests (Sfo) in the Black Forest region (National Forest Inventory, 1992). Age class I = 0-20 years; II = 20-40 years;...).

91 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Hanewinkel • Successful Examples of M ultiple Forest Use - the Model of Selection Forests

Tab. 2: Planting Sites (Plantation and Pre-Plantation) in the selection forest district XVII. % = yearly area in % o f the total forest area; N*1000 = num ber o f plants x 1000 used; N/ha(ps) = num ber o f plants per ha planting site, 0 - arithm etic m ean o f the years 1980 to 1994.

District XVII 1980 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 0 Plantation 1.22 - 0.61 - 0.12 Pre-Plantat. [%] ------0.15 - - - - - 0.01 Sum. ------0.15 - 1.22 - 0.61 - 0.13 Plantation 1.35 - 0.5 - 0.123 Pre-Plantat. [N*1000] ------0.25 - - - - - 0.017 Sum ------0.25 - 1.35 - 0.5 - 0.14 Sum [N/ha (ps)] ------1.67 - 1.13 - 0.83 - 1.077

Tab. 3: Distribution o f quality classes and mean index figures of the quality classes. (Stem wood o f Norw ay spruce and Silver fir). W eighted mean of the years 1984-1994. ( )* = Total am ount o f high quality tim ber (part-veneer, resonant w ood,...) assorted as A-quality. - = No inform ation recorded.

Ratio Enterprise/Group %-of Quality Class: Mean Index Figure: A B C D A B C D District XVII 10,1 79,0 10,7 0,2 53,6 48,5 48,1 49,5 (58,7)* (30,4)* Farm Forest Y 20,9 42,9 33,0 3,3 - 46,2 47,3 46,5 Group II 0,03 76,5 19,2 4,3 52,5 41,2 41,7 43,4

trees (mainly beech - Fagussylvatica) and small number of large trees removed lection forests) are extraordinarily favora secondly the concentration on shadetoler- during the harvesting activities. ble compared to those of neighboring ant species. Therefore, the number of On the other hand a high percentage even-aged forest enterprises (state forest species in selection forests tends to be of stemwood (s. Table 1), an unusually A and B and Group I). Farm forest Y and lower than in even-aged forests under high percentage of large timber and if community forest X reach between 450 similar site conditions (Walentowski, pruning (the removal of branches at the and 500% of the operating profit of the 1998). Biodiversity in selection forests small trees) is executed - of high quality state forest group I. could be improved by integrating beech tim ber can be expected in selection forest An adjustment of these results on the (Fagus sylvatica) e.g. in groups and by enterprises. annual planned cut does not substantial limiting the standing volume or creating Table 3 shows that in selection forests ly change the results. The predominance gaps. (District XVII, Farm forest Y) the percen of the selection forest enterprises is main tage of high quality timber (quality class ly the result of very high revenues due to 3. Can the management of selec A) can be distinctly higher than in even- high percentages of high value timber. In tion forests be economically effi aged forests (Group II). Looking at the addition to that, the expenses in commu cient ? average size o f stemwood it can be con nity forest X is clearly lower than in the sidered that selection forests produce comparative enterprises. The expenses in 3.1 Economic input and output mainly large (index figure >46) or very farm forest Y is higher than in the other indices of selection forests large timber (>48), whilst the output of enterprises due to a high proportion of even-aged forests is mainly medium (43) fixed costs linked to the small forest area Table 2 shows the results of an investiga or small sized (<42) timber. of the enterprise. Regarding the expense- tion in a selection forest district in the cen sphere, the survey- and comparative tral black forest. Less than 0.2% of the 3.2 Comparison of selection enterprises can hardly be compared main to ta l forest area had to be replanted year forests with even-aged forests ly due to th e ir different size and their d if ly during the investigation period. Selec fering organization form. Taking into tion forests are characterized by low Table 4 shows that the operating profits account mean administrative expenses input indices concerning plantation or (revenue/expense) of the survey enterpri for state forest enterprises, the operating young growth tending, dueto the contin ses dominated by selection forests (farm results of the state forest A and the state uous crown cover with constant natural forest Y and community forest X with forest group I - both dominated by even- regeneration and self-regulation. Har 60% of selection forests and 2 0 % of aged forests - are negative. vesting costs are low as well due to the forests in the state of conversion to se

92 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

Tab. 4: Profit and Loss (Operating Profit in % of group I and Input/O utput Ratio). Revenues w ithout grants. Expenses w ithout expenses for adm inistration and depreciation for roads. M ean o f the years 1980 to 1994.

Enterprise/ Revenue Expense Operating profit Input/Output Group II Ratio DM/ha (DM/m3) in % of Group I %

Farm Forest Y 181 (174) 116 ( 1 1 1 ) 496 (495) 53 Comm. For. X 151 (152) 8 8 (87) 459 (480) 48 State Forest A 106 (116) 104 (113) 120 (135) 81 State Forest B 121 (107) 112 (103) 161 (125) 78

Group I 1 0 0 ( 1 0 0 ) 1 0 0 (1 0 0 ) 1 0 0 ( 1 0 0 ) 83

4. Conclusions 5. References Author's address:

Selection forests as presented in this Hanewinkel & Willmann, (1996): Ökono Dr. Marc Hanewinkel paper can looked upon as very successful mische Leistungsfähigkeit zweier Institute of Forest Economics examples of multiple forest use and thus Plenterwaldbetriebe... Arbeitsbericht Bertholdstr. 17, of utilization of biodiversity. They fulfill 25-96, Institut fü r Forstökonomie, D-79085 Freiburg, Germany perfectly the main functions of multiple Universität Freiburg, 54 p. e-mail: [email protected] use forests (protection, recreation, habi Hanewinkel, 1998, Plenterwald und Plen tat) and can be, as shown in an investi terwaldüberführung , PhD-thesis, Uni gation in the Central Black Forest (Hane- versity of Freiburg 252p. winkel, 1998), particularly efficient from Schütz (1989): Le jardinage - Script - Syl an economical point of view. However viculture III, EPF Zürich, 54 p. some of the critical aspects of selection Scherzinger, W. (1996): Naturschutz im forests (e.g. the concentration on shade Wald ... Ulmer, Stuttgart, 447 p. tolerant and coniferous tree species) Walentowski (1998): Die W eißtannen- should be taken into account by modifi Waldgesellschaften Bayerns. PhD- cations of the management. thesis, University o f Freiburg, 383 p.

years after the establishment of the re Reserva Natural La Planada - serve most interest went into investi gative projects to get the information 15 Years Experience in Protection, about the diversity of species in the reserve. Also they started looking for Conservation and Research the integration of the communities in for a Sustainable Development concepts of conservation. The cultural background: Elvia Niño and Jens Bittner There are different local communities around the nature reserve. To the north Introduction: Historical: there are some "mestizo" communities; they are primarily farmers with an aver La Planada nature reserve is located in the In 1982 La Planada was established in co age o f seven hectares land per fam ily; su southwest of Colombia on the western operation with the World Wildlife Fund garcane and cattle are the main sources Andean slopes in an elevation between (WWF). This reserve is a hotspot o f biodi of income. The people do not produce 1500 m to 2200 m. The area covers 3300 versity with a high diversity of birds, in much crops for self consumption. ha, mostly montane cloud forest. sects and plants. To the south, the neighbors are the La Planada is part of the Colombian In the region exist for example more Awa people, they call themselves as NGO called "Fundación FES". In the fo l than 280 species o f birds, 1 0 % endemic, INKAL Awa ("people of the forest"). The lowing pages we will present La Planada approximately 1800 species o f vascular Awa Communities in both Colombia and nature reserve as a regional example to plants (more then 350 species o f orchids). Ecuador have acquired collective titles to use different concepts and the high biodi The territory is part of the Choco-Bio- their lands with the establishment of the versity of a privately protected area to geographic-Region. Before 1982 this Awa Reserve in Ecuador and 36 "resguar benefit the regional population. area was used for farmland and they cut dos" in Colombia. Most of the Awa fami tree for timber and firewood. In the first lies practice traditional agrosystems.

93 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Niño & Bittner: Reserva Natural La Planada -15 Years Experience in Protection, Conservation and Research for a Sustainable Development

These are highly diverse, and are But it is clear that this income is not V i s i t o r s based on a slash and decomposition stable. Over the years a frequent change ■ system to cultivate beans and corn fo r self o f the visitor numbers can be observed. 1991 consumption. Banana, mandioca, bihao, Also the visitors' changing interest and ■ 1995 and other edible crops appear in small political problems in the region are two ■ 1996 spots along the mountain landscape side examples o f problems th a t m ight cause □ 1997 by side with montane cloud forest frag an instability in visitor numbers (Fig. 1). ments. During the last ten years there has In the experience of La Planada to u r been an increase in the grassland areas ism alone is not a sustainable way to for cattle rising, and sugarcane for "pa- benefit the local people of this region. nela" production. The Awa have entered But it is a very important tool for the envi the monetary economy at last. These ronmental education of persons living in changes in using land have brought many towns, to start with the sensibilization for Fig. 1: N um ber o f visitors in the last years. problems for the Awa people: conflicts in aspects o f nature. land tenure, loss of biodiversity, defores tation, loss of edible crops for self con Non timber products and a way sumption, to name just a few problems. to use: Conclusion:

Administrative or organization of Another example of the integrated con It has to be noted that the conservation La Planada: servation - development ideas are agro of areas especially if there are communi forestry projects that involve local farm ties near by the protected areas need dif On this background La Planada started ers in research design and development ferent concepts of protection and con to improve the understanding of the eco o f sustainable systems. servation of landscapes and nature. system of the cloud forest, conservation On the other side exists a knowledge La Planada shows very clearly that it and protection of this area and included about non timber products that have is possible to protect the last nature areas the local communities in this ideas. There been used by the communities long ago. if we find a way to include the local com are four programs to work in this area: Unfortunately mostly under non sustain munity within this work. One aim has to Environmental Education, Communi able ways. be finding a way to bring direct and indi ty Development, Research, Financial and But also we can find damage by a lot rect benefits for the persons looking for Administrative Management. of irrational use of fire and timber wood employment, and finding out what the One result of this work is the realiza in the last 100 years. The recuperation of local people really need. In the case o f La tion that all ideas on conservation need forest areas or the using of native tree Planada it is also im portant to use the the acceptance by the local community. species in grassland are object o f the potential of the democratic structures of This is only possible by including this activities w ith locals. An im portant tool in the communities to ensure fair treatment locals in the w ork o f the reserve. An this concept is the using of plant nursery and knowledge of their political rights. example for this structures are local co for research and reproduction of endan Only people that feel well within their researchers who are included in research gered species o f trees. Also the plant nurs own situation are open for new ideas of projects. ery in used fo r education programs to protection of nature or using new con sensitize small local farmers. The result of cepts fo r agrosystems. Tourism can bring Tourism a way to income ? this w ork is very interesting: The locals are benefits to the region but is not a steady highly interested in the results of the inves source of income. In combination with A touristical concept of La Planada espe tigation and like to get trees for refor other possibilities of income tourism can cially for those visitors interested in the estation, but also experience for own plant be used fo r environmental education and conservation of biodiversity, landscapes nurseries to produce the trees for their as a tool to try working together with and culture, will result in benefits. That own farmlands. locals. The participants in this w ork w ill means a visitor is open to learn about the The idea is to use secondary forest see a possibility for a better income and region and understand the relation be areas fo r building agroforestry systems learn to use the "treasure of the forest". tween people and nature. This kind of th a t can produce food crops, firewood tourism will produce an income and raise and also plants for domestic uses. This Author's address: the standard for living of those persons includes also fiber plants for handicraft. w orking in restaurants, transport services All species are native in the reserve. The Elvia Niño, Dr. Jens Bittner or local guides. These guides are w orking local people use them and sometimes Reserva Natural La Planada as co-researchers to help professionals steal them from the reserve area. This A.A. 1562, CO-Pasto, Narino Colombia and research projects. Indirectly the project aims at changing this mentality Fax: +57-2723-8596 visitor brings income for persons working and raising the standard of living of local e-mail: jbittner@Zellbiologie. in handicrafts. farmers. tiho-hannover.de

94 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

■ provide long-term benefits to the Potential of and Development for resource, the local community and to the industry. Ecotourism in the Tsingy de Bemaraha Innovative approaches are needed to incorporate ecotourism appropriately near Bekopaka, Madagascar* and successfully into the regional econo mies, i.e. environm entally, socially and Coert J. Geldenhuys economically (Figure 1). Successful devel opment of the ecotourism industry re quires that it be incorporated into national, Ecotourism Considerations operators or hotel institutions. Typical regional and local development plans. impacts include The host country should have some con Ecotourism is a component of tourism and - increase in social disorders such as trol over the development and possession its options range from safaris, hiking, increased crime and violence, begging, of infrastructure and the provision of bird-watching to hard labour. Ecotourism alcoholism, prostitution and other social resources. The economic benefits should should be an enlightening nature travel disorders, also be shared more equitably in the area. experience that contributes to better - leaving locals w ith unskilled, low- Locals should have a say in the type o f understanding and conservation of the paid, demeaning jobs in service industries tourism they wish to entertain, and have ecosystems, w hile respecting the integri w ith no effort to provide the necessary an interest in or benefit from the develop ty of host communities. training, ments. Visitors should also be sensitized -tu rn in g locals into tourist attractions about the cultures of their hosts. Positive aspects of ecotourism with their cultural activities being com mercialized. Considerations for Development Positive aspects of ecotourism include the ■ The local population may become con of Ecotourism follow ing: centrated around ecotourism sites w ith ■ It has the potential to bring economic unattainable expectations for employ In this section more general principles, benefits to the site and neighbouring ment and other secondary benefits, with guidelines and recommendations are areas, although these expectations are adverse social activities developing; given for ecotourism development in the often unrealistically high, through ■ Environmental degradation of various Bemaraha project area. - earning of foreign exchange from forms of the ecotourism sites, including investments in infrastructure develop unwarranted commercialization. General principles ments such as hotels, lodges, resorts, roads, airports and services, and through Requirements for ecotourism Multiple ecotourism activities in the lar the international tourist, and development ger project area -jo b creation. ■ It brings people in contact with the The concept of ecotourism develop The greater the variety of ecotourism natural and cultural history of an area, ment has several underlying principles. It activities in the region, the more cost- and as such cultivates environmental should effective the ecotourism trade outside the awareness, contributes to cross-cultural ■ be environmentally sound, without park can become, and the scope fo r second understanding of human traditions and degrading the resource; ary industries will increase. For example, behaviour, and provides for relaxation. ■ provide direct, participatory and secondary benefits could include a need enlightening experiences; for a better road network and telephone Negative impacts of ecotourism ■ involve education among tourists, communication, more flights, and a better local communities, industry and govern local market for food products and hand Negative impacts of ecotourism include ment; craft. A better road network could improve the following: ■ encourage all-party recognition of the potential for transport of agricultural ■ Expectations for direct economic gain the intrinsic values of the resource; products to markets outside the area. Fig often exceed reality. ■ promote acceptance of the resource ure 1 indicates the potential to develop the ■ A variablefraction of foreign earnings on its own terms and involvement o f sup different ecotourism potentials, each type is lost because multi-national corpora ply-oriented management; of experience developed around a specific tions own and control the industry. ■ promote understanding and involve town of village. At the same time it be ■ Priorities for local development are partnerships between government, comes critical to maintain control over the ignored in order to please the tourism NGO'S, industry, scientists and locals; developments in order to prevent adverse industry. For example, developments ■ promote moral and ethical responsi and imbalanced developments which may bypass local communities or ignore their bilities and behaviours towards the cul affect the environment and the local eco pressing needs. Basic commodities, often tural and natural environment; nomy. in short supply, are channeled to tourists, and land prices increase beyond the * Extract from : GELDENHUYS, C.J. 1995. P otential o f and Short-, medium- and long-term planning developm ent for ecotourism in the Tsingy de Bemaraha financial resources o f the locals. near Bekopaka, M adagascar. R eport FOR-C 300, Division ■ Misuse of the locals by tourists, tour o f Forest Science and Technology, CSIR, P retoria. 28 pp. Planning should be done with a view to

95 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Geldenhuys • Potential of and Development for Ecotourism in the Tsingy de Bemaraha near Bekopaka, Madagascar short-, medium- and long-term objec sites, areas of special ecological interest, - dendrology or other special plant tives. Current planning is for what is etc. In principle I consider that such areas interest groups: such routes should cross required at the present. In all develop should be accessible to tourists, but under habitats which would in total give the ments the planners should consider the special conditions, with special prices, and best chance of seeing a large diversity of question 'what will happen to this trail if with very careful planning to ensure plants o f a particular interest group (such the tourists increase by e.g. tenfold or minim um interference in those systems. as trees or succulents). hundredfold in the next ten years?' The ■ Buffer zone: Natural areas where - hiking: Some people prefer to w alk question is what planning should be done some restricted development can be al from one interesting area to another, now to provide for tourist developments lowed which will not disturb or change the while camping along the route. Such a in the future. Different scenarios need to structure and functioning of the natural route should cover a variety of interesting be considered, for example system, should form a buffer zone around environments, should be scenic, and ■ How flexible is the current planning the core area. Limited camping with mini would require adequate water points. to cater fo r fu tu re exponential increases mum facilities (chalets with few tents, not - rock-climbing: This is a specific sport in tourist numbers? for tour operators) and appropriate pro which could only be done in areas w ith ■ What will be the effect of tourist devel vision fo r preventing pollution (such as particular rock faces which should not be opment on other sectors of the local eco tourists remove their own litter on depar too fragile. Such activities should take nomy, and what will be the effect on the ture) could be allowed, but definitely no place away from the normal tourist activi local people if development is unbalan large-scale permanent developments ties to avoid accidents by passing tourists ced - too much investment in develop such as major roads, permanent struc who may try to do the same without the ment for tourism and too little or no tures or hotels. necessary equipment. investment which provide fo r the basic ■ Transitional or development zone: - canoeing: The Manombolo river, needs of the local people? areas o f villages and their pastures which starting from east of the park and maybe The rule should be 'Rather start small would be used to move from one buffer going down to the coast, could provide and expand with better experience than zone/core area to another, and which for interesting canoeing. I would recom to start too big with irrevocable regret would require special agreement between mend that canoeing should be confined later'. A structure plan for development park authorities and local population. to the locally made pirogues to support should guide developments over the This is also the area where hotels and tour the local skills and practices and to pro short, medium and long term, and could operators could develop their facilities. vide for unique experiences, and that no be used to m onitor actual versus expec glass-fibre or other commercial canoes be ted developments. Types o f ecotourism use used. However, it will be essential to m onitor the practice to control excessive Zonation of park In addition to the zoning into core, buf cutting of large trees. fer and transitional areas, the area should -fly in g over Tsingy: Such an activity can The park and surrounding area should be also be zoned into different types of eco be an exciting experience, but could also zoned to guide future developments. tourism use. For example, the area could be a major frustration for tourists seeking Clear criteria should be developed for dif be zoned into areas fo r a wilderness experience, and could affect fe re n t zones, and should be based on sen ■ High density-low valuetourism (such the lemurs and rare birds in the Tsingy. For sitivity of the area, the carrying capacity as easy and nested walks through smaller example, visitor numbers to the Grand for tourists requiring a wilderness experi Tsingy and forest near the pontoon, Canyon in the USA declined due to the ence, specific interest groups, and the inform ation centre and areas o f future continuous noise from planes flying maximum developments that could be hotel developments) versus high value - through the canyon. Good control should allowed. Criteria must be such as to avoid low density tourism (such as Grande Tsin be exerted over such activities. any future disputes between different gy, specific caves, other sensitive sites); interest groups (such as tour operators, ■ Special sites to cater fo r specific inter Development for economic bene local pastoralists). The principles and cri ests of tourists or activities which should fits for locals and the area from teria for the zonation should be clearly preferably not be combined with other ecotourism described for future reference and also to activities because of their sensitive na avoid future conflicts between the park ture, such as In principle, overa longer period, the park administration and other interested - birdwatching: such routes should administration should manage the groups. cross habitats which would in total give resource to ensure that ecological princi Several approaches, or a combination the best chance of seeing a large diversi ples are enforced, and that sustainable o f approaches, could be follow ed to zone ty of birds over a relatively short distance. conservation standards and practices are the area. Bird-lovers would require slow move adhered to, in particular in the core and ment and time to sit down and observe buffer zones of conservation areas. They Biosphere reserve concept for broader birds. Other activities should not disturb should refrain from management of any zonation the birds for maximum interest. kind of business inside the buffer zone, -diurnal & nocturnal lemur spotting: because this will weaken their ability to Zoning for the larger area could follow This interest may require the same kind ensure good control over sustainable the concept of the biosphere reserve: of planning as for the birds, or for spot resource management. Private enterprise ■ Core area. Unique habitats, sensitive ting big game in Africa. should be allowed to develop and man-

96 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Geldenhuys • Potential of and Development for Ecotourism in the Tsingy de Bemaraha near Bekopaka, Madagascar

A. Initial period of ecotourism development

B. Long-term view of regional development

Fig. 1: Hypothetical view o f the role o f ecotourism in socio-economic developm ent o f the Bemaraha region.

age ecotourism activities on business prin interaction with the ecotourism operators, side the area, but on sites w ith in the area: ciples in the vicinity of the park and des the local administration and the local ■ that it would be preferable to allow ignated ecotourism sites, i.e. this should people to ensure realistic developments. two or more small hotel developments, of be confined to the development zone. different ownership, rather than one big Incentives should also be put in place to Potential businesses around the ecotour hotel, to ensure competitive develop ensure that the ecotourism industry is ism industry ments and pricing; developed in such a way th a t the local ■ that the tour operators and hotels economy will benefit from these devel A variety of small interdependent busi should eventually (say a fter 5 years) opments without unnecessary interfer nesses could potentially be developed in - employ most of their local staff, ence from administrative bureaucracy. the area to cater for tourist needs. including managerial staff, from the However, initially the park administra people in the area. The im plication would tion will have to develop the framework Tour operators and hotels be th a t these businesses should provide and establish a sound basis fo r socio-eco for training of employees, nomic developments around the ecotour Initially tour operators and hotels may -w h e re possible, use local food prod ism industry. This w ill require a close function from established businesses out ucts;

97 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Geldenhuys • Potential of and Development for Ecotourism in the Tsingy de Bemaraha near Bekopaka, Madagascar

- sub-contract local people to provide It is normal that development of the tour have a specific objective, such as to see in the needs for guides, food, transport ist industry in an area is associated w ith the Grande Tsingy, or a cave or a place o f o f tourists to ecotourism sites, etc. the sale o f souvenirs, handcrafts and cultural interest. clothing such as T-shirts, w ith features of ■ Variety o f features, scenery, experi Campsite managers the particular tourist interest printed on ences and interests: Irrespective of the spe them. This kind of activity could become cific objective, each trail should provide It is possible th a t several camp sites could a flourishing industry, but it requires good fo ra variety of objects (trees, birds, rocks), be required in the area in future. By defi control to ensure that plants, animals and scenery, experiences (d ifficult sections, nition of the minimum developments in artifacts are not exhausted from a partic w et sites, crawling through tunnel) which side the Park, the camp sites should be ular area. would maintain the interest and excite established in the development zone out ment of the user. Long monotonous side the buffer zone. A campsite could be Maintenance o f service standards sections could be made interesting by established near a village which should detouring to an interesting point for a then be responsible for the maintenance A basic principle is that if the services th a t break, with some discussion between the of the camp site. A proportion of the fees are required for a particular need are not guide and the visitors. for the particular camp site should then upto standard inthe particular area, then ■ Sensitivity of the terrain: Once the be paid to the person or village who is suitable services w ill be obtained from route has been determined, sensitive sec responsible fo r the maintenance (security, elsewhere. This is particularly relevant fo r tions which would require special care or water, removal of refuge, general condi food provision and guide services. A lter maintenance or which should better be tion) o f the site. natively, a particular campsite will not be avoided need to be investigated to deter used if it is poorly serviced or badly main mine final selection of the best route. The Guide services tained. Initially there will be a need for fo llow ing situations need special care: training and to develop a business sense - shallow roots: repeated walking over It is possible that the numbers of tourists amongst the potential service providers. w et sites or sites w ith rock close to the sur increase to a level where more guides may face w ill cause tram pling of the shallow be needed. Furthermore, differenttourist Cooperation between park administra feeder roots of the plants which may activities may require guides of different tion, ecotourism operators and local cause the death of those plants, in partic expertise. This w ould provide fo r an population ular the trees. If the section cannot be opportunity where an experienced guide avoided, then either a wooden walkway may establish a guide service for which a In order to ensure good cooperation be could be constructed, or fla t pieces o f rock number of guides may have to be employ tween the different interest groups, and could be placed in the site to provide step ed. M onitoring o f such guide services by to m aintain good standards, it w ill be ping stones for crossing the site. No path the park administration may become necessary to enter into agreements be should take a user up or down the stem essential to ensure a suitably high stand tween the local villages (for services, or root of a living tree. Leaf litter provides ard o f service. pasture use, etc.), the hotel and tour op a good buffer against the trampling of erators, and government for many users, and should not be removed Food production ■ rights of different interested and because 'it looks more tidy'. affected parties, - fragility of Tsingy: the logic is very Different kinds of food, in both raw or ■ sharing of the fees paid for specific similar as for the shallow roots. Again a prepared form, will be required by tour services, wooden walkway at strategic points will ists, tour operators or the hotels. Food ■ conditions of stay in or near the vil not only protect the Tsingy, but w ill direct products should be of suitable quality, lage, and ease the walking o f the user. hygienic standards, etc. A particular vil ■ maintenance of service standards be - w et sites: the logic is again very simi lage may provide all the food (vegetables, tween diffe re n t service providers. lar as for shallow roots. In some cases it meat, etc.) that is needed at a particular will be better to construct a little bridge site or hotel. Alternatively, a particularvil- Establishment and maintenance across the w et site to avoid gradual lage or individual may provide one kind of ecotourism facilities widening of the path. of food products, whereas others may be - erodibility: a path up or down a producing other kinds of food. It may be Selection o f routes and sites slope should not carry on for too far, and necessary to integrate the food needs the best is to select a route which either with other local agricultural activities. Several factors need to be considered zigzag, or take a more gradual slope. For Initially it will be essential to coordinate when a route or site is selected: example, the path into the cave at the food production to ensure that there is Grande Tsingy need to be stepped and not an over-production of one kind of Routes built with large, flat local stones (not food and no production o f other essen ■ Target group and objective: Mosttrails small pieces) to prevent its degradation tial food products. are designed for general interest, but and becoming slippery. trails fo r specific interests, such as fo r bird ■ Maximum degree of difficulty should Production and sale of handcrafts and watching, adventure, rock-climbing, etc. not exceed the capability of the user: If a clothing need to consider the particular require path contains one very difficult section, ments of the user group. Each trail should then the users should be inform ed about

98 WS B iodiversity as a Resource - Geldenhuys • Potential of and Development for Ecotourism in the Tsingy de Bemaraha near Bekopaka, Madagascar it. For example, the crossing o f a crevice The following could be considered: ■ they should keep their refuge with over a narrow piece of rock may not be ■ To increase the control over tourists, them and dispose of it in a poly-ethylene possible for a person who is afraid of and for greater experience by them, it is bag (which could be a bigger pollution heights. Such a person may hold up a important to keep the groups small, in problem if not correctly managed) provi whole group, or may even prevent the particular during peak tourist periods ded for that purpose at the camp site; group to experience the climax of the when the area becomes better known ■ all littershould betaken backto a cen trail. The following structures may help to and more accessible; tral site where it could appropriately be ease d ifficult sections, or to prevent trail ■ Planning o f more routes into the area disposed of because locals may 'raid' the degradation: steps build from large flat near the river, on both sides of the river, waste dumps in a camp. local stones, or a wooden ladder, or a rope or provide more nested trails to cater for tightly secured up or down a steep sec tourist concentrations during peak tour Training and information tion, to ease climbing or walking. ist periods; ■ A route along the edge of the cliffs Training of guides Camp sites above the river. The southern side, w ith northern exposure, seems to offer the Training for guides is currently provided Visitors spend relatively long periods at a best options. at the Bekopaka office. Unfortunately I camp site. Special care w ill have to be did not ask fo r inform ation on the con taken for the following: Construction o f camp sites tents of the training course, but would ■ Shelter: against hot sun or cold or recommend that the following be inclu strong winds. Preferably, the site should In the buffer zone o f the park, camp sites ded in such a course: provide for direct exposure to the early should only have simple structures of a ■ basic ecology o f d iffe re n t vegetation morning sun, fo r shade during the day, temporary nature. If a site becomes de types and their associated animal life; and protection against prevailing cold or graded, the camp may have to be moved ■ educational value of features in the strong winds. Sites which are also used for to another site. Currently it seems that Tsingy, such as shelter by animals such as livestock, or very few tourists bring their own tents. - geological features in relation to where birds or bats come to feed (large This situation could be managed in one present-day geomorphological processes fleshy fru it) or roost (specific tree species), of tw o ways: either tourists should be to be seen in the area (such as com paring should be avoided. informed to bring their own tents, or modern versus ancient processes o f ero ■ Moisture content o f substrate: ensure small tents which could easily sleep two sion and sedimentation); th a t the soil is not w et or has the poten people should form part of the facilities -fossilized marine features; tial to be flooded after a sudden heavy of a camp site, but should not be left p it - xerophytic plants on Tsingy rocks rain. The site should preferably be situated ched on the site. Camp sites outside of the versus evergreen forest trees in deep on a raised portion of the general terrain. buffer zone, such as the sites of the to u r canyons; ■ Water for drinking and washing: spe operators, could be of a semi-permanent ■ psychology of guide-tourist interac cify whether the water is safe for drinking structures, such as a overhead shelter tion; or not. If the water is very shallow, pro made of treated poles from the local area, ■ first aid. vide fo r a place where the w ater level thatched w ith grass, w ith a sand-filled could be increased to facilitate collection cement box for pitching the small tents. Signposting of trails of water. The point in the stream which will be used for washing should be down Toilet facilities and practices Signposting of all trails are important to stream from the point of collection of guide and direct the users, irrespective of water for cooking, and should be some Special attention should be given to to i whether guides are present to lead the what sheltered. let facilities and practices, because this route. The signs used should be clear and ■ Security: The following situations could be the most annoying or embarras specific to enable the user to keep to the should best be avoided, if possible. sing aspect of the camp experience. A tth e route as described but should also be - Presence o f people in a nearby temporary camp sites in the buffer zone, aesthetically pleasing. They should avoid village; the practice of using a spade to make a users w ho may fall behind fo r w hatever -Shrubby orthorny plants, unless this necessary small hole is effective provided reason to get lost and should therefore can provide protection to one side of the the soil is not too hard or the camp is not not be liable to vandalism. camp; very often used. Permanent structures at - Fire danger, in particular from grass the camp sites outside the buffer zone Information to tourists land; should provide for either a French Drain - Dangerous animals, particular near system, or the modern facilities which are Different types of information should be streams with the potential of crocodiles. available to cater fo r such situations. given to tourists to assist them in prepa ■ Scenery: It always adds to the experi ration for the ecotourism experience, to ence of a camp site if it provides a view Litter management in the camp sites and provide them with minimum information across a valley, or onto a cliff face, or of a on the trails on the ecological and cultural aspects of nice stand of trees. the route and area, and to contribute to The guides should make a special effort environmental education. The informa Planning for additional routes to inform tourists that tion should be clear and specific, should

99 WS Biodiversity as a Resource - Geldenhuys • Potential of and Development for Ecotourism in the Tsingy de Bemaraha near Bekopaka, Madagascar

indicate the rules and conditions for par Visitor carrying capacity lets and drinking water, and should not ticipation applicable to the specific trail, exceed the ecological and psychological and should indicate features of a trail that Visitor carrying capacity depends in part carrying capacities. may cause d ifficulty to some users (such on the design o f the trail and camp sites, Trail types can be categorized, using as no drinkable water along the route, or which is determined by the sensitivity of two dimensions: the mental and physical crawling across a narrow ledge above a the landscape (such as erodibility of the demands of the trail (toughness or rough deep crevice). Most of this information substrate, wetness of the site during peak ness); and the aesthetic impressions, rang could be included in a trail brochure, periods), the expected visitor pressure ing from pristine wilderness (high) which tourists often also use as souvenir. and the construction methods that could through to 'developed and commercial' The brochures could be prepared in dif be used in relation to maintenance of the (low). These provide four broad catego ferent languages to cater for tourists aesthetics. Identifying suitable carrying ries, which should be seen as generaliza from different origin. It could also facili capacity zones depends on the resilience tions to assist in setting management tate communication when the guides are and productivity of the environment and objectives: not fluent in some languages. on management objectives. Carrying capacities which may appear to be PHYSIKAL AND MENTAL DEMAND Another form of information transfer is sustainable over the short term may not AESTHETIC VALUE High Low through information boards. be sustainable over the long term. Visitor High hard/wild soft/w ild carrying capacity has been defined as the Low Information centre am ount of use that a trail system can sup hard/tame soft/tame port over a specific time without causing It would be beneficial to combine the unacceptable change to the environment Monitoring of ecotourism facilities and administrative centre for control over the orto the experience of the user, which are operations entrance of tourists with an information inherently subjective criteria. Unaccepta centre. I would recommend that ble change has both tangible and intan The purpose of monitoring is to meas ■ its design should follow the typical gible components. Tangible impacts ure the condition and operation of the style of houses in the area. Its exterior, and involve physical disturbance caused by facilities against the set management preferably also the interior, should look human activities and include soil erosion, objectives fo r each trail. The goals should like a typical house in the local village. Its vegetation trampling, pollution and lit therefore be quantifiable. The objectives interior should however also facilitate tering, disruption of the activities and fo r a ecotourism m onitoring system could preservation of the contents of the exhi habitat of sensitive and rare species, and be as follows: bitions. the wear and tear of physical features. ■ To provide meaningful and accurate ■ it should contain sections on the phys Intangible impacts include psychological information on the ecological and visual ical, biological and cultural (historical) effects th a t the presence of other humans impacts changes which may occur on a environment, as well as of the current life or man-made objects (paved paths, wood trail; style and traditional practices of the peo en walkways and bridges, and trail mar ■ To identify causal factors where meas ple in the area. kers) have on the 'wilderness experience' urements do not comply with the ■ it should introduce the entire project of the user. Carrying capacity has there management goals; area, including the other potential eco fore three distinct dimensions: ecological, ■ To obtain information which would tourism areas mentioned before, should psychological and physical (facility). enable technical decisions on needed indicate the different ecotourism options ■ Ecological carrying capacity is set in actions, such as w hether to construct a available in the area, the dangers and won relation to set management objectives of boardwalk across the Tsingy or a w et site, ders o f the Tsingy, and give an outline of when ecosystem functioning is consider or to provide toilet facilities at the camp all the other activities of the project. ed to be impaired and over what time sca sites, or to make strategic decisions such ■ it could be combined with a kind of les the irreversibility of the impacts are as to limit visitor numbers, or to change shop and restaurant area where measured. a route. traditional handcrafts, food and drinks ■ Psychological carrying capacity is high could be sold by the locals. ly subjective and is determined by both Characteristics of a good monitoring the environment and psychological system are: Monitoring make-up of the user. The carrying capa city fo r wilderness areas should be based ■ that it will allow utilization of mean M onitoring is the process through which on the psychology of the user, and will be ingful measurements of impacts, which operators of ecotourism facilities assess much lower than those th a t result in ta n again depend on the variables selected the condition of the facilities (trails, camp gible impacts. For example, it has been set for measurement of change; sites) and functioning of the activities to at 1 2 persons per day with no more than ■ that it will use reliable and sensitive direct maintenance timeously and to the one group encounter in some wilderness measurement techniques which would highest priority components. It is essen areas in South Africa. This carrying capa enable similar results from independent tial th a t standards be set against which to city is particularly relevant for the trails users; monitor. Standards should relate to the into the Tsingy. ■ th a t the costs must be reasonable to carrying capacity of specific sites and to ■ Physical (facility) carrying capacity allow fo r regular inventory at all sites; the way the facility is managed and used. relates to the facilities for sleeping, toi ■ that it must allow for precise reloca-

100 WS B iodiversity as a Resource - Geldenhuys • Potential of and Development for Ecotourism in the Tsingy de Bemaraha near Bekopaka, Madagascar

Tab. 1: Some m anagem ent implications o f the four trail types.

Trail type Description Permissible tangible Permissible Management impacts intangible impacts Input Hard/wild Mentally and physically Very low or absent Low Low demanding, element of Infrastructure kept to a Carrying capacities „Hands-off" risk, experience minimum limited by intangible management required, no facilities or impacts amenities Minim al party size Hard/tame Physically demanding, Medium Medium-high Medium-high but no element of risk Carrying capacity set Impacts reduced Amenities and facilities by tangible impacts and through design and available facilities management Ecological carrying capacity increased Soft/wild Not very physically Low M edium -low Medium demanding, but area Carrying capacity set by unspoilt tangible or intangible impacts Soft/tame Short nature trails or High High High walks Large reduction in Maybe semi-urban impacts possible areas through e. g. paving

tion o f measurement units during fo llo w tionnaire and to assist in general m onitor Author's address: up assessments. ing and management decision-making. A dual-monitoring system is recom ■ Quantitative transect measurements, Dr. Coert C. Geldenhuys mended because managers and users rate which involves sampling o f path transects ForestWood cc the facilities differently. Top-down moni along the whole route, and which will P.O. Box 228, La M ontagne toring is the periodical monitoring by an give quantitative data on soil loss and ZA-0184 Pretoria, South Africa official group or person. Bottom-up changes in the path profile. The number e-mail: [email protected] monitoring is the informal monitoring of of monitoring sites needs to cover the trail and camp site conditions by users, variation in path types and site condi and is usually complaint based. The tions. following should be monitored, but the ■ Camp site conditions, and should details and frequency should be worked include both ecological and aesthetic out by the Bemaraha project team: impacts such as soil erosion, vandalism, ■ Continuous condition assessment, vegetation disturbances, pollution and which is a 'scoring' questionnaire which is littering, and water quality. completed by all staff on each occasion ■ Guide-tourist and village-tourist they use a path, or at set intervals, or at interactions, through questionnaires least once a season. Experienced trail users completed at regular intervals by the could also be asked to complete the ques users.

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some threatened mammals such as javan Ecotourism is a Viable Way of Using gibbon, javan leaf monkey, ebony leaf monkey, leopard, and wild dog. Resources Since the Gede Pangrango NP is an important place for conservation of Dr. Sunaryo watershed and biodiversity, the economic value generated by ecotourism is a value added to the main value without damag Summary Economic Aspect ing the main objective of the land use. Compared to any other use such as agri Ecotourism is a way of using natural Tourism isan important source of revenue culture, ecotourism in the Gede Pan resources without extracting the natural for Indonesia. It is the fourth largest reve grango NP is a wise use of resources and resources. In this use, ecotourism can nue of Indonesia after oil, textile, and tim economically viable. generate economic benefits without ber products and is expected to be the removing any materials, plants, and ani largest revenue in the future. It is difficult Social Aspect mals from the place where the ecotour to separate ecotourism figures from other ism occur. Many local people may be types of tourism, although, ecotourism is Ecotourism may give positive or negative involved in the ecotourism industries. predicted to have a contribution to the impacts on the local people. Some nega When the local people are involved, eco national revenue of US $ 9 billion in the tive impacts are occuring especially when: tourism may be accepted socially and year 2 0 0 0 with a total visitor number of ■ the local people are not involved in generates income to the local people. 6.5 m illion people and an average length the ecotourism industries, Although there are some negative of stay o f 11 days (Suprayogi and Hariu- ■ the local people lose access to the impacts to the environment, ecotourism rawati, 1997). resources inside the park, is considered less likely to damage the Gede Pangrango National Park (NP) is ■ the local people are worse off than environm ent compared to other forms of a famous place in Indonesia to come for before. land use. Since ecotourism is socially, eco recreation. The place is close to Jakarta, nomically, and environmentally accepta the capital city of Indonesia, and sur These negative impacts, if not managed ble, ecotourism becomes a viable way of rounded by cities with dense population. wisely, may cause social problems and using resources. The park is important not only for eco may threaten the viability of the natural tourism, but also for the protection of resources on which tourism is based. Introduction watersheds and biodiversity. The problems of social aspects can be The types of revenue generated by alleviated only if tourism benefits are There are many people trying to define ecotourism in the Gede Pangrango NP shared with local people equitably, including ecotourism. The definition may differ are employment and other forms of income from one to another, but they have one - Food and souvenirs generation. Local people's participation thing in common, that is natural resour - Tour operation and guide should be given in planning as well as in ces as the base of the definition. The Eco -Transportation and hotel implementing the ecotourism. Strong tourism Society (June 1991) defined eco - Entrance fee involvement of the local people means tourism as a responsible form of travel - Many other services that the local people's interest will be that conserves the natural environment more accommodated and the local peo and sustains the well-being of local Although I do not know the economic ple's understanding for ecotourism devel people. figure o f ecotourism in the Gede Pan opment will be greater as well. When the If we look through the definitions, grango NP, I would claim that the econo local people understand that ecotourism ecotourism can be described as mic value o f ecotourism in the Gede Pan generates benefits for them, they will - travel to natural areas grango NP combined with other econo protect the natural resources used fo r -study the natural history of the envi mic benefits (maintenance of biodiversi ecotourism, and the ecotourism activity ronm ent ty, ecological processes, and watershed will be accepted by the local people. - taking care and not altering the protection) may be greater than any environment other development option. Some examples of positive relation - non consumptive use of natural The Gede Pangrango NP is an impor ships o f local people are occuring in the resources tant place for watershed and biodiversi Gede Pangrango NP and Halimun NP. In - understand the local people ty conservation. Headwaters of the three the Gede Pangrango NP, many local peo -give the benefits to the local people. main rivers flowing to Jakarta are in the ple are involved in ecotourism. Many local Gede Pangrango NP. The Gede Pan people are selling food, flowering plants, From the definition above, ecotourism at grango NP also is a place for a lot of flora vegetables and souvenirs, renting house least theoretically, is a sustainable way of and fauna unique to Java. There are over for accommodation, guiding tourists, and using ritual resources economically, so 2 0 0 species o f orchids to be found in the providing some other services. On the cially, and environmentally. This paper park, and the park is world famous for other hand, when forest fires occur in the w ill discuss economic, social, and environ birds w ith over 250 species recorded. The Gede Pangrango NP, many local people mental aspects of ecotourism. Gede Pangrango NP is also a home for are willing to help to extinguish the fire.

102 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

In the Halimun NP, the ecotourism fuse. Based on research in 1987 and 1995, negative impacts of ecotourism to the industries are just growing. In order to be there is an indication of water pollution. environment can be alleviated by man able to contribute to the new industries, The bacterium coliform increased from aging the park well. Good management some local people had been trained to zero to 130. will be achieved when facilities and rang know how to manage ecotourism. The Soil erosion is occurring especially er are in good conditions, in q u antity and training was focused on how to be a along the trails. Trail erosions are varying quality. Setting up a carrying capacity of guide, how to manage a house for tour from low to severe erosion. Severe ero the tourists and providing guide to the ist accommodation, and how to make sion occurs mainly on the steep trails. In tourists also will help preventing de handicrafts for sale to the tourist. After some places, soil erosion on the trail may gradation of the environment. some time, they are able to run tourist reach a depth o f 1 0 0 cm. accommodations in three different loca Litter caused by the tourist in the Gede Conclusion tions and they support the protection of Pangrango NP is still a problem. Although the park. effortstostop littering inside the park are Although there are some negative im continuously enforced, the litter found in pacts of ecotourism, ecotourism may econo Environmental Aspect the park is about 100 kg/week. The tourist mically, socially, and environm entally be usually throwtheir garbage in the tourists' sustainable. Compared to any other alter Although ecotourism is known as a concentration areas and along the trails. native of use, some positive impacts of sustainable use o f resources, there are Vandalism in the form o f painting and ecotourism combined with other benefits some negative impacts of ecotourism on damaging facilities in the park is high. of protection may be greater. The posi the environments including flora and About 25% to 75% facilities are vanda tive impacts can be boasted and the nega fauna. The negative impacts of ecotourism lized. Vandalism usually occurs on the tive impacts can be alleviated by provid in the Gede Pangrango NP are water pol trees, rocks, and on the facilities in the ing enough facilities, good tourist guide, lution, trail erosion, litter, and vandalism. remote areas. and enough ranger. Since ecotourism is Water quality in some places are pol Although there are some negative economically, socially, and environ luted by refuse. Sanitation facilities in the impacts of ecotourism on environments, mentally sound, ecotourism is a viable Gede Pangrango NP are not sufficient to the negative impact is concentrated on concept of using natural resources. support the tourists, especially in the some parts in the intensive use zone and remote areas such as at the to p o f the it is not so difficult to be maintained. Com Author's address: Gede and the Pangrango. In places o f tour pared to potential negative impacts if the ist concentrations such as at Cibeureum park is used for another alternative of Dr. Sunaryo waterfall and Pondok Halimun camping land use such as agriculture or mining, the Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park ground, although there are some sanita negative impact of ecotourism is very low. Jl. Raya Cibodas P.O. Box 3 Sdl tion facilities available, some tourist still The natural resources are not extrac Cipanas-Cianjur, Indonesia use the river as a final places fo r their re ted by ecotourism activities, and the Fax: +62-263-519415 Workshop: Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity

savannas and forests of tropical zones Cultural and Spiritual Values of Forests (IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1991). According to UNESCO (1993), 4,000 to 5,000 o f the and Biodiversity: 6 , 0 0 0 languages in the world are spoken by indigenous peoples, implying that Valuing the Knowledge of Indigenous indigenous groups still constitute most of the world's cultural diversity (also see and Traditional Peoples* M affi, 1998). The definition of 'indigenous' is pro Darrell Addison Posey blematic in many parts of the world. Indi genous Peoples are defined by the Spe cial Rapporteur o f the UN Economic and Many of the areas of highest biological unique plant and animal species (Dur- Social Council Sub-Commission on Pre diversity on the planet are inhabited by ning, 1992: 6 ). vention of Discrimination and Protection indigenous and traditional peoples, pro It is estimated that there are current of Minorities in the following manner: viding w h a tth e Declaration of Belem calls ly at least 300 m illion people w orldw ide Indigenous communities, peoples and an 'inextricable link' between biological who are indigenous. There are no relia nations are those which, having a histori and cultural diversity (Posey & Overal ble figures as to how many are 'tradition cal continuity with pre-invasion and pre 1990). In fact, of the nine countries which al' societies, but, excluding urban popu colonial societies that have developed on together account for 60 percent of lations, it could be as high as 85% of the human languages, six of these 'centres of world's overall population. These diverse * This paper is based on the Introduction for the U.N.E.P. volume. Cultural and Spiritual Values of Biodiversity cultural diversity' are also 'megadiversity' groups occupy a wide geographical range (Darrell Posey, Editor and Lead Autor), UNEP/Intermediate countries with exceptional numbers of from the Polar regions to the deserts, Technology Press/Leiden University, 1998

103 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity Posey • Cultural and Spiritual Values of Forests and Biodiversity: Valuing the Knowledge of Indigenous and Traditional Peoples their territories, consider themselves a fundamental criterion for determining - restraint in resource exploitation distinct from other sectors of the societies the groups to which the provisions of this and respect for nature, especially for now prevailing in those territories, or convention apply. sacred sites. parts of them. They form at present non This principle is upheld by all indige dominant sectors of society and are deter nous groups, who, as the Final Statement The sacred balance mined to preserve, develop and transmit of the Consultation on Indigenous Peoples' to future generations their ancestral ter Knowledge and Intellectual Property Although conservation and management ritories, and their ethnic identity, as the Rights, Suva, April 1995, says: We assert our practices are highly pragmatic, indige basis o f th e ir continued existence as inherent right to define who we are. We nous and traditional peoples generally peoples, in accordance with theirown cul do not approve of any other definition. view this knowledge as emanating from tural patterns, social institutions and legal Indigenous Peoples insist th a t they be a spiritual base. All Creation is sacred, and systems (UN ECOSOC 1986). recognized as 'peoples', not 'people'. The the sacred and secular are inseparable. This historical continuity is character 's' distinction is very important, because Spirituality is the highest form of con ized by: it symbolizes not just the basic human sciousness, and spiritual consciousness is (a) occupation o f ancestral lands, or at rights to which all individuals are entitled, the highest form of awareness. In this least of part of them; but also land, territorial and collective sense, a dimension o f traditional know l (b) common ancestry with the origi rights, subsumed under the right to self- edge is not local knowledge, but knowl nal occupants o f these lands; determination. In contrast, the use of edge of the universal as expressed in the (c) culture in general, or in specific terms like 'people', 'populations' and local. In indigenous and local cultures, manifestations (such as religion, living 'minorities' implicitly denies self-determi experts exist who are peculiarly aware of under a tribal system, membership o f an nation (Posey 1996). Nature's organizing principles, some indigenous community, dress, means of The term 'traditional' is also problem times described as entities, spirits, or natu livelihood, life-style, etc.); atic and, according to the Four Directions ral law. Thus, knowledge of the forests (d) language (whether used as the Council (1996) of Canada should n o tto be depends not only on the relationship be only language, as mother tongue, as the used to restrict local innovation and tween humans and Nature, but also be habitual means of communication at cultural change: tween the visible world and the invisible home or in the family, or as the main, pre "What is 'traditional' about tradition spirit world. According to Opoku (1978), ferred, habitual, general or normal lan al knowledge is not its antiquity, but the the distinctive feature of traditional Afri guage); way it is acquired and used. In other can religion is th a t it is: (e) residence in certain parts of the words, the social process o f learning and „A way of life, [with] the purpose of... country, or in certain regions of the world; sharing knowledge, which is unique to ordering] our relationship with our fel (f) other relevant factors. each Indigenous culture, lies at the very low men and with our environment, both heart of its 'traditionally'. Much of this spiritual and physical. At the root of it is The International Labour Organization knowledge is actually quite new, but it a quest for harmony between man, the (ILO) Convention 169 Concerning Indige has a social meaning, and legal character, spirit world, nature, and society. Thus, the nous Peoples in Independent Countries entirely unlike other knowledge." unseen is as much a part of reality as that (1989), identifies Indigenous Peoples as: Traditional livelihood systems, there which is seen - the spiritual is as much a (a) tribal peoples in countries whose fore, are constantly adapting to changing part of reality as the material. In fact, social, cultural and economic conditions social, economic, and environmental con there is a complementary relationship distinguish them from other sections of ditions. They are dynamic, but - no matter between the two, with the spiritual being the national community, and whose sta the changes - embrace principles of more powerful than the material. The tus is regulated wholly or partially bytheir sustainability (Bierhorst, 1994; Callicott, community is of the dead as well as the own customs or traditions or by special 1989; Johannes & Ruddle, 1993 Clarkson living. And in nature, behind visible ob laws or regulations et al, 1992; Posey and Dutfield 1997). jects lie essences, or powers, which consti (b) peoples in countries who are regar These principles cannot be regarded as tute the true nature of those objects." ded by themselves or others as indig universal, but generally emphasize the Indigenous and traditional peoples enous on account of their descent from following values: frequently view themselves as guardians the populations which inhabited the - cooperation; and stewards of forests. Harmony and country, or a geographical region to - family bonding and cross-gene equilibrium among components of the which the country belongs, at the time of rational communication, including links Cosmos are central concepts in most cos conquest or colonization or the estab w ith ancestors; mologies. Agriculture, fo r example, can lishment of present state boundaries and - concern for the well-being of future provide 'balance for well-being' through who, irrespective of their legal status, generations; relationships not only among people, but retain, or wish to retain, some or all of - local-scale, self-sufficiency, and also nature and deities. In this concept, th e ir own social, economic, spiritual, reliance on locally available natural the blessing of a new field represents not cultural and political characteristics and resources; mere spectacle, but an inseparable part institutions. - rights to lands, territories and o f life where the highest value is harmony A fundamental principle established resources which tend to be collective and with the Earth. Most traditions recognize by ILO 169 is that: Self-identification as inalienable rather than individual and linkages between health, diet, properties indigenous or tribal shall be regarded as alienable; of different foods and medicinal plants.

104 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity Posey • Cultural and Spiritual Values of Forests and Biodiversity: Valuing the Knowledge of Indigenous and Traditional Peoples

and horticultural/natural resource man to meet "modern" standards, but indig natural conservationists. They feel it is agement practices - all within a highly enous and traditional peoples feel the inappropriate to generalize about tradi articulated cosmological/social context opposite must occur: science and industry tional communities and make broadly (e.g., Hugh-Jones, 1998). must begin to respect local diversity and applicable assertions about their envi Local knowledge embraces inform a the "Sacred Balance". ronm ental values (Stearman 1992). Fur tion about location, movements, and other thermore, present-day traditional socie factors explaining spatial patterns and Dealing with the problems ties are to a large extent part of the glo tim ing in the ecosystem, including bal economy and have lost many of their sequences o f events, cycles, and trends. It is obvious that not all human impact on traditional cultural values. It is therefore Direct links with the land are fundamen the environment is positive. Indeed, the unfair to expect traditional peoples to tal and obligations to maintain those massive, unprecedented destruction o f all continue using traditional, low-impact connections form the core of individual types of forests, entire environmental subsistence technologies and strategies and group identity. Chief Oren Lyons systems, extinctions o f species, and pollu (Redford 1991; Kalland 1994b). (1998) also emphasizes how these rela tion of waters and the atmosphere is due Nonetheless, many anthropologists tionships and obligations are not to to the greed of human societies out of defend the idea that indigenous and some external objects that possess life, control. Population growth, over-con- traditional peoples have a profound but rather to kin and relatives. Biodiver sumption, wastefulness, and just plain a wareness of conservation (e.g. Bodley sity fo r his Haudenosaunee people are arrogance can all be named as reasons fo r 1976; M artin 1978; Clad 1984; Posey, 1997; family and "all our relations". this situation. And although most of this Reichel-Dolmatoff 1976). And most every Suzuki (1998) calls the links between rampant devastation results from indus one agrees that local communities are life, land, and society the "Sacred Bal trialized societies competing for global more likely to employ environmentally ance". Science w ith its quantum mechanics markets, an increasing number of indige sustainable practices when they enjoy ter methods, he says, can never address the nous, peasant and local communities are ritorial security and local autonomy (Gad- universe as a whole. And it certainly can abandoning sustainable traditions in gil and Berkes 1991; Bierhorst 1994; Kal never adequately describe the holism of order to adopt destructive activities. land 1994a; Redford and Stearman 1993; Indigenous knowledge and belief. Some scientists express skepticism Alcorn 1994; Posey and D utfield 1997). In fact, science is far behind in the that the subsistence and resource man It is to no one's benefit to romanticize environmental movement. It still sees agement practices of traditional peoples about indigenous and traditional peo nature as objects ("components" of biodi are - and never have been - guided by a ples - even those groups that do still live versity is the term used in the Convention "conservation ethic" (e.g., Hames 1991; close to the Earth. For it is just as easy fo r on Biological Diversity) for human use Kalland 1994a). Some argue th a t mass us to find unsustainable practices within and exploitation. Technology has used extinctions of North American megafau their societies as it is for us to have inven the banner of scientific "objectivity" to na during the Pleistocene era were not ted the "ecologically noble savage" who mask the moral and ethical issues that caused by climate changes, but by reck lives in "harmony and balance with na emerge from such a functionalist, anthro less over-hunting by humans colonizing ture". All human societies-even the most pocentric philosophy. Strathern (1996) the continent from Siberia (M artin 1984). traditional -are enmeshed in change, and makes this clear when discussing the ethi Likewise, the extinction o f w ild life on always have been. Human evolution is cal dilemmas raised (or avoided) when such islandsand archipelagos as New Zea about adaptation and change, and as human embryos are "decontextualized" land, Madagascar and Australia have cultures and environmental conditions as human beings to become "objects" of been blamed upon the ancestors of adapt to different conditions, there will scientific research. today's traditional peoples (Martin and inevitably be practices and customs that Science and technology seldom Klein 1984; Diamond 1994,1997; Flannery become unadaptive and must be modi embrace the values of local knowledge 1996) . Yet, many megafauna species per fied to fit the new ambiance. and traditions, and very rarely employ the sisted in Africa and Eurasia despite human Indigenous Peoples themselves reject language of rights and local control over habitation (Flannery 1996; Diamond an "ecologically noble savage" approach access to resources. Meanwhile, econo 1997) ; East Africa, where Homo sapiens that romanticizes their relationship with mists would have us believe that markets evolved, has retained many of its original nature. Two Native American scientists provide "level playing fields" that do not megafauna species up to the present day. (Pierotti and Wildcat, 1998) warn that: moralize globalization and, therefore, Ellen (1986) notes th a t small scale and "Those wanting to embrace the com work more efficiently to advance the isolated traditional societies are most fortable and rom antic image o f the Rous- causes of environmental conservation. often regarded as being oriented towards seauian "noble savage" will be disap W ith such philosophies and policies, conservation. He argues that it is because pointed. Living with nature has little to there can be little surprise that indige these societies are small that they impact do with the often voiced "love of nature", nous, traditional and local communities minimally on the environm ent. Thus, "closeness to nature", or desire "to are hostile to the rhetoric of "partner dependence upon a broad spectrum of commune with nature" one hears today. ships" and "sustainable development" - useful species is a rational subsistence Living with nature is very different than indeed, to the very tenets of "biodiversi strategy, but not a conscious means to "conservation" of nature. Those who ty" and "conservation". The dominant protect species fo r future generations. wish to "conserve" nature still feel that scientific and economic forces assume Redford and Stearman (1993) are also they are in control of nature, and that that traditional communities must change skeptical that traditional peoples are nature should be conserved only insofar

105 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity Posey • Cultural and Spiritual Values of Forests and Biodiversity: Valuing the Knowledge of Indigenous and Traditional Peoples

as it benefits humans, either economical ral, dry land, highland, aquatic and other ing requires a detailed knowledge of soil ly or spiritually. It is crucial to realize that ecosystems (See Posey & Dutfield, 1997; fertility, micro-climatic properties and nature exists on its own terms, and that Prain, Fujisaka and Warren, forthcom ing; plant varietal qualities, as well as interre non-humans have their own reasons for Warren, Slikkerveerand Brokensha 1995). lationships between components of a existence, independent of human inter human-modified ecological community. pretation (see below, and Taylor 1992). Recognizing indigenous and local Successful apete are dependent not just Those that desire to dance with wolves, communities on knowledge of the immediate prop must first learn to live with wolves." erties, but also of long-term successional Pierotti and Wildcat (ibid) also point Western science may have invented the relationships that change as the forest out that the concepts of biodiversity and words "nature", "biodiversity", and islands mature and grow. Since many conservation are not indigenous, and, "sustainability", but it certainly did not plants are specifically grown to attract indeed, are alien to Indigenous Peoples. initiate the concepts. Indigenous, tradi useful animals, the complexity of the This does NOT mean they do not respect tional and local communities have management problem greatly increases: and foster living things, but rather that sustainably utilized and conserved a vast apete are managed both as agroforestry nature is an extension of society. Thus, diversity of plants, animals, and eco units and game reserves. Kayapo know l biodiversity is not an object to be con systems since the dawn of Homo sapiens. edge o f apete form ation and succession served. It is an integral part of human Furthermore, human beings have molded offers invaluable insights into processes existence, in which utilization is part of environments through their conscious of forestation in savanna and reforesta the celebration of life. and unconscious activities for millennia - tion in denuded areas. Finn Lynge (In Golliher 1998) empha to the extent that it is often impossible to The Kagore Shona people of Zimbab sizes th a t one o f the basic differences be separate nature from culture. we have sacred sites, burial grounds, and tween traditional hunters and urban con Some recently 'discovered' cultural other sites of special historical signifi servationists is that the latter fear, not landscapes include those of Aboriginal cance deeply embedded in the landscape love, nature. As he points out, "good peoples, who 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 years before the (M atowanyika 1997). Outsiders often nature management" depends upon term 'sustainable development' was cannot recognize them during land use "the recognition of the interdependent coined, were trading seeds, dividing tubers, planning exercises. In societies w ith no wholeness of humanity", which, in turn, and propagating domesticated and non- written language or edifices, hills, moun is based upon a respect for life that must domesticated plant species. Sacred sites tains and valleys become the libraries and be taken to preserve lives. act as conservation areas for vital water cathedrals that reflect cultural achieve The problem then is not if Indigenous sources and individual species by restric ment. Chapter 13 on forest management and traditional peoples are or are not ting access and behavior. Traditional provides additional evidence that pre "natural conservationists or foresters", technologies, including fire use, were sumed "w ild" forests are actually managed but rather who and how are we (non-Indi part o f extremely sophisticated systems landscapes. Forests are more often peo ans) tojudge? D ifferent worldviews make that shaped and maintained the balance ples' back yards, not the "wildernesses" such judgm ents tenuous at best. And, of vegetation and wildlife. Decline of assumed by outsiders. besides, whose scientific measuring stick fire management and loss of sacred A failure to recognize anthropogenic is to be used to make the judgments? sites when Aboriginal people were (hum an-modified) landscapes has blind There are, for example, no universal, nor centralized into settlements, led to ed outsiders to the management prac even standardized, indicators of sustain rapid decline of mammals throughout tices of Indigenous Peoples and local able forest management, nor universal the arid regions (Sultan, Craig and Ross communities (Deneven, 1992; Gomez- agreement on howto define, measure, or 1997). Pompa and Kaus 1992). Many so-called monitor forest biodiversity. And, what are Another example of 'cultural land 'pristine' landscapes are in fact cultural the criteria for environmental health? scapes' isthe 'forest islands' (apete) of the landscapes, either created by humans or And healthy environments and forests for Kayapo Indians of Brazil (Posey 1985; m odified by human activity (such as whom? Never mind the moral question 1990; 1997). Kayapo practices of planting natural forest management, cultivation, of: who are we to judge, who provoked and transplanting within and between and the use of fire). the biodiversity crisis in the first place? many ecological zones indicate the This is more than semantics. "W ild " Two major points remove us from this degree to which indigenous presence has and "wilderness" imply that these land relativism and judgmentalism, placing modified Amazonia. Extensive planta scapes and resources are the result o f scientists, conservationists and indige- tions of fruit and nuttrees, as well as 'forest "n a tu re " and, as such, have no owners nous/traditional peoples alike onto the islands' (apete) created in savanna, force they are the "common heritage of all hard facts of observation and experience. scientists to re-evaluate what have often humankind". This has come to mean that One isthe unequivocal influence of indig hastily and erroneously been considered local communities have no tenurial or enous and local communities in the for 'natural' Amazonian landscapes. The ownership rights, and, thus, their lands, mation and maintenance of modern Kayapo techniques of constructing apete territories, and resources are "free" to forest ecosystems. The other are the for in savanna show the degree to which this others just for the taking. This is why Indig midable number of cases studies showing Amazon group can create and manipula enous Peoples have come to oppose the how traditional ecological knowledge te micro-environments within and be use of "wilderness" and "wild" to refer and practices serve to effectively manage tween ecozones to actually increase bio to the regions in which they now or once and conserve forest mountain, agricultu logical diversity. Such ecological engineer lived.

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This is poignantly expressed in an tion with the approval and involvement (A kereleetal. 1991; Bodeker 1998). A lte r Aboriginal Resolution from the 1995 Eco- of the holders o f such knowledge, inno native medical systems are dependent politics IX Conference, Darwin, Australia: vations and practices and encourage the upon and closely tied to healthy forests (Northern Land Council 1996): equitable sharing of the benefits arising and biodiversity conservation. It is impor The term 'wilderness' as it is popular from the utilization o f such knowledge, tant to remember that the distinctions ly used, and related concepts as 'wild innovations and practices between medicine, food, and health are resources', 'w ild foods', etc., [are unac The CBD also enshrines the impor western distinctions. For many indige ceptable]. These terms have connotations tance of customary practice in biodiversi nous and traditional peoples, foods are of terra nullius [empty or unowned land ty conservation and calls fo r protection of medicines and vice versa; in fact, the and resources] and, as such, all concerned and equitable benefit-sharing from the western division of the two makes little people and organizations should look for use and application of "traditional tech sense to many traditional peoples (Hugh- alternative terminology which does not nologies" (Articles 10.c and 18.4). Glow- Jones 1998). And, above all, healthy exclude Indigenous history and meaning ka and Burhenne-Guilmin (1994) warn forests are critical to healthy societies and (Northern Land Council 1996). that 'traditional' can imply restriction of individuals, because humanity and na Cultural landscapes and their links to the CBD only to those embodying tradi ture are one, not in opposition to each conservation of biological diversity are tional lifestyles, keeping in mind th a t the other. now recognized under the 1972 UNESCO concept can easily be misinterpreted to Convention Concerning the Protection of mean "frozen in tim e ". But Pereira and Equity and rights the World Cultural and Natural Heritage Gupta (1993) claim 'it is the traditional ('The World Heritage Convention'). A methods of research and application, not Recognition by the CBD of the contribu new category o f W orld Heritage Site, the just particular pieces of knowledge that tions of indigenous and traditional peo 'Cultural Landscape', recognizes 'the persist in a 'tra d itio n of invention and ples to maintaining biological diversity complex interrelationships between man innovation'. Technological changes do may be a major political advance. But and nature in the construction, forma not simply lead to modernization and loss there are major dangers. Once TEK or tion and evolution of landscapes' of traditional practice, but rather provide genetic materials leave the societies in (UNESCO/WHC/2/Revised/1995). The first additional inputs into vibrant, adaptive which they are embedded, there is little cultural landscape World Heritage Site was and adapting, holistic systems o f man national protection and virtually no inter Tongariro National Park, a sacred region agement and conservation. national laws to protect community for the Maori people of New Zealand 'Traditional knowledge, innovations "knowledge, innovations, and practices". (Rôssler 1993) th a t was included in the and practices' are often referred to by Many countries do not even recognize the World Heritage List because of its impor scientists as Traditional Ecological Knowl basic right of indigenous peoples to exist - tance in Maori beliefs. Hay-Edie (1998) edge (TEK). TEK is far more than a sim let alone grant them self-determination, reports that UNESCO is also now develop ple compilation o f facts (Gadgil et al, land ownership, or control over their tra ing new projects to help local commu 1993; Johnson, 1992). It is the basis fo r ditional resources (Gray, 1998). nities conserve and protect sacred places, local-level decision-making in areas of "Farmers' Rights", developed by the including sacred groves and forests. contemporary life, including natural Food and Agricultural Organization The Convention on Biological Diversi resource management, nutrition, food (FAO) over the last tw o decades, is one of ty (CBD) is one of the major international preparation, health, education, and com the few international attempts to recog forces in recognizing the role of indige munity and social organization (Warren nize the contributions of traditional and nous and local communities in situ con et al 1995). TEK is holistic, inherently indigenous peoples - in this case to glob servation. The Preamble recognizes the: dynamic, constantly evolving through al food security. But its legal basis is weak Close and traditional dependence of experimentation and innovation, fresh and even meager guarantees are resisted many indigenous and local communities insight, and external stimuli (Suzuki and by some powerful countries. The global embodying traditional lifestyles on bio Knudson 1992). fund established to insure forms of com logical resources, and the desirability of TEK is built upon traditional varieties pensation for local farmers remains inop sharing equitably benefits arising from of crop and forest plants and gathered erative. FAO is undertaking a revision of the use of traditional knowledge, inno foods (often known as NDRs - non-dome- its International Undertaking on Plant vations and practices relevant to the con sticated resources-or NTFPs - non-timber Genetic Resources (IUPGR) w ith the view servation of biological diversity and the forest products) that serve to stimulate of strengthening or expanding Farmers' sustainable use of its components. biodiversity conservation, not destroy or Rights, but the political road to such Article 8 (j) o f the Convention on Bio homogenize it as most agro-forest man improvements is rocky and uncertain logical Diversity (CBD) spells out specific agement systems do (Thrupp 1997). Indeed (GRAIN 1995; Posey 1996; Plenderleith obligations of Signatories to: "modern" forestry and agriculture have 1998). Subject to its national legislation, re become major threats to indigenous and The International Labour Organiza spect, preserve and maintain knowledge, local communities, as well as biodiversity, tion (ILO) Convention 169 isthe only legal innovations and practices of indigenous healthy ecosystems - and even food secu ly-binding international instrument spe and local communities embodying tradi rity (Mann & Lawrence 1998). cifically intended to protect indigenous tional lifestyles relevant for the conser Another im portant area in which local and tribal peoples. ILO 169 supports com vation and sustainable use of biological knowledge plays a major role is in forest munity ownership and local control of diversity and promote the wider applica medicines and traditional health systems lands and resources. It does not, however,

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cover the numerous traditional and peas 1997). There is skepticism, however, that It is broad-ranging, thorough, and re ant groups that are also critical in con this sui generis option will be adequate flects one of the most transparent and servation of the diversity of agricultural, to provide any significant alternatives to democratic processes yet to be seen in medicinal, and non-domesticated resour existing IPRs (Montecinos 1996). the United Nations. The process itself ces. To date the Convention has only 10 One glim m er of hope comes from the and many of the principles established national signatories and provides little CBD's decision to implement an "inter- will undoubtedly serve as models for more than a base line fo r debates on sessional process" to evaluate the inade traditional societies and local communi indigenous rights (Barsh 1990). quacies of IPRs and develop guidelines ties seeking greater recognition of rights. The same bleak news comes from an and principles for governments seeking [Box 2 provides some of the principles analysis of Intellectual Property Rights advice on access and transfer legislation affirmed by the DDRIP. The complete text (IPRs) laws. IPRs were established to pro to protect traditional communities (UNEP is provided in Appendix 1]. tect individual inventions and inventors, 1997). not the collective, ancient folklore and This provides exciting opportunities Box 2: some principal rights af TEK of indigenous and local communities. for many countries and peoples to en firmed by the draft declaration on Even if IPRs were secured fo r communi gage in an historic debate. Up to now, the rights of indigenous peoples ties, differential access to patents, copy United Nations agencies have been reluc right, know-how, and trade secret laws tant to discuss „integrated systems of - Right to self-determination, repre and lawyers would generally price them rights" that link environment, trade, and sentation and full participation. out of any effective registry, monitoring human rights. However, agreements - Recognition of existing treaty ar or litigation using such instruments between the CBD, FAO and WTO now guar rangements with indigenous peoples. (Posey and Dutfield, 1996). Box 1 sum antee broad consultations on sui gene - Right to determine own citizenry marizes how IPRs are considered inade ris systems and community intellectual and obligations of citizenship. quate and inappropriate for protecting property rights (CIPRs) between the - Right to collective, as well as indivi the collective resources of indigenous and World Intellectual Property Organization dual, human rights. traditional peoples. (WIPO), United Nations Education and - Right to live in freedom, peace, and Scientific Organization (UNESCO), United security without military intervention of Box 1: inadequacies of intellectual Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), involvement. property rights United Nations Development Programme - Right to religious freedom and pro (UNDP), United Nations Commission on tection o f sacred sites and objects, includ Intellectual Property Rights are inade Trade and Development (UNCTAD), Inter ing ecosystems, plants, and animals. quate and inappropriate for protection of national Labour Organization (ILO), the - Right to restitution and redress fo r traditional ecological knowledge and Geneva Human Rights Centre, and others. cultural, intellectual, religious or spiritu community resources because they: It will take the creative and imaginative al property th a t is taken or used w ith o u t - recognize individual, not collective input of all these groups - and many authorization. rights; m ore-to solve the complicated challenge - Right to free and informed consent - require a specific act of "invention"; of devising new systems of national and (prior informed consent). - simplify ownership regimes; international laws that support and - Right to control access and exert - stimulate commercialization; enhance cultural and biological diversity. ownership over plants, animals and min - recognize only market values; Many of the principles of sui generis erals vital to their cultures. - are subject to economic powers and systems o f rights have already been estab - Right to own, develop, control and manipulation; lished in international Conventions like use the lands and territories, including -are difficult to monitor and enforce; the CBD and ILO 169, as well as major the total environm ent o f the lands, air, -are expensive, complicated, time- human rights agreements such as the waters, coastal seas, sea-ice, flora and consuming. International Covenant on Civil and fauna and other resources which they Political Rights (ICCPR), the International have traditionally owned or otherwise The World Trade Organization's General Covenant on Economic, Social and occupied or used. Agreement on Tariff and Trade Cultural Rights (ICESCR), and, of course, - Right to special measures to control, (WTO/GATT) contains no explicit refer the Universal Declaration of Human develop and protect their sciences, tech ence to the knowledge and genetic resour Rights (UDHR) (Greaves 1994; van der nologies and cultural manifestations, ces of traditional peoples, although it Vlist 1994, Posey & Dutfield 1996; Posey including human and other genetic does provide for States to develop sui 1996). resources, seeds, medicines, knowledge generis (specially generated) systems fo r For indigenous peoples, the Draft of the properties of fauna and flora, oral plant protection (Trade Related Aspects Declaration o f Rights of Indigenous Peo traditions, literatures, designs and visual of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) ples (DDRIP) is the most im portant state and perform ing arts. Article 27.c) (Dutfield 1997). Considerable ment of basic requirements fo r adequate - Right to just and fair compensation intellectual energy is now being poured rights and protection. DDRIP took nearly for any such activities that have adverse by governments, non-government and two decades to develop by hundreds of environmental, economic, social, cultural peoples' organizations into defining indigenous representatives to the UN or spiritual impact. what new, alternative models of protec Working Group on Indigenous Popula tion would include (SEE Leskien & Flitner, tions of the Geneva Human Rights Centre.

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The global balance sheet guaranteed to local communities by Box 3: principles for "equitable scientists. The "m oratorium m ovem ent" partnerships" established by the Although international efforts to recog began with the 1993 Mataatua Declara international society for ethno- nize indigenous, traditional and local tion (Clause 2.8) Posey & D utfield 1996, biology communities are welcome and positive, p.205): they are pitted against enormous econo A moratorium on any further com Principle of Self-Determination: This prin mic and market forces that propel globa mercialization of indigenous medicinal ciple recognizes that indigenous peoples lization of trade. Critiques of globaliza plants and human genetic materials must have a right to self determination (or local tion are numerous (e.g. Korten 1995), and be declared until indigenous communi determination for traditional and local point to at least tw o major short-comings: ties have developed appropriate protec communities) and that researchers shall (i) value is imputed to information and tion mechanisms. as appropriate acknowledge and respect resources only when they enter external such rights. Culture and language are in markets; and (ii) expenditures do not The Mataatua Declaration, in turn, trinsically connected to land and territory, reflect actual environmental and social influenced the Final Statement of the and cultural and linguistic diversity are costs. This means th a t existing values 1995 Consultation on Indigenous Peo inextricably linked to biological diversity; recognized by local communities are ples' Knowledge and Intellectual Prop therefore, the principle of self-determi ignored, despite knowledge that local erty Rights in Suva, Fiji (PCRC 1995): nation includes: (i) The right to control forest biodiversity provides essential ele Call for a m oratorium on bioprospect land and territory; (ii) the right to sacred ments for survival (food, shelter, medi ing in the Pacific and urge indigenous places; (iii) the right (to own / determ ine cine, etc.). It also means that the knowl peoples not to co-operate in bioprospect the use of/accreditation, protection and edge and managed resources of indigenous ing activities until appropriate protection compensation for) knowledge; (iv) the and traditional peoples are ascribed no mechanisms are in place: right of access to traditional resources; (v) value and assumed to be free for the - Bioprospecting as a term needs to the right to preserve and protect local taking. This has been called "intellectual be clearly defined to exclude indigenous language, symbols and modes of expres terra nullius" after the concept (empty peoples' customary harvesting practices. sion (vi) and the right to self-definition. land) that allowed colonial powers to - Assert th a t in situ conservation by Principle of Inalienability: This princi expropriate "discovered" land for their indigenous peoples is the best method to ple recognizes that the inalienable rights empires. Corporations and states still conserve and protect biological diversity of indigenous peoples and local commu defend this morally vacuous concept and indigenous knowledge, and encour nities in relation to theirtraditional lands, because it facilitates the "biopiracy" of age its implementation by indigenous territories, forests, fisheries and other traditional medicines and useful communities and all relevant bodies. natural resources. These rights are both NDR/NTFP species. - Encourage indigenous peoples to individual and collective, with local peo Even scientists have been accomplices maintain and expand our knowledge of ples determining which ownership re to such raids by publishing data they local biological resources. gimes are appropriate. know will be catapulted into the public Principle of Minimum Impact: This domain and gleaned by "bioprospec To allay these deep concerns, many principle recognizes the duty of scientists tors" seeking new products. They have scientific and professional organizations and researchers to ensure that their re also perpetuated the "intellectual terra are developing their own Codes of search and activities have minimum nullius" concept by declaring useful local Conduct and Standards of Practice to impact on local communities. plants as "wild" and entire forest and guide research, health, educational, and Principle of Full Disclosure: This prin other ecosystems as "wildernesses", conservation projects with indigenous ciple recognizes that it is important for often despite knowing that these have and local communities (a summary of the indigenous & traditional peoples & been molded, managed, and protected some of these can be found in Cunning local communities to have disclosed to by human populations for millennia. It is ham 1993, Posey 1995 and Posey &, them (in a manner that they can compre also common for scientists to declare Dutfield 1996). hend), the manner in which the research areas and resources "wild" through One of the most extensive is that of is to be undertaken, how information is ignorance-or negligence-without even the International Society for Ethnobio- to be gathered and the ultimate purpose basic investigations into archaeological logy, th a t undertook a 1 0 -year consulta fo r which such inform ation is to be used or historical records, or to actual human tion with indigenous and traditional and by whom it is to be used. management practices. The result is to peoples - as well as its extensive interna Principle of Prior Informed Consent & declare the biodiversity of a site as "natu tional membership-toestablish "princi Veto: This principle recognizes that the ral", thereby transferring it to the public ples for equitable partnerships". The prior informed consent of all peoples and domain. Once public, communities are main objective of the process was to estab their communities must be obtained stripped of all rights to their traditional lish terms under which collaboration and before any research is undertaken. Indi resources. joint research between ethnobiologists genous peoples, traditional societies and It is little wonder then, that indige and communities could proceed based local communities have the right to veto nous groups in the Pacific region have upon trust, transparency, and mutual any program, project, or study that affects declared a moratorium on all scientific concerns. A list of these principles can be them. research until protection of traditional found in Box 3. Principle of Confidentiality: This prin knowledge and genetic resources can be ciple recognizes that indigenous peoples,

109 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity Posey • Cultural and Spiritual Values of Forests and Biodiversity: Valuing the Knowledge of Indigenous and Traditional Peoples traditional societies, and local communi access to and use of their knowledge and zenship". Callicott (1998) argues for the ties, attheirsolediscretion, havetheright the duty o f scientists and researchers to need of a global ethic formulated around to exclude from publication and/or to be equitably share these benefits with indig respect for the diversity of cultures and kept confidential any information con enous peoples. ecosystems. It may be that the "need" is cerning their culture, traditions, mytho not just the artifact of human psycholo logies or spiritual beliefs and that such Similar principles have been elabora gy and moral reflection, but rather spiri confidentiality will be observed by re ted by environmental philosophers, tually and psychologically grounded. Ros- searchers and other potential users. Indige ethicists, and eco-theologians (Golliher, zak (1992) believes th a t the environ nous and traditional peoples also have 1998). Unfortunately much of their mental crisis is rooted in the extreme the right to privacy and anonymity. efforts have been couched in such "disturbance" of the web of life that is a Principle of Active Participation: This rarefied discourses that they have had part of human consciousness. principle recognizes the critical impor little impact on the practice of science or Indeed, a basic precept o f ecology it tance of communities to be active parti on public policy. self is that disturbance of one element of cipants in all phases o f the project from There are some important exceptions an environmental systems affects all inception to completion. to this, notably "deep ecology" (Naess other elements, as well as the whole Principle of Respect: This principle 1985, 1989; Devall 1988, Fox 1990, Ses (Capra, 1998). It may be conjecture as to recognizes the necessity for western re sions 1995), which has inspired a m ilitant how Homo sapiens is psychologically searchers to respect the integrity of the "Earth First" movement aimed at extin affected by the overall loss of biological culture, traditions and relationship of guishing the anthropocentric view that and cultural diversity, but certainly indig indigenous and traditional peoples with humans have the right to do as they wish enous, traditional and local communi their natural world and to avoid the to other life forms. For deep ecologists, ties are aware of the negative local affects application of ethnocentric conceptions "th e hubris in asking people 'to take res - and they express th e ir profound and standards. ponsibility' for the environment is repla concerns in cultural and spiritual terms Principle of Active Protection: This ced by an invitation to realize the depth precisely because they recognize the deep principle recognizes the importance of of existing ecological relationships" (Gol rootedness of the disturbance. researchers taking active measures to pro liher, ibid). Ingold (1988) has long argued The worrisome lesson from all of this tect and enhance the relationship of for a discourse that avoids anthropocen isth a tth e global environmental cr-isiscan- communities with their environment and trism and ethnocentrism, in favor of an not be solved by technological tampering thereby promote the maintenance of "ontological equality". To a large extent, ("quickfixes") orsuperficial political mea cultural and biological diversity. this requires shifting priorities from sures. The Native American leader Black Principle of Good Faith: This principle instrumental values (how is biodiversity Elk puts it: recognizes that researchers and others useful to humans) to intrinsic values (all It is the story of all life th a t is holy and having access to knowledge of indige life is valuable whether it is of use to isgoodtotell, and of us two-leggeds shar nous peoples, traditional societies and humans) - not an easy task in a world domi ing in it with the four-leggeds and the local communities will atalltimesconduct nated by economics and global trade. wings of the air and all green things; for themselves with the utmost good faith. "Ecofeminism" has also been instru these are children of one mother and Principle of Compensation: This prin mental in pointing out how unequal gen their father is one spirit. (Neihardt, 1959; ciple recognizes that communities should der and power relations have operated to Suzuki 1998). be fairly, appropriately, and adequately separate "nature" from "spirit", thereby For industrialized society to reverse remunerated or compensated for access catalyzing disrespect for biodiversity and the devastating cycles it has imposed on and use of their knowledge and infor destruction o f ecosystems (Ruether 1992, the Planet, it w ill have to invent an "eco m ation. 1998; Adams 1993; Mies and Shiva 1993; logy" powerful enough to offset defores Principle of Restitution: This principle Plaskowand Chirst 1989; Primavesi 1991). tation, soil erosion, species extinction, recognizes that where as a result of re This emphasis on "spirit" provides a and pollution; and, "sustainable prac search being undertaken, there are ad much-needed bridge between cultures, tices" th a t can harmonize w ith grow th of verse consequences and disruptions to local since „cosmovisions" are the organizing trade and increased consumption; and, of communities, those responsible for all spiritual and conceptual models used by course, a "global environmental ethic" undertaking o f research w ill make appro indigenous and traditional peoples to that is not subverted by economically priate restitution and compensation. integrate their society with the world. powerful institutions. That may be an Principle of Reciprocity: This principle These cosmovisions are based on the impossible task - but there are some via recognizes the inherent value to western „sacred balance" of cosmic forces that ble paths. science and humankind in general from unite human beings (males and females One of the best is to relearn the eco gaining access to knowledge of indige equally) with all life (again, equally shared). logical knowledge and sustainable prin nous peoples, traditional societies, and Many people in industrialized coun ciples th a t our society has lost. This can local communities and the desirability of tries are trying to re-integrate the con come through listening to the peoples of reciprocating that contribution. cept of "sacred balance" into a practical the Planet w hostill know when birds nest, Principle of Equitable Sharing: This "ethic" of land, biodiversity, and envi fish migrate, ants swarm, tadpoles devel principle recognizes the right of commu ronment. This movement takes its inspi op legs, soils erode, and rare plants seed nities to share in the benefits from prod ration from Aldo Leopold's (1949) ideas and whose cosmovisions manifest the ucts or publications developed from of "land ethic" and "environmental citi ecologies and ethics of sustainability. As

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the Bepkororoti Paiakan, a Kayapo Chief Welcoming the fact that indigenous enous peoples, in consultation and co (Brazil), puts it: We are trying to save the peoples are organizing themselves fo r operation with the peoples concerned. knowledge that the forests and this Plan political, economic, social and cultural Emphasizing that the United Nations et are alive - to give it back to you who enhancement and in order to bring an has an important and continuing role to have lost the understanding. end to all forms of discrimination and play in promoting and protecting the But listening is not enough: we must oppression wherever they occur, rights of indigenous peoples, uphold their basic rights to land, territory, Convinced that control by indigenous Believing that this Declaration is a fur knowledge, and traditional resources. peoples over developments affecting ther important step forward for the And we must discover how the balance them and their lands, territories and recognition, promotion and protection of sheet of economic and utilitarian policies resources w ill enable them to m aintain the rights and freedoms of indigenous can be countered by the "sacred balance" and strengthen their institutions, cultures peoples and in the development of expressed by indigenous and traditional and traditions, and to promote their relevant activities of the United Nations peoples. development in accordance with their system in this field, institutions, cultures and traditions, and Solemnly proclaims the following Appendix 1: UN Draft Declaration to promote their development in accord United Nations Declaration on the Rights on the Rights of Indigenous Peo ance w ith their aspirations and needs, of Indigenous Peoples: ples Recognizing also that respectfor indig enous knowledge, cultures and tradition Articles (as agreed upon by members of the Wor al practices contributes to sustainable and king Group on Indigenous Populations at equitable development and proper Part I its 11th session, 1993) management of the environment, Affirming that indigenous peoples Emphasizing the need for demilita 1. Indigenous peoples have the right to are equal in dignity and rights to all other rization of the lands and territories of the full and effective enjoyment of all peoples, while recognizing the right of all indigenous peoples, which will contribute human rights and fundamental freedoms peoples to be different, to consider them to peace, economic and social progress recognized in the Charter of the United selves different, and to be respected as and development, understanding and Nations, the Universal Declaration of such. friendly relations among the nations and Human Rights and international human Affirming also that all peoples contri peoples of the w orld. rights law. bute to the diversity and richness of civi Recognizing in particular the right of 2. Indigenous individuals and peoples lizations and cultures, which constitute indigenous families and communities to are free and equal to other individuals the common heritage of humankind, retain shared responsibility for the and peoples in dignity and rights, and Affirming further that all doctrines, upbringing, training, education and well have the right to be free from any kind policies and practices based on or advo being of their children, of adverse discrimination, in particular cating superiority of peoples or individu Recognizing also that indigenous that based on their indigenous origin or als on the basis o f national origin, racial, peoples have the right freely to deter identity. religious, ethnic or cultural differences mine their relationships with States in a 3. Indigenous peoples have the right are racist, scientifically false, legally inval spirit of coexistence, mutual benefit and of self-determination. By virtue of that id, morally condemnable and socially full respect, right they freely determine their political unjust, Considering that treaties, agreements status and freely pursue their economic, Reaffirming also that indigenous peo and other arrangements between States social and cultural development. ples, in the exercise o f their rights, should and indigenous peoples are properly mat 4. Indigenous peoples have the right be free from discrimination of any kind. ters of international concern and respon to maintain and strengthen their distinct Concerned that indigenous peoples sibility, political, economic, social and cultural have been deprived of their human rights Acknowledging that the Charter of characteristics, as well as their legal and fundamental freedoms, resulting, the United Nations, the International systems, w hile retaining th e ir rights to inter alia, in their colonization and dis Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultur participate fully, if they so choose, in the possession of their lands, territories and al Rights and the International Covenant political, economic, social and cultural life resources, thus preventing them from on Civil and Political Rights affirm th e fu n - o f the State. exercising, in particular, their right to damental importance of the right of self- 5. Every indigenous individual has the development in accordance with their determination of all peoples, by virtue of right to a nationality. own needs and interests. which they freely determine their politi Recognizing the urgent need to re cal status and freely pursue their econo Part II spect and promote the inherent rights mic, social and cultural development, and characteristics of indigenous peo Bearing in mind th a t nothing in this 6 . Indigenous peoples have the collective ples, especially their rights to th e ir lands, Declaration may be used to deny any peo right to live in freedom, peace and secu territories and resources, which derive ples their right o f self-determ ination, rity as distinct peoples and to full gua from their political, economic and social Encouraging States to comply w ith rantees against genocide or any other act structures, and from their cultures, and effectively implement all internation of violence, including the removal of indig spiritual traditions, histories and philo al instruments, in particular those related enous children from their families and sophies, to human rights, as they apply to indig communities under any pretext.

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In addition, they have the individual (c) Force indigenous individuals to right and the right to establish and control rights to life, physical and mental integ abandon th e ir lands, territories or means their educational systems and institutions rity, liberty and security of person. of subsistence, or relocate them in special providing education in their own lan 7. Indigenous peoples have the collec centres for military purposes; guages, in a manner appropriate to their tive and individual right not to be sub (d) Force indigenous individuals to cultural methods of teaching and learning. jected to ethnocide and cultural geno work for military purposes under any Indigenous children living outside cide, including prevention of and redress discriminatory purposes. their communities have the right to be for: provided access to education in th e ir own (a) Any action which has the aim or Part III culture and language. effect of depriving them of their integri States shall take effective measures to ty as distinct peoples, or of their cultural 12. Indigenous peoples have the right to provide appropriate resources for these values or ethnic identities; practice and revitalize their cultural tra purposes. (b) Any action which has the aim or ditions and customs. This includes the 16. Indigenous peoples have the right effect of dispossessing them of their right to maintain, protect and develop to have the dignity and diversity of their lands, territories or resources; the past, present and future manifesta cultures, traditions, histories and aspira (c) Any form of population transfer tions of their cultures, such as archaeolo tions appropriately reflected in all forms which has the aim or effect of violating gical and historical sites, artifacts, designs, of education and public information. or undermining any of their rights; ceremonies, technologies and visual and States shall take effective measure, in (d) Any form of assimilation or inte performing arts and literature, as well as consultation with the indigenous peoples gration by other cultures or ways of life the right to the restitution of cultural, concerned, to eliminate prejudice and imposed on them by legislative, adminis intellectual, religious and spiritual prop discrimination and to promote tolerance, trative or other measures; erty taken without their free and infor understanding and good relations (e) Any form o f propaganda directed med consent or in violation of their laws, among indigenous peoples and all seg against them. traditions and customs. ments of society. 8 . Indigenous peoples have the collec 13. Indigenous peoples have the right 17. Indigenous peoples have the right tive and individual right to maintain and to manifest, practice, develop and teach to establish their own media in their own develop their distinctive identities and their spiritual and religious traditions, languages. They also have the right to characteristics, including the right to customs and ceremonies; the right to equal access to all forms of non-indige- identify themselves as indigenous and to maintain, protect, and have access in pri nous media. be recognized as such. vacy to th e ir religious and cultural sites; States shall take effective measures to 9. Indigenous peoples and individuals the right to the use and control of cere ensure that State-owned media duly have the rightto belongtoan indigenous monial objects; and the right to the repa reflect indigenous cultural diversity. community or nation, in accordance with tria tio n o f human remains. 18. Indigenous peoples have the right the traditions and customs of the com States shall take effective measures, in to enjoy fully all rights established under munity or nation concerned. No disad conjunction with the indigenous peoples international labour law and national vantage of any kind may arise from the concerned, to ensure that indigenous labour legislation. exercise o f such a right. sacred places, including burial sites, be Indigenous peoples have the right not 10. Indigenous peoples shall not be preserved, respected and protected. to be subjected to any discriminatory con forcibly removed from their lands or ter 14. Indigenous peoples have the right ditions o f labour, employment or salary. ritories. No relocation shall take place to revitalize, use, develop and transmit to without the free and informed consent of future generation their histories, lan Part V the indigenous peoples concerned and guages, oral traditions, philosophies, after agreement on just and fair com w ritin g systems and literatures, and to 19. Indigenous peoples have the right to pensation and, where possible, with the designate and retain their own names for participate fully, if they so choose, at all option of return. communities, places and persons. levels of decision-making in matters 11. Indigenous peoples have the right States shall take effective measures, which may affect their rights, lives and to special protection and security in peri whenever any right of indigenous peo destinies through representatives chosen ods of armed conflict. ples may be threatened, to ensure this by themselves in accordance with their States shall observe international right is protected and also to ensure that own procedures, as well as to maintain standards, in particular the Fourth Gene they can understand and be understood and develop their own indigenous deci va Convention o f 1949, fo r the protection in political, legal and administrative pro sion-making institutions. of civilian populations in circumstances of ceedings, where necessary through the 20. Indigenous peoples have the right emergency and armed conflict, and shall provision of interpretation or by any to participate fully, if they so choose, not: other appropriate means. through procedures determined by them, (a) Recruit indigenous individuals in devising legislative or administrative against their will into the armed forces Part IV measures that may affect them. and, in particular, for use against other States shall obtain the free and infor indigenous peoples; 15. Indigenous children have the right to med consent of the peoples concerned (b) Recruit indigenous children into all levels and forms of education of the before adopting and implementing such the armed forces under any circumstances; State. All indigenous peoples also have this measures.

112 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity Posey • Cultural and Spiritual Values of Forests and Biodiversity: Valuing the Knowledge of Indigenous and Traditional Peoples

21. Indigenous peoples have the right ally owned or otherwise occupied or used. ces, including the right to require that States to maintain and develop their political, This includes the right to the full recog obtain their free and informed consent economic and social systems, to be secure nition of their laws, traditions and prior to the approval of any project in the enjoyment of their own means of customs, land-tenure systems and institu affecting th e ir lands, territories and other subsistence and development, and to tions for the development and manage resources, particularly in connection with engage freely in all their traditional and ment of resources, and the right to effec the development, utilization or exploita other economic activities. Indigenous tive measures by States to prevent any tion of mineral, water or other resources. peoples who have been deprived of their interference with, alienation of or en Pursuant to agreement with the indige means of subsistence and development croachment upon these rights. nous peoples concerned, just and fair are entitled to just and fair compensa 27. Indigenous peoples have the right compensation shall be provided for any tion. to the restitution of the lands, territories such activities and measures taken to m it 22. Indigenous peoples have the right and resources which they have tra d itio n igate adverse environmental, economic, to special measures for the immediate, ally owned or otherwise occupied or used; social, cultural or spiritual impact. effective and continuing improvement of and which have been confiscated, their economic and social conditions, occupied, used or damaged w ith o u t their Part VII including in the areas o f employment, free and informed consent. Where this is vocational training and retraining, not possible, they have the right to just 31. Indigenous peoples, as a specific form housing, sanitation, health and social and fair compensation. Unless otherwise of exercising their right to self-determi security. freely agreed upon by the peoples con nation, have the right to autonomy or Particular attention shall be paid to cerned, compensation shall take the form self-government in matters relating to the rights and special needs o f indigenous of lands, territories and resources equal their internal and local affairs, including elders, women, youth, children and dis in quality, size and legal status. culture, religion, education, information, abled persons. 28. Indigenous peoples have the right media, health, housing, employment, 23. Indigenous peoples have the right to the conservation, restoration and pro social welfare, economic activities, land to determine and develop priorities and tection of the total environment and the and resources management, environ strategies for exercising their right to productive capacity of their lands, terri ment and entry by non-members, as well development. In particular, indigenous tories and resources, as well as to as as ways and means for financing these peoples have the right to determine and sistance for this purpose from States and autonomous functions. develop all health, housing and other through international cooperation. Mili 32. Indigenous peoples have the economic and social programs affecting tary activities shall not take place in the collective right to determine their own them and, as far as possible, to administer lands and territories of indigenous peo citizenship in accordance with their such programs through th e ir own insti ples, unless otherwise freely agreed upon customs and traditions. Indigenous citi tutions. by the peoples concerned. zenship does not impair the right of indig 24. Indigenous peoples have the right States shall take effective measures to enous individuals to obtain citizenship of to their traditional medicines and health ensure that no storage of hazardous the States in which they live. practices, including the right to the pro materials shall take place in the lands and Indigenous peoples have the right to tection of vital medicinal plants, animals territories of indigenous peoples. determine the structures and to select the and minerals. States shall also take effective meas membership of their institutions in accord They also have the right to access, ures to ensure, as needed, th a t programs ance with their own procedures. without any discrimination, to all medical for monitoring, maintaining and restor 33. Indigenous peoples have the right institutions, health services and medical ing the health of indigenous peoples, as to promote, develop and maintain their care. developed and implemented by the peo institutional structures and their distinc ples affected by such materials, are duly tive juridical customs, traditions, proce Part VI implemented. dures and practices, in accordance with 29. Indigenous peoples are entitled to internationally recognized human rights 25. Indigenous peoples have the right to the recognition of the full ownership, standards. maintain and strengthen their distinctive control and protection of their cultural 34. Indigenous peoples have the spiritual and material relationships with and intellectual property. collective right to determine the respon the lands, territories, waters and coastal They have the right to special meas sibilities of individuals to their communi seas and other resources which they have ures to control, develop and protect their ties. traditionally owned or otherwise occu sciences, technologies and cultural mani 35. Indigenous peoples, in particular pied or used, and to uphold their re festations, including human and other those divided by international borders, sponsibilities to future generations in this genetic resources, seeds, medicines, have the right to maintain and develop regard. knowledge of the properties of fauna and contacts, relations and cooperation, 26. Indigenous peoples have the rightflora, oral traditions, literatures, designs including activities for spiritual, cultural, to own, develop, control and use the and visual and perform ing arts. political, economic and social purposes, lands and territories, including the total 30. Indigenous peoples have the right w ith other peoples across borders. environment o f the lands, air, waters, to determine and develop priorities and States shall take effective measures to coastal seas, sea-ice, flora and fauna and strategies for the development or use of ensure the exercise and implementation other resources which they have tradition their lands, territories and other resour o f this right.

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36. Indigenous peoples have the rightshall promote respect for and full appli CBD Secretariat, 1994, Convention on Bio to the recognition, observance and enforce cation of the provisions of this Declara logical Diversity, Secretariat of the ment of treaties, agreements and other tio n . Convention on Biological Diversity, constructive arrangements concluded M o n tre a l. w ith States or their successors, according Part IX CBD Secretariat 1996. The Impact of to their original spirit and intent, and to Intellectual Property Rights Systems have States honor and respect such trea 42. The rights recognized herein consti on the Conservation and Sustainable ties, agreements and other constructive tute the minimum standards for the sur Use of Biological Diversity and on the arrangements. Conflicts and disputes vival, dignity and well-being of the indig Equitable Sharing of Benefits from its which cannot otherwise be settled should enous peoples of the world. use, U N EP/CBD/COP/3/22. be submitted to competent international 43. All the rights and freedoms recog Clad, J. 1984. Conservation and indige bodies agreed to by all parties concerned. nized herein are equally guaranteed to nous peoples: a study of convergent male and female indigenous individuals. interests. Cultural Survival Quarterly

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Indigenous Peoples and terly 15: 46-48. Agriculture: Challenges and opportu Traditional Resource Rights: a Basisfor Redford, K. H. and Stearman, A. M. 1993. nities for sustainable food security. Equitable Relationships? Green Col Forest-dwelling native Amazonians The W orld Resources Institute. lege Centre for Environmental Policy and the conservation of biodiversity: UNEP, 1997. The B io d ive rsity A g e n d a : and Understanding, Oxford. interests in common or in collision? Decisions from the 3rd Meeting of the Posey, D.A. 1997. The Kayapô: the role of Conservation Biology 7: 248-255. Conference of the Parties to the Con intellectual property in resource Reichel-Dolmatoff, G. 1976, Cosmology as vention on Biological Diversity. management in the Brazilian Ama ecological analysis: a view from the Buenos Aires, Argentina, November zon. In: Posey, D.A. and Dutfield, G. rainforest. Man 11: 307-318. 1996. UNEP/CBD/97/1. Indigenous Peoples and Sustainabili Reichel-Dolmatoff, G. 1996. The Forest UN ECOSOC, 1986. Study of the Prob ty: Cases and Actions. 240-254. IUCN W ithin: The World View of the Tuka- lem of Discrimination Against Indig and International Books, Utrecht. no Amazonian Indians. Council Oak enous Populations. United Nations Posey, D.A. 1998, Traditional Ecological Books, Tulsa, OK. Economic & Social Council, Knowledge and the "Web of Life": Roszak, T. 1992. The Voice of the Earth. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1986/7 and Add. 1-4. Rediscovering the Cultural and Spiri Simon and Schuster, New York. UNESCO 1993. Amendment to the Draft tual Values of Biodiversity. UNESCO. Rossler, M. 1993. Tongariro: first cultural Programme and Budget for 1994- Posey, D.A. (ed) (1998). Cultural and Spi landscape on the W orld Heritage List. 1995 (27 C/5), Item 5 of the Provision ritual Values of Biodiversity. Leiden W orld Heritage Newsletter 4: 15. al Agenda (27 C/DR.321). UNESCO, University Press/ Intermediate Tech Ruddle, K. and Johannes, R.E. (eds.) 1985. Paris. nology Publications/ United Nations The Traditional Knowledge and Man van der Vlist, L. (ed.). 1994, Voices of the Environment Programme. agement of Coastal Systems in Asia Earth: Indigenous Peoples, New Part Posey, D.A., w ith contributions by G. Dut and the Pacific. UNESCO, Jakarta. ners and the Right to Self-determina field, K. Plenderleith, E. da Costa e Ruether, R. 1992. Gaia and God: An eco- tion in Practice. Netherlands Centre Silva, and A. Argumedo. 1996. Tradi feminist theology of earth healing. for Indigenous Peoples, Amsterdam, tional Resource Rights: International Harper, San Francisco. Netherlands. Instruments for Protection and Com Ruether, R.R. 1998. Ecofeminism: Domi W a rre n , D .M ., S likkerveer, L.J. and D. Bro- pensation for Indigenous Peoples and nation, Healing, and World Views. In: kensha, D. (eds) 1995. The Cultural Local Communities. IUCN, Gland. Posey, D.A. (ed). Cultural and Spiritu Dimension of Development: Indige Posey, D.A. and Dutfield, G. 1996. Beyond al Values of Biodiversity. nous Knowledge Systems. Inter Intellectual Property: Toward Tradi Sessions, G. (ed.). 1995, Deep Ecology for mediate Technology Publications, tional Resource Rights for Indigenous the 21st Century. Shambhala, Boston. L o n d o n . Peoples and Local Communities. O tta Stearman, A. M. 1992. Neotropical hunt W illett, A.B.J. 1993. Indigenous Knowl wa, International Development Re ers and their neighbors: effects of edge and its Implications for Agricul search Centre. non-indigenous settlement patterns tural Development and Agricultural Posey, D.A. and Dutfield, G. 1997. Indige on three native Bolivian societies. In: Extension: A Case Study of the Vedic nous Peoples and Sustainability: Cases R e d fo rd , K. H. and Padoch, C. (eds.) Tradition in Nepal. PhD dissertation, and Actions. IUCN and International Conservation of Neotropical Forests: Iowa State University. Books, Utrecht Building on Traditional Resource Use. Posey, D.A. and Dutfield, G. (in press) 108-128. C o lu m bia U n ive rsity Press, Author's address: Plants, Patents and Traditional Knowl N e w Y ork. edge: Ethical Concerns of Indigenous Strathern, Marilyn 1996. Potential prop Prof. Dr. Darrel Posey and Traditional Peoples. erty. Intellectual rights and property Institute of Social & Cultural Anthropolo Posey, D.A. and Overal, W. (eds) 1990. Eth- in persons. Social Anthropology 4(1): gy, University of Oxford nobiology: Implications and Applica 17-32. Linacre College, Oxford OXI 3FP, United tions: Proceedings of the First Inter S ultan, R., C raig, D. and Ross, H. 1997. K in g d o m national Congress of Ethnobiology. Aboriginal joint management of Aus e -m a il: [email protected] Volume 1 (Theory and Practice; tralian national parks: Uluru-kata darrel.posey@ mansfield.oxford.ac.uk Ethnozoology). MPEG/CNPq/MCT, Tjuta. In: Posey, D.A. and Dutfield, G. B elém . Indigenous Peoples and Sustainabili Prain, G., S. Fujisaka and D. M. Warren ty: Cases and Actions. 326-338. IUCN (eds.) (forthcoming). Biological and and International Books, Utrecht.

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diversity through the disappearance of Language: A Resource for Nature* most of the numerically small languages spoken by indigenous and m inority peo Luisa M affi ples. In linguists' calls to action vis-à-vis this crisis, a parallel was often drawn w ith the loss of biodiversity, as a way of sug A bstract edge, innovations and practices and encour gesting comparable damage to humani age the equitable sharing of the benefits ty's heritage. However, in these initial Several international instruments con arising from the utilization of such pronouncements, no significant attem pt cerned with biodiversity conservation in knowledge, innovations and practices. was made to go beyond such parallels and particular, the Convention on Biological Indigenous organizations have been ask whether there m ight be more than a Diversity (CBD) - have begun to acknowl very active vis-à-vis the im plementation metaphorical relationship between these edge the intrinsic link between biologi o f A rtic le 8 (j) at the meetings of the Con phenomena. It is only recently that this cal and cultural diversity. Efforts are ference of the Parties (COP) to the CBD. question has been explicitly asked and the underway to enshrine the preservation At the latest meeting (COP IV, May 4-15, idea proposed that, along w ith cultural and protection of traditional ecological 1998, Bratislava, Slovakia), they succeed diversity, linguistic diversity should also be knowledge in the documents now being ed in passing a decision that calls for the seen as inextricably linked to biodiversity. drafted to implement the CBD. Another creation of a continuous working group Defining and measuring linguistic aspect of the diversity of life, linguistic in charge of advising on the measures diversity. In order to address this issue, let diversity, must also be given attention and necessary to protect indigenous peoples' us begin by defining linguistic diversity. be protected in this context. Local lan knowledge, innovations and practices. In As with biodiversity, there are various guages are the repositories of traditional spite of persisting concerns about being definitions of linguistic diversity. Most knowledge, yet they are vanishing fast actually enabled to participate in the work commonly, however, the number of dif under the pressure of global forces that ing group and affect its recommenda ferent languages spoken on earth is used are also threatening biological and cul tions, indigenous organizations consider as a proxy for global linguistic diversity. tural diversity. For the sake of continuity this decision a success on the road to full There are an estimated 5,000 to 7,000 lan of the diversity of life on earth, we must recognition of the importance of their guages spoken today on the five conti recognize the role of language in the environmental knowledge and practices nents, of which 32% in Asia, 30% in A fri creation, transmission and perpetuation for the conservation and sustainable use ca, 19% in the Pacific, 15% in the Am eri of local knowledge and cultural behav of biological diversity. cas, and 3% in Europe. Of these lan iors, and accord indigenous and m inority While the processes surrounding the guages, statistics indicate that about half languages the same protection and chan CBD have been in the spotlight, it is are spoken by communities of 1 0 , 0 0 0 ces for survival as are beginning to be perh a p s less w e ll k n o w n th a t th e firs t speakers or less; half of these, in turn, are granted to the traditional cultures they international document to incorporate spoken by communities of 1 , 0 0 0 o r fe w e r sustain. an integrated notion of biocultural diver speakers (Tab. 1). Overall, languages with

sity was the Declaration of Belém of the up to 1 0 , 0 0 0 speakers total about 8 m illio n

Biocultural diversity and interna International Society of Ethnobiology, p e o p le , less th a n 0 .2 % of an estimated tional processes elaborated in 1988 at the 1st Internation world population of 5.3 billion. al Congress of Ethnobiology in Belém, On the other hand, of the remaining The concept of biocultural diversity is Brazil. Aware of the simultaneous extinc half of the world's languages, a small becoming increasingly familiar in envi tion threats facing tropical and other group of less than 300 (such as Chinese, ronmental conservation circles interna fragile ecosystems on the one hand, and English, Spanish, Arabic, Hindi, and so tionally, especially since finding its way indigenous peoples on the other, ethnobio- forth) are spoken bycom m unitiesof 1 m il into international instruments such as the logists stressed indigenous peoples' stew lion speakers or more, accounting for a Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) ardship over the world's biological total of over 5 billion speakers, or close to after the 1992 Rio Summit (UN Conferen resources and affirmed the existence of 95% of the world's population. The top ce on Environment and Development). an "inextricable link" between cultural ten of these alone actually comprise

A rtic le 8 (j) of the CBD is specifically con and biological diversity on earth. almost half of this global population cerned with indigenous peoples, tradi (Tab. 2). tional knowledge and related rights. It Linguistic diversity and biodiversity Indigenousand m inority languages at states that each Contracting Party must: risk. Taken together, these figures show Subject to its national legislation, respect, Threats to linguistic diversity. Inter that, while more than nine out often peo preserve and maintain knowledge, estingly, at about the same tim e linguists ple in the w orld are native speakers of one innovations and practices of indigenous were beginning to voice widespread con or other of only about 300 languages, and local communities embodying tradi cern about the status of the world's lan most of the world's linguistic diversity is tional lifestyles relevant for the con guages and to warn of another impend carried by very small communities of indig- servation and sustainable use of biologi ing extinction crisis, of a magnitude and cal diversity and promote their wider pace comparable to, if not greater than, * Paper subm itted to N ature and Resources, the UNESCO that affecting biodiversity: one that application with the approval and in journal on the environm ent and natural resources re volvement of the holders of such knowl would dramatically reduce linguistic search, June 1998

117 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Maffi • Language: A Resource for Nature

Tab. 1: Size classification of world's languages by number of mother-tongue speak culture has been the goal (as it has been ers and proportion of living languages (n=6526) (after Harmon 1995). in most cases), this assimilation has been effected crucially by way of linguistic Number of mothertongue Number of languages Proportion of assimilation, through the imposition of speakers world's living the dominant language in schooling, the per language languages (%) media, government affairs, and most 1-100 553 8.4 other public contexts - and, in parallel, 101-1000 1143 17.4 through the denigration of the local lan 1001-10 000 1710 26.2 guages (and the cultures they embody) 10 001-100 000 1436 22.0 as defective, primitive, unfit for the 100 001-1 000 000 660 10.1 "m o d e rn w o r ld " , as w e ll as th ro u g h th e > 1 000 000 288 4.4 severe restriction of their contexts of use and even the explicit prohibition of and E x tin c t 234 punishment for their use. Awareness of No total given 723 11.0 the political im plicationsof linguistic assim Auxiliary only 13 <0.1 ilation was perhaps never better expres sed than by the 15th century Spanish

Tab. 2: Languages with the most mother- b e tw e e n 6 % and 1 1 % of the currently grammarian Antonio de Nebrija. In 1492, tongue speakers: proportion of world spoken languages. In some projections, as presenting Queen Isabella of Spain with population (after Harmon 1995). many as 90% of the world's languages his grammar of Spanish (the first gram may disappear during the course of the mar of any modern European language), Language Proportion next century. These figures portray a Nebrija so explained its purposes in his of world threat to linguistic diversity that may be introduction: "Language has always been population far greater and more imminent than the the consort of empire . " 5 (%) threat facing biodiversity. The "curse of Babel" exposed. We may Mandarin Chinese 16 It is a historical fact that languages, well feel sorry for the speakers of these E nglish 8 like biological species, have undergone smaller languages who have lost or are Spanish 5 extinction before. Informed guesses sug losing their ancestral tongues. But is it not Arabic (all varieties) 4 gest that the peak of linguistic diversity the case that this linguistic assimilation is H in d i 3 on earth may have occurred at the begin ultim ately just an inevitable consequence P o rtu g u e se 3 ning of the Neolithic (10,000 years b.p.), of the in turn inevitable process of glob at which time more than twice the cur alization the world is witnessing? Is this B e n g a li 3 rent number of languages may have been not, after all, a small price to pay for inter Russian 3 spoken. Population movements and poli communication and world stability? At Japanese 2 tical and economic expansion have long long last, a widespread attitude has it, French 2 contributed to reducing linguistic diversi humanity w ill be freed of the burden laid A ll o th e r 51 ty everywhere in the world, even well on it by the "curse of Babel": the m ulti before the era of colonization and empire plicity of languages. W ith fewer different enous and m inority people. These are the building. As with biodiversity, however, languages in use, this line of reasoning languages that have been and continue what is unprecedented is an extinction goes, it will be easier to communicate to be under threat, due to the ever crisis of the present magnitude and pace. w ith people elsewhere in the world; once growing assimilation pressures that pro It has been estimated that there may marginalized populations will be able to mote incorporation of their speakers into already be 15% fewer languages now develop and prosper; ethnic conflict will "mainstream" society and the collective than 500 years ago, when the era of Euro decrease; national unity w ill no longer be abandonment of the native languages in pean colonization began .4 Losses have threatened; and we w ill finally be moving favor of m ajority languages (a phenome been especially marked in the Americas toward the globalized cosmopolitan non known as "language shift"). Virtual and Australia, and the trend is now accel world that is the ultimate destiny of ly all languages w ith 1 , 0 0 0 speakers o r less erating throughout the world, with Aus h u m a n ity . are threatened in this sense, although tralia and the Americas (especially the However - whatever we may think even more widely spoken languages are U.S.A.) still in the lead. about the inevitability of globalization fully susceptible to the same pressures. Causes of language loss. By and large, and the ultimate destiny of humanity - Many of these smaller languages are the main waves of colonial and imperial none of these arguments is supportable. already at risk of disappearing due to a expansion in human history (both Euro Firstly, they are mostly expounded by drastic reduction in the number of their pean and of other major civilizations) speakers of languages that are comforta speakers, with younger generations have come not only to the detriment of bly not at risk of going extinct. Secondly, decreasingly or no longer learning their local peoples' sovereignty and control and very importantly, the learning of language of heritage. Many more have over their ancestral territories, resources, other languages does not have to occur reached a stage of near extinction, with and cultural traditions, but also to the at the cost of losing one's own language only a few elderly speakers left. Statistics detriment of their ancestral languages. (in technical terms, it doesn't have to be about "nearly extinct" languages range Whenever assimilation into the dominant subtractive); it can be additive, leading to

118 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - M affi • Language: A Resource for Nature

a situation of stable multilingualism in speak different languages so that it will withinthisorthatcountry's borders. Com one's mother tongue and one or more not be as easy for them to quarrel. paring a list of countries by number of other languages. Again, it is rare for indig Multilingualism and linguistic ecolo endemic languages w ith the IUCN list of enous or minority groups to abandon gies. Above all, these arguments complete "megadiversity" countries, one finds that their languages in favor of a m ajority one ly ignore that - for most of human ten out of the top 1 2 megadiversity w ithout direct or indirect pressures from history, and even today in many parts of countries (or 83%) also figure among the governments and other outside forces. the world - high concentrations of differ top 25 countries for endemic languages Faced with the challenges of modernity, ent languages have coexisted side by side (Tabl. 3). indigenousand m inority language speak in the same areas. Over 800 different lan A global cross-mapping of endemic ers may or may not wish to preserve their guages are still spoken in the island of New languages and higher vertebrate species own languages and cultural traditions, Guinea - the main hotspot of linguistic brings out the remarkable overlap be but should not have to find themselves diversity. There and elsewhere, complex tween linguistic and biological diversity systematically pressured into the latter networks of multilingualism in several throughout the world (Fig. 1). Similar choice. Indeed, one may seriously ques local languages and pidgins or lingua results can be obtained by cross-mapping tion whether choice under such pressure francas have been a commonplace way of endemic languages and flowering plant can be called choice at all. dealing with cross-language communica species. Furthermore, marginalized ethnic tion in situations of contact. This extensive Language, knowledge, and human- groups who opt for or are forced into multilingualism has been a key factor in environment coevolution. What may assimilation into a linguistic and cultural the maintenance of linguistic diversity account for these correlations? Several majority often do not succeed in over historically, countering the increasing geographical and environmental factors coming their marginalization but end up effects of linguistic assimilation. have been suggested that may compara among the dispossessed within "main Linguists are only beginning to realize bly affect both biological and linguistic stream" society. As for the issue of ethnic that there may be structure to such lin diversity, and especially endemism: 1 ) conflict and national security, specialized guistic diversity. The functional relation Extensive land masses w ith a variety of studies show that ethnic differences ships that develop in space and time terrains, climates, and ecosystems (e.g., (whether identified with language, cul among linguistic communities that com Mexico, USA, Brazil, India, China); 2) ture, religion, or any aspects of social municate across language barriers have Island territories, especially w ith internal organization) do not normally constitute been referred to as "linguistic ecologies". geophysical barriers (such as Indonesia, the source of conflict, although they may A n ecological th e o ry o f la n g u a g e ta ke s as Australia, New Guinea, the Philippines); be seized upon and attributed special its focus th e d iv e rs ity o f la n g u a g e s p e r se, 3) Tropical climates, fostering higher meaning as a basis for m obilization when and investigates the functions of such numbers and densities of species (e.g., conflict arises. In particular, there is no evi diversity in the history of humanity. It Cameroon, Zaire). All these factors are dence to suggest that the use of different seeks to identify the mechanisms that thought to increase linguistic diversity by languages by neighboring populations sustain a language ecology over time - increasing mutual isolation between may constitute per se a cause of conflict; which are, in fact the very same mecha Table 3: Megadiversity Countries: Con nor, forthat matter, does monolingualism nisms that will be required to build a currence with Endemic Languages within or between countries seem to be genuine multilingual and multicultural (Countries in top 25 for endemic lan a guarantee for peace. When populations society in today's global world. Further guages in bold). of speakers of different languages coexist more, the study of traditional linguistic Country listed alphabetically; ing in adjacent or the same territory do ecologies reveals th a t they encompass not (endemic language rank in parentheses) come into conflict, the causes of such con only the linguistic and social environ Australia (5) flict reside more commonly in socioeco ment, but also the physical environment, Brazil (8 ) * nomic and political inequality and com within a worldview in which physical real China (17) petition over land and resources, as well ity and the description of that reality are Colombia (23) as in the denial (rather than the granting) not seen as separate phenomena, but E cuador (-) of linguistic and cultural rights .6 instead as interrelated parts of a whole. India (4) The idea of Babel as a "curse" is a Indonesia (2 ) widespread interpretation of this ele Language and the environment: M ad a g a sca r ment of the Judaeo-Christian religious The inextricable link (-) Malaysia 0 5 ) tradition, yet not necessarily a valid one. Mexico (6 ) It is perhaps more accurate to see the di Overlap of linguistic and biological diver Peru (18) vine intervention that brings about a mul sity. To understand how language and the Zaire (9) tiplicity of languages as a way of curbing environment may be seen as parts of the the arrogance and single-mindedness of same whole, let us first consider some CONCURRENCE: 10 of 12 (83%) monolingual empire builders. Other reli striking correlations between linguistic gious traditions suggest that a diversity of and biological diversity .8 The majority of NOTES: M odified from H arm on (in press). "M egadiversity languages (and cultures) is a good thing. the smaller languages (which, as we have countries' have been identified as those likely to contain To cite just one example, according to the seen, account for most of the world's lin a large percentage o f global species richness. The tw elve listed w ere identified on the basis o f species lists fo r ver Acoma Pueblo Indians of New Mexico the guistic diversity) can be labeled as "ende tebrates, swallowtail butterflies, and higher plants. mother goddess latiku causes people to mic", in that they are spoken exclusively Source: M cN eely et al. 1990.

119 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Maffi • Language: A Resource for Nature

human populations and thus favoring lin songs that encode and convey human cultural framework that begins to take guistic diversification. In addition, an eco relationships with the environment and over and displace the traditional one. logical phenomenon has also been pro that inscribe the history of those rela Because in most cases indigenous know l posed as possibly accounting for biodi tionships onto the land. edge is only carried by oral tradition, versity-linguistic diversity correlations: a Traditional place-naming also both when shift toward "modernization" and process of coevolution of small-scale occurs in an ecological context and carries dominant languages occurs and oral tra human groups with their local ecosys high cultural significance for indigenous dition in the native languages is not kept tems, in which over time humans inter peoples, "as a framework for cultural up, local knowledge is lost. Due to its acted closely with the environment, transmission and moral instruction, as a place-specific and subsistence-related modifying it as they adapted to it, and symbolic link to their land, and as a nature, local ecological knowledge is at acquiring intimate knowledge of it. This ground for their identity". Named land especially high risk of disappearing. knowledge was encoded and transmitted marks convey and evoke knowledge both K n o w le d g e loss. T he p a tte rn s a n d fa c through the local languages, which thus about the physical environment and tors of erosion of languages and linguis became in turn molded by and specifical about daily human activities, historical tically-encoded environmental knowl ly adapted to their socioecological envi events, social relations, ritual, and moral edge are beginning to be systematically ronments. As one linguist puts it: "Life in conduct: "wisdom sits in places " . 11 L a n d identified and quantified. For example, a particular human environment is scapes are networks of such places of among the Piaroa Indians of Venezuela dependent on people's ability to talk knowledge and wisdom and thus, in this the persistence of ethnobotanical knowl a b o u t i t . " 9 sense also, anthropogenic. edge has been found to negatively cor This may sound like a truism worthy relate with age, bilingualism and school of little note, but it is not so. That remark Losing the link ing. Younger, more acculturated Piaroa embodies one of the most basic functions show dramatically lower levels of compe that language performs for humans, and The extinction of experience. It is this tence than their older, less acculturated in its deceptive simplicity reveals where inextricable link between language and counterparts in identifying local plants by the "inextricable link" between language the environment that is lost when exter their Piaroa names and the cultural uses and the environment is to be found. At nal forces begin to undermine traditional of those same plant species (Fig. 2-5). the local level, linguistic and cultural cultures, pushing them into the "main Often, the loss of traditional lan distinctiveness has often developed even stream". W hether this process is propel guages and cultures may be hastened by among human groups defined as belong led by dispossessing local peoples of their environmental degradation - such as for ing to the same cultural area or whose sovereignty over land and resources, logging, mining, agribusiness, cattle-rais languages are considered to be histori tram pling their cultural traditions, or pro ing, and so forth - by creating a negative cally related, and who live within the m oting linguistic assimilation (generally, feedback loop. In the Yoem pueblo of the same bioregion. As local groups have all three phenomena occur at once and Yaqui people of the Sonoran Desert in A ri adapted to life in specific ecological are m utually reinforcing), the end result zona, the performance of Yoeme ritual is niches, they have developed specialized is the same. Local peoples lose control hampered by the disappearance from the knowledge of them, and specialized ways over, and contact with, their natural and local environment of many plant species of talking about them, to convey this vital cultural environments. As they are remo that were traditionally employed in reli knowledge and ways of acting upon it for ved from their lands, or subsist in highly gious ceremonies. Ritual is one of the individual and group survival. What has degraded ecosystems, and are absorbed main contexts for the teaching of the been said of Australian Aboriginal tribes into a market economy in which there Yoeme Truth, and in particular of the inti could be said in hundreds of other cases normally is little room fortraditional sub mate spiritual and physical connection of local peoples around the world: "Coin sistence practices and resource use, local w ith and respect for nature. "Yaquis have cidences of tribal boundaries to local eco ecological knowledge and beliefs and the always believed that a close communica logy are not uncommon and imply that a wisdom about human-environment rela tion exists among all the inhabitants of given group of people may achieve sta tionships begin to lose their relevance to the Sonoran desert world in which they bility by becoming the most efficient users people's lives. live: plants, animals, birds, fishes, even of a given area and understanding its This phenomenon has been called the rocks and springs. All of these come potentialities . " 10 "extinction of experience", the radical together as a part of one living commu Linguistically anthropogenic land loss of direct contact and hands-on inter nity which Yaquis call the huya ania, the scapes. In this light, then, it becomes action with the surrounding environ wilderness world. [...] Yaquis regard song possible to suggest that landscapes are m e n t . 12 In turn, local languages lose their [as a part of ritual] as a special language anthropogenic (human-made) not only in crucial function of communicating and of this community, a kind of 'lingua fran the sense that they are physically modi upholding such knowledge, beliefs and ca of the intelligent universe'." The fied by human intervention - as ethno- wisdom that are increasingly less signifi Yoeme elders' inability to correctly per biologists and ethnoecologists have cant and intelligible to younger genera form ritual due to environmental degra shown contra the myth of pristine w il tions. Furthermore, local knowledge does dation thus contributes to precipitating dernesses - but also because they are not "translate" easily into the majority language and knowledge loss, and cre symbolically brought into the sphere of language to which minority language ates a vicio u s circle th a t in tu rn a ffe c ts th e human communication by language: by speakers switch; and along w ith the dom i local ecosystem.' the words, expressions, stories, legends, nant language usually comes a dominant

120 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - M affi • Language: A Resource for Nature □ Endemism in languages languages in Endemism comparison of top 25 top of comparison countries & higher vertebrates: vertebrates: &higher = on vertebrate list list vertebrate = on & language both = on = on language list list language = on vertebrate lists lists vertebrate only only Ar gentina USA Mexico Russia

Figure 1: World map showing overlap of endemism in languages and higher vertebrates (from Harmon in press). WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - M affi • Language: A Resource for Nature

Preserving and restoring additive), here too it does not have to be edge from which we can draw . " 15 It is tru e language, culture, and land a matter of either-or between different that diversity characterizes languages cultural frameworks (as it is far too often (and cultures) not just w ith respect to one Community efforts. The Yoeme example purported to be by dominant cultures). another, but also internally, w ith patterns clearly shows how, for local peoples, the Local peoples must simply remain free to of variation by geographical location, age struggle for maintaining or restoring the consciously choose if and how much of grade, gender, social status, and a host of integrity of their cultures, languages, and either framework - the traditional and other variables. This internal variation environments configures itself as one the exogenous - they may wish to main combines w ith the variation ensuing from interrelated goal. This holistic approach is tain or adopt. Some groups, as in the historical contact among human popula increasingly evident in the grassroots Amazonian case, may indeed choose iso tions in propelling language and culture efforts that are being made around the lation. But others, perhaps most, will change and all manners of innovation. world. As an example, Native Californians probably choose some form of integration However, as more and more languages are engaging in integrated biocultural between, or parallel adoption of, frame and cultural traditions are overwhelmed conservation efforts. The linguistic and works. And in so doing, after all, they w ill by more dominant ones and increasing cultural revival activities in which they are not be doing anything different - if done homogenization ensues, one of the two involved go hand in hand with advocacy in freedom and not under pressure-from main motors of change and innovation - for environmental restoration on their what humans throughout history have the observation of linguistic and cultural lands and the renewed use of native done in situations of contact: mixing and difference - breaks down, or is seriously plants for traditional handicrafts, such as matching, which has contributed to so damaged. The end result is a global loss basketweaving, and for other purposes. much of the cultural and linguistic diver of diversity. On the other hand, if acculturation sity that we know today. Avoiding "cultural blind spots". From has such measurably negative effects on this perspective, issues of linguistic and traditional knowledge and languages, as Language as a resource cultural diversity preservation may then in the case of the Piaroa, should local peo be formulated in the same terms that ples reject the framework of modernity Linguistic diversity and the human poten have been proposed for biodiversity con altogether, including the Western school tial. Questions about the consequences of servation: as a matter of "keeping op ing that brings about dominant lan- loss o f lin g u is tic and c u ltu ra l d ive rsity have tions alive" and of preventing "monocul guagesand cultural patterns-or, forthat been raised mostly in terms of ethics and tures of the mind " . 16 It has been argued matter, the biomedical care that under social justice, and of maintaining the that convergence toward majority cultur mines the prestige of traditional medi human heritage from the past - and right al models increases the likelihood that cine, and other similar cultural change? ly so. However, when we consider the inter more and more people will encounterthe Some indigenous groups, such as certain relationships between linguistic, cultural, same "cultural blind spots" - undetected Amazonian tribes, have made this choice, and biological diversity, we may begin to instances in which the prevailing cultural taking refuge deeper into the forest. ask these questions also as questions about model fails to provide adequate solutions Others have chosen to integrate aspects the future - as related to the continued to societal problems. Instead, " [i]t is by of the tw o worlds, for instance by combin viability of humanity on earth. We may ask pooling the resources of many under ing formal schooling with curricula whether linguistic and cultural diversity standings that more reliable knowledge based on their own cultural traditions and and diversification may not share substan can arise"; and "access to these perspec form ulated in their native languages. The tive characteristics with biological diversi tives is best gained through a diversity of Hawaiians and Maori have been at the ty and diversification, characteristics that languages." Or simply stated: "Ecology forefront of the latter kind of approach. are ultim ately those of all life on egrth. shows that a variety of forms is a prere In still other cases, educational efforts The relevant issues relate to the adap quisite for biological survival. Monocul have been aimed at marking the distinc tive nature o f variation in humans (as well tures are vulnerable and easily destroyed. tion between formal, Western-type learn as other species), and to the role of lan Plurality in human ecology functions in ing and traditional, informal learning. In guage and culture as providers of diver the same way." Australia, several Aboriginal groups use sity in humans. Human culture is a power an approach whereby they separate ful adaptation tool, and language at one Supporting linguistic, cultural, "w hite knowledge" (literacy, numeracy, and the same time enables and conveys and biological diversity: The role etc.), taught by monolingual English- much cultural behavior. While not all of scientists speakers, with W hite Australian content knowledge, beliefs, and values may be lin and structure, from their own Aboriginal guistically encoded, language represents Benefit for the many or for the few? Pro knowledge. Their own knowledge is rath the main instrument for humans to ela nouncements about the importance of er "lived" than taught in schools . 14 borate, maintain, develop, and transmit diversity often conclude on some univer- The need for choices. W hatever choi such ideas. "L in g u is tic d iv e rs ity ... is a t least salistic note. Yet it is time to go beyond ces local peoples may make - and as we the correlate of (though not the cause of) these general (and generic) statements, have seen, they make a variety of them - diversity of adaptational ideas." There true as they may be. That we need diver w hat matters is that there be choices. As fore, it is possible to suggest that "any sity - cultural, linguistic, biological - for in the case of language learning (acquisi reduction of language diversity dimini the benefit of humanity is undoubtedly tion of a m ajority language does not have shes the adaptational strength of our spe true. But far too often, as local peoples to be subtractive; it carT and should be cies because it lowers the pool of knowl are the first to know, the hailed "benefit

122 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - M affi • Language: A Resource for Nature

02 - * * }

o 10 20 40 so 60 /o Afl*i 0 10 20 30 -10 i30 60 /o Figure 2 : Regression of age and ethnobotanical competence Figure 3: Regression of age and ethnobotanical competence among the Piaroa of Venezuela (from Zent in press). The according to age subgroups among the Piaroa of Venezuela regression lines drawn represent: a) a linear or binominal (from Zent in press). The regression lines drawn represent: (a) m o d e l (r2 = .5 3 9 ; y = .2 7 3 9 + .0 1 2 6 x ) ; and b) a curvilinear or a linear model for 30 and above age group (r2 = .002; y = .8176 polynomial model (r2 = .6 2 5 ; y = 8 .3 1 1 8 + .4465x - 3.359^1 x - + .00032x); and (b) a linear model for below 30 age group 1 5 .7 7 2 3 X 2 - .0 0 2 3 x 3). (r2 = .296; y = . 1786 + .017x).

0 1 2 3 1 i> o 7 8 9 10 Years of Formal Education

Figure 4: Regression o f formal education and ethnobotanical Figure 5: Regression of billingual ability and ethnobotanical competence among the Piaroa of Venezuela (from Zent in competence among the Piaroa of Venezuela (from Zent in press). The regression lines drawn represent: (a) a linear or press). The regression lines drawn represent: (a) a linear or binomial model (r2 = .22; y = .7471 - .0307x); and (b) a curvili binomial model (r2 = .113; y = .727 - .0667x); and (b) a curvili near or polynomial model (r2 = .415; y = 1.7739 + .2 3 1 1x - near or polynomial model (r2 = .209; y= .815 4 -,226x+ .0162x3). 1.1022

123 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - M affi • Language: A Resource for Nature

Among the basic principles guiding that of cultural diversity in the debates 4. The statistics about "nearly extinct" Terralingua's work are: surrounding international instruments languages are from: Harmon (1995). The ■ That the diversity of languages and concerned w ith biodiversity, like the Con estimate aboutthe possible magnitude of their variant forms is a vital part of the vention on Biological Diversity. impending linguistic diversity loss isfrom : world's cultural diversity; As this process unfolds, we are coming Krauss (1992). On hypotheses about the ■ That biological diversity and cultural full circle to a holistic view of language, historical peak of linguistic diversity, see: diversity (of which linguistic diversity is a culture and land that may have once char Hill, J.H. 1997. The meaning of linguistic major component) are not only related, acterized localized human communities diversity: Knowable or unknowable? but often inseparable, perhaps causally throughout the world, and that indige Anthropology Newsletter 38(1): 9-10. On connected through coevolution; nous peoplestoday are holding upforthe estimates of linguistic diversity loss since ■ That, like biological diversity, linguis rest of humanity to see. the colonial era, see: Bernard, R. 1992. tic diversity (represented mostly by indig Preserving language diversity. Human enous languages) is facing rapidly in Notes and References: Organization 51(1): 82-89. creasing threats that are causing a dras 5. O n th e causes o f la n g u a g e loss see: tic loss of both languages and the knowl 1. This article draws in part on my contri Wurm, S.A. 1991. Language death and edge of which they are carriers, including bution to the chapter „Language Diversi disappearance: Causes and circum knowledge about the environment and ty", cowritten with T. Skutnabb-Kangas stances, In Robins, R.H. and E.M. Uhlen- sustainable resource use; and J. Andrianarivo, to appear in: Posey, beck (eds.), Endangered Languages, pp. ■ That the continued loss of linguistic, D. (ed.) forthcoming, Cultural and Spiri 1-18. Berg, Oxford. The Nebrija quote is cultural and biological diversity w ill have tual Values of Biodiversity. Leiden, The reported on p. 6 of: lllich, I. 1981. Taught dangerous consequences for humans and Netherlands, Leiden University/lnterme- m othertongue and vernaculartongue. In the Earth; and diate Technologies/United Nations Envi P a tta n a ya k, D.P., M u ltilin g u a lis m and ■ That, therefore, the fate of the lands, ronment Programme. Mother-Tongue Education, pp. 1-46. languages and cultures of indigenous 2. On language endangerment, see Oxford University Press, Delhi. peoples is decisive forthe maintenance of especially: Krauss, M. 1992. The world's 6 . The issue of additive vs. subtractive biodiversity and linguistic and cultural languages in crisis. Language 68(1): 4-10. bilingualism is treated extensively in: d ive rsity. An integrated perspective on linguistic, Skutnabb-Kangas, T. 1984. Bilingualism or Acknowledging the link. Over the cultural and biological diversity was devel Not: The Education of Minorities. M ulti past tw o years, Terralingua has been striv oped in particular at the international lingual Matters, Clevedon, UK. On ethnic ing to promote this perspective both interdisciplinary working conference groups, marginalization, and ethnic con locally and globally in support of indige "Endangered Languages, Endangered flict, see: (a) Bodley, J.H. 1990. Victims of nous as well as minority communities' Knowledge, Endangered Environments" Progress. Mayfield Publishing Co., Moun struggle to holistically preserve and pro (Berkeley, California, October 25-27, tain View, CA. (b) Pattanayak, D.P. 1988. tect their linguistic, cultural, and natural 1996). See: (a) Maffi, L. 1997. Language, Monolingual myopia and the petals of environments through self-determina k n o w le d g e a n d th e e n v iro n m e n t: T hreats the Indian lotus: Do many languages di tion (or local determ ination in the case of to the world's biocultural diversity. vide or unite a nation? In Skutnabb-Kan local communities). It is apparent that Anthropology Newsletter 38(2): 11; (b) gas, T. and Cummins, J. (eds.), M inority these concerted efforts are beginning to Maffi, L. (ed.) forthcoming. Language, Education: From Shame to Struggle, pp. make a difference, and that recognition Knowledge and the Environment: The 379-389. M ultilingual Matters, Clevedon, of the inextricable link between linguistic Interdependence of Biological and UK. (c) Stavenhagen, R. 1990. The Ethnic and biological diversity is beginning to Cultural Diversity. In preparation for Question: Conflicts, Development:, and emerge internationally. The International O x fo rd U n iv e rs ity Press. Human Rights. United Nations University Society of Ethnobiology has enshrined 3. For the most comprehensive catalo Press, Tokyo. this perspective in its Draft Code of gue of the world's languages, see: Grimes, 7. The concept of "linguistic ecology"

E thics , 19 which states that: "Culture and B. (ed.) 1996. Ethnologue: Languages of described here is due to Peter Muhlhaus- language are intrinsically connected to the World. 13th ed. Available on the ler, building on earlier w ork by Einar Hau land and territory, and cultural and lin World Wide Web at gen. See: (a) Muhlhausler, P. 1996. Lin guistic diversity are inextricably linked to http://www.sil.org/ethnologue/. S um m er guistic Ecology: Language Change and biological diversity", and upholds the Institute of Linguistics, Dallas. The men Linguistic Imperialism in the Pacific Rim. right to preserve and protect local lan tioned figures do not include sign lan Routledge, London, (b) Haugen, E. 1972. guages as a part of the principle of self- guages, th a t m ay be a lm ost as num erous as The Ecology of Language. Stanford: Stan determ ination. International bodies such oral languages. The data on classification ford University Press. as UNESCO, UNEP, and the UN Centre for of languages by number of mother- 8 . The correlations reported here Human Rights are turning their attention tongue speakers and relative size are are from: Harmon, D. in press. Losing to issues of indigenous languages w ithin from: Harmon, D. 1995. The status of the species, losing languages: Connections the framework of biocultural diversity world's languages as reported in the between biological and linguistic diver preservation and the protection of the Ethnologue. Southwest Journal of Linguis sity. Southwest Journal of Linguistics. rights of indigenous peoples. It is likely tics 14: 1-33. Table 1-2 are reproduced Figure 1 and Table 3 are reproduced from that in the near future the notion of lin from Harmon (1995) with the author's Harmon (in press) with the author's guistic diversity w ill become as fam iliar as permission. permission.

124 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - M affi • Language: A Resource for Nature

Tabl. 4: Statement o f Purpose. Terralingua: Partnerships for Linguistic and Biological Diversity.

Terralingua: Partnerships for Linguistic and Biological Diversity is an international organization dedicated to:

1. Preserving the world's linguistic diversity, and 2. Exploring connections between cultural and biological diversity.

STATEMENT OF PURPOSE

A. Terralingua recognizes:

1. That the diversity of languages and their variant forms is a vital part of the world's cultural diversity; 2. That cultural diversity and biological diversity are not only related, but often inseparable; and 3. That, like biological species, many languages and their variant forms around the world are now faced w ith an extinction crisis whose magnitude may well prove very large.

B. Terralingua declares:

4. That every language, along w ith its variant forms, is inherently valuable and therefore worthy of being preserved and per petuated, regardless of its political, demographic, or linguistic status; 5. That deciding which language to use, and for what purposes, is a basic human right inhering to members of the communi ty of speakers now using the language or whose ancestors traditionally used it; and

6 . That such usage decisions should be freely made in an atmosphere of tolerance and reciprocal respect for cultural distinc tiveness—a condition that is a prerequisite for increased mutual understanding among the world's peoples and a recog nition of our common humanity.

C. Therefore, Terralingua sets forth the following goals:

7. To help preserve and perpetuate the world's linguistic diversity in all its variant forms (languages, dialects, pidgins, creoles, sign languages, languages used in rituals, etc.) through research, programs of public education, advocacy, and communi ty support.

8 . To learn about languages and the knowledge they embody from the communities of speakers themselves, to encourage partnerships between community-based language/cultural groups and scientific/professional organizations who are inter ested in preserving cultural and biological diversity, and to support the right of communities of speakers to language self- determination. 9. To illuminate the connections between cultural and biological diversity by establishing working relationships w ith scienti fic/professional organizations and individuals who are interested in preserving cultural diversity (such as linguists, educa tors, anthropologists, ethnologists, cultural workers, native advocates, cultural geographers, sociologists, and so on) and those who are interested in preserving biological diversity (such as biologists, botanists, ecologists, zoologists, physical geo graphers, ethnobiologists, ethnoecologists, conservationists, environmental advocates, natural resource managers, and so on), thus prom oting the joint preservation and perpetuation of cultural and biological diversity. 10. To work w ith all appropriate entities in both the public and private sectors, and at all levels from the local to the interna tional, to accomplish the foregoing.

9. The discussion of factors o f linguistic place names: W hat can they teach us? 13. For the Piaroa study, see: Zent, S. in diversity-biodiversity correlations is from : Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 6(1): press. The quandary of conserving ethno- Harmon (in press). The quote is from p. 3-26. The expression "wisdom sits ecological knowledge: A Piaroa exam 155 of: Muhlhausler, P. 1995. The inter in places" is derived from: Basso, K.H. ple. In Blount, B.G. and Gragson. T.S. dependence of linguistic and biological 1996. Wisdom Sits in Places: Landscape (eds.), Ethnoecology: Knowledge. diversity. In Myers, D. (ed.). The Politics of and Language among the Western Resources and Rights Georgia University Mulitculturalism in the Asia/Pacific, pp. Apache. University of New Mexico Press, Press. The Yoeme case is described in: 154-161. Northern Territory University Albuquerque. Molina, F.S. 1998. Wa huya ania ama vutti Press, Darwin, Australia. 12. See: N a b h a n, G.P. a n d St. A n to in e , yo'oriwa - the wilderness world is re 10. Quoted from p. 133 of: Tindale, S. 1993. The loss o f floral and faunal story: spected greatly: The Yoeme (Yaqui) truth N.B. 1974. Aboriginal Tribes of Australia. The extinction of experience. In Kellert, from the Yoeme communities of Arizona University of California Press, Berkeley. S.R. and Wilson, E.O., The Biophilia Hypo and Sonora, Mexico. In Maffi, L., (ed.), 11. The quote on place names is from thesis. 229-250. Island Press, W ashington, forthcoming, Language, Knowledge and p.4of: Hunn, E.S. 1996. Columbia Plateau D.C. the Environment: The Interdependence

125 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

of Biological and Cultural Diversity. In pre nal Schooling. Education and Cultural Sur 18. Terralingua can be reached by paration for Oxford University Press. The vival. Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra. email at: < [email protected] >, o r quote is from p. 18 of: Evers, L., and M oli 15. For a re vie w o f com m only proposed on the World Wide Web at: http://cou- na, F.S. 1987. Maso Bwikam Yaqui Deer reasons for preserving languages, see: gar.ucdavis.edu/nas/terrallin/home.html. Songs: A Native American Poetry. Sun Thieberger, N. 1990. Language mainte 19. To be submitted for approval by

Track and University of Arizona Press, Tucson. nance: Why bother? Multilingua 9(4): the membership at the 6 th International 14. On Native Californians, see: Manri-333-358. The quotes are from p. 82 of Congress of Ethnobiology. Whakatane, quez, L.F. 1998. Silent no more: California Bernard (1992). See also: Diamond, J. Aotearoa/New Zealand, 23-28 November Indians reclaim their culture - and they 1993. Speaking with a single tongue. 1998. invite you to listen. In M aff i, L. (ed.), fo rth Discover 14(2): 78-85. coming. Language, Knowledge and the 16. See: (a) Reid, W.V. and Miller, K.R. Author's address: Environment: The Interdependence of 1993. Keeping Options Alive: The Scienti Biological and Cultural Diversity. In pre fic Basis for Conserving Biodiversity. Luisa M affi paration for Oxford University Press. On World Resources Institute, Washington, Northwestern University, Dept, of Pychology Hawaiians, see: Kamana, K. and Wilson, D.C. (b) Shiva, V. 1993. Monocultures of 102 Swift Hall, 2029 Sheridan Road W.H. 1996. Hawaiian language programs. the Mind: Perspectives on Biodiversity Evanston, IL 60208-2710 USA In Cantoni, G. (ed.), Stabilizing Indigenous and Biotechnology. Zed Books, Lon- e -m a il: [email protected] Languages. 153-156. Center for Excellence don/Atlantic Heights, NJ. in Education, Northern Arizona Uni 17. T he tw o q u o te s are: (a) fro m p. 160 versity, Flagstaff, AZ. On Australian A bori of Muhlhausler (1995; (b) from p. 380 of gines, see: Harris, S. 1990. Two-way Aborigi Pattanayak (1988).

forests and their knowledge systems has Traditional Ecological Knowledge: also introduced the controversy between political economy and political ecology of Peoples, Forests and Plants biodiversity, leading up to the conclusion that empowerment is among the major L. Jan Slikkerveer pre-requisites of ultimate syncretization of both knowledge systems that pertains to the concept of power-sharing with A b stract dological level is obviously in need of a indigenous and traditional peoples a- theorem that goes beyond the mere accu round the globe. Embarking on a short overview of the mulation of data from case studies and development of cognitive anthropology narratives on the subject. This kind of Ethnoscience and Indigenous and ethnoscience into the new field of collaborative action-research has recent Knowledge Systems Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK), ly introduced important issues of natural the theoretical significance of the indig and intellectual property rights, empow Since most indigenous knowledge enous knowledge systems' perspective erment and joint grassroots movements systems are based on the sustainable use for biodiversity conservation and man into the arena. and since pre-colonial times, traditional agement, as well as the practical implica In this process, the particular signifi peoples' beliefs, knowledge and practices tions for environmental policy planning cance of TEK for further conservation of have been largely ignored if not humili and implementation targeted at indige both bio- and cultural diversity is emerg ated by the West as 'folk', 'primitive', nous and traditional communities in the ing from a growing number of practical 'native' and 'backward'. Their wisdom has tropics is indicated. Since these commu case studies indicating its value for new often been ridiculed as 'superstitious', nities - particularly in the tropical forest bio-ecological insight, environmental and as such marginalized, and in some areas - are increasingly facing erosion or assessment, and alternative forms of con cases even wiped out completely. The sub loss of their own traditional knowledge servation practices all of which are inter jugated position of these largely oppres and local authority due to globalization twined with respect and protection of sed but persistent indigenous knowledge and policies that undermine their socie indigenous peoples and their traditional systems have lasted until after W orld War ties, remedial action to reverse their own knowledge systems. Several accounts also II, when the emergence of the new inde practices and revitalize or modify tradi highlight the critical role of local philo pendent states in the developing world tional conservation strategies has recent sophies, cosmologies and worldviews in allowed for a growing academic interest ly brought various im portant issues into the management of forestry and agricul to study local ideas, taxonomies and clas the international debate. tural and natural resources against the sifications from the participant's own Current efforts from among several background of the current international point of view. disciplines are focused on establishing a debate on the interface between 'global' Although earlier ethnologists such as comprehensive body of knowledge on and 'indigenous' knowledge systems. Franz Boas and Bronislaw Malinowski - 'indigenous knowledge and develop The assessment of the current threat supported by a few natural historians, ment' that on the theoretical and metho of indigenous peoples in the tropical missionaries and travelers in the field -

126 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Slikkerveer • Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Peoples, Forests and Plants

had already stressed the importance of World War II theories of modernization edge' or 'traditional knowledge', these the 'native point of view' for human sur and change concerning the socio-econo systems have mainly developed outside - vival in the tropics, the development of mic development process of the new na or in contrast with - Western-oriented, 'ethnoscience' out of cognitive anthro tions in the tropics that supported the 'scientific, or 'modern' systems of knowl pology did not occur until the 1950s. design of several models of transfer and edge and technology generated through Then, a group of anthropologists includ diffusion of knowledge and technology. universities, research institutes and indus ing Harold Conklin (1957), Ward Good- The rather dominant Western-oriented tries. Indigenous Knowledge forms the enough (1956) and Paul Kay (1966) began Transfer-Of-Technology (TOT) model basis for local-level decision-making in to study local communities from the used in international 'development aid' m ajor sectors of the society such as human viewpoint of the members themselves. was mainly constructed on the basis of the and animal health, agriculture and food The new field of ethnoscience, soon Western concept of knowledge systems production, forestry, fisheries and natural subdivided into various sub-sets such as to represent a process of creation, resources management (cf. Warren, Slik ethnoecology, ethnobotany, ethnolinguis- exchange and utilization of knowledge. kerveer and Titilola 1989; Warren, Slik tics, ethnohistory, ethnomedicine, ethno- Often, this process was thought of as kerveer and Brokensha 1995). biology, etc. focused on the study of how evolving from research institutes, labora In the course of the 1980s, after the traditional communities perceive and tories and universities in 'developed' initial acknowledgment and integration organize their own cultures, and which countries, and subsequently transferred of traditional medical knowledge and principles are underlying the behaviour onto 'under-developed' countries of the practice in the new strategy of 'Primary of its members. Third World in a unilinear mode (cf. Beal, Health Care' adopted by the WHO Con Relevant information on the partici Dissanayake and Konoshima 1986). Al ference in Alma Ata (1978), the potential pants' perceptions of their place in nature though this strategy initially fostered high ity of such dynamic orientation on indig was largely collected by the use of the hopes for socio-economic development enous systems for participatory devel local language itself, often w ith the help and growth, an increasing number of dis opment started to emerge also in other of interpreters that provided a deeper appointing development programs and sectors such as the management of agri insight in the structures of culture and projects in health care, agriculture and cultural and natural resources. As a con language. However, asspecifically design forestry - mainly introduced by outsiders sequence of on the one hand, the grow ed ethnoscience research methods who continued to ignore local experience ing frustration with disappointing themselves soon became more im portant and wisdom - eventually called for results of largely W estern-oriented devel than the object of study, the interrela alternative solutions. opment programs in the Third World, tions between these data and the commu Then, in 1980, the pioneering work on and on the other hand, the decrease of a nity as a whole were not further elabo Indigenous Knowledge Systems and long-lasting 'Post-Colonial Syndrome' rated. Hence, explanations of such con Development by Brokensha, Warren and among some administrators, develop ceptions as the worldview or cosmology Werner embarked on a 'new' ethno- ment experts and extension agents w ork of the participants and their relevance for science in terms of the study and analysis ing within donor organizations, a grad peoples' daily life were largely left open, of traditional knowledge systems in a ual process of revaluation of indigenous leaving local perceptions of the rela more dynamic perspective of the actual peoples and their knowledge systems tionship between humans and their natu development process. Their approach took successively place in several sectors ral and the spiritual w orld largely to spec was rather focused on the dynamic con of the developing nations (cf. Jiggins ulation. Moreover, most ethnoscientists text of processes of interaction and inter 1989; Slikkerveer 1989; Warren 1989). were less interested in the practical rele face between non-Western and Western Such reorientation not only occurred in vance of these perceptions, and concen systems of knowledge and technology, relation to the specific problems in those trated on the construction of cognitive and provided a basis for development particular sectors, but also reflected the delineations based on local taxonomies 'from below' instead of 'from the top'. socio-political context of the entire and classifications of plants, soils, disea Following the publication of this com society at the time. ses etc. Despite certain successful research prehensive study in which various forms Since then, various studies from both in such sub-fields as ethnobotany, ethno of indigenous and global knowledge natural and social scientists from among medicine, ethnolinguistics and ethnopsy- were perceived as interacting systems, an disciplines such as anthropology, botany, chiatry, by the late 1970s, the ethno- increasing number of applied-oriented agronomy, forestry, ecology, medicine scientific studies - often labeled to as studies from several disciplines started to and biology have documented the adapt 'static' - had virtually ran into an academic highlight the crucial role that some of ability and viability of many local systems 'cul-de-sac'. these 'traditional' knowledge systems for the international development proc Meanwhile, however, the locus of have been playing in the arena of rural ess (cf. Posey 1985; Richards 1985; Cham most of these ethnoscientif ic studies - the extension projects and programs. bers, Pacey and Thrupp 1989; Warren developing world itself - was confronted In general, Indigenous Knowledge 1989; Mazur, and Titilola 1992; Fairhead with increasingly complex problems of Systems (IKS) refer to specific systems of 1992; Slikkerveer 1991; Leakey and Slik development and change. In the practical knowledge and practice evolved over kerveer 1991; Mathias Mundy 1990; W ar setting of the age-long processes of inter generations in a particular field of ren, Slikkerveer and Brokensha 1995). In action and acculturation between the anthropological study, and as such unique most of these studies, the empirical value peoples and cultures of the non-Western to a specific culture or region. Sometimes of the new perspective is being expressed and Western world, it were the post- referred to as systems of 'local knowl in its multidisciplinary orientation to pro-

127 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Slikkerveer • Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Peoples, Forests and Plants

blem-solving activities that tend to cross many generations, they link up with the earth. Further specialization in this field conventional boundaries of disciplines concept of 'sustainability' that has been led to the sub-disciplines of cultural eco and sub-disciplines. Moreover, it is being promoted by the Brundtland Report lo g y - th e s tu d y o f th e w a y in w h ic h a spe well demonstrated, that Indigenous (1987). This concept that recently was cific culture is adapted to the environ Knowledge Systems are often sustain elaborated into the strategy of 'Sustain ment and to other cultures - and social able, participatory and particularly able Agriculture and Rural Development' ecology - the study of the way in which functional on a small-scale level. (SARD) refers to the use of natural resour the social structure of a human group Following the strategies of Primary ces to satisfy the changing human needs reflects its entire environment (Campbell Health Care and 'Health fo r All by the Year while maintaining or enhancing the qua 1983). 2000' of WHO (1978, 1980) that allowed lity of the environm ent (TAC/CCIAR 1988). W ithin ethnoscience, one of the sepa for the integration of traditional medi A broader definition of 'Sustainability' rate sub-fields that initially developed cine for comprehensive health care cover accepts agriculture to be sustainable only during the 1950s has been labeled 'eth age o f th e e n tire p o p u la tio n , th e g ro w in g if it complies with the following five cri noecology' which seeks to understand environmental movement around the teria: ecologically sound, economically how local communities perceive their globe during the 1980s created newspace viable, socially just, humane and adapta interaction with their environment in for traditional peoples and their less ble (cf. Gips 1986). terms of animals, plants, forests, soils, spir exploitative philosophies of nature and Indeed, inthe international debateon its etc. Hardesty (1977) defined this field the environment. So, when the 'Agricul 'development and environment' provok as: 'the study of systems of knowledge tural Crisis' occurred towards the mid ed by the World Commission on Envi developed by a given culture to classify 1980s, with its implications for serious ronment and Development (1987), the objects, activities, and events of its uni food shortage in Sub-Saharan Africa, role of indigenous knowledge systems in verse'. Thus, ethnoecology focuses pri international agencies started to acknowl natural resources management could also marily on the ideas, perceptions and clas edge the potential contribution of indig no longer be ignored. Alternative devel sifications of the environmental rela enous knowledge and technology as a opment paradigms were designed to tionships of members of a particular com sustainable, non-technical solution to the replace the dominant 'Transfer-of-Tech- munity or culture. In this way, an emic alarming situation in which the ecologi nology' model that continued to prolong view on representation from within - as cal dimension obviously played a crucial exploitation and depletion of scarce opposed to the etic view from outside - role. Indeed, partly as a result of prolong resources in the tropics that historically on the environm ent is constructed as it is ed High External Input Agriculture (HEIA) are the domain of indigenous communi perceived by the members of the com for the support of cash crops that rely ties. The attention for 'grass roots' move m unity themselves. It includes the study heavily on costly imported hybrid seeds ments of indigenous peoples and their of folk classifications and taxonomies of and chemical fertilizers, pesticides, knowledge systems has further posed a nature and the environment - including fungicides and herbicides, not only the challenge to the 'TOT' model, giving way plants, animals, diseases etc. - which pro financial problems increased, but parti to the adoption of a more realistic model vides certain clues to the way in which the cularly the environment became serious as proposed by Chambers, Pacey and community is coping with its ecological ly under threat. Thrupp (1989). In their 'Farmer First' ori problems. Here, one of the interesting In this context, specific agricultural entation they use indigenous practices as themes also involves the role of the peo knowledge and practice of local and tra a starting point for sustainable agricultur ple's cosmology as it is regulating their ditional peoples, also referred to as Indig al development from below. As a result, interactions with their environment. enous Agricultural Knowledge Systems alternative programs of Low External Concurrently, the anthropological (INDAKS) refer to a particular body of Input Agriculture (LEIA) were linking up study of the relationships between non- indigenous knowledge in the field of with the new orientation, and re-intro Western human cultures and their envi agricultural resources management by duced the application of traditional agri ronment evolved into a new sub-disci local communities that - according to cultural methods and techniques success pline of anthropology: ecological anthro some authors - go beyond just 'knowl fully, albeit largely on a small-scale base pology. After an initial stage of cultural edge' and 'inform ation' to include both (cf. Reijntjes, Haverkortand Waters-Bayer evolutionism during the sixties, followed intellectual and material components of 1992). Similarly, the concept of agroeco by a second stage of neo-evolutionism the agro-ecological sector of society, such logy was introduced as a practical instru and neo-functionalism during the seven as perceptions, beliefs, cosmologies, atti ment to combine traditional and modern ties, it was during the eighties that a third tudes, practices, technologies, artifacts, agriculture w ith specific attention for the stage emerged in this field of processual seeds, plants, crops, and institutions, pro preservation of resources and the envi approaches to the diachronic study of cedures and processes (cf. Slikkerveer ronment (Altieri 1987). long-term interactions between human 1994). Meanwhile, general ecology - the populations in the tropics and their envi study of the relationship between a spe ro n m e n t. From Ethnoecology to Traditional cies and its environment - had developed The latter work in ecological anthro Ecological Knowledge (TEK) into the promising field of human ecolo pology stresses the importance of gy that seeks to understand the complex diachronic studies by its focus on histori Since most indigenous knowledge relationships between people and their cal processes of transformation and change systems are based on the sustainable use total environment including all other (cf. Orlove 1980). The environment has and management of local resources over organic and inorganic components of the always played a major role in anthropo

128 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Slikkerveer ■ Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Peoples, Forests and Plants

logy in order to explain both cultural ori ble - socio-cultural context of the knowl humans to nature. As the concept of cos gins and diversity, and today, ecological - edge system. Was the emphasis initially movision includes the relationships be or environmental - anthropology is placed on the practical value of TEK that tween humans, nature and spiritual world, among the most popular sub-fields in the only gradually was accepted by develop it describes the principles, roles and proc discipline. W hile ecological anthropology ment experts as much more effective in esses of the forces of nature, often inter seeks to study and analyze the relation various disappointing, often virtually fail twined w ith local belief systems (cf. Haver- ship between humans and their environ ing or disrupting international develop kort 1995). As a result, several accounts of ment in an 'objective', i.e. from the observ ment projects, we are now witnessing - anthropological research indicate that er's point of view, the ethnoecological and contributing to - a 'struggle' to draw the study of cosmovisions held by parti approach involves the study of such eco the international attention to the im por cular communities requires a special re logical relationships largely from the par tant theoretical, philosophical and spiri search methodology as visions also tend ticipant's point of view. tual dimensions of TEK. By implication, include 'extra-scientific' factors and varia In conjunction with the above men these dimensions are bringing the legal bles, which are often 'invisible' for out tioned 'new' ethnoscience orientation on issues of property rights and the political siders in the first instance (cf. Van den Indigenous Knowledge Systems of the arguments of equal share and empower Breemer et al. 1991). early 1980s, a number of anthropologists ment into the arena. have engaged in the study of the inter Inline with the above mentioned defi The Challenge of Bio-Cultural action among different - Western and nition of Indigenous Agricultural Knowl D iversity non-Western - systems of knowledge and edge Systems (INDAKS) , an equally holis practice which humans have developed tic definition has recently been proposed The dynamic newly-developing field of over many generations in order to adapt that - in addition to the basic aspects of theory and practice of 'Indigenous Ecolo and survive in their environment. Such knowledge and experience-also seeksto gical Knowledge Systems' encompasses a renewed attention for the dynamic con accommodate the material spiritual rather holistic approach to the compara text on interaction between traditional aspects of indigenous ecological knowl tive study of complex interaction proces ecological knowledge and Western eco edge systems. In such an approach, TEK ses among human populations vis à vis logy, 'Indigenous Ecological Knowledge' refers to a particular body of indigenous their environments through time and is also referred to as Traditional Ecologi knowledge to include both intellectual space. By the end of the 1980s, the break cal Knowledge (TEK) (cf. Slikkerveer in and material components of the envi through in the international acknowl press). Although Traditional Ecological ronment of the society, such as: edgment of indigenous peoples' knowl Knowledge - that primarily encompasses ■ concepts, perceptions, beliefs, cosmo edge on their environment -TEK - occur local peoples' knowledge of natural ele logies, red in conjunction with the increasing ments such as plants, animals, soils etc. - ■ attitudes, world-wide attention for the conserva became widespread in the course of the ■ practices, experiences, skills, techno tion and management of biodiversity, 1980's, Johannes (1989) and Inglis (1993) logies, now under serious threat of extinction. In point to the age-long experience and wis ■ artifacts, line w ith such reorientation on the interna dom of human interactions with their ■ seeds, plants, crops, trees, tional level, the Convention on Biological

environment that go back to the earliest ■ institutions, procedures and processes, Diversity (CBD, Article 8 .j 1992) called for: hunter-gatherer groups in history. The used by a particular group, community or 'the wider application of knowledge, ultim ate objective of this new approach, society in relation to their natural and innovations and practices of indigenous which embarks on a multi-disciplinary spiritual environment. (Slikkerveer 1996). and local communities embodying tradi basis to seek answers from among differ In such a broader perspective, the tional lifestyles.' ent local and global knowledge systems indigenous conceptualization of human's Other international organizationsfol- in order to contribute to the solution of place within the natural and spiritual lowed soon to point at the positive con current problems, is essentially based on world has recently attracted renewed tribution of indigenous peoples to the comparative study of human's place attention, particularly in agriculture sustainable biodiversity conservation and in nature from prehistory to the present where farmers experiment and accumu management (Rio Declaration on Envi (cf. Leakey and Slikkerveer 1993). late experience under influence of their ronment and Development 1992; Agen A working definition of Traditional cosmology, or 'cosmovision' - a concept da 21 1992; WRI/IUCN/UNEP 1992). In Ecological Knowledge has been present recently introduced by Van den Berg 1993, the United Nations officially de ed by Berkes (1993: 3): 'TEK is a cumula (1991) and the PRATEC Project (1991) in clared that the 'Year of the World's Indige tive body of knowledge and beliefs, hand Peru. Cosmovision refers specifically to nous Peoples' and since then, various ed down through generations by cultural the way in which the members of a par recommendations have been form ulated transmission, about the relationship of ticular culture perceive their world, cos concerning the indigenous peoples' poli living beings (including humans) w ith one mos or universe. It represents a view of tical rights, economic rights, the rights to another and with their environment.' In the world as a living being, i.e. in its to ta l self-determination, and the protection of addition to the accumulating body of ity to include natural elements such as their cultural, scientific and intellectual such applied-oriented environmental plants, animals, and humans, but also spir property (Voices of the Earth Congress knowledge and practice, TEK also refers itual elements such as spirits, ancestors 1993). Moreover, as Posey (in press) in a broader sense to the complex - and and future generations. In this view, na emphasizes, international attention is for so many development experts invisi ture does not belong to humans, but given to the call for respect for indige

129 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Slikkerveer • Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Peoples, Forests and Plants

nous knowledge, practice and experi ecology and TEK, and their different methodology' will be presented in the con ence, as well as for actions to sharing the objectives, has often been expressed in text of the indigenous peoples' spiritual benefits from their use and application, binary oppositions. Berkes (1993) lists values related to biodiversity in the tropical which leads to full recognition of basic nine general ways in which TEK tend to forests, including sacred forests and groves. rights of indigenous peoples, traditional differ from scientific ecological knowl societies, and local communities. edge, including the following oppositions: TEK, Forests and Plants In the process to attain a global move qualitative versus quantitative; intuitive ment of conservation and management versus rational; holistic versus reduction Both the theoretical and practical signifi of biodiversity, one of the key issues is ist, relation of mind and matter versus cance of Traditional Ecological Knowl directly related to the age-long debate on separation of the two; moral versus edge for the study of biodiversity in the 'Human's Place within - and not above - value-free; spiritual versus mechanistic, tropical forests of the world are essentially Nature' (Leakey and Slikkerveer 1993). empirical versus systemic; data from related to a better understanding of the W hile most Western ecological theories resource users versus data from research often non-written expressions of indige have tended to portray humans a 'stew ers, and diachronic data versus syn nous wisdom and experience with the ards of the earth' that enabled them full chronic data. sustainable use and management of the control over and exploitation of natural re Moreover, Berkes (1993) points to the forestry resources by the indigenous peo sources, most indigenous ecological prin significant social context of TEK, in which ples. Clearly justifying the preservation of ciples are largely concerned w ith common he observes the following three dimen TEK for social and cultural reasons, experience, sustainability and prediction sions: a) symbolic meaning through oral Berkes (1993) presents various arguments in relation to human subsistence and history, place names and spiritual rela of the practical significance of TEK over survival. These principles include values, tionships; b) distinct cosmology or w orld 'scientific' knowledge: norms and beliefs regarding the mainte view being a conceptualization of the ■ its value for new 'scientific' biological nance of the 'balance of nature' which environment which differs from Western and ecological insight; have e vo lve d o ve r g e n e ra tio n s, and - as an science of which ecology is a part; c) rela ■ its relevance for contemporary intrinsic part of the local culture - en tions based on reciprocity and obligations resource management (local 'rules of capsulate specific conservation methods towards both community members and th u m b '); and practices of animal and plant species other beings and resource management ■ its effectiveness for local conservation among many cultures in the tropics. In institutions based on shared knowledge e d u c a tio n ; contrast with the dominant Western and meaning. ■ its use for realistic development plan economic philosophy of nature and the W ith regard to the position of the indig ning that involves local people; environm ent that is based on ever-increas enous and local communities in the trop ■ its contribution to environmental ing resource use and production, as descri ical rain forests, the socio-cultural context impact assessment. bed by Max Weber in his Protestant Ethic of TEK is particular im portant as it has ser In addition, the theoretical signifi and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904), most ved o ve r m an y g e n era tio n s as a fra m e cance of TEK can be further substantiated indigenous and local communities tend work for survival. In view of the recent by the follow ing considerations: to give priority to sustainable life-style external threats of the indigenous peoples - its contribution to the advancement and the maintenance of resources for and their habitats as a result of processes of a new, synthesized system of indige future generations above exploitation of of acculturation and globalisation, fur nous and 'scientific' ecological knowl natural resources on the short term. ther documentation, understanding, ac edge and technology; In this context, it is also im portant to knowledgment and respect for these - its value for the development of an note that cultural diversity is closely link underlying cosmologies and worldviews alternative philosophy of nature and the ed to biodiversity in several respects, of nature is crucial as it would provide a environment; especially in the comparison of cultural base for syncretisation of Western and - its role in the development of a spe diversity in terms of different systems of non-Western philosophies of nature and cific research methodology that goes local, regional and global knowledge vis- the environment. Such research efforts beyond the study of empirical data to à-vis biodiversity in terms of different would also contribute to the current inter include also the 'spiritual' dimension of genes, species and ecosystems (cf. Brush national debate on the interface between TEK into the final analysis; 1989; Warren 1995; Slikkerveer 1996; 'global' and 'indigenous' knowledge - its input to foster and support re Posey in press). Recently, the comple systems (cf. IK&D M onitor 1995/96). spect and protection of the position and mentarity between cultural and biologi Paradoxically, however, conventional health of indigenous peoples and their cal diversity was further underscored by scientific research methods and tech traditional knowledge systems. a group of ethnobiologists who estab niques to study and analyse these cosmolo The last consideration links up with lished the Declaration of Belém of the gies and belief systems as part of the local Hrenchuk's (1993) assumption that a First International Congress of Ethno- culture have so far been unable to fully newly found awareness of TEK could biology (1988) acknowledging the crucial understand and analyse these cultural strengthen Western appreciation of the role of indigenous peoples in global and spiritual values that underlie beha cultures that are holding such indigenous environmental planning (cf. Posey and viour, such as the conservation and man knowledge system. Dutfield 1996). agement of biodiversity (cf. Posey in press). The specific significance of TEK for the The complex relationship and the pre In the next paragraph, an elaboration conservation and management of the supposed differences between 'scientific' of the recently developed 'ethnosystems world's forest biodiversity is emerging

130 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Slikkerveer ■ Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Peoples, Forests and Plants

from the analysis of rather sustainable Local participation. In indigenous major pre-requisites of ultim ate syncre- practices and use of forest resources by forestry research, Alcorn (1995) and Mes tization of both knowledge systems that indigenous peoples that is based on their serschmidt (1995) point to the potential pertains to the concept of power-sharing subsistence life-style and underlying cos ly rich sources of local knowledge. They with indigenous and traditional peoples movision. Several studies highlight various found that in addition to the obvious around the globe. forms of sustainable indigenous bio need for a special research methodology, As Agrawal (in press) points out, the diversity management and conserva extensive participation of villagers has current international debate on the sup tion of agricultural, forestry and natural shown to be highly effective for a better posedly'critical difference' between indig resources in the tropics such as in Latin understanding of the complex forestry enous and scientific knowledge - which America (Alcorn 1989), Nepal (Rusten systems in developing countries. Similar he recently initiated in the Indigenous and Gold 1995; Messerschmidt 1995), ly, A u m e e ru d d y (1994) a nalysed th e s itu a Knowledge and Development Monitor Sri Lanka (Everett 1995), Indonesia tion of forestry in relation to a national (1995-1996) - left the essential relation (Sayer 1991; Aumeerruddy 1995; Padoch park under pressure in Sumatra, Indone ship between the knowledge systems and and Peluso 1996; Adimihardja in press), sia and found that recognition and involve the related powerstructures largely unex West Africa (Falconer 1990), East Africa ment of local people is a prerequisite for plored. In his view, the value and use (Stigter 1995), and Kenya (Slikkerveer 1995; an adequate decision-making process for fulness of indigenous knowledge lies ulti Maundu 1995). forestry research and development. As mately in the empowerment of the local In addition to im portant research data Posey (in press) notes, this aspect is close communities which have currently come that are recently being collected by various ly related to the recognition and protec under serious threat. disciplines engaged in the 'scientific' study tion of the indigenous peoples' intellec The ultimate question in the debate of forest biodiversity, specifically in thetrop- tual and natural property rights. on indigenous vis-à-vis global ecological ics, such as botany, b io lo g y, fo re stry, en Research methodology. A participa k n o w le d g e is th e n n o lo n g e r w h a t is th e tomology and zoology, the further docu tory, so-called 'ethnosystems' approach value and usefulness of Traditional Eco m entation and analysis of Traditional Eco has recently been developed at Leiden logical Knowledgeforthesustainable use logical Knowledge of the indigenous and University based on three m ethodologi and conservation of the forests' biodiver local communities of the tropical rainfor cal principles: 'Participant's View' (V), sity, but rather how can it be functiona est can contribute substantially to our 'F ie ld o f E th n o lo g ic a l S tu d y' (FES), and lised to insure an equitable benefit understanding of related local percep 'Historical Perspective' (HP) (cf. Leakey sharing of the rich resources with the tions, values, practices and experience that and Slikkerveer 1991). W ith regard to indigenous communities. have formed the base of sustainable use TEK, as w e ll as to in d ig e n o u s k n o w le d g e and management of the rich forest biodi and practice in adjacent sectors, the Conclusion versity in the tropics over many genera understanding of the cosmovision of a tions. It is clear that such endeavour can particular community or culture is a key Embarking on the view that TEK em only be successful, if it is carried out accord requirement for cooperation and partici bodies a im portant area that can provide a ing to well-considered protocols that pation in development-oriented activi major contribution to the sustainable use, would include at least three main aspects: ties. The special techniques to study, ana management and conservation of biodi a) as teamwork, b) in agreement and full lyze and explain the various aspects of versity in the world's forests, the follow participation with the local people involved, cosmologies which tend to vary along ing points summarize the conclusions of and c) according to sound ethnoecological gender lines, forms an im portant part of this presentation: research methodology. the 'ethnosystems' methodology, in ■ The human resp. indigenous peoples' Teamwork. While anthropologists which it has gained a prom inent position dimension in the conservation of forest document and study the prevailing indig in the study of the indigenous peoples' biodiversity should be further acknowl enous ecological knowledge and prac perspective. edged, substantiated and operationa tice in conjunction w ith 'scientific knowl In this context, it is interesting to note, lized, as recognized by the Convention of edge systems, ecologists generally collect that while most non-academic institu Biological Diversity (CBD Art. 8 -j, 10-c), data of the environm ent in terms of soils, tions and organizations in the field seek to FAO and other international organiza landscapes, vegetation, ecozones, cli evade such 'soft', often 'invisible' factors tio n s ; mates etc., and biologists provide informa of spiritual and symbolic meaning and ■ In addition to the 'ecodiversity-geo- tion on animal and wildlife populations. cosmovision, IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1991) diversity-biodiversity' model presented Similarly, linguists describe local terms recently included some of these dimen during the opening session of this confer and classifications, often in collaboration sions in their publication on Caring for the ence, cultural diversity should be includ with botanist who collect and identify Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living. ed in terms of different peoples, their plant and tree species. Although in prin The assessment of the current threat various knowledge systems and lan ciple, these six main disciplines are more of both the indigenous peoples and their guages; or less involved in the multi-disciplinary knowledge systems, as well as the biodi ■ Instead of further differentiation in endeavour to study and analyze particu versity in their tropical forests habitat has dichotomies between TEK and 'Scientific lar aspects of traditional ecological recently provoked the controversy be Ecological Knowledge', the search for knowledge systems, generally anthropolo tween political economy and political eco common ground, complementarity, colla gists are by definition entrusted w ith the logy of biodiversity, leading up to the con boration and synergism of these sub overall research activities. clusion that empowerment is among the systems should be pursued since both are

131 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Slikkerveer • Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Peoples, Forests and Plants

part of the same human endeavour to - Provision of indigenous environ Berg, H. van den (1991) La Terra no da As! create order out of disorder. mental assessment no Mds. Los Ritos Agricolas en la Reli ■ The identification of who precisely are - Provision of alternative conserva gion de los Aymara-cristianos, CEDLA, 'indigenous peoples' should principally tion methods and practices Latin American Studies 51, Amster be left w ith the peoples and communities - contribution to the development of da m . themselves to decide, as guaranteed by alternative philosophies of nature and Berkes, F. (1993) Traditional Ecological the U.N. Working Group on Indigenous the environment K n o w le d g e in P erspective, in: J.T. Ing- Peoples, ILO etc. - contribution to the policy planning lis (ed). Traditional Ecological Knowl ■ The definition of TEK should be holis and implementation process at various edge: Concepts and Cases, Interna tic as to encapsulate intellectual, cultural, levels. tional Development Research Centre, spiritual behavioural and material ele C anada. ments transferred over generations con Acknowledgement Breemer, J.P.M. van den, H. van der Plas cerning the relationship of human beings and H.J. Tieleman (eds) (1991) The w ith their natural and spiritual environ The author would like to express his grat Social Dynamics of Economic Innova m e n t, such as: itude to Dr. Darrell A. Posey of Oxford tion, Leiden, DSWO Press. - perceptions, beliefs, cosmologies, University for his encouragement and Brokensha, D., D.M. Warren and 0.1 Wer -attitudes, opinions, advice w ith regard to this paper, while he ner (eds) (1980) Indigenous Knowl - practices, experiences, skills, tech would like to thank Dr. Jutta Poker of the edge Systems and Development, Univer n o lo g ie s, Alfred Toepfer Academy for Nature Con sity Press of America, Lanham, 460 pp. -traditions, innovations, servation and the Organizers of the Con Brundtland, G.H. (1987) Our Common - artifacts, tools, ference for the kind invitation to partici Future, World Commission on Envi -trees, seeds, plants, crops, animals, pate in the Forum Conference in Schne- ronment and Development, Oxford - institutions, v e rd in g e n . University Press, Oxford, 383 pp. - procedures, processes and local au Brush, S.B. (1989) R e th in k in g C rop G ene thority structure, References: tic Resource Conservation, Conserva used by a indigenous and traditional tion Biology, 3 (1), pp. 19-29. communities in the tropics in relation to Adim ihardja, K. (in press) Cosmology and Campbell, B. (1 983) Human Ecology: The the use and management of natural Biodiversity of the Kasepuhan Com Story of our Place in Nature from pre resources munity in Mount Halimun Area of history to the Present, London, Hei- ■ The TEK approach should specifically West Java, Indonesia, in D.A. Posey neman Publications. focus on the philosophies and cos- (ed) Cultural and Spiritual Values of Chambers, R., A. Pacey and L.A. Thrupp movisions on which indigenous peoples B io d ive rsity, N a iro bi (Kenya), UNEP. (1989) Famer First: Farmer Innovation base their perceptions and practices relat Alcorn, J.B. (1989) 'An Economic Analysis and Agricultural Research, Inter ing to the management and conservation of Huastec Mayan Forest Manage mediate Technology Publications, of biodiversity in order to assess alter ment', in J. 0. Browder (ed) Fragile L o n d o n . native philosophies of nature and the Lands in Latin America: Strategies for Conklin, H. (1957) Hanunoo Agriculture: environment. Sustainable Development, Boulder A Report on an Integral System of ■ In the analysis of the role of TEK in CO, W e s tv ie w Press, pp. 182-206. Shifting Cultivation in The Philippines, biodiversity conservation and manage Alcorn, J.B. (1995) 'Ethnobotanical Knowl Forestry Development Paper 12, FAO, ment, research methodologies should be edge Systems: A Resource for M eeting Rom e. designed and refined for comparative Rural Development Goals', in D.M. Convention on Biological Diversity CBD purposes as to extrapolate 'subjective' W a rre n , L.J. S likkerve e r and D.W . (1992), UNCED, Rio de Janeiro. Decla factors at the individual level to 'objec Brokensha (eds) The Cultural Dimen ration of Belem of the First Interna tive' variables at the system level. sion of Development: Indigenous tional Congress of Ethnobiology ■ Truly participatory R&D programs K n o w le d g e Systems, IT Studies in In d ig (1988) begin with involvement of indigenous enous Knowledge and Development, Everett, Y. (1995) 'Forest Gardens of High peoples in the research process, acknowl London, Intermediate Technology land Sri Lanka: An Indigenous System edges their intellectual and natural Publications, pp. 1-12. for Reclaiming Deforested Land', resource rights and is based on equitable Altieri, M.A. (1987) Agroecology: The Scien in D.M. Warren, D.W. Brokensha, sharing of benefits. tific Basis of Alternative Agriculture, a n d L.J. S likke rve e r (eds) The ■ We should provide indigenous peo B o u ld e r CO, W estview Press, 246 pp. Cultural Dimension of Development: ples with support of their alliances and Aumeeruddy (1995) Management of a Indigenous Knowledge Systems, IT with networking facilities. Sacred Forest in the Kerinci Valley, Studies in Indigenous Knowledge ■ The relevance of TEK for bio-cultural Central Sumatra: An Example of and Development, London, Interme diversity conservation and management Conservation of Cultural and Biologi diate Technology Publications, of forest resources includes: cal Diversity, Paris, UNESCO. pp. 174-184. - Provision of new opportunities for Beal, G.M., W. Dissanayaka and S. Konos- Fairhead, J. (1992) Indigenous Technical collaborative R&D hima (eds.) (1986) Knowledge Gener Knowledge arid Natural Resources - provision of alternatives for sustain ation, Exchange, and Utilization, Management in Sub-Saharan Africa, a b le use Boulder and London: Westview Press. 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Falconer, J. (1990) The M ajor Significance (1991) Origins and Development of Reijntjes, C.f B Haverkort and A Waters- of 'M inor' Forest Products: The Local Indigenous Agricultural Knowledge Bayer (1992) Farming for the Future: Use and Value of Forests in West A fri Systems in Kenya, East Africa, Studies An Introduction to Low-External- can Humid Forest Zone, Forests, Trees in Technology and Social Change, No. Input and Sustainable Agriculture, and People, Community Forestry 19, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, London, Macmilan.

Notes No. 6 , Rome, FAO, 232 pp. USA. Richards, P. (1985) Indigenous Agricultur Gips, T. (1986) 'W hat is Sustainable Agri Leakey, R.E. a n d L.J. S likke rve e r (1993). al Revolution: Ecology and Food-Crop culture?' in: P. Allan and D. van Dusen Man-Ape Ape-Man: The Quest for Farming in West Africa, Hutchinson, (eds) Global Perspectives in Agroeco Human's Place in Nature and Dubois L o n d o n . logy and Sustainable Agricultural 'Missing Link', Kenya W ildlife Service Rusten, E.P. and M.A. Gold (1995) 'Indige

Systems, Proceedings o f the 6 th In te r Foundation, Leiden, 182 pp. nous Knowledge Systems and Agrofor national Conference of the IFOAM, M ath ia s-M u n d y, E., O .N. M u ch e n a , G. estry Projects in the Central Hills of University of California, Santa Cruz: McKiernan et al. (1990) Indigenous N e p a l', in: D .M . W a rre n , L.J. S lik k e r Agroecology Program. Technical Knowledge of Private Tree veer and D.W. Brokensha (eds) The Goodenough, W. (1956) Componential Management, Final Draft Report Sub Cultural Dimension of Development: Analysis and the Study of Meaning, mitted to FAO, Rome/Ames, CIKARD. Indigenous Knowledge Systems, IT Language 32.2:195-216. Hardesty, Maundu, P. (1995) 'Indigenous Knowl Studies in Indigenous Knowledge and D.L. (1977) Ecological Anthropology, edge as a Means of Conserving Biodi Development, London, Intermediate W iley & Sons, New York. versity at the Community Level: The Technology Publications. Haverkort, B. (1994) 'Agricultural Devel Indigenous Foods Plants Programme', Sayer, J. (1991) Rain Forest Buffer Zones: opment w ith a Focus on Local Resour in: L.A. Bennun, R.A. Aman and S.A. Guidelines for Protected Area Man ces: ILEIA's V ie w on In d ig e n o u s K n o w l Crafter (eds) Conservation of Biodi agers, Gland, Switzerland, IUCN. edge', in: D.M. W arren, L.J. Slikkerveer versity in Africa: Local Initiatives and Slikkerveer (1995)'Indigenous Agricultur and D.W. Brokensha (eds) The Cultur Institutional Roles, National Museums al Knowledge Systems in East Africa: al Dimension of Development: In of Kenya, Nairobi. Retrieving Past and Present Diversity digenous Knowledge Systems, IT Mazur, R.E. and S.O. Titilola (1992) 'Social for Future Strategies', in: L.A. Bennun, Studies in Indigenous Knowledge and and Economic Dimensions of Local R.A. Aman and S.A. Crafter (eds) Con Development, London, Intermediate Knowledge Systems in African servation of Biodiversity in Africa: Technology Publications, pp. 454-457. Sustainable Agriculture', Sociología Local Initiatives and Institutional Hrenchuk, C.(1993) 'Native Land Use and Ruralis, 32 (2-3), pp. 264-286. Roles, National Museums of Kenya, Common Property: Whose Com Messerschmidt, D.A. (1991) 'Community N a iro b i. mon?', in: Inglis, T. (ed) (1993) Tradi Forestry Management and the Oppor S likkerveer, L.J. (1989a 'C h a n g in g V alues tional Ecological Knowledge: Con tunities of Local Traditions: A View and Attitudes of Social and Natural cepts and Cases, IDRC, O ttaw a, 142 pp. fro m N epal, in: D .M . W a rre n , L.J. S lik Scientists towards Indigenous Peoples Indigenous Knowledge and Develop kerveer and D.W. Brokensha (eds) The and their Knowledge Systems', in ment Monitor (1995-1996), The Cultural Dimension of Development: D .M . W a rre n , L.J. S lik k e rv e e r a n d S.O. Hague, CIRAN/NUFFIC. Inglis, T. (ed) Indigenous Knowledge Systems, IT Titilola (eds) Indigenous Knowledge (1993) Traditional Ecological Knowl Studies in Indigenous Knowledge and Systems Implications for Agriculture edge: Concepts and Cases, IDRC, Development, London, Intermediate and International Development, Stud Ottawa, 142 pp. Technology Publications. ies in Technology and Social Change IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1991) Caring for the Orlove, B.S. (1980) Ecological Anthropo No. 11, Ames, Iowa State University, Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable logy, in Ann. Review of Anthropolo Slikkerveer 1991 Living, Gland, Switzerland. gy, 9,235-273. Padoch, C. and N.L. S likkerveer, L.J. (1994) In d ig e n o u s A g r i Jiggins, J. (1989) An Examination of the Peluso (1996) Borneo in Transition: cultural Knowledge Systems Impact of Colonialism in Establishing People, Forests, Conservation and (INDAKS): A Bibliography, in: Indige Negative Values and Attitudes Development, Oxford, Oxford Uni nous Knowledge Systems Research & towards Indigenous Agricultural Knowl ve rsity Press. Development Studies, Special Issue edge, in D.M . W a rre n , L.J. S likke rve e r Posey, D.A. (1985) Indigenous Manage No. 1, Leiden, LEAD Programme. and S.O. Titilola (eds) Indigenous ment of Tropical Forest Ecosystems: S likkerveer, L.J. (1996) In d ig e n o u s A g r i Knowledge Systems: Implications for The Case of the Kayapo Indians of the cultural Knowledge Systems in Kenya: Agriculture and International Devel Brazilian Amazon, Agroforestry Towards Conservation of Bio-Cultural opment, Studies in Technology and Systems 3: pp. 139-158. Diversity in East Africa, in: W.M. Social Change No. 11 Ames, Iowa Posey, D.A. (ed) (in press) Cultural and Spir A d a m s a n d L.J. S lik k e rv e e r (eds) In d ig State University, pp. 68-7 itual Values of Biodiversity, Nairobi enous Knowledge and Change in Johannes, R.E. (ed) (1989) T ra d itio n a l Eco (Kenya), UNEP. African Agriculture, Studies in Tech logical Knowledge, IUCN, The World Posey, D.A. and G. D utfield (1996) Beyond nology and Social Change No. 26, TSC Conservation Union, Cambridge. Intellectual Property Rights: Toward Programme, Iowa State University, Kay, P. (1966) Ethnography and Theory of International Resource Rights for Indig Ames, Iowa, USA. Culture, Bucknell Review 14:106-113. enous Peoples and Local Communi S likkerveer, L.J. (in press), 'E th n o scie n ce , Leakey, R.E a n d L.J. S lik ke rve e r (eds) ties, IDRC, O tta w a , 303 pp. 'TEK', and its Application to Conser

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vation', in: Posey, D.A. (ed) Cultural Warren, D.M. (1989) The Impact of Nine ment, London, Intermediate Techno and Spiritual Values of Biodiversity, teenth Century Social Science in Estab logy Publications. Nairobi (Kenya), UNEP. lishing Negative Values and Attitudes Weber, M. (1904) Protestant Ethic and the Stigter, C.J. (1995) Transfer of Indigenous towards Indigenous Knowledge Spirit of Capitalism, A rchivf uer Sozial- Knowledge and Protection of the Systems, in: D.M. Warren, L.J. Slikker- wissenschaft und Sozialpolitik. Agricultural Environment in Eastern veerand S.O.Titilola (eds.) Indigenous WHO (1978) International Conference on A fric a ', in D .M . W a rre n , L.J. S likker- Knowledge Systems: Implications for Primary Health Care, Alma Ata, WHO, veer and D.W. Brokensha, (eds) The Agriculture and International Devel Geneva, World Commission on Envi Cultural Dimension of Development: opment, Technology and Social Change ronment and Development (1987) Indigenous Knowledge Systems, IT Monograph Series No. 11, Iowa WRI/IUCN/UNEP (1992) Global Biodiversi Studies in Indigenous Knowledge and State University, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. ty Strategy: Policy Makers' Guide, Bal Development, London, Intermediate 154-162. tim ore, WRI Publications. Technology Publications, pp. 419-425. Warren, D.M. (1995) 'Indigenous Knowl TAC/CGIAR (1988) Sustainable Agricultural edge, Biodiversity Conservation and Author's address: Production: Implications for Internation Development', in: L.A. Bennun, R.A. al Agricultural Research, Rome, Fao. Aman and S.A. Crafter (eds) Con Dr. L. Jan Slikkerveer UNCED (1992) Agenda 21, Preamble and servation of Biodiversity in Local University of Leiden, Institute of Cultural Chapters 26- 1, Rio de Janeiro, UN, Initiatives and Institutional Roles, and Social Studies N e w Y ork. National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi. P.O. Box 9555, NL-2300 RB Leiden, T he Voices of the Earth ( 1993) Congress on Warren, D.M., L.J. Slikkerveer and D.W. Netherlands 'Indigenous Peoples, New Partners, Brokensha, (eds) The Cultural e -m a il: slikkerveer@ rulfsw.leidenuniv.nl the Right to Self-Determination in Dimension of Development: Indige Practice', Amsterdam, 10-11 Novem nous Knowledge Systems, IT Studies in b e r 1993. Indigenous Knowledge and Develop

protection of biodiversity. Indeed, we Statement have selflessly and in good faith shared our traditional knowledge with the out M iguel Hilario siders for the benefit of human kind. But unfortunately, they have not follow the guidelines of international agreements. For several centuries, we the indigenous tists and government policy makers. This We the indigenous peoples demand peoples and our knowledge of conserva has been and still is a major problem for of active participation in the conservation tion have been despised and ignored. We us the indigenous peoples. It is essential of biodiversity because we have a close have been seen only as inhabitants of the that people in the west understand our and direct relationship with it. So the forest; therefore our value has been as modus vivendi with biodiversity because plundering, contamination and destruc objects of study along with natural spe for thousands of years we have nurtured tion of the forest resources is a m ethodi cies. However, at the end of this century, and preserved it through our practices, cal extermination of our knowledge of people in the west have to be awaken to skills and integral knowledge of the envi plants, herbs, trees and conservation realise that our traditional ecological ro n m e n t. techniques. When the plants are gone, knowledge indeed are im portant for the We the indigenous peoples denounce our knowledge will be gone, when our conservation and protection of biodiver individuals, governments and pharma knowledge is gone our soul will be gone, sity. Therefore, we demand that conser ceutical companies who use the native w h e n o u r soul is g o n e th e n w e as p e o p le s vation NGOs and government policy peoples as resources to obtain and com w ill cease to exist. A failure to understand makers include us in the discussion of the mercialise our knowledge without our this indigenous equation, it w ill cause the conservation of biodiversity. consent and benefit sharing agreements. failure of all the human and capital invest Our ecological philosophy is very sim Our objection of the use of our knowl ment in the preservation of the forests ple, a m anand his soul isconnected to the edge does not mean that we are self cen and its biodiversity. earth and vice versa. W ithout the land tred peoples, but rather our objection and its resources the Indian man would means that we are tired of being disre Author's address: disappear as well as the rest of the huma spected and exploited in our knowledge, nity. In addition, the forest is not only the culture and territories. Therefore, we Miguel Hilario source of provision fo r our physical subsis demand that individuals, governments Mansfield College tence. But it is where our medicinal and and pharmaceutical companies and con GB-Oxford 0X1 3TF, UK spiritual knowledge is based. However, servationist do take into account our con e-mail: [email protected]/ our spiritual connection with the earth cerns, which is the respect of our knowl [email protected] has often been ignored by natural scien edge and lands as we are all pursuing the

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Thailand: Community Forest Surrounding the community is the com Hilltribe's Way of Life and Changes m unity forest. It has been called in differ ent languages of each tribe, for example, Kittisak Ruttanakrajangsri Mien calls it 'Ho Bei San' or 'Ching Gam', Karen calls it 'Gawketaw', Akha calls 'Mi Zang Law', etc. Introduction ■ Farming areas (Wet-rice field/Dry-rice Community forest is very important fie ld ) and useful for the villagers for many rea The kingdom of Thailand is the home of ■ Village boundary and dense jungle sons : many different ethnic groups, namely the areas (for hunting and gathering) ■ Keeping the village shady and cool in Karen, Hmong, Lahu, Mien, Akha, H'tin, The structure mentioned above is in the dry season and protection from Lisu, Lua, Khamu and Mlabri. harmony with the highlander's way of life strong winds in the rainy season; In 1995, there were 790,369 hilltribe in every step and conformity with the ■ The playground and training areas for people and other ethnic minorities from forest and biodiversity as follows: living skills, acknowledgment of nature in 150,111 households in 3,512 villages in childhood before growing up and adven Thailand (1). This figure accounted for Settlement Areas ture in the deep forest as their ancestors 1.3% of the country's total population have d o n e ; but did not include ethnic and minority Almost all hilltribe communities are lo ■ A source of food and medicine: medi groups in other regions of Thailand, espe cated on highland areas. They can be divi cinal plants, mushroom, bamboo shoots, cially those from the northeast and south. ded into two groups according to their wild fruits, banana flower, etc.; These nearly 800,000 tribal people are geographic distribution. Some groups ■ Supplying resources for living, like residents in 20 of the nation's 76 provin live at the low hill and high valleys e.g. firewood, wood for household construc ces, including: 14 provinces in the north, Karen, Lua, H'tin, Khamu, and some tion, fencing, etc.; 5 in the west and central plains and 1 in groups live at higher altitudes e.g. ■ Animal raising arease.g. pigs, chicken, the northeast. The province with the Hmong, Mien, Lisu, Lahu and Akha. The horse, cattle, elephant; greatest tribal population is Chiang Mai, latter groups adopted opium cultivation ■ Inhabitation of small animals e.g. with 28.36% of the total hill tribe popu as a cash crop in the past, otherwise birds, squirrels, rodents, moles, snakes, lation. The Karen population is standing known as the opium cultivator. However, insects, etc.; at the highest of 402,095 or 51 % of the the opium cultivation no longer exists in ■ A natural fire boundary to prevent total ethnic population and Mlabri is the Thailand since the introduction of substi w ildfire to the village; smallest group, they have only a popula tution crops by both government and ■ A source of water supply. tion of 173 or 0.02% of the total popula international development agencies. This area is not allowed for farm ing in tion. Individual populationsof the various In 1960s, during the country insur any case due to the reasons mentioned highland ethnic groups are shown in the gency (conflict between communist party above and in other words to avoid the table below. and Thai government), the government conflict between villagers. If you have a In the hilltribe community which has relocated some villages living in the buf farming area near the community, it is been descended from many generations, fer zone down to lowland areas. Appar easy to be destroyed by the household it is obviously seen that their way of life ently, there are some hilltribe villages to a n im a ls. is related closely to their surrounding be found at the lowland. Yet, a majority environments and biodiversity as a source still settle on the highland areas which is of food, medicine, clothing, and living declared as protected areas. areas. They learnt and practiced how to live in harmony and balance w ith nature. Tab. 1: Highland ethnic populations of Thailand (2), This knowledge has been accumulated, Note: Ethnic group includes: own name (Thai name). developed and passed down from gene ration to generation which led to a Ethnic Group/Tribe Population % of total sustainable society and economy over 1. Pga-Geu-Nyaw (Karen) 402 095 50.87 hundreds of years. 2. Hmong (Meo) 126 147 15.96 3. Lahu (Musser) 78 842 9.98 Structure and Living Pattern of 4. Mien (Yao) 47 305 5.98 the Hilltribe Peoples 5. A kh a (E gaw ) 45 300 5.73 6 . H'tin (H'tin) 32 565 4.12 7. Lisu (Lisaw) 31 536 3.99 Typically, village structure and living pat 8 . La w eu (Lua) 1 1 2 1 0 1.42 tern of the hilltribe peoples is classified 9. Khamu (Khamu) 8 738 1 . 1 1 into five series (3): 10. Mlabri (Pee-Tong-Lueang) 173 0 . 0 2 ■ Settlement areas (Village/Community) Other minority groups 6 458 0.82 ■ Community forest Total 790 369 100 ■ Sacred Forests

135 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Ruttanakrajangsri • Thailand: Hilltribe's Way of Life and Changes

Sacred Forests Areas the adoption of opium poppy as a cash introduction of "m odern" agriculture has crop practiced by the other groups men been destructive of indigenous patterns Sacred forests are preserved forests. tioned above. and lifestyles which are based on direct These areas are designed for use in parti and wide response to family needs. The cular circumstances such as ceremonial Village Boundary and Dense Jun production of subsistence rice and food site, water catchment area, graveyard, gle Areas security have both suffered. Cash crops, etc. and people are not allowed to cut the e.g. cabbage, tomatoes, coffee, necessi trees or do any activities which may be Away from the farming, the area is gener tated the use of toxic chemicals to fight harmful to these places. Moreover, they ally used as a village boundary between insects and disease, posing proven dan have to perform a ceremony to the spirit each community as well as hunting and gers to farmers and consumers alike. Both of the mother earth every year. gathering. This area is furthermost from the capital investment and recurring costs For example, when a baby is born, th e v illa g e . It is a deep ju n g le . of supporting new technologies have Karen people bring the umbilical cords Regarding the hunting, they also have been high, incurring increasing debt and and tie it on a tree and by doing so this traditional rules which control the bal financial dependence. Besides, the mar tree becomes a sacred tree because they ance of animal and nature. For instance, ket-oriented agriculture requires a larger believe that the soul of the baby resides Mien people believe that medium and piece of land which lead to the en there. If any activities harm this tree, it large animals e.g. porcupine, civet, mon croachment of forest. may cause an illness to the baby. Doo ta' key, barking deer, bear, boar, deer, bison, Government legal restrictions on land is another place which they believe that wild buffalo and so on, have its guardian use have also been destructive of tradi the spirit of the land reside there, so this spirits to protect and take care. When tional rotational farming systems which area is protected. Akha people have ever they hunt it they have to perform a require long fallow periods for soil regen several sacred places e.g. graveyard, 'Mi ceremonial offering to its guardian and eration and insect control. The security zang Law' area -th e worshipping area for each of them is not allowed to hunt more of indigenous farming, which fosters m other earth, 'E Saw Law Koh' - a sacred than 4 animals per year, otherwise they national interests, is continually threat water area, 'Loh Khong'- village gate. would face unforeseen situations which ened by reforestation, plantations, and Mien people have a place called 'Uam affect their lives or their families such as mining. Government policy on perma Yuan' or watershed area, at this place having an accident or other unforeseen nent agriculture demands the repeated they believe that a strong spirit resides th in g s . use of a single plot of land, which resul th e re . The rules of hunting also vary from ted in soil depletion and reduced yields. each ethnic groups. For instance w ith the The outcome is migration to other areas Farming Areas Karen people, some animals are forbid in search of other employment which den for hunting such as apt and hornbill. brings a host of new problems, such as There are tw o types of highland cultiva They believe that the death of these ani being taken advantage of by employers, tion; first, terrace-paddy field or wet-rice mals may cause the problem of imbalance loss of identity and culture, prostitution, fields. This mode of production is widely of the environment. They have proverbs HIV/AIDS and drug addiction, all of which adopted by the Karen, Lua, H'tin and which reflected to these concept e.g. 'The show signs of escalation in many areas. Khamu and some other groups. The wet- death of an apt, seven forests would be One of the major problems faced by rice field is quite limited due to the geo lonesome'; 'The death of one hornbill, highland peoples is the inability to gain graphical area and the population seven banyan trees would be desolate'. legal rights to residential and farm lands. growth. Second type is shifting cultiva Moreover, their traditional rule disallows This is especially difficult as they are re tion, also known as slash-and-burn the hunt of more than one large animal quired to produce more and more as cultivation or cyclical cultivation. p e r year. demanded by both the economy and The shifting cultivation is practiced in ecology. The right to maintain traditional various farms dynamically. Each farm is Changes farm ing practices respected by the local cultivated about 1 - 2 years and left fallow communities are of little interest to out fo r 5-10 years. Then, the farmers w ill come Recently, this balance with nature has siders. The Forestry Department claims back and grow their crops again. In the begun to change as a result of inroads by ownership of these lands in the name of period of fallow, soil condition and eco the economic prosperity and technologi the Thai government and reforests areas logical condition of the forest will prod cal advances of the larger Thai society as left fallow by villagers. uce to their fertility to be ready for well as the introduction of modern edu Furthermore, modern education pro planting again. cation. This was aided by development vided by the government as a funda However, this type of agriculture has efforts on the part of government agen mental development is not associated been widely debated whether it is a form cies and international agencies. with the way of life in the highland. For of sustainable agriculture or a cause of Highland development and the pro example, the curricula can not address the deforestation. motion of cash crops has had considera real and distinct problems arising in the These mode of production is most ble impact on traditional farming prac community and is biased towards indus similar among hilltribe peoples. Few dif tices. Economic mono-crops are not trialization and has no provision for the ferences base on distinctive ethnic way of appropriate for indigenous agricultural retention of traditional knowledge. life, especially, wet-rice cultivation prac systems, particularly the previous rotation These problems with the existing cur ticed by the Lua and the Karen people and al cultivation of diverse crops. In fact, the riculum have led to community children

136 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Ruttanakrajangsri • Thailand: Hilltribe's Way of Life and Changes

becoming alienated from the local wis 6 . Alternative agriculture networks. traditions, in a way, that not only assist dom and values. In some communities the highlanders to survive in society but there are large gaps between parents and On 19 April 1997, the government, led by also preserve nature involved with right their children in terms of what is held as General Chavalit Youngchaiyuth, passed eousness and moral values among valuable and what is considered unwor a Cabinet resolution calling for the solu human-beings, man and animal and man thy. Such gaps feed the unsustainability tion of all problems for all groups. and the forest. of the communities. Regarding the problem of land and These beliefs and rituals finally be forests, the government agreed w ith the come traditional laws which control, Community Struggle recommendations proposed by NFN (see force and maintain ecological balance for Land Rights an n ex 1). H ow e ve r, th e im p le m e n ta tio n forest and wild life. All villagers have to was delayed due to the lack of financial practice and follow these rules seriously, There have been movements and re support and nothing had been done until otherwise, punishments w ill be enforced quests for the rights of local communities the government had resigned and chang to them, by natural. to manage highland resources and hold ed to the new government led by Chuan The mode of productions which is land rights since the first Chuan govern Leekphai as a second term. practiced by them are subsistence and ment in 1995 in the name of Northern Unfortunately, this Cabinet resolution sustainable to the ecology and environ Farmers Network (NFN) and the Assembly was reviewed and revoked by the current m e n t. of the Poor (4, 5). For example, the de National Forestry Policy Committee However, today, tribal lifestyles, cul

mand for a Community Forestry Bill- call (NFPC) on 10 June 1998 ( 6 ). Therefore the tures, and agricultural practices are dis ing for the state to recognize traditional solution forthis problem is still uncertain. appearing at an increasing rate in re forest management and participation in At the same tim e, the villagers have also sponse to changes in Thai and western cul resource preservation and demand for improved their potential so that they are ture. Expanded communications, govern demarcation of community area and able to live in co-existence w ith the forest ment and NGO initiated development, farm ing areas out of the protected areas. in a sustainable way. and technological advances have all elic Currently, all hilltribe communities ited alterations in tribal society. Highland have been settled in the protected areas Education communities have had to give up subsis which were declared by the government tence farming and animal raising prac after the settlement of the village. In this There was a joint project initiated by the tices for intensely economic-related agri case the King of Thailand had also expres village leaders, NGO and government culture, including: large areas of mono sed his concern th a t: agency trying to develop and implement crops, use of toxic chemicals, and planting "In forests designated and delineated a local curricula, to be taught along of pine and eucalyptus forests. This has by the authorities as reserved or restric side the Thai curricula (7). This local cur caused a continuing reduction in the size ted, there were people there already at ricula includes traditional knowledge em of crop lands, soil depletion, environ the tim e of the delineation. It seems rath phasizing on forest preservation and mental and ecological imbalances, reduc er odd for us to enforce the reserved cultural values in the society. This pro tion of natural forests, destruction of forest law on the people in the forest ject aims to link schools into the life of water resources, and eradication of high which became reserved only subsequent the community, to make it a valuable land food sources. The ensuing m igration ly by the mere drawing of lines on pieces and relevant part of the community's has given rise to the erosion of culture and of paper. The problem arises in as much life. The project is due to be completed local wisdom.

as, with the delineation done, these peo by the year 2 0 0 0 . The conflict over resource manage ple became violators of the law. From the ment is increasing especially from the d if viewpoint of law, it is a violation, because Conclusion ferent school of thoughts, one believes the law was duly enacted; but according that man and forest should be separated to natural law, the violator of the law is Nature and highlanders' way of life are and one believe that humans and forest the one who drew the lines, because the interconnected through mutual relation should co-exist. people who had been in the forests ship portraying the cycle of the ecological This issue is quite complicated. The previously possessed the human rights, system. This system has been maintained only thing is every group should respect meaning that the authorities had en within traditional rules, beliefs, and ritu each other and find out a collective solu croached upon individualsand notindividu- als collected a n d descended, as w e ll as, tion to conserve this fragile forest and als transgressing the law of the land". adjusted into traditional knowledge to biodiversity for the future generation. The big campaign was carried on by manipulate the balance of nature. Assembly of the Poor during 25 January- Means on forest preservation among A n n ex 1: 2 May 1997. The issue of negotiation distinctive tribal highlanders associated Actions to be taken : covers 6 main problems of the poor: with traditional beliefs, rituals and proc 1. Land and fo re sts; ess o f p ro d u c tio n . ■ Immediate abolition of the govern 2. Dams; Beliefs and rituals are systems created ment policy of relocation of current forest 3. Government development projects; by our ancestors through experience that villages from forest areas; 4. Slums; descended from generation to genera ■ Surveys and proof of residence of vil 5. W ork-related disabilities and envi tion. Also, they have been developed into lagers prior to the establishment of nation ronment; and traditional rules, and ethnic customs and al parks, wildlife refuges and Class 1A

137 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

watersheds. If prior residence is proved, of land ownership, an SPK.4-01 should be the Next Decade. 1996. Chiangmai the Forestry Department and other re issued as quickly possible; (Thailand): Chiangmai University & sponsible agencies w ill void all regulations ■ W ith respect to existing community Ministry of Education. prohibiting residence and farming and forests that the villagers have maintained 2. Ib id . affirm residential and agricultural rights in a sustainable manner, the communities 3. Tribal Research Institute: The Hilltribe in accordance w ith the law; rights to these forests and their use w ill of Thailand, 1989, p 3 ■ Investigation and proof of rights and be officially acknowledged. There should 4. The network organization of the poor affirm ation of rights; be no arrests, threats or encroachments from north-east and northern Thai ■ A committee will be established with on these lands by the authorities. When who were impacted by the govern responsibility for the investigation and the Community Forestry Bill is passed, ments policy, form ing in 1995. affirm ation of rights. This committee will conservation forest status will be w ith 5. Owen J. Llynch and Kirk Talbott, Bal comprise representatives of concerned drawn and status as community forests ancing Acts: Community-based Forest government agencies and the people w ill be legalized; Management and National Law in affected in equal numbers; Persons being ■ During the process of correction of Asia and the Pacific. 1995. World investigated must be those who are true the forestry problem the villagers will be Resources Institute, p. iii. residents of the areas under question; allowed to continue residence and far 6 . Proceeding of National Forestry Policy Criteria for investigation and affirm ation ming on their traditional lands without Committee, the 3rd session/2541 on include compliance with at least one of threats, arrest or encroachment by offi 10 of June 1998. the following; cials. A t the same time, they w ill be allow 7. Local curriculum development project - Evidence of fruitful use of the land; ed to develop public facilities such as is a joint pilot project initiated by - Man-made structures, fruit trees or home construction and improvement of village leader in Mae Wang District, perennial trees; roads, w ater systems and electricity. Office of District Primary Education ■ Confirmation of status by a member ■ A committee will be appointed and and Inter Mountain Peoples' Educa of the community; Official documenta made responsible for over sight of cor tion and Culture in Thailand Associa tion, including SK1, PBT 5, house registra rection of the situation in accordance tion (IMPECT). This project was tion, etc. which shows prior residence or with the results of negotiations. The fu n d e d by UNICEF. fruitful use of the land; Criteria for the Prime Minister or delegated Minister will affirmation of rights. The responsible serve as committee chair, with represen Author's address: agency w ill affirm the residents rights as tatives of concerned government agen fo llo w s : cies and affected villagers serving as com Kittisak Ruttanakrajangsri - For residents w ith sufficient evidence mittee members in equal number. International Alliance of Indigenous to warrant the issuance of official docu & Tribal Peoples of the Tropical Forests mentation in accordance with the laws 14 Rudolf Place, Miles Street

governing land, e.g. SK1, the Land References: L o n d o n SW 8 IPP, United Kingdom Department will issue the appropriate E -m ail: [email protected] document as quickly as possible; For resi 1. Kumbunratana, Prachuap, et al. Soci dents without sufficient documentation al Trends of Highland Communities in

ting Miombo woodland close to the vil Community Use of Woodland lage ii) to gain an impression of the demand for and availability of woodland Resources at Aliseni Village, Ulumba products in the area and iii) to document the views of the villagers w ith regard to Mountain, Southern Malawi* a) the impact of the plantations on their lives and b) the proposed hand over of the Rachel Bone plantations to local control. Semi structured interviews were con ducted with men's groups, women's A bstract läge, which consists of about 25 house groups, a school children's group, and holds is surrounded by government with the community as a whole. These A participatory rural appraisal of wood owned Eucalyptus plantations. These groups participated in the construction of land resource use was conducted at Ali- plantations were established on land visual aids including maps, product flow seni village in southern Malawi. The vil- which belonged the community and diagrams and seasonal calendars in order which had previously supported Miombo to assist in the exchange of inform ation. * A dapted from FRIM R eport No. 97002 Bone R. and K hofi woodland. The purpose of the study was A transect walk was conducted by mem C. (1997) C om m unity use of Eucalyptus plantation and i) to determine how woodland resource bers of the com m unity and of the research regenerating M iom bo w oodland resources at Allseni vil lage, Ulum ba m ountain, southern M alawi. Forestry Re collection from the plantation compared team during which different resource search Institute o f M alaw i, P.O. Box 270, Zom ba, M alaw i to that from areas of naturally regenera units were observed and discussed.

138 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Bone • Community Use of Woodland Resources at Aliseni Village, Ulumba Mountain, Southern Malawi

The results showed that the commu national resource. The resulting defor effect of the plantations has been attri nity collected a much greater variety of estation has been variously estimated at buted to their influence on understorey products from the small areas of natural between 1 % and 3.5% per annum for the micro-climate and soil fertility, the sup ly regenerating woodland than they did country as a whole, (Ministry of Natural pression of dom inant grasses and the pro from the plantation. Important nutrition Resources 1995, 1996) and is most severe vision of habitat for seed dispersers al products such as fruit and mushrooms in the Southern Region, where a World (Pandeetal., 1988; Parrotta, 1993; Parrot- were less abundant than before the plan Bank estimate put it at 11% per annum ta, 1995a&b; M itra and Sheldon, 1993). In tation was established. Products made (World Bank 1994). In many areas of the 1995, an 18 month international explor from mature trees, such as mortars and S o u th e rn and C e n tra l R egions th e re is a atory analysis entitled "The Catalytic pestles had to be purchased from a mar critical shortage of woodland products. Effect of Tree Planting on the Rehabilita ket 25 kilometres away. Prices of products The World Bank's estimate of Malawi's tion of Native Forest Biodiversity on De imported to the villages were generally wood deficit in 1990 was 2.8 million m 3 graded Tropical Lands" was launched. higher than for those exported. Scarcity per annum, w ith a predicted rise to 3.8 The purpose of this work was to gain a of the M iombo species had forced the vil m illio n m 3 per annum by 1995 (World better understanding of the factors which lagers to substitute their preferred spe Bank 1994). Estimates are not yet availa govern the rate of native forest regene cies w ith those which were less suitable ble for the deficit in non wood forest prod ration in the understorey of plantations but more abundant. In the eyes of the vil ucts such as fruits and medicinal plants, or in a number of degraded ecosystems lagers the overall effect of the plantation for the cost of the loss of non tangible throughout the tropics. This study in at Aliseni had been a negative one. benefits, such as watershed protection, volved researchers in seven tropical countries The prospect of owning and man that Miombo formerly provided. How investigating a number of core hypothe aging the plantations was welcomed by ever this does not mean that such resour ses (see Appendix 1). The Forestry Re the men, but not by the women. The study ces and services are any less im portant. search Institute of Malawi, w ith funding highlighted the problem of insufficient Those who are most directly dependant from the British Overseas Development communication between the current on woodland resources, and therefore Administration took part in this project BCFP m a n a g e m e n t a n d th e villa g e rs. A n worst affected by deforestation, are the and examined the feasibility of this urgent need for education and training poorest rural dwellers (Sambo 1995). approach to Miombo woodland restora of the villagers on the subjects of planta Efforts to address the problems result tio n in th e BCFP area in Z o m b a D is tric t, tion and landscape management was ing from this rapid deforestation have Southern Malawi (Bone et al. 1997). In identified. This is necessary in order that mainly taken the form of donor assisted contrast to the findings of the other 6 they can develop the capacity to manage government afforestation schemes gear countries involved in the study ( see Forest the resources in accordance with their ed toward meeting the demand for fuel- Ecology and Management Vol. 99 Nos 1,2 needs. wood, poles and timber in the rapidly for results of the international study) the expanding urban areas. In 1995 there results of the work in Malawi showed that Introduction were 13 035 ha of fuelwood and pole plantation establishment had not served

plantations and 8 033 ha of tim ber plan to accelerate rehabilitation of degraded Miombo woodland, characterised by the tations in the southern region of Malawi forest and that this was better achieved g e n e ra Brachystegia and Julbernardia is (BCFP 1995). The main species planted are by site protection. the dominant woodland type in Malawi. Eucalyptus species, particularly cam aldu- To compliment the findings of this For centuries these woodlands have pro lensis on lowland sites, and conifers, botanical study, and to allow interpreta vided the country's population with a m a in ly Pinus p a tu la on the hills and pla tion of the results in the context of wide range of resources. In many rural teaux. This study was carried out w ithin demand for and use of resources by vil areas, woodlands and farm trees provide the plantations established by one such lagers living in the plantation area, a critical support to agricultural production afforestation project, the Blantyre City woodland use study was conducted at A li through the protection of water Fuelwood Project. seni village. The woodland use study is the catchment areas and the maintenance Exotic plantation forestry species do subject of this report. The purpose of this and improvement of soil conditions. not supply the m ultitude of products that study was to determine how the results Woodlands are valuable graze resource have traditionally been derived from of the vegetation survey related to w ood for livestock. Im portant supplements for Miombo species. The prospect of finding land resource use by local com m unity and human nutrition are obtained from cost effective methods of restoring native how the lives of the community had been Miombo woodland in the form of fruits, forest on degraded land is of therefore of affected by BCFP. The objectives were as mushrooms, and edible wild vegetables. great interest and potential importance fo llo w s : Woodlands also provide people with the to forestry researchers and land managers 1) To determine how the collection of opportunity to earn a cash income. A in Malawi. Recent research from a woodland products varied between the variety of woodland products including number of other tropical countries has plantation sites and the unplanted con fruits, mushrooms, fuelwood and poles demonstrated that, under favourable tro l. are marketed throughout the country. conditions, the establishment of planta 2) To gain an impression of the The rapid increase in the human tions (of either indigenous or exotic spe demand for and availability of woodland population, particularly during the latter cies) on degraded land can serve to accel products in the area. part of the twentieth century, has put erate recolonisation of this land by na 3) To document a) the villagers' per enormous pressure on this important tive and naturalised forest species. This ceptions with regard to the impact of the

139 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Bone • Community Use of W oodland Resources at Aliseni Village, Ulumba Mountain, Southern Malawi

BCFP on their lives and b) their reaction to mean slope of 25 degrees and a north are situated in the valleys, where soils are the Forestry Department's decision to easterly aspect. The study site included an deeper, w ith the Eucalyptus trees on the hand over ownership and management of eight year old first rotation Eucalyptus slopes above (see map). According to the the plantations to the local community. camaldulensis stand, a one year old older men in the village the area was first second rotation E. camaldulensis coppice settled sometime between 1915 and the Study area site and an unplanted control site. Both early 1920's by people from the Phalom- Eucalyptus sites were planted in 1988. The be plain to the south east of Ulumba Ulumba Mountain is located in Southern control site had been cleared for planting mountain. This inform ation is supported Malawi at 15° 27' S and 35° 19' E within at the same tim e as the plantation sites by a historical study of the ethnic groups Traditional Authority Chikowi. Mean but had been left unplanted and had the Chikowi area (Maluza 1980). Aliseni minimum and maximum temperatures in since been protected from fire. The results village, the focus of this study, consists of the area are 16-18 ° C and 26-28 ° C re of the vegetation study revealed that approxim ately 25 households. Despite its spectively (Department of Surveys, 1983). floral diversity in the understorey of the small size the village is composed of peo Mean annual rainfall between 1991 and mature plantation stand did not differ ple from three ethnic groupings, Nyanja, 1995 w as 780 m m (BCFP, 1995). The p la n significantly from that of the unplanted Yao and Lomwe who have settled there tations at Ulumba cover an altitudinal control. The coppice site supported a at different times from different areas in range of 800 m to 1200 m. Much of the floral community significantly more the Southern Region. land is steeply inclined, with many com diverse than that of the plantation stand The land on which the Eucalyptus partments on slope of 2 0 degrees or more. and the control site. The basal area of trees were planted originally supported Ninety percent of the 560 hectare plan indigenous trees and shrubs was signifi Miombo woodland. This woodland be ta tio n is Eucalyptus camaldulensis, th e cantly higher on the control than on ei came degraded over tim e due to pressure other ten percent is E. tereticornis a n d E. ther of the plantation sites. (Bone et al. from an increasing human population. In grandis. 1997) 1986 the remaining woodland was clear The hillside on which the vegetation There are a number of villages within ed by the World Bank funded Wood composition study was conducted had a the plantation area, the majority of which Energy Project in preparation for estab-

f f A ...... Sir’ /‘vAsfJit'r. f,

( f f o o f

Map of Aliseni drawn by the mens' group on the eastern side of the village.

140 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Bone ■ Community Use of Woodland Resources at Aliseni Village, Ulumba Mountain, Southern Malawi

lishment of the Eucalyptus plantations. favour of the establishment of the plan M ethods The primary objective of the Wood Ener tations, but were powerless to intervene gy Project was to supply fuelwood and in any major way. They did manage how Prior to meeting w ith the villagers a series poles to Zomba town, approximately 15 ever to prevent the planting (but not the of questions relating to woodland re

kilometres away. After the clearing of the clearing) of a small (0 . 8 ha) site adjacent source use and the impact of BCFP were indigenous woodlands, charcoal burners to the Village Headman's house and have compiled by the research team. These moved into the area and converted what since protected this site in order that the questions, which are presented in Table

remained to charcoal for sale. The land woodland should re-establish. A tthetim e 1 , served as a guideline for directing remains the property of the local chiefs of the study (eight years since protection discussions throughout the course of the under customary law whilst the Eucalyp had begun) this site supported Uapaca fie ld w o rk . tus trees are the property of the Malawi kirkiana dominated early woodland The approach used was designed to Government Forestry Department. regrowth with a canopy height of 2-3 assist the villagers in expressing the value Therefore, with the establishment of the metres. This was the site used as the of woodland resources available to them plantations the villagers in the area lost unplanted control in the species compo within the context of their own percep usufruct, though not ownership of their sition study. tions, needs and priorities. To this end a land. The villagers at Aliseni were not in series of interactive activities were under-

Table 1: Questions posed to the villagers of Aliseni, and methods used to obtain the answers.

Questions Tools used

1. W hat products are collected from the three different Mapping, product flow diagrams, woodland types? key inform ant interviews, a) unplanted control group discussions and transect walk.

b) 8 yr. eucalypt stand

c) 1 yr. eucalypt coppice

2. W hat restrictions are placed on the collection of resources Mapping, product flow diagrams, from each of the areas by key inform ant interviews, transect walk. a) BCFP? b) Village Headman? c) other bodies? - please specify.

3. W hat other sources of woodland products are available Product flow diagrams, to the community? group discussions. How far away are these, and how important are they?

4. W hat products are marketed by the villagers, Product flow diagrams, where, and for what prices? key inform ant interviews.

5. W hat quantities of products are collected? Groups discussions, How frequently are collections made? key inform ant interviews. How much time is spent collecting?

6 . How does collection vary throughout the year? Construction of seasonal calendars.

7. W hat is the relative importance of the major products Discussions w ith mixed community groups. to men, women and children?

8 . W hat species are of greatest importance for each Ranking by simple group voting system of the major products identified in terms of: with mixed community group. a) the most preferred? b) the most frequently used?

9. How had the BCFP affected the lives of the villagers? Group discussions and transect walk.

10. W hat were the community's views about the Group discussions, transect walk. future management of the eucalyptus plantations following the hand over to local control?

141 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Bone • Community Use of Woodland Resources at Aliseni Village, Ulumba Mountain, Southern Malawi

taken. Semi structured interviews were at the beginning. The maps produced gave inform ation about the manufacture conducted with men's groups, women's proved to be very useful for later exercises and marketing of products such as tools, groups, a school children's group, and and discussions. A map was also produced wooden beds and woven crafts such as with the community as a whole. Initial by the group of school girls from the baskets. interviews focused on the procurement eastern side of the village. This was drawn A transect walk was made, during and use of woodland products. In later d ire c tly on to a la rge sheet o f paper, using which the differences in land use, tenure, in te rv ie w s th e im p a c t o f BCFP o n th e lives a m a rk e r pen. vegetation composition, management of the villagers, and the prospect of the The women's groups felt they were practices, and resource availability were transfer of the ownership and manage unable to represent their surroundings in discussed. Six community members ment of the plantations to local people the form of a map since they had little fo r accompanied the research team. The walk were discussed. mal education. The FRIM staff w ith these began at the Village Headman's house, The villagers were split into two groups (one male and one female) devis and ended at the foot of Ulumba hill. The groups on the instruction of the Village ed system a whereby each woman could transect passed through agricultural Headman. This division was based on the record the products she collected from fields, Eucalyptus plantation and natural location of the houses. One group con each of the vegetation types by means of woodland regeneration. sisted of people from the eastern side of agreed symbols. This exercise resulted in After all the questions had been the village, the other from the western the production of flow diagrams which posed and discussed using the methods side. The group on the eastern side of the showed influx of woodland products to outlined above, a presentation of the village was closer to the sites where the the village from the control site, the cop information collected was made to a species composition study had been con picing Eucalyptus site, and the eight year group of people from both sides of vil ducted, and included the households of old Eucalyptus stand. During the produc lage gathered at the Headman's house. This the previous and the current Village tion of the maps and the flow diagrams was done in part to express gratitude to Headmen. This group, which consisted of the restrictions on resource collection the community for their help and co-ope nine men, ten women and five school from each of the different sites were dis ration. It also gave the team a chance to girls, was interviewed first. The reason for cussed. verify the information collected, and to this was that good relations had been Diagrams which showed the flow of pick up on points which had been om it formed with a number of its members, woodland products into and out of the ted or misrepresented. Following the particularly the Headman and his family, village were constructed by the men's completion of data collection at Aliseni a during the species composition study. The and women's groups w ith assistance from member of the research team spoke to a group from the western side of the vil the research team members. Seasonal member of staff at the BCFP Office con lage comprised seven men, eight women calendars were constructed in order to cerning the follow ing issues; the employ and tw o school boys. W ith each of the tw o record the variation in the collection of ment figures at the beginning of the pro household groups the work began with products throughout the year. The ject and at the tim e of the study, the infra an explanation of the objectives of the m ajority of the community were fam iliar structure benefits that BCFP brought to exercise during which all the questions to with the twelve month calendar. Those the area, the regulations governing the be addressed were presented. The data who were not indicated seasons in which harvesting of products from the BCFP con collection team consisted of four male products were available, rather than trolled sites, the displacement of people and tw o female FRIM staff members. At m o n th s . at the beginning of the project, and the different times this group divided into Species were ranked in terms of those steps being taken to prepare communi teams, dealing with women's, men's and that were most preferred for a given ties for ownership and management of school children's groups separately. product, and those that were most fre the plantations. Resource maps were drawn by the quently used for that product. This was men's groups from both sides of the vil achieved by means of a simple group Results lage in order to illustrate their percep voting system using cuttings or fruits to tions of major resource close to the village. represent the different species. The Woodland resource collection Discussions held during the construction importance of different products to each from planted and unplanted sites of the maps focused on the availability of community group relative to the other products from different areas. The maps com m unity groups was discussed. For spe Resource maps drawn by the men's drawn by the men's groups were initially cialised collection, production and mar groups identified a number of sites where created on a large area of bare ground. keting information, key informants were procurement of different woodland The mappers used sticks, stones, and consulted. Two herbalists were interview products took place. The map (p. 140) green and dry leaves to mark out the ed about the collection and uses of presented was drawn by the men's group various landscape features. This was later medicinal plants. The herbalists were spe on the eastern side of the village. In addi c o p ie d o n t o a la rg e sh e e t o f p a p e r b y o n e cialists in traditional medicine respected tion to the plantations and the control member of the group who was familiar by the community for their knowledge of site protected by the Village Headman the w ith the use of paper and ink, guided by the healing properties of plants. In the map shows a number of other areas from research team members. In each of the absence of modern medical facilities rural which woodland products were collected. groups all members participated in iden people are dependant on medicinal These included other areas of natural tifying landmarks and locating their own plants forthe majority of their health care regeneration, sites where bamboo grew hom e s, w ith a fe w in d iv id u a ls d o m in a tin g needs (Sitaubi et al. 1995). A craftsman and graveyards. The map drawn by the

142 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity- Bone • Community Use of Woodland Resources at Aliseni Village, Ulumba Mountain, Southern Malawi

school girls concentrated on the location of fru it trees in the village area. The flow diagrams constructed by the women's groups showed the collection of products from the natural regeneration, the mature eucalypts, and the coppicing eucalypts. Figure 1 is a reproduction of the flow diagram made by the women's group from the eastern side of the village. There were ten wom en in this group, each was asked to indicate what products they collected from each of the three sites by means of agreed symbols. The map and the flow diagrams clearly illustrate that of the three wood land types, the greatest number of differ

ent products came from the natural Figure 1. Products collected by women from Eucalyptus plantation and natural regeneration. W ith the exception of ter regeneration. mites, no products were collected from the plantation that were not also collect ed from the regenerating woodland site. Table 2: Products from the three woodland categories at Ulumba. Table 2 lists the products derived from each vegetation type using pooled data BCFP 8 year old stand 1 year old second Regenerating from all the discussion groups, and from rotation stand woodlands the transect walk. B am boo B a m b o o B a m b o o Restrictions placed on the collection F ire w o o d G raze G raze of products from the different resource Fruits F ire w o o d F ire w o o d units varied according to their ownership M e d icin e F ruits F ruits and purpose. The natural woodland areas M ushroom s M e d ic in e Hoe and axe handles Poles Rope Latex from which resources were collected Term ites M e d ic in e included both those under community M u sh ro o m s control and those under BCFP manage Poles ment control. The control over the natur R ope fib re al regeneration directly above the Village R afters Headman's house, (see map p. 140) was Thatch grass stricter than that for other natural wood W ild edible vegetables land sites in the surrounding area. This was the area which had been the control site in the species composition survey. Rules governing resource procurement from this site were made by the community and by the Village Headman. The Headman enforced the rules, and permission to harvest any product from that site had to be obtained from him. Felling of trees for firewood was forbidden. Permission was sometimes granted to fell trees for other products such as poles, and in these cases branches could be used for firewood. Care was taken that felling was not concentrated in any one area. The species most commonly felled were Brachystegia species and Uapaca kirkia- rta, mainly for poles and rope fibre. No fee was paid for the harvesting of prod ucts from this site. Collection of products from the graveyards was severely restricted. Only dead wood could be collected from the ground, and only at Figure 2. Flow of Woodland Products into and out of Aliseni Village, showing the tim e of a funeral. In the areas of natur- Distances to Places o f Sale/Purchase.

143 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Bone • Community Use of W oodland Resources at Aliseni Village, Ulumba Mountain, Southern Malawi

Table 3: Average collection o f im portant woodland products per household, and by tradesmen in Aliseni Village.

PRODUCT QUANTITY FREQUENCY TIM E SPENT COLLECTED BY Bamboos 1 head load (approx. 20 poles) Once a week 1 hour Mainly men price MK 0.30 per pole

Firewood 1 big head load - approx. Once a week (More 4 hours Women, men w eight - 18 kgs frequently during late and children dry season

Fruits Uapaca kirkiana 1 kg 2 times a week fo r each, 2 hours Women, men Ximenia caffra 2 kg depending on availability 30 minutes and children M ultidentia crassa 1 kg bility 30 minutes Medicine Dependant on no. of patients As fo r quantity As fo r quantity Herbalists requiring treatment and type o f illness

Mushrooms Full pail from indigenous Depending on availability 1-2 hours Women, men woodland (a std. pail is approx. every day during early rains and children 25 litres) (surplus is seasoned future use) Palm poles 4 for a bed, 15 for a granary 2 times a week 1 hour Craftsmen Poles For house construction: approx. Once or twice a week 2-4 hours Mainly men 120 poles fo r a house, 30 fo r during fry season roof alone. For maintenance: depending on need As required As required M ainly men Rope fibres 2-5 kg depending on amount On average once per month 1-3 hours Women, men o f w ork requiring ropes, e. g. depending on quantity of and women house construction w ork requiring ropes al regeneration and bamboo under the Import and export of woodland a range of woodland products from a c o n tro l o f th e BCFP v illa g e rs had to pay products number of different outside sources, up to collect firewood, at Malawi Kwacha to 80 km away. Many of these imported (MK) 0.50 per head load, and bamboo at Figure 2 shows movement of forest prod products had been obtained from the MK 0.30 per pole. Firewood and small ucts into and out of Aliseni village. This M iombo close to the village before it was dimension poles collected from the plan flow diagram, which was constructed cleared. Prices of products purchased tations also cost MK 0.50 per head load. using the combined information from all from outside sources were generally A t the tim e of the study MK0.50 was equi the community groups, illustrates the much higher than those of products sold valent to US$ 0.03. Statutory minimum very im portant point that the number of by the villagers in nearby markets. daily wage in rural areas at this tim e was types of product imported was far great Table 3 is a summary of information MK 8.50, equivalent to US$ 0.56. er than that exported. Villagers bought gathered from all the different groups

Table 4: Pooled data showing variation in collection of products throughout the year by villagers of Aliseni.

Products Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Bamboo poles X X X XX Brooms XXXXX Firew ood X X X X X X X X X XXX XX Flour baskets Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Fruits XX XX XX X XX X Granaries XXXX Hoe/Axe handles XX XXX X XXXX M edicines XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX M ortars XX XXX M ushroom s XXXX XXX X Y Y Pestles XX XXX Poles X XXXX XX XX X Reed mats XX X XXX Rope fibres XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX Thatch grass XX XXXX Y Y X Wooden spoons Y Y Y Y Y XX XX XX Y Y Y Y

144 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Bone • Community Use of Woodland Resources at Aliseni Village, Ulumba Mountain, Southern Malawi

Table 5: Seasonal pattern o f fruit collec The villagers stressed that since the Some indigenous trees such as Parinari cura tion as expressed by the two adult clearing of the Miombo many products, tellifolia andStrychnos spinosa fruit during groups on the western side of Aliseni particularly mushrooms and fruits had the late dry season, others including Uapa Village. become more scarce, and therefore more ca kirkiana, Annona senegalensis and time was needed to collect the same Ximenia caffra fruit during the rainy sea Fruits Collected Months quantities. Collection of firewood was son. Fresh mushrooms are only found Annona senegalensis December estimated to take four hours per week during the rainy season, while other prod Uapaca kirkiana December throughout most of the year, more in the ucts like firewood, rope fibre and medicine Strychnoss spinosa November Parinari curatellifolia October-November late dry season. The estimates of time are collected throughout the year. Most Fukula December-February spent collecting woodland products gives households collect more firewood between Ximenia caffra March an indication of their importance, and the September and November than in other Mtonogoli March information on house building and main months of the years and store the excess for Flacourtia indica March tenance serves the illustrate the villagers use during the rainy season. Grass for Zilu March reliance on these resources for their basic thatching houses is mostly collected from needs. It was apparent from the infor June to October. It is im portant to note that regarding the collection of different mation given during the interviews that collection of resources is not determined woodland products from the areas depict the importance of different woodland purely by availability of products. In the late ed on the maps. As these figures were products varied according to sex and to dry season and early rains priority is given given during interviews ratherthan record age group. Table 3 also gives an insight to preparing and planting the fields, so less ed over a period of time they are only into the division of labour between the time is available for woodland resource intended to be an approximate repre sexes. The mixed sex group stated that collection. sentation of woodland resource collec rope fibres and bamboo were most Table 6 shows how resource scarcity tion by the community. Fresh mushroom important to men, as construction work caused the villagers to substitute prefer were im portant during the rains, i.e. from is mainly done by them. Firewood, mor red species with those which were less Novemberto April. W oodland use studies tars and wooden spoons were said to be suitable, but more abundant. The ranking elsewhere in Malawi have found that more important to women since they do technique worked well. With minimal fresh "mushrooms are a very important the majority of food preparation. Fruits prompting many respondents gave detail source of nutrition during a time of the were particularly im portant to children as ed reasons for their species preferences year when on-farm food and financial they provide essential vitamins to sup for different products. resources are at their lowest" (Kapondela plement their high starch diet and are Eucalyptus was the most commonly 1995). Fresh mushrooms are also preserv freely obtained. used species for firewood and poles, al ed for sale or consumption later in the The availability of woodland products though the villagers claimed it did not year. varies according to season (Tables 4 and 5). burn as well as many of the Miombo spe-

Table 6: Species most preferred most frequently used for various purposes.

Product Species most preferred Species most frequently used F ire w o o d Pericopsis angolensis Eucalyptus species Brachystegia boehmii Julbernardia globifloraA Fruits Annona senegalensis Annona senegalensis Flacoutia indica * Flacoutia indica Parinari curatellifolia* Parinari curatellifolia* Strychnos spinosa* Strychnos spinosa * Uapaca kirkiana Uapaca kirkiana Hoe/axe handles Annona senegalensis Annona senegalensis Julbernardia globulifloraA Julbernardia globuliflora M ush ro o m s Russula schizoderma Termitomyces eurrhizus Poles Julbernardia globuliflora Eucalyptus species Pericopsis angolensis* Term inalia sericea* Diplorhynchus condylocarpon* Rope fib re Brachystegia boehmii Brachystegia boehmii Julbernardia globiflora Julbernardia globiflora Stirring sticks Faurea salignaA Cussonia spp.A Thatch grass ChisukubeA Hyparrhenia gazensis* Wooden spoons Ma ng if era indicaA Cussonia spp.A

145 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity- Bone • Community Use of W oodland Resources at Aliseni Village, Ulumba Mountain, Southern Malawi cies and was more susceptible to termite to leave their homes in search of new The two groups of women interview damage. This concurs with the results of land. This was verified by staff at the BCFP ed did not welcome the proposed trans a study in the north of the country where office. The streams which were crossed fer of ownership. The main reason they women expressed preference for Miom- during the walk were seasonal. According gave was that they felt that they did not bo species fo r fuelw ood over eucalypts, to the villagers these had been perennial have the knowledge or capacity to man and analysis of basic densities of these when the area had been under Miombo age the plantations. A number of women woods (an indicator of calorific value) woodland. The villagers believed that the stated th a t they wished the area to return confirmed that the preferred fuelwood Eucalyptus plantations had caused these to natural woodland cover, and to this species had higher densities than the streams to dry up. One stream, the source end were in favour of clear felling the en eucalypts (Lowore et al 1993). of which was in an area of Miombo tire plantation at once. woodland had remained perennial, and The group of men who had heard The impact of BCFP on the lives of this was given as evidence of the drying about the transfering of ownership of Aliseni villagers effect of the Eucalyptus. Yields from the the plantations were more enthusiastic vegetable gardens in the valley bottoms about the prospect. Two of the men who The clearing of indigenous woodlands by which used to supplement the produce participated in the transect walk made a BCFP to replant with Eucalyptus tree spe from the maize fields were decreasing. number of suggestions as to how they cies received mixed reactions from the These gardens previously had moist soils, wished to manage the plantation follow people of Aliseni. The community as a but since the establishment of the plan ing the hand over to local control. These whole felt strongly that indigenous tations these soils had become increas men explained that if the were given con woodland had always been very impor ingly dry. trol they would discontinue weeding in tant in their lives and that these natural Despite the above, a number of com the plantation. The reason they gave was resources supported human life at many munity members, particularly the men, that weeding destroyed natural regener levels. The overall message was that the did recognise that the coming of the pro ation o f indigenous tree species and impact of the BCFP on the village of Ali ject had brought some benefits to the disturbed plant communities which pro seni had been negative. The villagers community. The project had brought the vided multiple products to them. They gave a number o f reasons to back up this opportunity of employment and had the told the research team they wished to statement. Firstly, they had to pay fo r prod improved the infrastructure of the area have a dense mixed woodland with a ucts on land o f which they had once had through the construction of roads and the diversity of species, including Eucalyptus. usufruct. Secondly the Eucalyptus plant installation of a water pump. Journey They stated they would continue thinning ations did not provide as great a variety times were reduced as passing vehicles the Eucalyptus in order to provide poles of products as did the woodland which would often offertransport. Employment and firewood, and to create adequate had formerly occupied the land on which was highest at the beginning of the pro space fo r the regenerating indigenous they were planted. The Eucalyptus wood ject when a lot of labour was needed for tree species. was inferior to some of the Miombo in clearing the Miombo, preparing the land, According to the BCFP office, at the terms of susceptibility to termite damage planting, weeding, and road construc time of the study forestry staff were train and calorific value. Fruits and mush tion. The number of labourers employed ing rural communities through the estab rooms were less abundant than before to work in the Ulumba and adjacent lishment of Village Forest Committees the BCFP, hence more time was needed Ntonya plantations at the start of the pro which would manage the plantations fol to collect these products and there was ject was 1500. A t the tim e of the inter lowing the hand over. The hand over was less surplus for selling. Certain woodland views with the community at Aliseni this intended to be gradual, no date had been products were no longer available, for had been reduced to 59, none of whom set for the transferral of ownership. The example honey, game and caterpillars. came from th a t village. The decrease in intension was to start with compartments Villagers had previously made bee hives employment was due both to a reduction which were due for felling in order that from the bark of mature Brachystegia in w ork load, and to less funds being avail people could reap financial benefits trees, and hung these from trees in the able for wages (BCFP Office, pers. quickly and would therefore remain w oodland to attract bees. Since the comm.). interested. felling this activity had stopped due to the shortage o f mature woodland. Small The transfer of ownership of the game such as hyrax, which had been hunt plantations Discussion ed before the felling of the woodlands were no longer present. Trees such as Cussonia The issue of the transfer of the planta A major aim of this study was to comple arborea which host an edible caterpillar tions to local control arose during a num ment the ecological study, and to allow important in the local diet had become ber of group discussions, and was expand the interpretation of the results of that scarce since the clearing of the woodlands. ed upon during the transect walk. None study in the context of woodland resour The key information gathered during of the village members spoken to had ce use by the community. In other words, the transect walk is presented in Table 7. actually been approached by the current the woodland use study focused on asses During the walk the villagers revealed the BCFP management about the transfer of sing the plantation and control sites not establishment of the plantations and the the plantations to local control. Those in terms of biodiversity perse, but in terms resultant shortage of land for agriculture that knew about the plans had heard of "useful" biodiversity. Comparison of the had caused the people of a nearby village through word of mouth. results of the two studies illustrates that

146 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity- Bone • Community Use o f Woodland Resources at Aliseni Village, Ulumba Mountain, Southern M alawi Tab e r u n e T r e v o c d n a L s t c u d o r P pti n io t ip r c s e D story r o t is H le 7: Transect o f A lis e n i V illage a n d S u rro u n d in g Area. g in d n u rro u S d n a illage V i n e lis A f o Transect 7: le lage g illa V ti e trib o a Y t ed re tte a c S ndi dual a u id iv d In ted in d ttle e s r u o b a L s e s u o h 's 0 2 9 1

and n la d o o w ear eli in g llin fe r a le c , d n la d o o w e g illa V f r o e l d n tro u n o l c a n u m m o C nat by d te a in m o d l a r u t a N hat s s a r g h tc a th n afer fte a , 9 8 9 n a 1 g e in b n tio c te ro p e s n e d lly a in ig r O n a m d a e H , s m o o r h s u , m its fru , s le o P , s ie c e p s th w ro g re rly a e f o ity rs n e io iv t D a r e n e g e R 6 8 9 1 c kirkiana aca p a U

t ocks d n a s k c ro ith w soil s t a b m to o d c e s u s e n to s , s e p lo s n O lage g illa v osi n io s ro e i i) n e f lis o A t n e id s e r a el s ld ie F of o r e b m e m y b d e n w o ndi dual not o (n l a u id iv d In ze and n a e iz a M s n a e b evi ly s u io v re P

o make coal, a o rc a h c e d k e a rn m u b to s a w h ic h w orm, y p o n a c , m r fo d o o ith g w n tio ta n la p aldulensis cam ld o r a e y 8 s tu p ly a c u E e r u t a M er t fuis, its fru , s ite rm te ndi speci s ie c e p s s u o n e iq f d o in th w ro rg e d n u . x ro p p a f o t h ig e h aton i 1986, 6 8 9 1 in n l tio ra ta e tu g a e n v f o d e r a le C P F C B ypt ant d te n la p ts p ly a c u e Sparse s r a p S . m 5 1 ooms, e z a r g , s m o ro h s u m , s le o p , d o o w ire F n 8 8 9 1 in E.

ree speci s ie c e p s e e tr lage g illa V f o l, a n u m m o C and, d n la d o o w e s n e d f o ity rs e n iv D io t a r e n e g e r l a r tu a N r t , its fru n a m d a e H l tro n o c r e d n u eareli in g llin rfe a le c lly a in rig O hat ass s ra g h tc a th t r fte a n a g e b n tio c te ro p ci , e in ic d e m , s le o P ooms, s m o ro h s u m 6 8 9 1

l a n u m m o C n e h w n o s a e s l a n o s a e S n dry in r te a w o N m a e r t s i e, re fib ombo b m io M s a w a e r a l ia n n re e p s a w is h T r e d n u ope, e p ro , its ru F o o b m a b

very , d e d e e w rpr ousl had a h , ly s u io v 1 re p d yr lle fe , e ic p p o c aldulensis cam E. e ic p p o c s tu p ly a c u E ngl d n a d le g in s n e e b and cover e v o c d n la d o o w P F C B ombo b r m e io d n M u lly a in rig O th w ro rg e d n u little r t medi nes, s e in ic d e m , its fru e z a r g es,fr , d o o w fire , s le o P

ith w ones e n to s d a o R P F C B in e d a M d e k n a B 6 8 9 1

i dry d in r e t a w a e r a n e h w n o s a e s laton, o n , n tio ilta S l a n o s a e S l a n u m m o C s s a w is h T m a e r t s r e d n u s a w enni l ia n n re e p ombo b m io M fuits fru , e z a r G

aton tio ta e g e . V d e n o d n a b A d r a y e v a r G tly s o m were r e w o h w P F C B aca p a U evi ly s u io v re P spl by d e c la p is d coal a o rc a h c , d o o w ire F le p o e p d e s u P F C B

rees e e tr

ll e W ombo b m io M f o ity rs e iv d d r a y e v a r G l a n u m m o C es ie c e p s d e in ta in a m uneral ly n o ls a r e n fu nce c in s d e s U rewood, or fo , d o o w e ir F 's 0 2 9 1

ai d e in ra d l l e W n e d r a G abl gr n w ro g s le b ta e g e v bananas, s a n a n a b , e n a c l a n u m m o C ze and n a e iz a m r a g u S . ils o s k c la b lage. d e s u s s e L . e g illa v abl sugar a g u s , s le b ta e g e V f he th r fo e c r u o s ved as a s a d e rv e s e c n O bananas, s a n a n a b , e n a c ve ood o fo e rv e s e r t wat r te a w to e rs u a d e y t n e c e r in t e g rta o h s e z a r g

l , ils o s d o o G el s ld ie F osi , n io s ro e ni l a im in m ze own w ro g e iz a m ndi dual a u id iv d In tvat d te a ltiv u C nce bef re fo e b e c in s ze iz a M 0 8 9 1

147 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity- Bone • Community Use of W oodland Resources at Aliseni Village, Ulumba Mountain, Southern Malawi the two are not necessarily always close a result of which residents of a nearby vil One of the objectives of the BCFP was ly related. The coppice site, which had sig lage had emigrated. A m ultitude of prod to provide an example o f how a fuelw ood nificantly higher floral diversity than the ucts had either been lost, such as honey project should be managed to other control and the plantation site, actually and game, or severely reduced such as countries in southern Africa. Problems provided the community with the lowest some species o f fru it and mushrooms. This arose in the project because the needs of number of woodland products (six, com loss of nutritional products is a very the people living in the plantation area pared w ith seven fo r the plantation and serious concern in a country where mal were not given due consideration in the thirteen for the control). This example nutrition is a major contributory factor to planning stages. This "to p dow n" illustrates the lim itations o f assessing sites the exceptionally high rates of child mor approach disrupted the local economies based on biological diversity alone, par ta lity (World Bank 1995). and land tenure systems, and caused wide ticularly in areas where human resource The fuelwood plantations are not spread opposition to governm ent led pro use is an im portant consideration. the first land management system to jects (Kalipeni & Feder, in press). The Interpretation of the results present be imposed on people in this area. In Government now recognises th a t in order ed in this report must take into consider colonial times much of the Chikowi for natural resources to be managed in a ation the follow ing. Firstly, due to the area was given over to European sustainable manner community involve brief nature of the work, figures given fo r owned estates with native peoples often ment is essential. Malawi's current forest time spent collecting and for quantities reduced to the level of indentured policy duly places emphasis on participa of products collected are estimates, not labourer and forced on to marginal I and tory management of trees and forests. In measurements. These estimate rely on (Maluza 1980). line with this changing approach to forest people's memories, and as such are Through its own initiative the com management the BCFP plantations are to increasingly susceptibleto error with time munity had managed to prevent a small be handed over to the local comunities. passed since the occurrence to which they (0 . 8 ha) site from being planted, and had This study has shown however that relate. Secondly, because the collection of protected it in order that the original changes at the policy level do not neces products from the different vegetation woodland cover should return. After just sarily result in adequate progress on the types was not monitored over a period eight years this site was providing the ground. It is clear that at the time of this of time, the study concentrates on the community with a wide variety of prod study the BCFP management had not diversity, rather than the quantity of ucts, many o f which were notfound in the engaged in sufficient communication products collected from each vegetation plantation sites. This accomplishment and with the villagers with regard to the plan type. Thirdly, the village used in this study continued commitment shows not only ned handover, the ways in which it would is one of many within the plantation area, good leadership and co-operation within affect the villagers, and the mechanisms and was not chosen at random. The rea the community, but also an under by which they could become involved. son for its selection was the existence of standing of the ecology of the indigenous The implications of this short comming the protected natural woodland regener woodland. are th a t some villages could become mar ation above the Village Headman's Management of an exotic plantation ginalised, potentialy leading to opposi house (the site which served as the is very different to encouraging natural tion to the new management arrange unplanted control in the species compo regeneration however, and it was appar ment and to conflicts between villages. sition study). The existence of this site and ent from the study that this community its continued protection in the face of did not have adequate knowledge of the Conclusion resource scarcity is testimony to leader eucalypts to manage the plantation. This ship and co-operation within the com was evidenced by the attitude of the two This study has shown th a t areas of natur munity. Such co-operation may not exist women's groups, and by some o f the sug al regeneration provided the communi to the same degree in the surrounding vil gestions made by two of the men invol ty with a greater diversity of products lages. Finally, concerning questions about ved in the transect walk. Educating mem than did the plantations. The critical the impact of the project, the comparison bers of the community about the re importance of woodland products in the most likely to be made by those asked is quirements of the eucalypts and the reasons lives of the Aliseni villagers was eviden that of the situation before the planta forthe management practices which have ced by their knowledge of the attributes tions were established with the present been used by the BCFP w ill be an essen and uses o f different species, their esti situation. This is misleading as it does not tial pre-requisite to a successful hand over. mates of time spent collecting woodland take into consideration what the situa Given that a greater number of products resources and by the distances travelled tion is likely to have been had Wood Ener are obtained from the natural woodland and money exchanged in o rderto buy and gy and BCFP not come to the area. areas than from the plantations it is like sell woodland products. Im portant points The above stated, the recurring mes ly that the villagers will wish some of the concerning the organisation and leader sage from the villagers of Aliseni was that plantation stands to be converted to na ship of the village, and the communica the Wood Energy and Blantyre City Fuel- tive woodland cover. Silvicultural trials tion, or lack thereof, between the present wood Projects had been responsible for could be developed to determine the BCFP management and the villagers have the removal of resources which had been most effective way of achieving this; ei been raised. It is apparent that needs of im portant in their daily lives, and th a t ther clear felling followed by protection, those living in the area where the euca their overall impact had been negative. or gradual thinning of the planted trees lypts were planted were not given due The amount of land available to them for allowing the indigenous vegetation to consideration at the time of the Wood cultivation had been severely reduced, as take over. Energy Project and BCFP planning. This

148 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Bone • Community Use of Woodland Resources at Aliseni Village, Ulumba Mountain, Southern Malawi report has highlighted some of the result lages close to Chimaliro Forest Re Acknowledgements ant problems of resource scarcity in the serve. FRIM Report No. 93008. Forestry area, however further work is needed to Research Institute of Malawi, Zomba, The authors wish to thank the following assess the needs of all the villages located Malawi. people w ho assisted them during the w ithin the plantations. Once this has been Maluza G.L.P. 1980. Towards a history of course of the study: First and foremost the completed the community should be assis Thangata in Chief Chikowi's area from people of Aliseni village, particularly the ted in the production of a management the 1880's to 1915. The History Semi Village Headman, for their co-operation, plan designed to cater fo r those needs. nar 1980/81 - Paper No.14. Depart enthusiasm and assistance ; Ms H.C. Coote The villagers do not currently have the ment of History. Chancellor College. for providing training to the field crew ; knowledge required to manage then University of Malawi. P.O. Box 280 Mr M. Lawrence, Mr K. Ndhlazi, Ms G. plantations. This needs to be resolved Zomba Malawi Kamanga, and Mr H. Banda for their part prior to the hand over. It is to be hoped Ministry of Natural Resources 1995. An in the field work; Mr M Stewart and Mr P. that the transfer of ownership and man Issues Paper for the National Forestry Kamoyo for the transportation of the agement of the plantations can be done in Action Plan o f Malawi, Internal fieldwork team; the District Forest Officer such a way as facilitate their sustainable Report, Forestry Planning Section, for Zomba, Mr J. M. Mwalweni, the BCFP and profitable management by the local Forestry Departm ent HQ, Lilongwe, Plantations manager in Blantyre Mr R. community. Malawi. Mumba, M r R.C.B. Luhanga and his staff Ministry of Natural Resources 1996. Pro at BCFP office in Zomba for providing References: posed Malawi Forestry Policy, Ministry information and for granting permission of Natural Resources, Lilongwe, Malawi. to work in the area. This research was fund BCFP, 1988. Blantyre City Fuelwood Pro Mitra and Sheldon 1993 Use o f exotic tree ed under project R6369 in the Forestry ject : It's achievements since inception. plantations by Bornean lowland Research Programme com ponent o f the In: Report of the workshop on urban forest birds. The Auk 110: 529-540 United Kingdom's Overseas Development fuelwood development in the Pande, P.K., Bisht, A.P.S. and Sharma S.C. Administration's Renewable Natural SADDCC Region with particular refer 1988 Comparative vegetation analysis Resources Programme. However, Over ence to the Blantyre City Fuelwood fo r some plantation ecosystems. Indi seas Development Administration can Project, Held in Blantyre, Malawi 27 an Forester 114: 379-389. accept no responsibility for any informa June-1 July. Prepared by the Govern ParrottaJ., 1993 Secondary forest regen tion provided or views expressed. ment of the Republic of Malawi. eration on degraded tropical lands: BCFP, 1995. Blantyre City Fuelwood Pro The role of plantations as "foster eco Appendix one - General ject Rainfall gauge readings 1991 - systems". In Lieth H. & Lohmann M. and Specific Hypotheses; 1995 (unpublished) District Forest (eds) Restoration o f Tropical Ecosys from Parrotta & Jones (1994) Office. Box 398. Zomba, Malawi. tems. 63 -73. Kluwer Academic Bone R., Lawrence M., and Magombo, Z. Publishers. The Netherlands. 1. Establishment of tree plantations 1997 - The effect o f a Eucalyptus Parrotta J., 1995a Influence o f overstorey on degraded lands can enhance biodi camaldulensis (Dehn) plantation on composition on understorey colonisa versity of indigenous and naturalised native woodland recovery on Ulumba tion by native species in plantations plant communities, relative to comparab Mountain, Southern Malawi. Forest on a degraded tropical site. Journal of ly degraded, unplanted but protected Ecology and Management 99, 83-99 Vegetation Science 6 : 627-636 sites; Department of Surveys, 1983. National Parrotta J., 1995b The Catalytic Effect of 1.1 The rate of colonisation by native Atlas of Malawi. Government Print, Tree Planting on the Rehabilitation of (or naturalised) forest flora will be great Zomba, Malawi. 79pp Native Forest Biodiversity on Degrad er within plantations than in adjacent Kalipeni E, and Feder D. (in press) Envi ed Tropical Lands: An Exploratory (but protected) sites with a similar pre ronmental change in the Blantyre City Analysis; Methodologies, Field Proto plantation history, particularly on more Fuelwood Project area in Malawi. A cols and Schedule. Document prepared severely degraded sites. political ecology perspective. Submit for collaborating scientists, US Depart 1.2 The increase in abundance and ted fo r publication to: Politics and Life ment of Agriculture and Forest Service. diversity of woody and herbaceous plant Sciences, April 1998. Sambo E. 1995 Community use of natural species w ith in plantations accelerates Kapondela M. 1995. Edible fruits and woodlands in the Boni area. In Lowo with the onset of plantation canopy clo mushrooms of Boni area. In Manage re. J, Abbot P. and Khofi C. (eds) Pro sure. ment of Miombo by local communi ceedings of a Workshop for technical 2. Recolonisation by indigenous plant ties: Proceedings of a workshop for forestry staff. Lisasadzi residential species w ith in the forest plantations is technical forestry staff. Lisasadzi Resi training centre, Kasungu, Malawi. inversely related to management intensi dential Training Centre, Kasungu 24th January 24-26 January 1995 ty and strongly influenced by plantation -26th January 1995 pp50-54 World Bank 1994 Forestry Policy Review, species selection; Lowore, J.D., Coote, H.C., Abbot, P.G., World Bank, Lilongwe, Malawi. 2.1 The abundance and diversity of Chapola, G.B. and Malembo, L.N. World Bank 1995 Malawi. Human resour native forest species w ith in plantations is 1993. Community use and manage ces and poverty. Profile and priorities inversely related to the frequency and ment of indigenous trees and wood for action. World Bank, Lilongwe, intensity of understorey disturbances lands in Malawi: The case o f four vil Malawi. resulting from activities such as weed con

149 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999 trol and other silvicultural operations, 3.2 The abundance and diversity o f 4.2 Native secondary forests are more grazing, fire, fuelwood collection and / or plant species colonising plantation significant than primary forests as sources litter removal. understories are closely related to the o f animal and wind dispersed seeds 2.2 Diversity and abundance of woody abundance and diversity of bird and during the early stages of plantation and herbaceous species is inversely relat mammal seed dispersal agents visiting or understorey colonisation, while primary ed to ground cover by grasses w ithin residing in the plantations. (or late secondary) forests are more plantations 3.3 Due to their increased structural im portant fo r increased species richness 2.3 The selection o f plantation species complexity, mixed species plantations w ill at later stages of development. affects the abundance and diversity of harbour more diverse array of birds and 4.3 The diversity and abundance of plant colonisers in their understories mammals than single-species stands. native and naturalised species colonisation through their differential influence on 4. Historical and current land-usein the plantations and on unplanted, pro factors such as: understorey light condi practices, proximity to natural forest tected (control) sites w ill be positively cor tions and microclimate, soil fertility stands, and degree of site degradation related with soil fertility improvement (litter quality), litter w ill strongly influence the rate of species accumulation (litter depth), and provision colonisation and biodiversity within plan Author's address: o f habitat fo r seed dispersing w ildlife. tation systems. 3. Suitably designed and managed 4.1 The abundance and diversity ofRachel Bone tree plantations can provide habitat for native (or naturalised) forest species and Natural Resources International w ild life which are agents fo r seed mycorrhizal fungal spores colonising 315 Blackness Rd dispersal; plantation understories are directly relat GB-Dundee DD2 1SH, Scotland UK 3.1 Bird and mammal species that areed to their proximity to native forest e-mail: [email protected] the agents fo r seed dispersal are more stands or rem nant patches of native vege abundant in the plantations than in sur tation (i.e., seed sources). rounding deforested landscapes.

from those of other types of water bodies. Springs as Unique Components of Studies of the ecology and taxonomic structure of spring ecosystems have a long Natural and Social Environment tra d itio n in many European states, the USA and Canada (Thorup, Llindegaard, A. Golubev, N. Khmeleva, M. Moroz & Yu. Mukhin 1977; Biesiadka, 1979; Cowie, W interbourn, 1979; Kownacki, 1985; Braun, 1986; Glazier, Gooch, 1987; Biesiadka et Summary recreation and tourism. Unfortunately, al., 1990; Roughley, Larson, 1991; Kordy- springs are the most vulnerable type of las, 1994, etc.). In Belarus, similar special Springs as a specific type of water bodies freshwater bodies. During the last de studies have been carried out only in have great natural, scientific and social cades many Belarussian springs were recent years (Khmeleva et al., 1994; importance. Their faunistic complexes damaged as a result of wide-scale draining Moroz, Khmeleva, 1996; Moroz, 1996; represent an important component of activities, tree felling and intensive devel Nesterowich, 1996). Despite this short species diversity of Belarussian freshwa- opment of industry and agriculture. observation period of the studies, exten terfauna. Belarussianspringsare habitats Development o f special legislation and sive inform ation is obtained on the actual for many rare and stenobiontic (mainly practical measures for spring protection state o f springs, the species diversity of coldwater) species, refugia fo r relicts of in Belarus is extremely important. their faunistic complexes as a part of Be previous geological epochs and links or larussian freshwater fauna, their forma "biocorridors" between modern North Introduction tion and trends in their changes under Scandinavian and South European moun anthropogenic pressure. Special atten tain faunas. Springs are widely used as Springs or points of groundwater out tion was paid to the importance of springs local sources o f drinking w ater in many crops represent unique types of freshwa in the social and spiritual life of people Belarussian villages and small towns and ter bodies due to their relative constant and to the development of a concept for to a less extend as spas. From ancient low temperature regime. As a rule water the conservation of springs in anthropo- times springs were regarded as sacred pla temperature in winter in the majority of genically transformed landscapes. ces in Belarus. At present the religious springs ranges from -1 °C to 6 °C and in rites and folk feasts are celebrated at the summer from 6 °C to 12 °C. Therefore, Materials and methods springs. Some churches and chapels erec springs unlike the other freshwater ted near the springs have significant bodies in Belarus remain unfrozen More than 100 springs located in all main historical and architectural value. Springs throughout the winter. These feature geographical regions of Belarus were stu as unique natural objects increase the results in special characteristics in the spe died between 1995 and 1998. All three aesthetic value of the natural environ cies composition and tropic structure of main types of springs (rheocrene, limno- m ent and represent popular places fo r spring ecosystems which are different crene, helocrene) and their transitional

150 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Golubev • Springs as Unique Components of Natural and Social Environment forms were investigated. Rheocrenes are Results very scanty in the overwhelming majori located usually at hill basesorontheirslo- ty of springs. In the springs the main food pes. Typically, they represent one or sever The Republic of Belarus is located in the source for water invertebrates is allochto- al relative large ground water outcrops center of Europe in the western part of nic organic matter, i.e. decaying fallen which form rheocrene springs. Their bot the East European Plain in the upstream leaves, detritus, etc. tom is covered with sand and pebbles. In basins o f the Baltic (Niamey, Daugava, These peculiarities determ ine the spe general, limnocrenes are similar to rheo Western Bug, Lovat) and Black Seas (Dnie cies composition of the fauna of spring crenes but differ by the fact that the out per, Pripjat). The mean altitude of Belarus ecosystems which are often unique. crops of underground waters are located is 159 m above sea level with a maximum Planktonic filtrators (Cladocera, Rotato in small baths or hollows on a ground sur at 345 m (Geography of Byelorussia, 1977). ria) are almost absent there. The over face. The sandy bottom in the bath can The contemporary landscape of the whelming majority of aquatic inverte be covered with fine-grained detritus country was largely shaped by periodical brates in springs are detritophages (Trich- and/or decaying leaves. Helocrenes are glaciations and meltuner streams. In the optera, Díptera and Plecoptera larvae, characterized by numerous very small central and northern parts of Belarus the Isopoda, Amphipoda), carnivorous (Cole groundwater outcrops on a relatively flat landscape is a hilly plain crossed by river óptera, Hemiptera) and ectoparasitic surface, form ing swampy areas (Helocre- valleys. The watershed Belarussian ridge (Hydrcarina) species. ne fields) with fine-grained detritus. One formed by several separate uplands crosses Species diversity of the springs ecosys or several small brooks usually cross or the entire country from the west to the tems is an essential part of species diversity border a helocrene field. The springs north-east. The southern part of the coun of freshwater ecosystems in Belarus. More under study were located within various try is formed by the vast Polessie Lowland. than 2 0 0 species of aquatic invertebrates are types of natural environment: beside Springs are rather numerous in Bela found in Belarussian springs (Table 2) and others in coniferous, broadleaf and mixed rus. Their overwhelming majority is found this number is far from being final. forests, open places, natural reserves and on the Belarussian ridge and Belarussian In most springs, insects and th e ir lar agricultural lands, settlements. Both, lakeland inthe northern part of the coun vae are dominant representing about springs in natural state in undisturbed try. In the area o f Polessie Lowland w ith 75% of the species composition and more areas and those transformed to different floodplain mire landscapes which are lar than 90% of the total biomass of the extents by human activities were studied. gely transformed into crop lands, springs spring invertebrate community. The Samples of spring fauna were collect are very rare. The importance of springs dominance of insects can be explained by ed by using standard catching tools, in the natural environm ent and social life the fact that they have a flying imago namely a circular hand net 2 0 cm in dia is summarized briefly in Table 1. stage in their life cycle. Therefore they are meter and/or a 0.025 m2 Ekman-Berge able to populate the springs from other bottom sampler. The chemical composi Springs as habitats of freshwater types of neighboring water bodies. In tion of spring water (contents of nitrates, organisms some springs, especially in contaminated nitrites, sulfates and heavy metals) was ones and those located in open areas, determined for two groups of springs Spring ecosystems have a specific biotic freshwater clams Euglesa personata or located in settlements and in undisturbed structure. Autotrophic organisms (plank isopod crustacean Asellus aquaticus may forests. tonic or benthotic algae) are absent or be dominant.

Tab. 1: The im portance o f springs in natural and social environm ent.

Natural significance Social significance Scientific significance 1. Outcrop points of groundwater; 1. Local sources o f clear drinking water 1. Unique natural objects, essential sources o f supplement o f surface water for the rural population components of World and Nation Nature bodies; maintenance of their purity heritage 2. Increasing of biotopic diversity in 2. Spas, commercial production of clear 2. Indicator objects of monitoring natural landscapes, creating of ecotones drinking and mineral water of state and trends of transformation of natural environment 3. Moistening of adjacent vicinity, 3. Local centers o f spiritual life: sacred 3. Indicators of groundwater state in favoring growth of moisture-loving places, sites o f religious rites and folk adjoining regions vegetation feasts, sources o f "sacred w ater" 4. Habitats fo r many species o f aquatic 4. Places of interest, tourism and 4. Test grounds fo r ecological invertebrates: excursion objects, recreation sites investigations: a. Refugees for relicts of previous a. Structure and functioning of spring geological epochs ecosystems b. Biocorridors between freshwater b. Genesis, endemism and zoogeography faunas of distinct zoogeographical regions of spring fauna c. Key habitats for rare and redlisted c. Adaptations of hydrobionts living at species, including "regional crenobionts" constant low temperatures 5. W atering places fo r w ild mammals, 5. Watering places for domestic cattle 5. Objects for investigations of especially in winter importance of springs in the spiritual life of people

151 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity- Golubev ■ Springs as Unique Components of Natural and Social Environment

The other taxonomic groups in spring upstreams of temporary brooks and is 1980). Their ancestors inhabited Europe fauna are Hydracarina, Crustacea, Mol- unknown in the forest belt (Mateleshko, an water bodies at the boundary of the lusca, Turbellaria, Nematoda, Oligochaeta 1977). On the other hand, in northern of Permian and Trias periods (about and Hirudinea. Europe it is found in plain Karelian and 230,000,000 years ago) before the split Forests are very im portant in preserv Scandinavian lakes (Gerd, 1965). The ting of the Laurasian supercontinental ing a stable environment and resources of other species A. guttatus is distributed from massive. It mainly prefers the ground groundwater stock. Springs located in Spain to West Siberia and India. In Poland waters, but can occur in springs, deep undisturbed natural forests areas are and Ukraine it inhabits mountain brooks, wells and meliorative channels. characterized by stable state, unpolluted rarely occurring in oligotrophic mountain In Europe all species o f the Synurella water and extremely rich fauna. The lakes but is unknown in the lowland. In genus do not occur further north than m ajority of species living there are European Russia A . g u t t a t u s is recorded in 55°. Probably, Belarus lies at the n o rth eurythermic and eurybiontic ones. Apart cold plain Karelian lakes (Gerd, 1965). ern limit of the distribution area of S. from springs they inhabit other types of Three species of water beetles L i m n e - a m b u l a n s . Unlike other benthic crusta w ater bodies, fo r example rivers, brooks, bius aluta, Hydroporus nigrita and H. ceans, this species endured the Pleisto lakes and ponds. For example, ubiquitous i n c o g n i t u s are rare and local in Belarus. cene glaciations in Belarus due to migra ostracod H eterocypris incongres occurs in Proceeding from their distribution in tion into ground waters that were lar water bodies of different types, from Europe, they approach its southern bor gely protected from the substantial cli warm West African temporary pools to der of occurrence just in Belarus (Moroz, matic variations. Thus, Belarus springs cold Eurasian springs and brooks. Stone- 1993; 1995; Zakharenko, Moroz, 1988). appear to be a refugia for relicts of pre fly Nem urella pictettii is a common spe Larvae of the following Trichoptera vious geological epochs and a link (or cies in various types o f European water species, such as Crunoecia irrogata, Dru- "biocorridor") between the current cold- bodies. Freshwater clam Euglesa perso- sus annulatus, Potam ophilax nigricornis water faunas of North Scandinavia and n a t a can populate both springs and lakes and Parachionia picicornis occurring in Central and South European mountain (Khmeleva et al., 1994). Belarus live exclusively in springs. faunas. None of the spring inhabitants is Crustaceans Asellus aquaticus, Gam- Among Turbellaria species it is neces included in the Red-Data Book of Bela m arus lacustris and annelid Tubifex tubi- sary to mention Crenobia alpina which rus (1993). Nevertheless, some of them f e x are able to exist in various types of was recorded in Belarus fo r the first time. can be considered as potential red-listed w ater bodies. They can survive even in Its nearest location to Belarus is in cold species, in particularthe group o f "re g io conditions of significant anthropogenic alpine brooks in Central Europe. nal crenobionts". contamination. "Regional crenobionts" are not typi Real crenobiont species or species cal fo r the fauna of Belarus as a country Social and scientific importance of which live exclusively in springs are not located in the temperate zone of the East springs found in Belarus. However, some species European plain. The majority of these occurring over its area can survive only in species are stenobionts. They prefer clear Springs are of large social importance. At springs. They can be defined convention and cold water bodies in arctic or moun present, anthropogeniccontamination of ally as "regional crenobionts" (Cza- tain regions. Low temperatures in springs surface water in Belarus is a serious eco chorowski, 1991; Czachorowski, Nestero- allow them to survive in atypical climatic logical and social problem. In rural areas wich, 1992). As a rule, they are species and landscape conditions. The ways of surface and groundwaters are being which prefer water bodies with cold and penetration of "regional crenobionts" to intensively polluted due to the absence of clean water. Their majority are water the modern Belarus fauna are not com a waste disposal systems in settlements, mites Panisus m ichaeli, Zschokkea oblon- pletely clear. Such species as C. a l p i n a can stock and poultry farms, by mineral ferti ga, Thyas rivalis, Sperchon thienem m ani, evidently be considered as glacial relict lizers, herbicides, and so on. Wells are the 5. resupinus, Lebertia schernow ski, L. cre- which remained intheBelarusarea since the most important sources of drinking water nophila, L. holsatica, L. sefvei, L. stigm a- end of the last phase of the glacial period. for a large proportion of the rural popu t i f e r a and Hygro bates norvegicus. Occurrence of water beetles O. s a n lation in Belarus. The content of pol Among these species, the most inter m a r k i i and A. guttatus in Belarus can be lutants (nitrites, nitrates, heavy metals, esting are L. tschernowski which formerly explained both by preservation there etc.) in water of the majority of wells is 3 was recorded in Karelian lakes only in since the last glaciation and by their grad to 5 times higher than the Maximum Per depths of 8-10 m and coldwater H. ual m igration to the Belarus area from missible Concentration stated by Belarus norvegicus. other regions through the chain of sian Government for drinking and tap Two species o f w ater beetles O r e o - springs or cold water brooks. The same water. dytes sanm arkii and Agabus guttatus explanation is valid for the presence of Springs are characterized by extreme were not found in Belarus anywhere o u t the cold water mites L. tschernow ski and ly clear water. They are widely used as side springs (Moroz, 1996; Moroz, Khme H. norvegicus. Their larvae can parasite on local sources o f drinking water in many leva, 1996). Both o f them are considered many flying aquatic beetles and bugs. Belarussian villages and small towns. No as boremontane with a wide geographi Among the other spring inhabitants essential differences in the chemical com cal distribution. In Central Europe O. s a n - in Belarus, one of the most interesting is position of springs located in undisturbed m a r k i i lives mainly in alpine regions in the amphipod crustaceans S y n u r e l l a forest regions and in settlements are clean and cold mountain streams. In the a m b u l a n s , a unique ancient freshwater revealed (Fig. 1). Springs are original local Ukrainian Carpathians it inhabits the species o f North American origin (Dedyu, centers of the spiritual life of people. In WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Golubev • Springs as Unique Components of Natural and Social Environment

Table 2: Taxonomic composition o f fauna in Belarussian springs.

Ta x a Number of Dominant and indicator species species Plathelminthes Turbellaria 5 C renobia alpina, Polycelis tenius Annelida Oliqochaeta 2 Nais elinqius, Tubifex tu b ife x* Hirudinea 2 Erobdella octoculata, H elobdella stagnalis Arachnida Hydracarina 16 Hyqrobates norveqicus Crustacea Cladocera 2 Polyphem us pediculus, Scapholeberis m urconata Copepoda 3 M acrocyclops fuscus, A canthocyclops viridis, A. vernalis Ostracoda 3 Heterocypris inconqruens, llyidrom us olivaeus, H erpetocypris reptans Isopoda 1 Asellus aquaticus* Amphipoda 3 G am m arus lacustris*, Synurella am bulans Insecta Ephemeroptera 4 Baetis rhodani, C entroptilum luteolum , Cloeon dipterum , Heptagenia fuscogrisea Plecoptera 1 0 N em urelia p icte ttii**, Leuctra fusca, L. hippopus Odonata 3 Coenaqrion hastulatum Trichoptera 18 Crunoecia irrogata**, Drusus annulatus** Coleóptera 58 H ydroporus nigrita, H. striola, Acanacea lutescens, O chtebius m inim us, Helodes pseudom inuta**, Oreodytes sanm arkii**, Agabus guttatus**, A. m elanarius** Heteroptera 15 Hesperocorixa sahlberqi, Nepa cinerea, N otonecta glauca, Velia caprai, G erris lacustris Díptera 50 M acropelopia notata., M icrospectra fusca, M . junci., R heocricotopus atripes, Zavrelia m elanura Mollusca Bivalvia 3 Euqlesa eichw aldi**, E. personata Gastropoda 11 Lym naea turricula, Anisus lavéis** Total 209

* - polysaprobic species (indicators o f w ater contam ination). * * - oligosaprobic species (indicators o f w a ter purity).

Belarus they were regarded as sacred pla Some of them can be recommended fo r the bottom, contamination and deteriora ces from ancient times. Until now reli inclusion in the List o f W orld Nature tion of water quality. gious rites and folk feasts are celebrated Heritage. In such springs species diversity o f fau- at the springs. Among the feasts, in Bela Springs are unique areas fo r research. nistic complexes decreases to a great rus the most popular is the Ivan Kupala They can provide unique information on extent. At first, "regional crenobionts" (John the Baptiser) Day. It is a folk feast freshwater ecology, zoogeography, and other species preferring cold and of pagan origin which is celebrated at the fauna formation and adaptive mecha clean water disappear. Only ubiquistic period o f summer solstice. nisms of hydrobionts fo r survival at con and eurybiontic species are able to survive Many churches, chapels and other stant low temperatures. there. structures and monuments were erected The development of a concept for near springs. Some of them have signifi General principles of conservation spring conservation in view of increasing cant historical and cultural vaiue. Local of springs in Belarus human pressure is urgent. Special regula people consider spring water holy and tion of spring protection is missing in Be wholesome fo r many diseases. In Belarus All data presented above convincingly larus. Spring classified as nature m onu medical usage of spring water started in indicates the importance of springs as ments are protected by the National Law the 19th century. At the end of the 19th components of the natural and social on Specially Protected Natural Areas and century, there were several water resorts environment. Unfortunately, springs are Objects (adopted in 1994). U nfortunate and spas well known not only in Belarus the most vulnerable type of freshwater ly, it is rather general and does not take but in other European countries. bodies. In Belarus many of them were into account some specific traits of springs Unfortunately, the majority of them were destroyed as a result of large-scale drain as water bodies. For example, measures destroyed during the revolution and age, felling, intensive development of for protection of the natural environment wars. Springs increase the aesthetic value industry and agriculture. of springs and groundwaters are develop of their natural environment and are In settlements many springs were ed insufficiently, prohibition of changes popular places fo r recreation. They can destroyed as a result of non-professional of the natural state of springs, especially be used for the purposes of school measures of better organization. In most sites of groundwater outcrops is absent, educational excursions and ecological cases such "measures" consisted in setting legislative aspects of spring management tourism. In Belarus many of the springs, steel barrels or concrete rings at the sites for scientific, recreational and commer especially those with a high discharge of groundwater crops. It inevitably led to cial purposes are not sufficiently devel are unique natural objects corresponding an increase of water am ount in the spring, oped. Therefore, this law does not gua to the juridical status of a nature monu decrease in w ater exchange rates, in rantee complete safety of the natural ment of national or local importance. crease of water tem perature, silting of state and stable existence even of spring-

153 WS Interrelationship of Cultural and Biological Diversity - Golubev • Springs as Unique Components of Natural and Social Environment

NICKEL, mgIL CADMIUM, mg/L LEAD, mg/L

Fig 1. Concentration of several substances in the water of several springs in Belarus. 1-2 - springs in settlements, 3-7 - undisturbed springs in forests. MPC - M axim um Permissible Concentration stated in Belarus for drinking and tap water. nature monuments. "Ordinary" springs account their characteristic features. Braun A., 1986. Die Käferarten des which are not classified as nature monu Springs are very small and discrete water Honauer "Blaulochs". M itt. Bad. Lan ments are not protected by this law at all. bodies but aquifers under them occupy a desverein Naturkunde und Natur Current legislation on water protection in much greater area. Therefore, the state schutz, 1 : 115-126. Belarus (Water Code of the former USSR) and the stable existence of springs Cowie B., W interbourn,M.J., 1979. Biota has become largely obsolete and the depend on the state of the groundwater of a subalpine springbrook in the springs and stream brooks are not even and the adjacent surface areas, primarily Southern Alps. N. Zealand J. Mar. mentioned in it. the vegetation cover has great impor Fresh. Res., 13: 295-301. In Scandinavian states (Sweden, Fin tance for water protection. In order to Dedyu I.I., 1986. Amphipods o f Fresh and land) the strategy of spring protection prevent deterioration or destruction of Salt Waters of the South-West part of especially in managed forests is based on springs, special protective measures the USSR. Shtiintsa Publ. Kishinev, 224 the concept of "Key Habitats" (Hanninen should be extended not only to springs as pp. (In Russian). et al., 1996; Key Habitats in Woodlands, such but to their adjoining natural envi Geography o f Byelorussia, 1977 (Demen 1997). Key habitats are defined as "such ronment. tiev, V.A., ed). Vysheishaya Shkola. areas where endangered species are Protective and water-protective Minsk, 315 pp. (In Russian). found or can be expected to be found". zones should be installed around sites of Gerd S.V., 1965. W ater beetles (Coleóp In these countries all undisturbed springs groundwater outcrops and along the tera) o f Karelian Lakes. In: Fauna of are considered as key habitats. A special streams being produced by them. The Karelian Lakes (eds. O.N. Gordeev et regime of key habitats as protective areas w idth o f both zones and the special re al.). Moscow-Leningrad, Nauka Publ,. is guaranteed by the Swedish and Finnish gime of their use for industrial, agricultural pp. 221-229. (In Russian). Forestry Acts. and recreational purposes should be Hänninen E., Kostamo J., Meriluoto M., In Belarus the springs are specific habi ensured (Table 3). Soininen T., 1996. Im portant forest tats for many rare and potentially red- We presented these suggestions to habitats in Finland. Descriptive cards. listed species of freshwater invertebrates. the National Assembly (Parliament) of the Helsinki, F.G. Lönnberg, 28 pp. Some of them ("regional crenobionts") Republic of Belarus for preparation of a Key Habitats in Woodland., 1997. J.Karls- are only able to survive in Belarus in new edition o f the National W ater Code. son, M.Noren, J.Wester (eds.). Nation springs. Therefore, in Belarus all undam al Board o f Forestry. Jönköping, Swe aged springs are typical key habitats and References: den, 24 p. should be protected by legislation. Khmeleva N., Nesterovich A., Czachorow- On the basis o f our investigations, we Biesiadka E., 1979. Ogolna charakterystyka ski S., 1994. The macroinvertebrate elaborated a general concept for spring faunistyczna srodowisk wodnych Pienin. fauna of some Byelorussian, Karelian, conversation in Belarus, taking into Fragmenta faunistica, 24: 283-293. and Altaian springs and its relation

154 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

Table 3: General principles o f spring protection outside settlem ents.

Zone Limits Prohibitions Groundwater Outer borders of a spring bath or a helocrene field Destruction and any change in the natural state of outcrops the springs, especially on sites of groundwater outcorps. Contamination by trash Protective zone Around the outer border of a spring bath or a Tree cutting, including any sanitary and care cutting of springs and helocten field and along of both banks of a spring near springs spring streams stream: Construction of any capital building and settlements 30-50 m - for nature monuments of national o f summer houses importance; Drainage and melioration work 10-30 m - for nature monuments of local importance Road building and other undisturbed springs (key habitats) Setting up tourist camps and tents Fire-making Watering and grazing of cattle Water-protective Around the outer border of a spring bath or a Clear-cut of forests zones of springs helocten field and along of both banks of a spring Use of minimal fertilizers, herbicides and insecticides and spring stream: Location of industrial enterprises, cattlebreeding streams 300-500 m - for nature monuments of national farms, petrol stations, dumps, etc. importance; Use of heavy motor-car and tractor transport 100-300 m - for nature monuments of local Ploughing the area importance and other undisturbed springs (key Any damage and contamination of soil, surface and habitas) ground water

with certain factors. Acta Hydrobiol., Moroz M.D., 1995. W ater beetles (Ade- Thorup J., Llindegaard C, 1977. Studies 36: 75-90. phaga) of the Berezinsky Biosphere on Danish springs. Folia Limnol., 17:7- Kownacki A., 1985. Spring benthic macro Reserve. Latissimus, 5: 3 - 4. 15. invertebrate communities of selected Moroz M.D, 1996. Records o f m ountain Zakharenko V.B., Moroz M.D., 1988. Data streams in the High Caucasus (Azer Hydradephaga (Coleóptera) in on water beetles (Coleóptera: Halipli- baijan SSR). Hydrobiologia, 123: 124- springs o f Belarus. Oecologia M onta dae, Dytiscidae, Gyrinidae) fauna of 135. na, 5: 53-54. Byelorussia. Rev. Entomol. (Lening KordylasA., 1994. An investigation of the Moroz M.D., Khmeleva N.N., 1996. W ater rad), 67: 282 - 290. (In Russian). w ater beetles of Polish springs. Latis- beetles (Insecta, Coleóptera) from the simus, 4: 9-11. springs o f Belarus. Oecologia M onta Author's address: Mateleshko M.F., 1977.Water beetles and na, 5: 55-57. their distributions in the water-bodies Nesterovich A., 1996. Studies o f the fauna Dr. Alexander Golubev, of Transcarpathian region. Vestnik of Belarussian springs. Crunoecia, 5: Institute of Zoology Zoologii, 3: 67-73. (In Russian). 79-85. Akademycheskaya 27, 220072 Minsk, Moroz M.D., 1993. Ecological and zoo- Red Data Book o f the Republic of Belarus, Belarus geographical characteristic of the 1993. Belarussian Encyclopedia Publ., Fax: +17-284-1036 water beetles (Coleóptera, Adepha- Minsk, 560 pp. (In Belarussian). e-mail: [email protected] ga) in the land reclamation canals of Roughley R.E., Larson D.J., 1991. Aquatic Belarus. Rev. Entomol. (Leningrad), Coleóptera o f springs in Canada. 72: 321-325. (In Russian). Mem. ent. Soc. Can., 155: 125-140.

Workshop: Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity

ent peoples have felt these losses most The Diverse Tools and Measures directly. The causes fo r forest loss, too, are well Needed to Conserve, Rehabilitate, and known. Although they vary from place to place, it is clear that logging, road-build Sustainably Use Forest Biodiversity ing, oil exploration and mining are usually the first assaults on the forest, fo l Charles Victor Barber lowed by clearing for small-scale and industrial agriculture and settlement. Abstract costs to humanity of the resulting loss of Over the past year, unusually dry condi forest biodiversity are increasingly well tions in Indonesia, Brazil, Mexico, and The loss of forest across the planet is understood. In many countries, indige Central America have led to massive fires, increasingly well documented, and the nous and other traditional forest-depend the intensity and scope of which is a direct

155 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

result o f the processes o f forest degrada lenge calls fo r a broader concept o f biodi Finally, we must focus on the politics of tion noted above. versity conservation that encompasses putting good ideas into place. Countless Parks and protected areas are an protecting forests, using them sustainab solutions to the deforestation problem important strategy for conserving what is ly, better understanding their make-up have been proposed, but few are le ft o f the world's natural forest ecosys and functions, and sharing the benefits of implemented due to political obstacles. tems, but they are insufficient in them their use more equitably within and We must, in the final analysis, all become selves. Protected areas w ill never be large among nations as mandated by the Con politicians as well as foresters, scientists, enough to encompass the biodiversity vention on Biological Diversity. and conservationists, if we are to make a that needs to be conserved and provide This broader definition of biodiversi difference. for wildlife corridors and the probability ty conservation requires in turn that we of global environmental changes. And utilize a broader range of tools and meas Author's address: protected areas cannot supply all of the ures. These must include not only tech goods and services th a t people require nical solutions (like "low impact log Charles Victor Barber from forests. ging") but also new field-management Biological Resources Program Needed is a "bioregional approach" approaches (like "integrated conserva W orld Resources Institute in which biodiversity conservation also tion and development projects" and com 14 Cabbage Street becomes a guiding principle for other munity forestry) and a range of policy and Valle Verde 5 Pasig, Metro Manila, forest land uses principally timber pro incentive measures (such as timber certi Philippines duction in natural forests and timber fication, recognition of indigenous land e-mail: [email protected] plantations and is applied to the resto tenure, and subsidies for conservation- ration o f degraded forest areas. This chal friendly land- and forest-use practices.

nating the distribution of specially pro Forest Management tected forests in Latvia at present. The total area of protected forests in Latvia is and Biological Diversity in Latvia 11.5%, and the area o f protected sites in commercial forests comprises 8 .6 % o f the Jurgis Jansons w hole forest area (Table 2). The set o f natural reserves does not This paper will introduce the present and drained peat soil forests. W ithin the even represent the territory of Latvia. situation of Latvia's forests and some phe fram ew ork o f the edaphic series forest Therefore, the project "Silava" was star nomena found in them related to forest types - the main units of forest classifica ted in the Forestry Research Institute biodiversity. tion in Latvia - are classified. The forest aiming at the establishment of protected Forests cover 45% o f the te rritory of types are established following a list of compartments which represent all forest Latvia and must be considered as the main requisites by estimating soil characteris types in each Head Forestry District (35 in renewable natural resource. The species tics (humidity, moisture), tree stand's site total). The protected compartments pro structure demonstrates the dominance of index, ground cover vegetation and other jected will occupy 1.5% of all forest area coniferous stands (Table 1). Latvia is located indicators of biotopes. and will represent the natural develop in a temperate transition zone between The main unit of forest management ment of forests characteristic for each Northern boreal and Southern broad-lea in Latvia is a forest site with an average type. ved forests. The geographical location size o f 2 ha. Forest sites less than 2 ha The research results demonstrate the provides the typical diversity of growing make up 70% of the total amount of possibility to increase the ecological conditions and species structure in Latvia. forest sites in Latvia. Different regimes of diversity in Latvia by management of One of the main interesting pheno forest management (including final fel w aterlogged areas. We were looking fo r mena is the hydrological regime of Lat ling) is planed for each forest site follow the dynamics of ground cover vegetation via's forests - about half of them are ing the Forest Inventory. The mosaic-like following drainage in drained areas com waterlogged forests with weak soil aera distribution o f forest sites creates the pared w ith undrained areas. The ground tion and degraded tree stands. Manage typical structural diversity of Latvia's cover vegetation is of extreme impor ment of these areas is not possible with forests. tance in evaluating forest growth condi out improvement of soil aeration. It is On the other side, structural diversity tions. Research on ground cover vegeta done in about half of the wet forests is not the only component of forest biodi tion (vascular plants and bryophytes) while the second half remains undrained. versity. In terms of modern comprehen dynamics must be considered as an im por From the beginning of this century sion mature forests are necessary to pro ta n t part o f forest am elioration science. the forest typology o f Latvia has been vide habitats until their natural destruc The data sets used in this project were developed, and now we group our forests tion. The protection regimes for some collected at the Forest Ecological Labora in 5 edaphic series - uplands (dry sites), forest areas were established in previous tory Vesetnieki in cooperation with the wet mineral, wet peat, drained mineral years and the ecological values are domi Forest Research Station Kalsnava. The

156 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity Jansons • Forest Management and Biological Diversity in Latvia forest lands of the Laboratory are com It is useful to analyse the biological Author's address: prised of drained peatland and drained diversity on the basis of definite territo mineral soil forests as well as undrained ries. In all the drained forests analysed, Jurgis Jansons areas and originally dry sites. The aim of the Shanon's diversity index varies be Latvian Forestry Research the Forest Ecological Laboratory Veset- tween H(s) = 3.337 and 5.029. These values Institute "Silava" nieki, established 35 years ago, has been are higher than in undrained areas - H(s) Rigas lela 111, Salaspils LV 2109, Latvia to investigate forest hydrological proces = 3.331. Over the last 19 years a small Fax: +371-2-7901359 ses and to work out the theoretical basis decrease in biodiversity in drained forests e-mail: [email protected] for forest amelioration in Latvia. In order has been observed along with an increas to study the dynamics of ground cover ing wood increment. vegetation, quite a number of sample The drainage of wetland forests inter plots were set up. The related studies mittently with areas left undrained were started and are still continued by enhances biodiversity. The Shanon's Prof. Dr. A. Abolioa. In 1975, the vegeta diversity index H(s) in these areas was 5.61 tion assessment using the points-squares and 5.25 in 1975 and 1994 respectively. method was carried out by Prof. Dr. P.ZaITtis. In 1994, the enumeration was repeated by the author of this paper, using identical methods. The data obtain ed 19 years later allows us to analyse the dynamics of the vegetation over this peri od of time. A t Vesetnieki, 103 species o f flow er ing plants and ferns representing 43 families and 89 genera were found with 31 species of 16 families and 24 genera classified as common. The nature of the flora is not uniform. There were some dom inant species encountered in differ ent regions of the Vesetnieki forests. Table 1: Species com position in Latvia's forests. Some species were rare in 1975, but were found to be common in 1994 (Oxalis ace- Species Area [% ] Volume [% ] tosella L, Urtica dioica L.). Scot's pine 39.7 40.5 There are differences in the distribu Norway spruce 2 0 . 6 19.8 tion o f dom inant species in the forest Birch 28.4 24.5 Black alder 2.4 3.5 types. In drained forests species typical of Aspen 2.5 6 .1 undrained areas were not recorded. The Grey alder 5.34 4.6 similarity between originally undrained Oak 0.34 0.4 areas and drained forests is very low Ash 0.84 0 . 6 (Tchecanovsky's sim ilarity index K(s) in Total 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1975 and 1994 was 0.05 and 0.028, re spectively). Ground cover vegetation may act as Table 2: Num ber and area o f forests in different protection categories. an indicator of forest growth conditions. The dynamics of the vegetation reflect an Forest category Number o f Area increase of soil fertility and the stabilisa objects 1000 ha % tion of soil moisture conditions. For 1. Protected forests describing biological diversity, the Sha- 1.1. Strict nature reserves 5 38.7 1.3 non's index was used. Biodiversity in drai 1.2. National parks 2 72.6 2.5 1.3. Nature parks 11 15.0 0.5 ned forests is higher than in w et areas. 1.4. Nature reserves 180 87.6 3.0 Diversity increases after drainage of one 1.5. Anti-erosion forests 26 44.4 1.5 part of a wet forest site while the other 1.6. Suburban parks 46 72.2 2.5 part remains undrained. This action helps Total 330.5 11.5 to conserve some hygrophyte species. The 2. Restricted management forests increment of Norway spruce stands influ 2.1. Protected landscape forests 6 55.1 1.9 ences the light conditions o f the ground 2.2. Suburban forests 15 244.0 8.5 2.3. Forests fo r environm ent protection 31 224.4 7.8 cover vegetation. As a result the cover of shade tolerant plants increases, but the Total 523.5 18.2 cover of light loving and half-shade toler 3. Commercial forests 2030.0 70.3 ant plants diminishes. Specially protected areas 248.2 8 . 6

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establishment o f management systems Forest Biodiversity Conservation fo r the forest production areas, which w ill prom ote the sustainability o f these areas. in Australia The approach used in the assessment is to use independent experts to evalu Rod Holesgrove ate the State's forest management systems in terms of their effectiveness to Introduction and background Principles followed in the establish deliver ecologically sustainable forest ment of the forest reserve system are com management. Australia is the only developed mega- prehensiveness, adequacy and represen In the case of biodiversity the aim of diverse biodiversity country and its forests tativeness. the ESFM assessment is to ensure th a t the are important reservoirs of biodiversity. A key issue in the development of the forest management system maintains: Partly as a result o f a number o f years reserve system has been the development ■ biodiversity, of conflict between governments, indus of biodiversity criteria, as well as criteria ■ forest productive capacity; try and conservation groups over the use for other environmental values. ■ ecosystem health etc. of our forests the Federal and State As a general forest biodiversity crite Governments have developed a National rion, 15% of the pre- 1750 distribution of The ESFM assessment is based on such Forest Policy Statement. The govern each forest ecosystem is to be protected matters as the National Forest Policy State ments are implementing important in the reserve system. ment, the outcomes of the UN Confer aspects of the Policy through the devel Other biodiversity criteria include: ence on Environment and Development, opment of Regional Forest Agreements ■ where a forest ecosystem is recogni the Forest Stewardship Council and the (RFAs) between the Federal and State sed as vulnerable then at least 60% of International Standards Organisation. Governments, for all of Australia's main their remaining area should be reserved; As a result o f the assessment, various tim ber producing areas. ■ all remaining occurrences of rare and management scenarios are generated endangered forest ecosystems should be which are integrated with the results of The purposes of the RFAs include: reserved or protected as far as is prac the other assessments. ■ the establishment of a comprehen ticable; sive, adequate and representative reserve In addition, criteria for old-growth Results and progress system; forests and for wilderness values have ■ provide for ecologically sustainable been developed: Of the total of 12 forest regions in Aus forest management in off-reserve areas; ■ where old-growth forest is rare or tralia, two Regional Forest Agreements ■ to provide for long term stability of depleted w ith in a forest ecosystem then have been finalised to date - Tasmania, the forest based industries. all viable examples should be protected; and the East Gippsland Forest Region in The RFAs are based on comprehensive ■ for other old-growth forests, 60% of the State of Victoria. assessments o f all forest values. The basis the forest is to be protected. In Tasmania an additional 396,000 ha o f the forest biodiversity assessment is In the case o f wilderness values, ninety of public land has been added to the consistent with the Convention on Bio per cent, or more if practicable, of the reserve system bringing the total area of logical Diversity and Australia's National area of high quality wilderness that meets reserves in Tasmania to 40% of the State. Biodiversity Strategy. minimum area requirements should be In East Gippsland, under the Regional protected in reserves. Forest Agreement, 521,345 ha or half of Forest biodiversity conservation As far as possible, forest areas identi the region is now in reserves. and establishment of the forest fied fo r protection w ill be placed in Dedi Some of our conclusions in terms of reserve system cated Reserves and should be equivalent forest biodiversity conservation are: to IUCN Categories I, II, III or IV. ■ individual biodiversity surrogates The objectives of forest biodiversity con The approach used in the assessment such as forest ecosystems or environ servation are: of biodiversity as well as other environ mental domains are not an adequate pre ■ to maintain ecological processes and mental values is as follows: dictor of biodiversity; the dynamics of forest ecosystems in their ■ information audit, ■ the area of land required to protect landscape context; ■ data collection, biodiversity (species and ecosystems) is ■ to maintain viable examples of forest ■ data analysis frequently significantly greater than the ecosystems throughout their natural ■ development of conservation options area being incorporated into dedicated range, and integration with the results of other reserves; ■ to maintain viable populations of assessments - social, economic and sus ■ the sensitivity of different ecosystems native forest species th roughout their tainable forest management. and species to disturbance, both natural natural ranges; and human induced varies widely and ■ to maintain the genetic diversity of Ecologically sustainable forest many disturbances effect biota within native forest species. management (ESFM) and outside reserves; The Interim Biogeographic Regiona ■ reserve design is not being addressed lization o f Australia (IBRA) is used as the The other important component of adequately in the integration tools; and, basis o f conservation planning. forest biodiversity conservation is the the economic cost surfaces need signifi-

158 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999 cant improvement to generate and Author's address: of the Environment, demonstrate th a t an efficient reserve GPO Box 787, Canberra ACT 2601, system has been designed. Roderick Holesgrove Australia Director, Department e-mail: [email protected]

Extent; reduce the overall canopy Analogue Forestry as a Process removed by thinning or clear felling in any one coupe to reduce trauma on rep of Biodiversity Management - tiles, amphibians, small mammals and desiccating effects on sub-canopy and soil Can Biodiversity be Conserved dwellers.

in a Large Scale Production Forest? Other Co-operatives, Concessions, Franchises John B. Jack ■ ISO 14000, Forest Stewardship Council Tools and Measures some cases extend them to the ridges. or other; credits, penalties, compliance Biodiverse enrichment using AF tech ■ Compensation, tax arrangements,

Analogue Forestry (AF)* niques could be conducted in these outer succession counseling Human and biotechnical processes (detail estuarine zones. ■ Arboretum, nursery these and decision model). These new biodiversity zones could be ■ Advanced growth relocation to forest How m ight these processes be translated initiated following a staged logging of site/arboretum/nursery for sale and pro at ground level. final crop trees, provided rare and valued pagation

Ecosystem rebuilding guides species were removed from the zone prior ■ Tree-climbing recreation/work lichen, The smaller the logged area, the quicker to logging, then propagated and later epiphyte, flower collection the influx of mature ecospecies. replanted in th a t zone. ■ Access technology- vehicular non-soil The closer the mature ecosystem, the Alternately logging could be denied compression, animal underground bypas quicker the influx. or minimised in the new biodiversity ses, security monitors The less intense and frequent the dis zone. Rare and valued species could be ■ Humidity/cool chambers, perfume turbance, the later the serai condition collected from adjacent areas (snig tracks extractors supported. and landings) designated for thinning or ■ Pharmaceutical screening, particular The smaller the overall loss o f canopy, the clear felling. ly for 'Orphan drugs' quicker the progression to later serai ■ Nature Hikes conditions Modification Options ■ Photography, art, artifacts ■ Restaurant Best Scenario Where the rare and valued species are ■ Public risk insurance widely distributed across the production ■ Ecosystem Stability Institute to Assume we know what biodiversity there area (and/or where the mature ecosystem educate Regulators and Operators (See is and where it is in the production forest. remnants are far from the logging area) BIS, Bank of International Settlements We can not protect everything so we the only option may be to modify the Basle. Institute o f Financial Settlements. decide to prioritise in terms of rarity and timing, frequency, intensity or extent of ELF, Endangered Language Foundation, a value. We can not prioritise satisfactorily logging activities. charitable foundation.) unless we know the regional and global Timing; restrict activity when roots, significance o f the ecosystem, species, rhizomes and tubers, fungal fruiting Tools and Measures gene, though value will to some extent bodies, newly emerging organisms may reflect its global appreciation. be damaged, traumatised or killed. Analogue Forestry Thus even where we know a great Frequency; extent the logging inter Elaborate on AF for cleared site or modi deal about our production forest we can val to permit establishment of mid-sere fication of an existing tree plantation. not protect its biodiversity without the species and continued health o f any late input of regional and global interests. sere species. Ecosystem rebuilding guides Intensity; restrict logging activity to As fo r best scenario. Exclusion Options thinning and confine operations to strip thinning and small patches (with prior Worst Scenario If, as is frequently the case the richest recovery of rare and valued species). areas of biodiversity are in the valley bot Reduce the size classes o f salvage harves Assume we have to determine what toms and as these zones in most develop ted and encourage lichens, epiphyte, biodiversity there is and locate it in and ed countries are frequently denied to mosses and saprophytic fungi and their around the production forest. loggers for water quality reasons we mammal and arthropod consumers in the Even more than in the "Best" case we might widen these exclusion zones and salvage areas. need to involve local, regional and global

159 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - Jack • Analogue Forestry as a Process of Biodiversity M anagem ent-Can Biodiversity be Conserved in a Large Scale Production Forest? inputs to help set priorities, collect data catchments except where the surveys Young growth timber products and clarify accountabilities. indicate adequacy of biodiversity and low Elaborate on interim and subsequent rarity values. Author's address: survey techniques and the iterative sur vey and goal setting arrangements. Modification Options John B. Jack In the worst case for timber interests; EMU: Environmental Management Unit (that of finding rare and highly prized bio Agree a 10-year moratorium on clear fel Department of Geography and diversity on existing timber production ling, except for conversion to better site- Environmental Science areas), provide incentives fo r AF develop adapted species or rehabilitation of natur Monash University, Clayton 3168, ment on private property to provide alter al disasters (windfalls, insects, and fungi). Victoria, Australia native timber resources within 1 0 years. e-mail: [email protected] Other Co-operatives, Concessions, Exclusion Options Franchises

As for best scenario, but not clear felling Timber services, emphasising value and biodiversity zones plus riverine zones adding e.g. pre-cut job lots, special fin to cover the total area of smaller ishes, style matching

MONASH UNIVERSITY Departm ent o f Geography & Environmental Science Monash Publication in Geography: Number 49 Published June 1998 Analogue Forestry: An Introduction by Ranil Senanayake and John Jack

Forests and other 'natural' areas have been subjected to increasing public scrutiny over the past 40 years. Much of this has been associated with a concern for loss of biological diversity including (more recently) the loss of cultural values of native peoples. A challenge to emerge from the considerations of the operation of the Convention on Biological Diversity is the observa tion that over 99% of the biodiversity of a forest is contained within its non-tree component. While the ideal way of main taining the original levels of forest biodiversity is in the scheduling and managing of forested land for conservation, there are relatively small resources available for the purchase or scheduling of protected areas. The establishment of protected areas and private reserves alone is not enough for conservation, due to their small area and the likelihood of conflict be tween conservation values and the human need for resources that are present within reserves. The conservation of standing forest is a priority, but given present population and economic trends the degradation of biodi versity w ithin the non-scheduled areas o f forest w ill reach exponential rates unless directly addressed in the context o f forest biodiversity conservation. For instance, one of the greatest unrecognised areas in tropical rainforest conservation and reha bilitation efforts is the loss of non-woody plant taxa and the subsequent loss of theorganisms dependent on these microha bitats. Analogue Forestry is a response that seeks to address both the genetic and cultural issues of biological loss. This publication explores the major ecological processes that underlie Analogue Forestry. A 'forest' in the context o f these discussions is distinguished from, for example, 'plantation'. The latter is basically a collection of trees of the same age and species and with little or no attention to the non-woody plants and of those not usually in a conservation context. It is suggested that it is the diversity of species, functions and structures that distinguish the 'forest' from other collections of trees (plantations, shelter-belts, agro-forests and the like). Much consideration is given to the interconnectedness of func tions within the forest over time and thus the importance of successional changes and adaptability of plants and other orga nisms of the forest ecological system. It is postulated that much of the undervaluing of forests in Western culture derives from an ignorance among the owner/managers (government and industry) of the wide range of 'products' of the forest, most of these from non-woody plants. In consequence the nature of forest products is dealt with in some depth. Because of Analogue Forestry's derivation from the practices of forest management by traditional peoples its application requires that the cultural values of practitioners be fully taken into account in the design and operation of each new pro ject. It further follows that the Analogue Forest will mimic the structures and functions of the most locally relevant native 'forest' (local ecosystem climax) and that it will fit (balance, function and structure) appropriately within the anthropogenic and natural landscape of the region. Case studies detail how Analogue Forestry has been applied in two locations, one in Sri Lanka and one in Victoria, Australia. The experience distilled from these studies and those of the senior author in numerous Third World countries is listed as 'Pre requisites fo r successful Analogue Forestry'. The special issues that gene conservation raises and the role o f Analogue For estry in support of traditional conservation measures are also examined.

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prisingly sudden shift in paradigm in the Integration of Biodiversity into Timber whole forestry sector with a clear trend towards more conservation-oriented Production - The Swedish Approach methods. The reasons are complex but include the effects of information cam Lena Gustafsson paigns initiated by the National Board of Forestry starting already in the late 1970's and continuing since then, the Conven Abstract Sweden belongs to three main vege tion on Biological Diversity, the new Swe tation zones: the nemoral (temperate) dish forestry law in 1993 in which envi Sweden is dominated by forests and for zone in the southernmost part, the hemi- ronment has been given equal weight as estry, which is highly mechanized, is con boreal in the middle and the boreal in the production, NGO campaigns nationally as ducted on almost all forest land. Forest north. There are two dominating forest well as internationally and the consumer products are a major export revenue in species Norway spruce Picea abies and market with its demand on 'green prod the Swedish economy. Centuries of forest Scots pine Pinussylvestris. Due to the north ucts'. use has caused large impacts on the dyna erly location, the acid soils and to the Due to the very small areas o f natural mics and structures o f the forests as well recent glaciation, the forest flora of Swe forest remaining and the low proportion as on biodiversity. Due to the low pro den is species poor and there are hardly of protected forests in Sweden (less than portion o f forest reserves (less than 1 %), any endemic species. In to ta l there are 1 % of the productive forest land is pro the conservation efforts to a large extent about 360 vascular plants, 2600 macro tected beneath the mountain region are focused on the production forests. fungi, 300 bryophytes and 800 lichen spe (Misterewicz 1998)), there is a focus on The species aspect o f biodiversity is con cies (Gustafsson & Ahlen 1996). The con the managed forests. The new forestry sidered important and much emphasis is cept of biodiversity is complex but in Swe implies incorporation of conservation put on the conditions fo r rare and threat den the aspect o f red-listed species is measures into day-to-day forestry in the ened species. During recent years there important. The number of red-listed spe production forests. Thus, there is strong has been a shift in paradigm, from an cies which belong to a forest environment emphasis towards management of the intense, production-oriented forestry is fo r vascular plants 6 6 , macrofungi 465, 'm atrix', i.e. the productive areas outside towards a larger focus on environmental bryophytes 74 and lichens 159, i.e. 18%, protected forests. The present attitude is issues, of which biodiversity is considered 18%, 25% and 20% o f these species that conservation actions should be inte a main part. Biodiversity consideration is groups, respectively (Gustafsson & Ahlen grated in all forestry operations, on all today integrated into day-to-day for 1996). forest land. Consequently, there has been estry, in all production forests. Conserva The flora and vegetation are highly a rapid development of standardsforcon- tion measures are viewed at different affected by past and present forestry oper servation in e.g. thinning and final har scales, ranging from individual trees, to ations. Clearcutting has been a main har vest. groups of trees, stands and landscapes. vesting system fo r decades. Large drain Conservation is viewed at in different Examples of biodiversity approaches are age operations of swamp forests have scales. The smallest is consideration of ecological landscape planning, wood been performed. Chemical treatment of details; structures like deadwood and land key habitats (stands with rich flora shrub vegetation following clearcutting individual trees (unusual tree species, and fauna) and alternative management was applied during the period 1960-1980. largetrees). One of the most evidentsigns methods. National criteria for FSC forest Fertilization is performed on c. 30 000 ha of the new forestry is the retention of certification were launched six months per year today (Pettersson 1996). The trees on clearcuts. Consideration of ago and already 20% of the Swedish natural dynamics of the boreal forests has groups is saving of groups of trees of forest land has been certified. The crite been prevented through effective control value to biodiversity, e.g. border zones of ria are detailed and should they be fol of forest fires. A very dense network of streams, small swamp forests inside fel lowed this will imply improvements for roads has made it possible to reach prac ling areas and groups o f deciduous trees. the Swedish natural flora and fauna. tically all stands of forests th roughout the Consideration of areas is saving of larger Future challenges include to find ways to country. All these factors taken together, tracts in which the flora and fauna is rich. assess and monitor biodiversity and to has resulted in a change in forest types Such areas can be of the size 0.5 ha to 5 develop and improve methods for the w ith an increase o f pine in the north and ha or more and usually are o f a w oodland restoration of forest structures, processes o f spruce in the north relative to the key habitat character. A woodland key and habitats. 'natural state'. The area of old stands with habitat is a forest stand with a high biodi Sweden is dominated by forests which a large proportion of deciduous trees, versity value in which red-listed species constitute c. 50 % o f the land area including m inority tree species and very are present. Such habitats are mapped in (Gustafsson & Ahlen 1996) and forest large trees, has decreased. The am ount of large national inventory conducted by products are a major export revenue in deadwood is very low today. In total, the National Board of Forestry. The large the Swedish economy. About half of the modern forestry has implied a substantial companies have the responsibility to per Swedish forest land is owned by large homogenization of stands and land form their own inventories. The key habi forest companies and the other half of scapes. tats constitute c. 1 % of the productive small private land owners, most of them Forestry has taken another direction forest land and the supposed number for in the southern part of the country. during the 1990's. There has been a sur the whole country is 70 000-80 000.

161 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - Gustafsson - Integration of Biodiversity into Timber Production - The Swedish Approach

There also is a development towards 150 key habitats had been cut during the References: alternative management methods (Fries period 1994-1998 (Skogsstyrelsen 1998). et al. 1997). Formerly, there were a few During the last three years forest cer Angelstam, P. & Pertersson, B. 1997, Prin models; for Norway spruce regeneration tification has been discussed w ithin Swe ciples of present Swedish forest biodi clearcutting followed by planting and for dish forestry. The large forest companies versity management. Ecological Bul Scots pine often leaving seed trees after and one organization representing small letins 46: 191-203. harvest. Today, selective cuttings methods private land-owners have affiliated with Fries, C., Johansson, O., Pettersson, B. & are being developed for management of the Forest Stewardship Council, FSC. Simonsson, P. 1997. Silvicultural sensitive habitats like mixed aspen-spru Agreement has been reached on a num m odelsto maintain and restore natur ce forests and nemoral stands in which ber of certification criteria regarding al stand structures in Swedish boreal there is ingrowing spruce. Shelterwood socio-economic factors, production and forests. Forest Ecology and Manage cuttings are performed on damp spruce environmental conditions. The main ment 94: 89-103. forest sites. focus in Sweden is on environmental con Gustafsson, L. & Ahlen, I. (eds.). 1996. Geo The importance of the landscape level ditions and most marked on biodiversity. graphy of plants and animals. The in planning and management for biodi The list of biodiversity criteria is extensi National Atlas o f Sweden. SNA versity is expressed in the ecological land ve and includes set-asides of 5% of the publishing. Stockholm. scape planning (ELP) which now is applied productive forest land on the properties, Misterewicz, M. 1998 (ed.). Skyddad in the large forest companies, mainly in protection of key habitats, retention of at natur. Naturvardsverkets forlag. the boreal region. There are different ELP least 1 0 trees per hectare at final fellings, Stockholm. In Swedish. models, one of which focuses on the key creation o f buffer zones, conservation Pettersson, F. 1996. Kvavegodsling - en habitats and connections between them burning, 5-20% deciduous trees after bortglom d resurs? Redogorelse and another in which the natural distur cleaning and thinning, 5% of the area 1/1996: 131-136. SkogForsk. Uppsala. bance regimes form the basisfor different dominated by deciduous trees etc. The cri In Swedish with English summary. management methods. 10-13% of the teria were launched in January 1998 and Skogsstyrelsen. 1998. Naturskydd och mil- volume is estimated to be left for conser already more than 5 million hectares of joarbete. Meddelande 6 - 1998. vation when the ELP approach is applied Swedish forest land (20% of all forest Jonkoping. In Swedish. (Angelstam & Pettersson 1997). land) has been certified and the area is The new orientation within forestry likely to increase. Author's address: has been rapidly incorporated w ith in forest companies and the organizations In a Nordic perspective in order to pre Dr. Lena Gustafsson of the small land-owners. Today the con serve biodiversity, it is important to: The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden servation efforts are far above the ■ Increase the area of protected forests Science Park, S-75183 Uppsala, Sweden demands stipulated in the forestry law. ■ Evaluate the effects on biodiversity of e-mail: [email protected] The re-orientation seems massive but still the new forestry methods (assessment, values fo r biodiversity are lost. For monitoring, indicators) instance, in a recent compilation on ■ Improve and develop methods for woodland key habitats, the Environ maintenance and restoration of biodi mental Protection Agency found that c. versity

162 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

This approach requires a broad set of Conserving Forest Biodiversity tools and measures including: better baseline ecological and socio-economic in Protected Areas: assessments; participatory mapping and planning processes; better mechanisms Can Conservation fo r cross-sectoral coordination; decentral ization and the building of sub-national and Development Co-exist? institutional capacity; reform of land tenure; and a variety of community-based Charles Victor Barber approaches in which NGOs often play an important role. Abstract people. This reconciliation has proven very difficult when applied ontheground Author's address: Most national parks and protected areas in particular places it turns out that eco established in developing countries have nomic development are conservation of Charles Victor Barber followed the early 20th century U.S. w ild forest biodiversity are often not easy Biological Resources Program model of of a pristine ecosystem walled to harmonize in the same place. In gener W orld Resources Institute off from human influence. This ideal has al, these projects have not worked very 14 Cabbage Street proved to be unrealistic in most places, well to conserve biodiversity, although Valle Verde 5 Pasig due to the wide range of existing human some have succeeded in improving the M etro Manila, Philippines uses and new development pressures on livelihood of the local people. e-mail: [email protected] most protected areas. A more effective approach combines One widely-promoted solution over conservation planning and management the past decade has been "integrated on a bioregional scale, return to a stricter conservation and development projects" protection ethic fo r core protected areas, (ICDPs), which attempt to ensure the con and a transition from state-dictated, servation of biodiversity by reconciling business-dominated forestry to commu the management of protected areas with nity-based forestry management in non the social and economic needs o f local core forest areas.

For this we have to design in stitu tio n Community Participation al devices to promote community parti cipation in a sustained manner. The sever S. John Joseph al adhoc efforts currently underway, if link ed in the form of a Network, would help to strengthen the NGO movement in this Conservation of biological diversity has and animals. No one is sure how much we area and help to share experiences. NGOs assumed great urgency because of the may have already lost, for we are aware can play a signal role in fostering public actual and threatened extinction of many of only a few mammals, birds and plants awareness of the importance of genetic species of plants and animals and disap which have gone extinct. For each of diversity, already a prime component of pearance of habitats. Currently there is a those we know of, there may be several many NGO programs. Some o f them have large and grow ing number o f species others (especially lower plant and animal also initiated conservation programs in a recognized to be in danger of extinction. forms) which may also been sent into limited way over small gardens, heritage The increasing number of threatened and oblivion by the destructive hand of sites, and Sacred Groves but it needs to be endangered species indicates loss of humans. Of what is left, over 10% is supported and technically backed up. As genetic variability and a decline and believed to be under threat of extinction a means to secure Community Participa depletion of natural communities, at a in the near future. tion it is necessary to identify all such tim e when population pressure makes The loss of diversity is not only an ethi NGOs having the desire, capacity and additional food production from existing cal tragedy but also a great social, eco infrastructure to take up biodiversity con or less land imperative. nomic and cultural one. The majority of servation programs and foster linkages India's immense range o f ecosystems, India's people are dependant on biologi and partnership among them. species and genetic forms have fo r some cal resources and natural habitats fo r The indications are the need for har time been under serious threat. Habitat their day to day existence for food, medi nessing resources optimally and orches destruction, hunting and over exploita cine, shelter, household goods, fodder, trating a co-operative mechanism among tion, pollution and poisoning and intro manure and not the least spiritual and cul the institutions and agencies aligned for duction of exotics have caused a decline tural sustenance. It is therefore makes a common cause. Much has been secured in many species and varieties of both wild abundant sense that nature conservation and achieved in this direction by the and domesticated (agricultural) plants must be pursued as a peoples movement. initiatives of MSSRF by the formation of

163 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - John Joseph • Community Participation

National Biodiversity Alliance and the ■ Functioning of local institutions Activities: The following are the Community Biodiversity forum, and the ■ Village leadership activities under the Community Biodiver action programs that emanated from ■ Level of income and disparity sity Conservation program these. ■ Literacy and awareness levels a. Policy Makers Workshop Community Participation is a process ■ Past history of participation. b. Trainers Training Program in which people control or people influ c. National Biodiversity Alliance ence the decisions th a t affect them, so Based on these consideration the current d. Training Program at different that better outcomes can be achieved. program strategies are: levels, and e. Biodiversity Forum This is viewed from two perspectives: I. To run awareness and publicity 1. As a means for enhancing the effi programs ( i. Trainers Training Program; Policy Maker's Workshop: ciency of delivery, operation and sustain ii. Training Program of different levels) To formulate and implement the conser ability of the program. vation strategies from the top level to the 2. Participation is seen as not merely Spreading awareness among school village panchayat (council) level this a means towards economic development children and rural families on the econo workshop is being organized in rich biodi but as an end in itself. mic and ecological benefits of biological versity areas once in a year. It consists of diversity is in progress. State Chief Secretaries of Forests and There are four levels of intensity of Com The target groups being school chil Environment, Principal Chief Conservator munity Participation: dren and rural families, activities have been o f Forests, heads o f different state and 1. Information Sharing planned separately fo r each group using national institutes, Presidents and Vice- 2. Consultation diverse tools media and methods. It in Chancellors of Universities, representa 3. Decision Making cludes field visits, preparation of education tives of active non governmental orga 4. Initiating Action al materials, organizing slide shows, video nizations and representatives of WWF. shows, organizing campaigns, raising of By this approach community members nurseries etc. National Biodiversity Alliance: can move from being mere recipients of All the above strategies put together It is a coalition among conservation com information to become active partici aims at ensuring total involvement and mitted scientists, lawyers, forestry offi pants and begin to act as stakeholders. participation of local inhabitants, school cials and the mass médias' to formulate students, local Government departments, the strategies to tide over the problems Factors common to all levels are: Panchayats (Village Councils) etc. This in in the protected areas of our country ■ Policy environment, i.e., policies of turn will facilitate in achieving the ulti which occupies three percent of our land the Government regarding implementa mate goal (i.e.) to reduce the existing mass with marvelous genetic wealth. tion of projects, cost recovery as well as pressure on forest resources. The above operations and maintenance and the ri exercises can continue to enlarge com Biodiversity Forum: gidity of the above policies. m unity participation because of the The Biodiversity Forum is being organi ■ Institutionalization of Community potential which is evident from the re zed to review the progress in the com Participation in project documents as an sponses o f the school children, teaching munity involvement in promoting and objective and specification of mecha staff and involvement and rural people. conserving the biological resources and to nisms at each stage. To train a cadre of Conservation pro plan for the future with the main theme ■ Project organization and delivery moters among rural and tribal youth, of conservation and sustainable manage mechanisms. who w ill help to spread the message and ment of biodiversity. This forum could ■ Agencies involved in the provision methods of biodiversity conservation result in formation of networks which in and production of goods and services; the among the people in their respective turn would help in conservation of biolo co-ordination mechanisms; their monitor areas: Training of young tribal and rural gical resources at the local level with the ing and control. women in in situ and ex situ conservation participation of local people. This forum ■ The orientation and capacity of these techniques, seed technology and the may be conducted once in a year in d if agencies to generate and sustain com importance of biological diversity conser ferent regions of our country. munity participation. vation will be undertaken by giving ■ The flexibility available in the project encouragement to them. Priority will be II. To develop/modify policies and design to adapt to changing community accorded to hotspot areas w ith reference legislations needs. to threats of biodiversity. The trained ■ The presence of other agencies youth will constitute as conservation pro Guide governmental action and provide (Government departments; other moters. Only those who have a stake in significant publicforums by coalition with donor/supporting agencies) w orking in living in their respective villages will be se like minded NGOs e.g. Community Biodi the same project area. lected. They w ill be supported w ith the ne versity Forum and networks to highlight cessary techno infrastructure, so that they problems and solutions as well as to moti Community level factors operating at the can help their own communities to halt vate action. These forum aims at prom o village community level are: genetic erosion and promote the conser tion of a network of various organiza ■ Infrastructure facilities in a village vation and sustainable utilization of their tions, institutions and individuals from ■ Environmental/geographical factors genetic wealth for future generations. d iffe re n t areas, particularly women w ho

164 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - John Joseph ■ Community Participation have a concern and commitment for led workers can be given opportunities VIII. To monitor maintain systems biodiversity conservation, and to capture for skilled and value added work. of effective and sustainable pro the collective capacity. tected areas V. To reduce consumption and III. Promote environmental educa pollution by influencing public This would ensure optimal representa tion (by traditional and non-tradi- policy and the practices of con tion of species, habitats and ecological pro tional means) and capacity build sumers and business/industry cess within designated areas for conser ing by organizing trainers train vation objectives. To monitor threats for ing programs, to facilitate people Organize campaigns to reduce consump effective management, promote models to manage sustainably the tion and pollution. Direct activities at of good management for education and natural resources local and national levels to combat glob training and ensure participation of local al threats such as marine pollution and communities. The training programs will Build and strengthen government and climate changes. be organized in such a way th a t they non-government institutions, so that include the components of monitoring they have sufficient built-in capacity to VI. To protect endangered species and local threat alert mechanism for address comm unity issues. The Trainers and habitats, and support and effective implementation of these pro Training Programs will include represent promote traditional in s itu con grams. In all these programs for its great atives from NGOs, organization person servation strategies er success the involvement of the local nel, community leaders etc. Here NGOs people is a must. can function as vital catalysts at the com By focusing attention on flag ship species m unity level and also act as a link between such as elephants, tigers, rhinos and Some Successful Examples of official agencies and communities. In dugongs around which major ecosystem Community Participation these training programs training will be programs can be b uilt and on key stone imparted to the representatives from species that serve as indicators o f ecosys (a) Joint Forest Management NGOs, who would then train rural women tem health whose survival is the respon and men in their respective villages on sibility of the local authorities. West Bengal has an unique distinction of biodiversity conservation. This training is Sacred grove being a cultural in situ having decentralized planning process to equip them with knowledge and skill conservation area; initiate steps and and the forestry sector has gone up one and give them confidence to conduct action to recognize and support such tra step ahead in initiating "bottom up" similar programs in their target area. ditional in situ conservation initiatives. It approaches through micro-planning at Trainers Training Programs are being is also imperative to take up documenta village level. conducted atthe regional level within the tion as a component of IPR to provide People's participation has been recog state to selected non governmental rep comprehensive base fo r defending con nized as critical for success of forestry resentatives and in turn they will servationist right. development. To many foresters of India, conduct grass root level training program the concept of people's participation was as a sequei to the trainers training VII. To link conservation with obscure; it meant merely to give some program at the village level to the human needs by promoting employment opportunities to rural peo different sections of people. It is propos sustainable practices ple and/or to give some low priced forest ed to conduct one trainers training products as fringe benefits. The type of program and 1 0 grass root level training Foster an integrated approach in the use intimate or intensive popular participa program per year in the state of Tamil of natural resources - at practical level in tion where local people act as equal part Nadu and Kerala. terms of local community involvement, ners w ith the Forest Departm ent can management and benefit and at the hardly be achieved through these ap Awareness program: policy level in the developm ent of plans proaches. In most States now, Forest Prot To create an awareness on the importance and activities by Governments. ection Committees (FPC) have been for of biological diversity, its need and con Support programs involving women med mainly to protect the resources, servation to school students, rural and in the conservation practices o f landraces. against some benefits either in cash or tribal youths and women. Two programs Traditionally women have been consider kind. But developing a meaningful part are being conducted per year. ed as seed selectors and conservers. Their nership with the community is still not in role in selection and conservation will be sight where the people are involved in IV. To train women in biodiversity strengthened through training and net decision-making processes fo r the m an conservation working with women farmers. agement of the resources, and not only fo r Bring the women farmerstothe bene forest protection. There is no denying the The Women Seed and Biodiversity fits of modern technology in ex situ fact that issues in management of natur Workshop focused its attention in methods of plant conservation, primarily al resources are often highly location strengthening the role o f women in gene the gene bank facilities. On this context specific and, therefore, deserve careful tic conservation and seed technology the community gene bank established at science (including Social Science) and since women are traditionally involved in MSSRF can play a vital role, by giving tra technology-inputs. Developing an inter seed selection and in conserving them. By ditional seed materials stored at our gene face between specialized science and providing technology numerous unskil bank to these farmers. technology and grass-roots technology

165 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - John Joseph ■ Community Participation

Salient features of Joint Forest Management Resolution in West Bengal Particulars West Bengal Formation of forest production committee Initiative is taken Forest Department w ith help o f Gram Panchayat (Village Council)

Composition of executive Along with 6 members from the community Grampradhan/ members o f local Gram Panchayat & Beat Officer Role envisaged and powers o f Forest Technical guidance Departm ent Regulatory role of Forest Department Termination of individual membership by Regional Forest Officer, Dissolution o f the Executive Committee Facilitating role Preparation of an action plan with people and its approval by the District Forest Officer Role of gram panchayat Recommendatory role in selection of beneficiary/members. Constitution of the Forest Protection Committee/Executive committee. Provide support to Environment Protection Committee Role o f NGOs Catalysts of civil society Usufruct benefits 25 % o f net sale proceeds; all non tim ber forest products Quality and forest type Degraded, protected forest can be the beginning of a viable joint AK which have homogenous population. like mat weaving, basket making, dairy management practice. The landless agricultural labour and ing and pisciculture were promoted to Sharing of the forest products be marginal farmers outnumber the other provide alternate avenues of employ tween the Forest Protection Committees two classes of small farmers and big far ment so that pressure on natural forests (FPC) members and the Forest Depart mers in the villages studied barring SP could be minimized (Gautam Dey 1994). m ent (FD): where the number of small farmers is Linkages between fodder banks and 1. The FPC members get 25% of the high. dairying was developed. biomass produced through forestry oper ations such as RDF coppicing, m ultiple- Livestock: Benefits shoot cutting (MSC) and thinning, w here The livestock population in the four sam Water Level: as the FD receives 75%. ple villages comprises 1641 cows, 545 The most important benefit that could be 2. The FPC members are entitled to bullocks, 616 buffaloes, 3086 sheep and perceived by the people immediately is collection of grass, fallen twigs, fruits, flow 1111 goats. If the forests have to be clo substantial increase in water availability ers, seeds, etc. free o f royalty. However, sed for grazing effectively, at least the du e to afforestation and soil conservation entire sale seeds and kendu leaves so milk animals (cows and buffaloes) have to measures. The increase in water level collected cannot be sold in the open mar be provided fodder (15 kg/day/animal). varies between 25-200% in JP, 0-25% in ket; they must be deposited w ith the local The total annual requirement of fodder SP, 25-100% in AK and 20-25% in TG. Large-Scale Multipurpose Co-operatives in the sample villages is estimated to be Depots run bytheTribal Development Co around 12,540 tons. Agriculture Improvement: operative Corporation. The augmented water supply has lead to 3. At the time of every final rotation Investment: improved agriculture. The total area al harvesting the FPC gets 25% of the The project was initiated in 1988in JPand under crops has increased, the number of net cash sale proceeds o f the pole/tim ber AK while it was extended to SP and TG in crops, the cropping pattern and crop mix harvested. 1991. The total investment in all the four in these villages have changed towards villages is Rs. 226 million over seven years. economically valuable crops. For instance, (b) Interface Forestry Program (IFP) of The major investment was on refor JP grew 93.8 ha o f tapioca, 31.92 ha of Tamil Nadu estation coupled with soil and moisture paddy during 1993-94 compared to 37 ha conservation works such as construction and 6.2 ha in 1987-88. As a consequence These are successful models o f Communi o f percolation ponds, check dams, ran the land value has increased by about ty Participation in Tamil Nadu State: IFP in dom rubble check dams and contour 50%. M igration level has come down foursample villages viz. Jalluthupatti (JP), stone walls. The average annual invest from 61 persons in 1987 to 10 persons in Allikuzhi (AK), Sigaramahanapalli (SP) ment in each program village is around 1993 as a consequence of improved and Thagarai (TG) were taken up for a Rs. 10 million. employment. study. All these villages are socio-econo- Village welfare amenities such as pro Regeneration of forests has improv mically backward with predominance of vision of drinking water, construction of ed, the floral diversity markedly redeem tribal and backward communities. Homo community halls, thrashing floors, etc. ing over 30 different native species. Illicit geneity of the population makes it easier were undertaken under the scheme. felling has stopped. A steady flo w of to identify appropriate claimants as evi Health camps benefited over 1500 people income to the tune of about Rs 50,000 is denced from Sukhomajri experience and adult literacy made 405 literate. being realized by the locals using each (Levine, 1986). This is also true of JP and Forest based income generation activities watershed from Non Timber Forest Prod

166 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - John Joseph • Community Participation ucts (NTFP) collection. Gap planting with I. Total income (r = 0.913), Further, integrated inter-sectoral NTFP plants like tamarind and gooseberry II. Average water level (r = 0.869), approach like literacy program, immu in future will further augment this in III. Paddy area cultivated (r = 0.856), nization package, maternity and child come in future. IV. Area cultivated (r = 838), welfare, sanitation can be offered to fringe- V. Inverse of people's m igration (r = 787). dwellers by an integrated institutional Literacy: framework. Such extra forest territory Adult literacy campaign made 405 liter The most important and immediate direct inputs will helpenlisting people's support ate comprising o f 40 in JP, 60 in TK, 175 in benefit of the forest restoration is increas and ensure their involvement in rural and AK and 130 in SP. Health camps ed income from agriculture. As most of forestry development. conducted benefited over 1500 people the benefits from the forests will accrue In the Mundanthurai-Kalakkad Tiger in these villages. Besides, the level of only after long gestation period, this Project Area the Eco-Development Pro awareness about forest conservation has approach of improving agriculture in gram was initiated with World Bank sup increased to a significant extent among adjacent village will be a profitable inter port. The planning of activities in this P.A. the villages. vention as dependence of villagers on was done with the help of local commu forests can be minimized to that extent. nities having a stake over this area. Parti Housing: cipation of local NGOs was also secured in In JP, there were 133 huts and 10 tiled hou There are several intangible benefits such planning and implementation of the pro ses before the commencement of the pro as gram. Before the preliminary exercise, the gram. Nowthereare 109 huts and 34 tiled I. Reduction in soil erosion, NGOs and Community Leaders, Forest houses. Two bio-gas plants have also II. A more evenly distributed water sup Department Officials went through a come up now though the principal cook ply, social orientation course organized by a ing medium is only fuel wood. All the III. Well distributed rainfall, inproved renowned Gandhian Institution. This houses in JP are electrified under free species diversity in the forests, motivated them properly to the objec power supply scheme. IV. A positive external effect (aesthetic tives and tasks of management. A parti landscape) and cipatory conflict resolution approach was Employment: V. Improved living standard of the people. followed in planning the various man Over 32,427 man days have been generat agement activities. The project was imple ed annually through forestry w ork. Year- If these intangible benefits are also taken mented for 3 years with great involve wise data on the man-days generated in into consideration the net benefits will ment and participation of all stakehol each program village indicates that the increase. ders. Consideringthis successful approach maximum number of man-days to has in Community Participation in the man been generated during 1992-93 and (c) Eco-Development agement of protected area, it is now pro 1993-94. posed to be implemented in another 7 "Poor can not be asked to remain poor Tiger project areas (P.As) of India. The per Economic Analysis: and conserve the environment; this is an ceivable benefits and outcome of Com The social net present value of IFP in Tamil insult to poverty". Change over from munity Participation are: Nadu as a whole for the first four years has exploitation to protective system exacer ■ The communities have become been estimated to be between Rs.61 mil bates hardship of forest user group due increasingly active in planning the pro lion to Rs.135 million at a social discount to lost access and income from forest. tection of natural resources. rate of 5.6% and 8.1 % respectively. Action plan to offer employment oppor ■ The village have organized them tunity specially for target groups (ST, SC selves into the Forest Protection Commit- Jalluthupatti - A Case Study: and forest dependent groups) need to be tee/Conservation Management Group The total cost vis-à-vis the total tangible chalked out not only through silviculture (FPC/CMG), worked with enthusiasm on benefits were quantified and analysed for based operations, but also through sup macro planning and come up with a draft JP. The net benefits from the sample vil port services, ecologically compatible, to Conservation Management Plan. lage has positive NPV. The net present meet the needs of the community, thus ■ Community Participation is not only value at 6 % and 8 %, social discount rate schemes on fringe area developm ent providing momentum to plan implemen works out to Rs.3.15 million and Rs.2.93 (Eco-development) in the shape of raising tation but it has also contributed to great million respectively. The total benefit of tassar/silk host-plant on wastelands, rais er coherence and environmental a- Rs.2.93 million comprised Rs.1.11 million ing fruit trees, developing silvo-piscicul- wareness in the community. from forest wages Rs.0.99 m illion from ture, agro-forestry, silvo-pasture etc. will ■ FPC is currently collaborating with the agricultural income and Rs.0.14 million need attention. Simultaneously, activities local administration to address most dif from agricultural wages. The cost benefit like structural constructions for drinking ficult tasks for management of the area - ratio works out to 1.77. water supply, ground w ater recharging, goat browsing; and head-loading. The relative significance of various minor irrigation, mariculture, apiculture ■ Community Participation at all stages benefits from the program vis-à-vis total can be thought of. Installation o f solar o f the management process has led to investment in JP was analysed. The five lighting system in remote areas, distribu self-imposed regulation of less damaging benefits fall in the follow ing order based tion of solar cookers, fuel efficient chul- environmental practices. A particularly on their respective co-efficient of corre lahs etc. w ill minim ize dependence on good example o f this are: (a) Farm For lation. forests. estry in Community Lands, (b) Agro-For

167 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - John Joseph • Community Participation estry practices in fields, (c) Selling of the indigenous ingenuity and creativity in FAO. 1994. W orking Paper No.1 - Need goats, and (d) Stall feeding of goats. conserving, enriching or even reconstruc fo r Conflict Management Skills in For Important elements and tools to be ting forests. estry Context (Forests, Trees & People considered for success are: To the Garwhali people of India, the - FAO). 1. NGO role and involvement worship of Bhumi Devta signifies the peo Gautam Dey. 1994. Am elioration o f Tribal 2. Seminars, Workshops and Sympo ples veneration hand and natures. An- Life through Interface Forestry in Jal- sium otherfeature of the Garwhali Society isthe luthapatti, Salem District. (Personal 3. Public Forum strong preference for settling the dis Communication) 4. Activists taken on board of task putes w ithin the community, using a tradi Kangas, J. 1994. An Approach to Public force and committee tional opinion leader or a representative Participation in Strategic Forest 5. Building in Community Participa o f the local Panchayat (Village Council) as Management Planning. Forest Ecolo tion into project design / organization mediator rather than taking cases to the gy and Management, 1994.70:1/3,75- 6 . Taking into account the needs and courts or police (official down). These 8 8 . preferences of local people/communities people are said to love justice as much as Levine, Bentley, W.R., Brockbank, B. and - Provisions to meet this social welfare they love nature. In cases, when people Ghildyal, B.P. 1986. Problems and 7. Involvement of village level institu feel they do not get justice through the Solutions: Lessons from Experience tions mediator they turn to prayer of non-vio w ith Rural Resource Development 8 . Involvement of women lence to achieve resolution of a conflict. Projects. In: W orkshop on Teaching 9. Networking and stakeholder This value given to pious and patient Natural Resource Economics. YS Par- approach behavior provides a release of anger, mar University of Horticulture and 10. Conflict resolution and manage which they view as unhealthy, at the same Forestry. Solan, India. 1-14. ment skills time as it resolves community problems. Moench, M and Rajwar, G.S. 1991. Forest 11. Provision for Environment Impact It has even helped severely to remove Management or Socio-Economic Assessment corrupt officials. It remains to be seen Management? Alternative Approa however, whether this traditional ches to Environmental Rehabilita Conclusion approach to conflict resolution can save tion Advances in Himalayan Ecology. the trees or forests which the Garwhali 6:211-221, Scholeily Publication, Between professional foresters and local venerate, at a time when unprecedented Houston, Texas, USA. communities often different perspectives demands are made upon the land - Chip- Poffenberger, Mark and Me Gean, Betsy. exist with respect to forest resources and ko Movement (Tewari, 1994). 1996. Village Voices, Forest Choices: the objectives for forest management as Joint Forest Management in India. well as the kind of management practices References: Oxford University Press, Delhi. to be used. The presence of many differ Sarkar. 1994. The Strength and Weaknes ent types of indigenously developed Ahmed. 1974. Public Participation and ses o f the Joint Forest Management in forest types, many of which are intricate Rural Development in South Chind- West Bengal. Indian Forester. local systems fo r forest management, wara Forest Division, Madhya Pra Vol.120:7:579-584. hardly have been recognized by foresters. desh, India. Indian Forests 120:7, 611- Wiersum, K.F. Normative Pluriformity in These examples indicate that in stimulat 614. Forest Management: Professional and ing sustainable forestry for rural devel Anon. 1988. Social Forestry Project, Tamil Community Perspectives. Wagenin- opment it is important that local people Nadu Phase II. 1988-89 to 1992-93. gen Agricultural University. should not be conceived as an unnatural Reedited Appraised Project Docu external factor to forests, but rather as a ment. Madras. highly specialized ecological agent acting Anon. 1994. FAO RAPA Publication. Author's address: within the forest. They may have either 1994/18 Edition Patric B. Durat et al. positive or negative influences on the Balaji, S. Participatory Forest Manage S. John Joseph forests; these influences are time and ment for Sustainable Development M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, location dependent. The concept of Socio-Economic Analysis of Interface Community Biodiversity Conservation sustainable forest management should Forestry Program in India, TNAU, CBE. Program therefore not only be used w ith respect Bardhan Roy, B.K. 1992. Indian Forester- Third Cross Street, Taramani Institutional 4 to ecologically and socially sound, pro Forestry Rediscovered - Needed Re Area fessionally guided wood production forms, PCCF, West Bengal, Calcutta. Chennai 600113, Tamil Nadu, India schemes in either natural forests or tim ber October. e-mail: mdsaaa51@giasmd01 .vsnl.net.in plantations, but also with respect to the Brown, B.E. 1997. Integrated Coastal maintenance and development of a wide Management: South Asia, Depart variety of indigenously-developed forest ment of International Development types. This means that the concept of (DFID). Department o f Marine Sci sustainable forest management should ences and Coastal Management, Uni incorporate the notion that not only the versity of Newcastle, Newcastle upon ecological integrity and social functions Tyne, United Kingdom. of forests should be maintained, but also Extracts from Working Paper No.1, 1994.

168 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

The horrifying inventory of the Central Use it or Lose it: INBio's Integrative American Commission on the Environ ment and Development (CCAD, 1998) lists Concept for Biodiversity Conservation 42,286 fires on an area of 2,537,160 ha between December 1997 and May 1998. Werner Nader This is nearly 5 % of Central America with an area o f 51,186,500 ha (Table 3). Already in 1996 deforestation looked grim w ith Abstract transfer and building of a scientific and 2.13 % of the Central American Forest technological capacity in the source coun destroyed (Table 2). But only in the first Deforestation in the tropics is accelerat try. The Costa Rican population itself has six months of 1998 8 .12 % went up in flames. ing at the end of the second millennium to recognize the importance of biodiver It is easy, this year, to blame El Niño. and is threatening the persistence of glob sity as a source of inspirations for the But many of the fires where started deli al biodiversity. Whereas deforestation inventor and developer and thus for the berately to clear land, only to run out of rates in the 1980s were already horrifying future development of mankind. This is control in the drought and heat. The real with nearly 1 % of tropical forests des only possible, if the scientific and tech trouble, now as for 30-40 years past, Nica troyed annually, record destruction has nological capacity is strengthened within ragua and Honduras alike, is not weather been observed in the years 1997 and 1998. the country. but people: big ranchers clearing land for Only in Central America forest fires have cattle, slash-and-burn peasant farmers, recently effected 14,800 km 2 or 8 % of the Loss of Biodiversity - An Interna timber companies logging indiscrimina forests of the region. The problem is tional and Accelerating Problem tely and often illegally (The Economist, urgent, because losses in biodiversity are May 30th, 1998). Nicaragua's La Prensa irreversible. Practical solutions are need At the end of the second millennium tro states: Desolation and destruction are ed and one example is the Costa Rican pical deforestation is further accelerating everywhere; if nothing is done Nicaragu Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad, and is threatening the persistence of glob ans will be without flora, fauna or food. INBio. Following the simple trilogy SAVE- al biodiversity. Deforestation rates in the KNOW-USE INBio's mission is the conser 1980s already looked grim w ith an annual Over 20 % of Species M ight be vation o f Costa Rica's biological wealth destruction o f 10,499,000 or 1,199 ha per Lost in the Next Decade through facilitating its knowledge and hour or nearly 1 % of the closed forest potential non-destructive intellectual coverage (Table 1, Reid, 1991). The inven Scientists already alarmed the public in and economic uses. tory of forest destruction is not yet com the 1980s about the catastrophic extent The institute became most famous pleted for the 1990s, but it is already clear o f loss o f biological diversity. Based on the through its innovative bioprospecting that 1997 was and 1998 will be record data from that decade the prognosis on approach (USE), but is rather following an destruction years due to devastating species loss was 8 , 0 0 0 to 28,000 per year integrative strategy, which includes a forest fires. and by the year 2045 a loss of 9 to 19 % National Biodiversity Inventory (KNOW), Most ill-famed are the Indonesian o f tropical closed forest species, if the the dissemination of information to fires. According to a study o f David Glover deforestation continues at a rate of 1 0 potential users o f biodiversity and for of the IUCN World Wide Fund for Nature m illion ha / year (Reid, 1991). In Central awareness building (USE) and conserva an area the size o f Costa Rica was burned America deforestation in 1998 will be ten tion and development (SAVE) in collabora in Indonesia by fires that were primarily times higher than the average rate obser tion with the governmental national set by businesses and m ilitary trying clear ved in Latin America in the 1980s (Table system o f conservation areas (SINAC) and forests in order to install palm oil planta 3). We m ight have lost over 20 % o f the the communities around the protected tions and other cash crop lands. About 70 tropical biodiversity already in the first areas. In biodiversity prospecting INBio million people were exposed to health decade of the new millennium. has pioneered collaborations w ith inter problems due to the fire haze last year Forest destruction gains speed despite national industries in the field of phar (Study of David Glover, o f the Economy of all international efforts to put it on maceuticals, agrochemicals, cosmetics and Environment). hold, despite all conferences, conventions and biotechnology, which include the But also in Central America the smoke and workshops, attended by internation sharing of benefits from future products of burning forests darkened the sky over al experts and despite all international for biodiversity conservation, technology months and could be smelt up to Mexico. roll-calls. Biodiversity became a wide-

Table 1: Destruction o f Tropical Forests in the 1980s (Reid, 1991).

Continent Closed Forest Average annual % annual in 1980s (000 ha) deforestation destruction in 1980s (000 ha) Africa 203,714 1,508 0.74 Latin America 673,715 5,278 0.78 Asia 288,953 3,713 1.28 TOTAL 1,166,382 10,499 0.94

169 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity- Nader • Use it or Lose it: INBio's Integrative Concept for Biodiversity Conservation

Table 2: Deforestation in Central America In 1996 - Source: CCAD/CCAB-AP/UICN-ORMA. 1997. Diagnósticos Forestales de Belice, Guatem ala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica y Panamá.

Country Surface (ha) Forest coverage Forest coverage Deforestation % of total % of forest (ha) (%) (ha/year) Belize 2,143,500 1,773,000 82.72 1 0 , 0 0 0 0.47 0.56 Guatemala 10,889,000 3,480,100 31.96 90,000 0.83 2.59 El Salvador 2,097,000 385,087 18.36 11,653 0.56 3.03 Honduras 11,249,200 4,536,700 40.33 108,000 0.96 2.38 Nicaragua 12,142,800 3,764,172 31.00 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 0.82 2 . 6 6 Costa Rica 5,113,300 1,845,687 36.10 18,000 0.35 0.98 Panamá 7,551,700 2,422,724 32.08 51,000 0 . 6 8 2 .1 1 TOTAL 51,186,500 18,207,470 35.57 389,000 0.76 2.13

Table 3: Forest Fires and Damages in Agriculture and Forestry, December 97 to M ay 98 - Source: Inform ation o f the Workshop about Forest Fires in Central America, San Pedro Su la, Honduras, June1998. Proyecto de M onitoreo de los Recursos Naturales (Detección de Incendios Forestales), ODA - MARENA.

Country Total area (ha) No. of fires Forest Agricultural land Total area % of total area affected (ha) affected (ha) affected (ha) Belize 2,143,500 656 22,960 16,400 39,360 1.83 Guatemala 10,889,000 10,906 381,710 272,500 654,360 6 . 0 0 El Salvador 2,097,000 227 79,450 5,675 13,620 0.64 Honduras 11,249,200 9,594 335,790 239,850 575,640 5.12 Nicaragua 12,142,800 15,196 531,860 379,900 911,760 7.51 Costa Rica 5,113,300 1,511 52,885 37,775 90,660 1.78 Panamá 7,551,700 4,196 146,860 104,900 251,760 3.33 TOTAL 51,186,500 42,286 1,480,010 1,057,150 2,537,160 4.96 spread catch-phrase and is used depend siderably lower in Belize and Costa Rica interest payments due for foreign debts. ing on the specific interests of the user. compared to the other countries of the Nearly half of the forests were slash-and- The ongoing discussion on its legal, eth region (Table 2). Whereas Belize is a low burned to generate pasture land for the nic, ethical, cultural, social, recreational, populated country with only 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 peo country's once flourishing meat industry. scientific, educational and aesthetic ple living on an area of about 2 1 , 0 0 0 km2, The ham burger connection w ith Costa aspects gets sometimes diffuse and theo Costa Rica is as densely populated as its Rica saved the US-consumer a couple o f retical and it seems more and more diffi neighbors. The resume of the forest fires cents on his favorite fast food. Due to low cult to attract the attention of the public in 1998 also indicates that Costa Rica is prices and declining consumption of beef in the North on the catastrophe occurring better o ff than its neighbors (Table 3). in the USA the export of meat from Costa in the tropics. A focus is needed on the This was not always like this and in the Rica is reduced to less than $ 30 m illion in central point of the problem. Its causes 1960s and 1970s Costa Rica was a leader 1997 (Costa Rican Export and Im port are diverse like global climate change, in deforestation in Central America and Directory, 1998), which is less than 5 % of cattle ranching, tim ber production, slash- became one of the most studied model the income from tourism. Losses in biodi and-burn peasant farmers, urbanization cases for the economic and ecological versity and other natural resources due to etc. and are driven by greed, poverty and consequences of forest destruction in the deforestation to generate pasture land negligence. But the effect is always the tropics (Repetto, 1992). Between 1943 are also in monetary terms several fold same: the loss of one of the most impor and 1987 Costa Rican forest decreased higher than the income from the meat tant resources for the future develop from 38,250 km 2 to 14,759 km2, a loss of industry ever was. ment of mankind, biodiversity. Only if the 74 %. An impressive picture of the devel public is convinced and aware of this opment of deforestation during this time Sustainable Use of Biodiversity importance for the survival of their child is given in Fig. 1. The forest areas, left ren and grand-children, drastic measures today, are mainly under conservation. Costa Rica already reacted in the 1970s seem feasible. Good examples from the Outside o f conserved areas only about and since then has put over 25 % of the practice are needed and fantasy and inno 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 hectares of primary forest persist. country under protection. In the first half vation with the same diversity as obser Erosion between 1970 and 1989 washed o f the 1980s the country underwent a ved in nature. o ff 2 . 2 billion tons of soil and nutrients of deep economic crisis due to high oil and 17 % o f the value of the annual crops and low coffee prizes. The conservation areas Case Study Costa Rica 14 % of the value of livestock products. came under pressure and the problem Alone in 1989 3.2 million cubic meters of escalated, when gold-diggers entered the The forest inventory o f the CCAD fo r 1996 timber with a commercial value of $ 400 Corcovado National Park at the Southern reveals that deforestation rates were con million were destroyed, more than the Pacific coast on the Osa Peninsula. It was

170 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - Nader • Use it or Lose it: INBio's Integrative Concept for Biodiversity Conservation

ment KNOW leads to ignorance. SAVE and KNOW without USE is the situation o f the ivory tow er o f fundam ental sci ence. KNOW and USE w ithout SAVE leads to exploitation and extinction. Today's Costa Rican strategy fo r sustainable develop ment is based on this principle with the intention to put all elements into balance (Nader and Rojas, 1996b). A key element of the institute's stra tegy is the National Biodiversity Inven tory, the KNOW. Elements of USE are the bioprospecting approach and the infor mation dissemination program "Gestion Social". The program on development and conservation is the major component of SAVE and collaborates with the national system o f conservation areas (Sistema Nacional de los Áreas de Conservación, SINAC) and the communities in the neigh bourhood of these areas to improve the infrastructure in these regionsfor tourism and develop sustainable uses for biodi versity. Although this approach is integrative and considers the governmental level as well as the local communities and funda mental research as well awareness build ing among school children, politicians, tourists and rural population, INBio be came most famous for its bioprospecting activities. INBio pioneered research colla borations with high-tech industries as a contribution to biodiversity conservation and it was this pioneering achievement which attracted immediate international attention rather than the other contribu tions of at least equal importance.

The INBio-Merck Agreement

Fig. 1: Developm ent o f deforestation in Costa Rica, 1940-1983. The value of biodiversity for evolution, human culture, functioning o f ecosys difficult to justify to the public to put cies. The continent of Europe in compari tems, as a tourist attraction and for apart a huge part of the country just for son offers about the same number of recreation remains without any doubt. nature conservation without any obvious plant species. Consequently in 1989 the But it seems th a t values fo r the develop and direct benefits for the people. It was Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad, ment of new pharmaceuticals are more during this time when the idea was born INBio, was founded w ith the mission spectacular and exotic. Thus it is only legi to develop innovative, intelligent and ■ to conserve Costa Rica's biological timate to use this attraction for conser sustainable uses o f the natural resources wealth through facilitating its knowl vation. of the country, in particular o f its biodi edge and potential non-destructive intel INBio's pioneering achievement was a versity. lectual and economic uses. research agreement with the pharma INBio is applying a quite simple prin ceutical giant Merck, Sharp & Dohme. The Instituto Nacional de Biodi- ciple, which consists of three interrelated Merck & Co. has a long tradition in the versidad key elements: SAVE, KNOW and USE. development of pharmaceuticals from Products are developed from biodiversity natural resources and most prominent Costa Rica is particularly rich in biodiver through fundamental and applied re examples are sity. On an area of o n lyth e size o f thestate search and part o f the benefits from their ■ Renitec (enalapril) to reduce blood of Lower Saxony in Germany occur over sales or uses are reinvested to biodiversi pressure w ith annual sales o f $ 2,310 m il 13.000 plant and 350,000 arthropod spe ty conservation. Disregarding the ele lion. The structure of this chemically syn

171 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity- Nader • Use it or Lose it: INBio's Integrative Concept for Biodiversity Conservation

thesized drug was derived from a pepti v u m (cryptosporidiosis) and T o x o p l a s m a Biodiversity for the Bioindustries de, which occurs naturally in the venom g o n d i i (toxoplasmosis). All these diseases of the Brazilian fer-de-lance Bothropsjar- cause serious health problems, particu Since 1991 INBio has developed 9 other a r a c a . larly in the tropics. Cryptosporidiosis, for agreements with industry (Nader and ■ Mevacor (lovastin) to lower blood chol example, is spread rapidly through drink Mateo, 1998, Table 5). The m ajority of esterol w ith annual sales o f $ 1,250 m il ing water and outbreaks had been them are in the field of drug discovery. lion, which is a lacton produced naturally reported in urban slums. Apicidin also kills But biodiversity offers many other oppor by the soil fungus A spergillus terrestris. the parasite Eim eria tenella, which is re tunities including the development of ■ Zocor (simvastin), a chemical deriva sponsible fo r coccidiosis in poultry and new fragrances, pesticides and biocata tive of lovastin w ith annual sales of many other domesticated animals. lysts. In a collaboration w ith the biotech- $ 1,960 m illion (all data on sales volumes Whether Apicidin or one of its chemical company Diversa Corp. INBio pioneered from Pharma Pipelines, 1996). derivatives will ever make it to the mar gene prospecting (Nader and Rojas, The most spectacular achievement of ket, will depend on the results of the toxi 1996a). In this approach DNAfrom micro the INBio-Merck contract from 1991 was cology, then preclinical and finally clinical organisms is isolated directly from envi a benefit sharing agreement with royal studies. ronm ental samples and genes are cloned, ties on sales from future products to be Another product from the collabora which code for industrial enzymes and paid by Merck to INBio to support biodi tion is Lonchocarpol A, a flavone ori pathways for secondary metabolites. versity conservation and investigation. ginally isolated from the last larval stage Gene technology opens a broad field of Table 4 summarizes the most important of the moth M elipotis perpendicularis, new opportunities in bioprospecting and terms and conditions of the contract, collected by INBio (Salvatore et al., 1998). in consequence the biological and gene which has been extended tw o times so Further studies revealed that only animals tic resources of the tropics will gain far. feeding on the leaves of the legume L o n - increasing importance. But the collaboration w ith Merck also chocarpus m inim iflorus contained the Each new collaboration with industry reveals that drug discovery is highly risky compound. The plant provides the natur increases the chances fo r Costa Rica to get and time consuming (see the article al compound, which is enriched within a product developed from biodiversity "Biodiversity - Source of Inspiration and the animal and possibly protects against and royalties for conservation. Thus it Innovation" of the same author in this infections and parasites. Lonchocarpol A makes sense to develop bioprospecting as issue). Although the collaboration lasts was at the time of its discovery at Merck broad as possible (Tamayo et al., 1997). But over 7 years by now, no product from already known in literature and had been more important than the future income Costa Rica has as yet entered the drug isolated from other plants species like in dollars is capacity and awareness build market. Two natural compounds with Erythrina, Citrus, Lupinus and S o p h o r a . ing within the country. In this sense INBio important activities had been reported Notwithstanding a new biological activi is already offering new opportunities to from the collaboration, Apicidin and Lon- ty was described at Merck for the com Costa Rican scientists to practice their chocarpol A. Apicidin is a secondary meta pound as an antibiotic against methicil- skills. From each industrial partner train bolite of a micro-fungus of the genus lin-restitant Staphylococcus aureus and ing and technology transfer is requested. F u s a r i u m (Darkin-Rattraym et al., 1996), vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faeci- Increasing experience and scientific and Fig. 2. It is a cyclic tetrapeptide and inhi u m . It is highly improbable though that technological capacity makes the institute bits the histone deacetylase of Apicom- Lonchocarpol A will ever make it to the more attractive for new and more plexan parasites like Plasm odium falci market because its antibiotic activity is demanding collaborations. But not only p a r u m (malaria), Cryptosporidium par- antagonized by blood plasma. the scientists at INBio, also the population

Table 4: General terms and conditions o f the INBio-Merck agreement.

• Two years, non-exclusive, renewable: 1. November 1991, 2. July 1994, 3. August 1996 • Limited number of selected samples • Research Budget for:______

0 contribution to maintenance of conservation areas 0 INBio’s collecting & extraction processes 0 Equipment & lab supply ___ 0 Training of Costa Rican scientists______• Percentage of future revenues (royalties) to be shared in a 1:1 ratio with the Ministry for the Environment

172 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - Nader • Use it or Lose it: INBio's Integrative Concept for Biodiversity Conservation

an integrated expert of that center at Reid, W.V., Laird, S., Meyer, C.A., Gamez, INBio and responsible fo r the business R., Sittenfeld, A., Janzen, D.H., Gollin, development activities of the biopros M.A. und Juma, C. (1993) Biodiversity pecting division. Prospecting: Using Genetic Resources for Sustainable Development. World Literature Resources Institute, W ashington D.C. Repetto, R. (1992) Accounting for Envi CCAD (Commission Centroamericana de ronm ental Assets. Scientific A m eri Ambiente y Desarrollo) (1998) Incen can, 266, 94-100. dios forestales en Centroamerica, Salvatore, M.J., King, A.B., Graham, A.C., balance 1998, San Salvador, El Salva Russell Onishi, H., Bartizal, K.F., Abruz- dor junio de 1998 zo, G.K., Gill. C.J., Ramjit, H.G., Pit-

Fig. 2: The cyclic tetrapeptide Apicidin Darkin-Rattray, S.J., Gurnett, A.M., Myers, zenberger, S.M. and W itherup, K.M. from a microfungus of the genus R. W., Dulski, P.M., Crumley, T.M., (1998) Antibacterial activity of lon- Fusarium from Costa Rica (Darkin- Allocco, J.J., Cannova, C, Meinke, P.T., chocarpol A. J. Nat. Prod. 61, 640-642 Rattray et a!., 1996). Colletti, S.L., Bednarek, M.A., Singh, Tamayo, G., Nader, W., and Sittenfeld, A. S. B., Goetz, M.A., Dombrowski, A.W., (1997): Biodiversity for the Bioindus becomes aware of the treasures in their Polishook, J.D. and Schmatz, D.M. tries. Chapter 11 in: Biotechnology forests and consequently mental barriers (1996) Apicidin: A novel antiprotozo and Plant Genetic Resources: Conser will be build up against forest destruction. al agent that inhibits parasite histone vation and Use. (eds. B.V. Ford-Lloyd, Biodiversity can support the socio deacetylase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA H.J. Newbury and J.A. Callow) CAB economic development of a country at 93, 13143-13147 International, Wallingford, Oxon, various levels. Its aesthetics attract to u r Nader, W. and Rojas, M. (1996a): Gene England, 255-280 ism. Fruits, medicinal plants, essential oils prospecting for sustainable use of the and timber are products from the tropi biodiversity in Costa Rica. Genetic Author's address: cal forest w ith a direct market value. And Engineering News, New York, April 1 there is the indirect value as a source of Nader, W. and Rojas, M. (1996b) New Dr. Werner Nader inspirations for the inventors and devel Rules for Natural Compound and Bio Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad, INBio opers in industry (see the article "Biodi technological Research after INBio Aptda. Postal 22-3100 versity - Source of Inspiration and Inno and Rio. BIOForum (Darmstadt), Santo Domingo de Heredia, Costa Rica vation" of the same author in this issue). 9,374-378 and 10, 414-418 e-mail: [email protected], Both direct and indirect values from Nader, W. and Mateo, N. (1998) Biodiver [email protected] biodiversity should be developed for non sity - Resource fo r New Products, destructive uses. The necessary know Developmentand Self-Confidence. In: how has to be established within the Biodiversity: a challenge for develop source country and benefits have to ment research and policy (Barthlott, return to its population. Wilhelm & Matthias W iniger eds.). Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, New Acknowledgments York, Tokyo, 181-197 PharmaPipelines (1996) Pharmaceutical The authorthanks his colleagues at INBio, Global Review, PMSI International, particularly Dr. Nicolas Mateo, and Dr. Jas Lehman Brothers per Kocke of the Center for International Reid, W.V. (1991) How many species w ill M igration and Development (CIM) fo r there be?. In: Tropical deforestation th e ir continuos support o f his work. This and species extinction (W hitmore, T.C. w ork is supported by a grant from CIM, & Sayer, J.A., eds.). The W orld Conser Frankfurt, Germany. Dr. Werner Nader is vation Union, Chapman & Hall, 55-73

Table 5: INBio collaborations w ith international industry. 1

1. Merck & Co.: Drug discovery 2. Bristol-Myers Squibb: Drug discovery (ICBG project) 3. Strathclyde University: Drug discovery 4. AnalytiCon AG: Drug discovery 5. Phytera, Inc: Drug discovery 6 . INDENA S.p.A.: Phytopharmaceuticals 7. Givaudan-Roure: Fragrances 8 . British Technology Group, ECOS: Bio-nematicide DMDP 9. Intergraph Corp.: Software 10. Diversa Corp.: Recombinant Enzymes

173 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

trees and bushes every year. In Central Sustainable Aquaculture-Systems in Amazonia, water level may fluctuate up to 1 2 m and more annually, and trees may the Rainforest - Fish Culture in the be 6 -8 m under water. Huge areas, nor mally inhabited by terrestrial animals Surroundings of Manaus during low w ater season turn into lakes of amazing productivity and uncommon, Ulrich Werder not yet recognized or fully understood types of food chains during high water. A t the beginning o f high w ater sea 1. Introduction western view of possible forest utilization. son all kinds of fish invade the inundated Traditionally, forests have been considered forests to forage on detritus, insects, Deforestation has become a more and impenetrable, perilous and dangerous. other fish and vertebrate as well as on more convenient and apt means to cre Therefore cutting down forests for the plants and astonishingly to many scien ate new farm ing areas w orldwide. In Bra sake of cattle production and tim ber has tists (while this is common knowledge zil for example, large-scale human migra always been considered a honorable task. among local fishermen) also on plant tion into the Amazon forest was already However, recent experiences with tropical seeds, such as o f the rubber tree or the initiated in 1974 by INCRA(Instituto Nacio- agricultural development projects, espe brazil nut. Some species undertake long nal de Colonizaqao e Reforma Agraria), cially those including western technology distance migrations of up to many hun leading to a constantly rising demand for transfer into other socio-ecological dred kilometers (Godoy 1967). Locally food and farmland (Smith 1976). Small- systems, clearly show the need fo r new highly appreciated market fish, such as scale farmers on subsidiary level, but espe approaches to resolve problems in situ. Curimata (Prochilodus), Matrincha (Bryc- cially large and medium-scale landholders New approaches demand new ways of on) and Jaraqui (Semaprochilodus) who generally practice extensive beef thinking and/or surveys and evaluation of aggregate into smaller or larger shoals of cattle ranching mostly for export, often do yet little known interrelations in relatively thousands or hundreds of thousands of not see any solution other than burning unexploited resource-systems. Rather than individuals before migrating into the down the forest completely. modifying the physical and natural envi flooded areas where they utilize the vast During the past 3 decades (until 1991), ronment of unknown ecosystems to satisfy offers and possibilities o f space, shelter an estimated 40 million hectares (= 400 the requirements of our western food prod and food. 0 0 0 km2) of forest land have been clear- ucing technology, we must definitely look Traditional fisheries exploit such fish cut in the Amazon alone for a number of for new ways to modify and adapt our tech populations, butdueto human migration purposes, more than 50% of these areas nology to meet the demands of the actual into the rainforest and the increasing being used for pasture-based cattle pro conditions in the tropics. need for land and nutrition, the local duction (Serrao and Nepstad 1995). From Instead of striving fo r immediate peak demand for fish has constantly increased 1961 through to 1986, 30% o f the beef production rates, a conceptual frame during the past 2-3 decades, and so has needed to make hamburgers in the USA work for a rational utilization of resour the fishing effort. Intentions to imple came from Central America. Between ces aiming at a maximum long term bene ment sustainable management systems 1960 and 1980, 6.000 square kilometers fit should be developed. This can only be for natural fish populations have been were transform ed into pastures in Costa achieved by fully utilizing the tremen few and of little success, since basic knowl Rica, and 14.000 square kilometers in dous range o f resources that are unique edge about age and growth of fish was Honduras (Santos and Salati, 1995). These to areas like the Amazon, fo r example, or quite limited until recently (Werder 1997, few examples show how global markets any other region. In order to achieve this 1998). Instead, intensified and uncontrol affect the environment of tropical forests. goal the specific and outstanding resour led fishing has lead to a non-measurable Keeping in mind the extremely low ces of the respective region must first be over-exploitation of stocks. This is illus productivity of cattle farming on pasture- recognized and appreciated as such. trated by large amounts of undersized transferred forests (M attosand Uhl 1994), Among some others, the major physical juvenile fish on the markets. along with the destructive effects, the irre resources o f the Amazon are: forest and However, fish has always been the pri trievable losses of ecological structures fresh water, the major biological resour mary and most valuable animal protein and biodiversity including all socioecolo- ces being: genetic diversity and the adap source for human consumption in the gical implications, the question arises, tations o f native species to local condi amazon area, and are therefore better whether the traditional western approach tions. suited for local markets than any other for food production is valid and applica imported products. So, wherever cash ble worldwide, or if different and modified 3. Some aspects on forest- and crop for export purposes is not needed, systems of animal and protein production fish-ecology fish should be considered as an alterna might be more useful in the tropics. tive option to cattle production. Tropical rainforest eco-systems differ sub 2. A new approach stantially from all other forest eco 4. Fish ponds in the forest systems on our planet. Some of them are Many of the negative impacts of defor seasonally inundated, forming temporary At the same time as people began to occu estation are due to a narrow sighted habitats for aquatic organisms amidst py the "Inferno verde" (green hell), the

174 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - W erder • Sustainable Aquaculture-Systems in the Rainforest - Fish Culture in the Surroundings of Manaus question arose if local fish from the Ama zon might be suited to substitute import ed cattle and play a similar role in fish culture as for example trout, carp and tila- pia in other parts of the world. Beginning in the late 1970s, a number of case studies were conducted at the National Institute fo r Amazon Research - INPA (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia), Manaus, Brazil. The first approach was to gather knowledge on ecological specialization of these fish, on their acceptance among local people and their role on local markets. One vital assumption was their capability of being kept in ponds and th e irfe e d in g ability on artificial or locally produced diets. An other important assumption was that it w ould be possible to construct ponds in Figure 1: Small groundw ater pond in the forest (about 120 m2). the forest or on already degraded and almost useless farmland, without need ing to cut down large areas of forest for their construction.

4.1 Ponds

A variety of pond-types were tested and implemented successfully in the area a- round Manaus. This includes groundwa ter-ponds, standard fish-ponds and small river-dams. Such pond systems are easily combined w ith small scale farming systems, normally w ith o u t having to deforest areas much larger than the ponds themselves.

4.2 Fishfood

A major project objective was to take Figure 2: Series o f sm all river dams (each o f about 100 to 200 m 2). advantage of the fishes specialization for utilizing plant products in inundated forests and thus make use of natural forest products from the area. The experiments show that selected regional fish species can easily be fed on locally produced pellets (Werder and Saint-Paul 1979) instead o f using expen sive imported diets, which to a large degree consist of fish proteins derived from other endangered marine species. Low quality agricultural waste products as well as by-products and residues from other fields of production are easily inte grated and/or combined with locally avail able fruits and seeds (Werder and Anibal 1982). Even macrophytes as the water hyacinth, elsewhere considered a plague, can substitute fish meal in diets after having functioned as biological filter, in- Figure 3: Reservoir o f 1 ha surface area in the forest.

175 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - Werder • Sustainable Aquaculture-Systems in the Rainforest - Fish Culture in the Surroundings of Manaus

cattle production, but only about 2 to 0 . 2 ha of pond area for the same amount of fish. So the area demanded for fish pro duction varies between 1 0 % and 1 % of the area needed for the same live weight o f cattle. At an average fish consumption rate o f 155g/day/caput a pond area o f 1 ha can support up to 6 - 8 families with fish th roughout a year.

6. Summary and Outlook

Imported cattle undergo a very complex process of selection and adaptation to cli mate, diseases, parasites and low food- conversion. Generally spoken, ecological conditions in Amazonia are quite unfa- vorableforthe plain survival of cattle. But the fact that evolution has not provided Figure 4: Seining fish from a groundw ater pond. any larger grass-feeding mammals with facilities to successfully cope with living conditions in the rainforest is often being neglected. Production is not only low from the beginning, it even decreases with increasing time of land usage. De spite these well known ecological and associated socio-economic implications, cattle production still continues under specific socio-economic and political pressures (Salati 1995). Regional fish species do not show any such deficits as described fo r cattle. They have undergone a natural selection pro cess and are well adapted to local condi tions. Moreover, they have developed sur vival strategies, which are unknown to their relatives in other regions of the world. As previously mentioned, some of them feed on seeds and fruits of forest trees. One of the greatest advantages of Figure 5: First harvest from a small pond after a 10 m onths growth local fish production is the acceptance of period (stocking density 1 ind/m 2). the product and the accessibility of both markets and/or products. Fresh fish is easi sect trap and shelter for juvenile fish in the 5. Production ly transported to nearby villages and ponds (Saint-Paul, Werder and Teixeira thanks to the peoples mobility, produc 1981a, 1998b). As compared to cattle production, fish tion sites can be visited w ith o u t excessive It is therefore possible to not only farming does not only produce high qua travel effort. Little space is demanded fo r avoid the misuse and waste of high qua lity proteins for human consumption, but pond construction, and wherever water is lity human nutrition for fish food, butalso it also is by far more efficient than cattle needed for either direct human con to utilize otherwise degraded products, production. While the latter produce sel sumption orfor irrigation purposes, reser residues and surplus production com dom more than an average of 50 to 250 voirs can be utilized not only for water bined with locally available products of kg/ha/year on deforested grasslands storage, but also to produce high quality the forest and turn them into first grade (Mattos and Uhl 1994), fish production fish-proteins in proper tanks. quality fish proteins for direct human con can easily achieve annual rates of 2 0 0 0 Because o f the short distances be sumption. Pond fish from the Amazon to 5. 000 kg/ha in ponds (Werder 1981). tween small decentralized production thus take over the roll of pigs as histori In order to produce 1 ton of live units and consumption centers, little los cally developed waste converters in other w eight per year, between 15 and 2 2 ha of ses due to transport can be expected. Pro human societies. deforested land are needed in extensive vided local processing facilities for salting

176 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - Werder • Sustainable Aquaculture-Systems in the Rainforest - Fish Culture in the Surroundings of Manaus

and smoking were constructed, product Table 1: Composition o f some experim ental diets. Im ported ingredients o f com m er quality can be fu rth e r improved fo r the cial diets are partially replaced by locally available substitutes (from W erder andA ni- purpose of storing and long-distance bal 1982). Vitamins and vegetal oil m ay be added. transport. Only a small percentage of land is Diet No. I II III needed for the same production as of (g) (g) (g) cattle. Since large areas o f forest have Ingredient already been destroyed, fish culture and Fish or Meat 290 125 1 0 0 pond construction could make use of de Wheat 50 50 1 0 0 graded land in order to play an additional Soybean 365 450 1 0 0 role in recuperating such areas. Corn 295 155 - While in cattle ranching, biological Rice - 2 2 0 - diversity becomes reduced to a few spe Rice bran - - 2 0 0 cies in flora and fauna, fish culture pre Buriti (Palm) - - 1 0 0 serves and perhaps even adds to local Draff - - 150 biodiversity and it additionally utilizes its Brazil Nut - - 1 0 0 natural potential for food production in Water Hyacinth - - 150 a sustainable way. Total 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Besides all this, the w ater from fish v ponds has become enriched with nutri ents and trace elements, which normally Table 2: Production Parameters for cattle (from Serrao and Nepstad 1995) and fish in do not occur in such concentrations in A m a z o n ia . natural waters. Applying these enriched waters directly as irrigation water cer Cattle fish cattle tainly saves a lot of direct and indirect first cycle in ponds second cycle costs fo r artificial fertilizers needed for average live agriculture. weight gain 45-64 500-5000 150-250 Fish culture in the forest appears to be (kg/ha/year) an appropriate and integrated approach to sustainable utilization of forest resour area needed fo r ces in Amazonia. It should therefore be the production promoted and implemented wherever 22.2-15.4 2 .0 -0 . 2 6 .7-4.0 of 1 t live w eight suitable, perhaps also in other parts of the (per ha and year) world.

area needed fo r 7. Literature 1 0 -1 1t live weight 2 0 = 1 0 0 % 5=100% 40-4 production (%) Godoy 1967: Dez Anos de Observances Sobre Periodicidade Migratoria de Peixes do Rio Mogi Guassu. Rvta. bras. Biol. 27: 1-12. Ch., Machado, A.D. (eds) 1996: Inter al de Ranicultores. Jaboticabal, 1980. Mattos, M.M., Uhl, C.1994: Economic and disciplinary Research on the Conser Brasilia 1981, Sudepe: 83-84. ecological perspectives on ranching in vation and Sustainable Use of the Saint-Paul, U.; Werder, U.; Teixeira, A.S. the eastern Amazon. World Develop Amazonian Rain Forest and its Infor (1981b): Use of Waterhyacinth in ment. 22 (2): 145-158. mation Requirements. Report on the Feeding Trials w ith Matrinchá ( B r y c o n Santos, A. dos, and Salati, E. 1995: How Workshop held in Brasilia, Brazil, s p . ) . J. Aquat. Plant Manage. 19: 18- research can contribute to the sustain November 20-22, 1995. p. 221-238. 22. able use of the Amazon. In: Liberei, R., ISBN 3-00-000909-4 Werder, U,; Saint-Paul, U. (1979): Experi Reisdorff, ch., Machado, A.D. (eds) Smith, N.J.H. 1976: Brazil's Transamazoni- encias de alimentaçâo com Tambaqui 1996: Interdisciplinary Research on an Highway Settlement Scheme: (Colossoma macropomum), Pacú the Conservation and Sustainable Use Agrovilas, Agropoli, and Ruropoli. (M ylossom a sp.), Ja raqui ( S e m a p r o o f the Amazonian Rain Forest and its Association of American Geogra chi lodus theraponura) e Matrinchá Information Requirements. Report on phers, Proceedings Vol. 8 (1976), pp. (Brycon m elanopterus). Acta Amazó the Workshop held in Brasilia, Brazil, 129-132. nica 9(3): 617-619 (English summary). November 20-22, 1995. p 43-54. ISBN Saint-Paul, U.; Werder, U.; Teixeira, A.S. Werder, U. 1981 : A new species for tropi 3-00-000909-4 (1981a): O uso de Aguapé (Eichhornia cal fish culture: M atrinchá ( B r y c o n Serao, E.A., Nepstad, D.C. 1995: Pastures c r a s s ip e s ) em experimentos de ali s p . ) . "Aqua-culture Ve 1981" Venezia on Amazonian Forestlands: A Review m entado com Matrinchá (Brycon Congressi s.n.c. (W orld Conference on o f Environmental and Economic Per sp.). Anais do II Simposio Brasileiro de Aquaculture and International Trade formance. In: Liberei, R., Reisdorff, Aqui-cultura e do II. Encontró Nacion- Show). Contributed Papers: pp. 98-99.

177 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

Werder, U; Aníbal,S.R. (1981): Manual de Werder, U. (1998a): Eine neue Methode Author's address: cria^äo de peixes da Amazonia, I: Uti zur Altersbestimmung tropischer lizado racional de igarapés e alag Fische am Beispiel von Matrinchä Dr. Ulrich W erder ados de terra firme na Amazonia. (Brycon cephalus) - Ein Beitrag zum Alfred Toepfer Academy for Nature CNPq/INPA (manuscript): 62 pp. nachhaltigen Management natürli Conservation Werder, U; Anibal,S.R. (1981): Manual de cher Fischpopulationen, in: Dalitz, H; Hof Moehr, D-29640 criado de peixes da Amazonia, I: Uti Haverkamp, M; Homeier, J & Breckle, Schneverdingen, Germany lizado racional de igarapés e alag S.-W. (1998): Bielefelder Ökologische e-m ail: nna@ nna.de ados de terra firme na Amazonia. A Beiträge. Band 12, 1998: p. 163. ISSN Noticia - Manaus, 3, 10, e 17 de outu- 0178-0697. bro de 1982 Werder, U. (1997): Zur Altersbestimmung an Brycon cephalus, Günther 1869, (Teleostei: Characidae). Dissertation an der Universität Hamburg, ad fon- tes verlag, Eppendorfer Weg 119, D- 20259 Hamburg, 1997: 239 pp. ISBN 3- 932681-07-X.

also been the chief recipient of concern Non Timber Forest Products of India and attention of all forest economists and managers in India. However, it is the lat S. John Joseph ter group hitherto refered to as 'minor' that has been neglected for long both by The last three decades have been a wit ment and income. Activities related to the virtue of its misleading name and a delib ness to a gradual increase in the impor collection and primary processing of erate de-esteemed value. Today this MFP tance of Minor Forest Products (MFP) or NTFPs lend themselves suitable for equi linked with livelihood/food security of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) table participation of women and indig millions of people below poverty line resources. Sustainable production of enous people. While some of the NTFPs offers a potent alternative to derive eco these NTFP resources then becomes the have entered national and international nomic benefits from forests in a sustain need of the hour and is, therefore, a mat trade, they tend to have the comparative able manner. ter of great concern to all forest managers advantage in supporting development of The type of forests from which NTFP and all those involved in management of rural and backward areas. are gathered in Peninsular India and the NTFPs. Quantitative resource accounting Efforts are now underway to make an NTFP scenario are given hereunder: of minor forest products is required to be assessment of production of commercial These MFPs or NTFPs are obtained from done in order to fulfill the market ly im portant MFP items in India which earn fruits, flowers, leaves, twigs, bark, roots of requirements and trade within the handsome revenue and foreign exchange plants and other products from animal and country and abroad. Accurate accounting like the beedi leaves, sal seeds, mahua mineral origin. They could be grouped into of MFPs has been a difficult job owing to flowers, myrobalans, gum karaya, sandal the following nine categories: the system of disposal of non-timber wood etc. Trade of these items has also I. Edible plants forest products from the forest areas as been nationalized in a fe w states after II. Medicinal plants and spices they have been offered on lease either in Orissa state took the lead in nationaliza III. Essential oils the name of general MFPs or in the name tion of the trade in MFPs in 1962. The pro IV. Oil seeds and fatty oils of medicinal plants and revenue earnings duction figures of about 30 individual V. Gums & Resins thereby collected have also been record items is now available with the Orissa VI. Tans/Dyes ed in a similar fashion. Forest Department Corporation. Other VII. Fibers and flosses These products play a crucial role in states have followed suit but adequate VIII. Bamboos and Canes supporting community welfare as signifi item wise production data of MFPs is not IX. Miscellaneous items of plant ori cant sources of edible product, fodder, available for most of the states in India. gin such as beedi wrappers, cork, fuel, fertilizer (mulch), fibers, medicines, The trend in forestry so far has been toys etc.; honey, lac, silk of animal gums and resins, oils and construction to classify all forest products into two origin and stones and mica of materials. Millions of people around the main groups - major and minor. The for mineral origin. world living in the vicinity of forests sub mer group comprises of wood for timber, Citing NTFP operations from 3 large sist on these products. They help to pro small wood and fuel wood resources. This states in India, we have Madhya Pradesh vide opportunities for additional employ group, believed to spell big money, has known for Beedi and large scale NTFP

178 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - John Joseph • Non Timber Forest Products of India

operations, Andhra Pradesh where 2 mil The production of tendu leaves 48,000 tons which is about 70% of the lions tribals are engaged in a cooperative increased from 2.5 million standard bags total production was exported. The network for procurement of NTFP and in 1973 to 4.1 million in 1993. The eight present rate paid to collectors is Maharashtra model of district Tree-Grow ies witnessed a sharp fluctuation in tendu Rs.1,35/per kg. There are more than 1,300 ers Cooperatives for Marketing of Tree leaf production. collection centres in the state. Products. The Government of Madhya Pradesh Sal seeds are collected from the time M adhya Pradesh is situated in the cen in 1989 established a three-tier coopera ripe fruits start falling in May and conti tre of the country and is the largest state tive structure for collection, processing nues till the onset of rains. The sal seed with a geographical area of 443,346 sq. and disposal of tendu leaves. The agent trad e is n atio nalized , th e G o vernm ent has km. This includes a forest area of 155,414 system was done away with. Under the appointed MFP Federation as the sole sq.km which constitutes 35 % of the total present system there are 1947 primary agent for purchase and sale of seeds. In land area and about 22 % of the total cooperatives, 44 district unions and at the addition to the committed supply of sal forest area in the country. Due to a great ap exth ere is M.P. State M inor Forest Prod seeds to industries at concessional rates, multiplicity of topographical features, uce Trades and Development Coopera the federation also sells it through ten soil and climatic factors, diverse types of tion Federation. It is reported that the ders. natural vegetation are available. The new system of collection and marketing The sal seed production shows regu state is a union o f extrem es as q uality and has increased the income of collection lar fluctuations at periodic intervals. types of forests is concerned. Forest types (MFPD 1993). Survey has revealed that These fluctuations signify every alternate ranging from dry thorny forests to tropi average number of bundles made per year as a bad seed year. Sal seed produc cal moist and even sub-tropical, semi labour/family/per day is 100. Despite the tion has shown increasing trend only up evergreen forests occur in the state. By fact that cooperation of tendu leaves has to 1982-83. On the whole it increased at composition, the three major forest types benefited the rural masses as well as the compound growth rate of 4.90 % per are Sal (16.5%), Teak (17.8%) and miscel generated revenues, it is yet to acquire annum. If the series is broken into seven laneous forests (65.5%). the cooperative-structure and involve ties and eighties, then the sal seed pro A large number of minor forest prod ment of people in a meaningful way. duction increased at the rate of 10.13 % ucts and medicinal plants are also found There is a need to link MFP cooperative during the eighties. Sal seed production in the natural forests. These forest prod societies with the Joint Forest Manage varies from year to year, the highest ucts have tremendous potential and ment System which will ensure benefits collection w as in 1977-78. The co-efficient make significant contributions in terms of to all and lead to institutional develop of variance for the last two decades was income and employment in rural areas m ent. 85.5 % for the seventies thereafter stabi near forests. Some MFPs, like tendu ( D i o - lized at 39.33 % depicting that the eight spyros m elanoxylon) leaves, Sal ( S h o r e a ies as compared to seventies were rela r o b u s t a ) and H arra (Term inalia chebula) Sal (Shorea robusta) - Seed tively stable. Least square trend has been have been nationalized considering their used to showthe direction of change. The significance in employment generation The sal tree is widely distributed in cen co-efficient of the trend is positive which and economy of rural people as well as tral, eastern and southern parts of the shows significant growth in sal seed pro their economic role in industry. Other state. Sal seeds yield the sal butter. The duction during the period. important non-wood forest products are seeds are husked and boiled and the oil Employment generated has been esti

M ahua (M adhuca latifolia), M ahul ( B a u - is skimmed off. The oil soon solidifies to mated with sal seed production in 1992, hinia vahlii), A char (Buchanania lanzan), a white butter. which was 546 thousand quintals. On the medicinal plants, etc. In 1992, about 300 tons of sal oil were basis of primary survey it was found that exported to Japan for cocoa butter exten a labour can approximately collect 15 kg Tendu Leaves (Diospyros m ela der at a FOB price of US$1,150/ton. The per day; employment generated is 36.4 n o x y l o n ) - Known also as Beedi deoiled sal seed is used for cattle feed and lakh person days. The employment Leaves its market price is US$60/ton and about through collection activity alleviates the Tendu leaves are obtained from small trees and wildly growing bushes of D i o Tab. 1: General contributions o f forest foods to human nutrition. spyros m elanoxylon. The leaves are used as wrapper of beedi (cheap cigarette). Type of Forest Food Nutrient The state produces the largest quantity of Fruits and berries Carbohydrates (fructose and soluble tendu leaves and it is estimated that sugars), vitamins (especially C), minerals ab out 41 p e rce n t o f the total production (calcium, magnesium, potassium); some in the country is from this state. Trees are provide protein, fat or starch deciduous, new leaves come out from Nuts Oils and carbohydrates middle of March to May. The plucking of leaves is done in May. The leaves are Young leaves, herbaceous plants Vitamins (beta-carotene, C), calcium, iron plucked and tied into bundles known as Gums and saps Proteins and minerals gaddies of 50 leaves in each. For 100 Invertebrates (insects, snails) Protein, fat, vitamins bundles the rate paid is Rs.35/-. The lea Vertebrates (fish, birds, mammals) Protein ves are dried in the sun on both sides.

179 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - John Joseph • Non Timber Forest Products of India

problem of seasonal unemployment and plants can be cultivated to meet com lion tribals through its network of 800 increases the income level of rural house mercial requirements. Daily Requirement Depots (DRD), 33 holds. Although medicinal plants have tre branches, eight divisional and two region mendous economic and medicinal value, al offices with about 2300 employees. It Harra (Term inalia chebula) - Gall very little information is available regard is actively engaged in procurement of Nut ing their marketing system. The entire Non-Wood Forest Produce (NWFP) and trade is in the informal sector. Market sur Agricultural Produce (AP) from tribals; Fruits of the tree of Term inalia chebula veys are being conducted to find the mar marketing the produce; supply of essen commercially known as chebulic myroba- keting channels, price spread, prospective tial commodities; and provision of credit lan is one important tanning material. markets, consumption within the country for Seasonal Agricultural Operations The two other commercially know myro- and export. (SAO) and consumption purposes. balans are Term inalia bellerica and Em- The linkage between collectors and To strengthen GCC for stopping the blica officinalis. However, neither of the actual consumers is long, changes need to exploitation of tribals, the Government two species compares favorably with the be made to share profit margins more has awarded monopoly rights to the Cor first one. equitably in the market channel. A detail poration over the purchase of 35 items of Madhya Pradesh accounts for 75 per ed study of medicinal plants collected by NWFP in the operational areas of the Cor cent of the total production in the coun rural population for which ready markets poration. The G overnm ent has also decid try. Myrobalans are one of the most exist in major trading centres is necessary ed to meet the staff costs of the Corpo important tanning materials of the pyro- forstabilizingthetradeand ensuring pro ration which enables payment of higher gellol class. These tans produce a brown per margins to the collectors. procurement price to the tribals. In the ish colored deposit on leather called year 1990-91, the Corporation achieved a bloom, as opposed to the catechol class M ahul (Bauhinia vahlii) - Leaves NWFP and AP procurement turnover of of tans which do not produce this bloom. Rs. 165 million.

Myrobalan tan is not very astringent and Bauhinia vahlii is a gigantic clim ber and penetrates the hide very slowly. one of the most abundant of Indian climb Technical Assistance: Production of myrobalans in the state ing Bauhinia sp. Its leaves are extensively Tribals are provided training in identifi has shown a lot of fluctuations during the used as leaf cups, plates and it is also used cation, determination of nature and avail past two decades. The production has in pan shops as a w rapper. It occurs in ability of non-wood forest products, qua generally ranged from 21 to 200 thou almost all forest types in the state, but lity and grading of the product, storage sand quintals. During the past 7-8 years, most of the collection is reported in sal and marketing. This enables them to it has stabilized to 120 thousand quintals. forests. The total collection of mahul is bring out a quality product while conserv According to a survey (Khare, 1992) aver about 1,00,000 quintals annually. Almost ing the tree species providing NTFP. The age incom e earned fo r H arra collector per all the produce is sent to South India. The produce is brought by the tribals to the collection house hold is Rs.255/- in the sea collection generates substantial employ nearest DRD where it is procured by the son. ment in rural areas near forests ranging GCC staff. from 2 to 3 months in most areas and 6 Medicinal Plants to 7 months in areas with rich sal forests. Processing and Value Addition: A study on price spread in marketing In order to obtain better prices for the Innumerable varieties of medicinal plants o f Bauhinia vahlii leaves (Bhatnagar, produce, GCC is planning to add value to and herbs are found in different forest 1989) reveals th at collector's share in con the raw products through processing and types, they are found growing in the sumers rupee is 33.33 % whereas the mar discovering new end-uses. A non-edible under-storey and as ground flora (Tab. 2). keting m argin is 46.67 % w hich is high. In oil unit at Vizianagaram is producing In the past due to biotic pressures and 1986, the state government stopped the 'Kutir' soaps with neem base. A modern over-utilization many plant species of system of royalty on all non-nationalized unitfortreeseed oil extraction, soap-base medicinal importance have diminished. non wood forest products. and soap m anufacture is com ing up in Nir- Forest degradation and deforestation mal, Adilabad District. A shikakai and is closely linked to poverty and unem Andhra Pradesh Example of Giri- soapnut processing and packaging unit in ployment in rural areas. The rural popu jan Cooperative Corporation Ltd. Rajahmundry District produces herbal shi lation living near forests depend upon for Tribals: kakai and soapnut powder. A modern them for daily requirements of fuel, fod honey processing and packing facility is der, flowers, fruits, seeds, roots, rhizomes, The Girijan Cooperative Corporation being set up in Rajahmundry. leaves etc. One or the other species are Limited, Visakhapatnam (GCC) is one such being utilized as food, spice, medicine, organization that has been successfully Future Strategy: fibre, building material. Due to these promoting multipurpose tree species for GCC has initiated various programs to pressures, areas formerly rich in forests non-wood forest produce in tribal areas expand the scope and area of operation and medicinal plants have become bar of Andhra Pradesh. GCC was established to provide more effective service to the ren. The list of threatened species is in 1956 as an undertaking of the State tribals. It is planning to raise the income increasing. There is a need to preserve and Government of Andhra Pradesh with the level of the landless tribal NWFP gatherer multiply these plants and to create spe objective of socio-economic upliftment of by encouraging procurement of a num cial areas as gene pools. Many medicinal tribals. The Corporation is serving 2.0 mil ber of products. For this purpose, it has

180 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - John Joseph • Non Timber Forest Products of India

Tab. 2: Occurrence o f Medicinal Plants in Different Forest Types. Source: Prasad and Bhatnagar, 1991

Forest Type Species Sal Teak Mixed and Miscellaneous * * ★ 1. A brus precatorius * * * 2. Andrographis paniculata * 3. Anacylus pyrethrium * 4. A llium laptaphyllum * 5. Acorus calamus * * 6. Adhatoda vasika * * 7. Aspa raus racem osus * * 8. Achyranthus aspera * 9. Aeole m arm elos * 10. A llium cepa * 11. A llium sativa * 12. Aloe barbandensis * * * 13. Cassia fistula * * 14. Clrcuma am ada * * * 15. Curcum a ¡onda

16. Cannabis sativa * * * 17. Curcum a angustifolia * * 18. Costus speclosus * * * 19. Celastrls paniculata * * k 20. Curcum a caesia

2 1. C alotropis gigantia * * k 22. Chlorophytum tuberosum * k 23. Curculigo orchiodes k 24. Curcum a arom ática k 25. Cyperus seariosus * 26. Dioscorea bulbifera * * k 27. Dioscorea hispida * * k 28. Em blica officinalis * 29. Elepharisperm um subsessile * 30. G ardenia gum ífera * 31. G loriosa superba * 32. G ardenia lucida * * k 33. H elicteris isora * * 34. H olarrhena antidysentrica * k 35. Hem idesm us in di cus * * 36. M allotus phillippinesis k 37. M entha arvensis

* * k 38. N yctanthus arbortristis * 39. Peraria tuberosa k 40. Piper longum k 41. PIubago zeylanica k 42. Psoralia carylifolia * k 43. R auvolfia serpentina * k 44. Sida cordifolia * k 45. Sw ertia angustifolia k 46. Strychnos nuxvom ica ★ k 47. Term inalia belerica k k 48. Term inalia chebula k 49. Term inalia cordifolia k 50. U rginea indica k k 51. Vetiveria zizinoides k 52. W ithania som nífera k 53. O cim um bacillicum

181 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - John Joseph • Non Timber Forest Products of India identified various medicinal herbs and All these products have numerous direct Analysis and Discussion non-traditional oilseeds which have and secondary uses and generate several potential for increasing the income of tangible and intangible benefits for peo Every country has an inherent wild land tribals, especially during the lean period. ple - the rural poor, forest dwellers and biodiversity wealth which enables it to On the marketing front, plans are indigenous tribals. They become a major reap many benefits, the major one being afloat to set up or revitalize various pro source of subsistence and income when socio-economic and national develop cessing industries including value addition. consumed and marketed locally by these ment of the country by the utilization of Some of the units which will be set up in folk. However, when utilized/marketed the natural resources. However, land the immediate future are Gum Karaya locally by the rural poor/tribals, these biodiversity is not eternal - and a country Processing Unit, Niger Seed Cleaning and NTFPs com m and a very low m arket value, has to pay both direct management and Sterilization Facility, Cleaning Nut Process hence provide very low earnings and are other related costs. Non-availability of ing Unit, and Turmeric Processing Facility. generally quantified and also evaluated the natural resources or very low produc GCC proposes to widen its consumer base as per the local trader's terms/discretion. tion warrants the need for imports to by undertaking processing of forest pro This happens because of lack of informa ensure sustainable supply. Faulty man ducts to directly usable end products. The tion available with rural poor/tribals agement concepts of resource utilization Corporation has also initiated steps to tap regarding actual value price commanded and policies can very easily upset export- the export markets, either directly or by end products in subsequent market import balance of resources within a through joint ventures with reputed co levels or the international markets and country and thereby affect its national operatives of importing countries. the price differentiation for raw, semi- econom y. processed or processed NTFPs, guiding Of the innumerable natural resources Maharashtra Tree Growers' Co suitable marketing openings and mea in India, people are mostly ignorant operatives sures for quantification. about the potential of Minor Forest Prod Over a period of time, however, a ucts (MFPs)/Non-Timber Forest Products By promoting producers cooperatives or number of NTFPs have been channeled (NTFPs) which have also been the chief associations, small-scale producers can be into markets in a big way - domestic as recipient of poor attention. Information helped to gain access to information, also international mostly in unprocessed on export-import of MFPs/NTFPs is only greater negotiating strength and econo or semi-processed forms. This has led to a available along with innumerable items mies of scale to be competitive with lar regular export-import trade of NTFPs be published in "Monthly Statistics of the ger enterprises. This calls for strong policy tween India and several other countries. Foreign Trade of India" Vol. I, (Exports) support and regulatory instruments to The quantity exported and the revenue and Vol. II (Imports) by the Directorate of correct market imbalances and distor earningsfrom exports of NTFPs from India Commercial Intelligence & Statistics, Cal tio n s. has been found to significantly increase cutta. The Agroforestry Federation of for a number of commodities. On the MFPs have never been at par with tim Maharashtra, headquartered in Nasik, other hand, imports of some NTFPs have ber products of forests and even an eco consists of 25 district-level tree-growers' shown a decline either due to signifi nomic analyses of their availability and cooperatives. It provides marketing and cantly increased production within the their commercial importance has never technical support to its m em ber coopera country or availability of suitable substi been appropriately carried out so far. An tives and individual farmers, mainly in the tutes for imported NTFPs. Whatever the attempt is made to put on record all marketing of eucalyptus wood and seeds case be, export-import trade of NTFPs export-import information on MFPs avail o f Jatropha curcas. does play a very significant role in devel able in India from the above Monthly The Nasik Tree Growers' Cooperative oping the economy of the country Journal. Values of export and import are Society already gives its members a rate through foreign exchange earnings. inclusive of duties/taxes and levies char o f return 30-40 p e rce n t h ig h e rth an w h a t Some of the countries to which India ged on all the items. Criteria for the char they could bet individually in the market. regularly exports its NTFP resources are ged duties/taxes of levies is, however, not Other benefits that members gain Afghanistan, Australia, Austria, Bahrain, know n. through collective organization include: Belgium, Canada, Finland, France, Ger Table 3 depicts the quantities (in ■ advice on demand and supply condi man Federal Republic, Ghana, Hong- tones) of the twelve groups of NTFPs tions at the district, region, and national Kong, Japan, Israel, Italy, Kuwait, Kenya, exported and the value of revenue or for levels Korea, Malaysia, Maldives, Mauritius, eign exchange earned (in lakhs or hun ■ lower transportation costs through Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nige dred thousands of rupees) during 1970- combined loads ria, Oman, Philippines, Portugal, Qatar, 71, 1980-81 and 1990-91. ■ technical adviceon harvesttiming and Seychelles, Singapore, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Table 4 represents the percentage m ethods Sweden, Switzerland, Tanzania Rep., Uni contributions of various twelve MFP/NTFP ■ greater responsiveness to changes in ted Arab Emirates, U.K., USA, USSR, Zam groups to the total exports for the year regulations bia. On the other hand, a number of 1990-91 so as to project an idea o fth e cur ■ economies of scale for storage of NTFPs are imported from Hong-Kong, rent value of revenue/foreign exchange produce at optimum locations Indonesia, Italy, Singapore, Zambia, earning from each group of MFP/NTFP. ■ collective bargaining and even cash France, German Federal Republic and The data furnished for various advance during periods of storage. many other countries. MFPs/NTFPs into broad groups gives rise to a specific problem for monitoring an

182 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity- John Joseph • Non Timber Forest Products of India

individual NTFP item closely in its chang III. On the contrary, there are somelage dwellers for their local use generally ing trends of availability, demand, supply MFP items whose percentage increase in go unaccounted, hence, the Forest and the price commanded. Taken as quantities have remained the same over Departments should make an assessment groups, specific items of NTFP which set the two period phases but the value of of the potential availability and actual trends, command high values or are trad revenue foreign exchange earnings com collection for each item appropriately. ed in large quantities, fail to catch atten manded has increased tremendously. Owing to the lack of such information, tion in the average stock-taking. There There may be an insatiable demand for the production cannot be appropriately fore, analysis of specific items should be the MFP resource but various factors such regulated commensurate with their made to arrive at definite conclusions for as increased awareness of the uses/poten- requirements. trade. Three possibilities emerge in the tial use of the item now limit the export The basic challenges and the future absence of any distinct trends: potential. But this, in turn, leads to an plans of work that lie ahead of develop I. There are a number of MFP com increase in the commanded value. An ing and developed countries differ in modities which show a export potential example of this is the unique anti-cancer their basic approach/objectives. For a well over a ten year period but nose-dive in extract taxol, from Taxus baccata (m edi defined, mutually and symbiotically the next year period. cinal plant)and Sandalwood. Limited sup beneficial and balanced relationship, a. Causes of increase/decrease in MFP plies are now being provided of this medi developing countries need to build and production have never been the subject cinal plant at increased prices due to the develop their natural resources vastly of study due to the prevalence of timber information now gained about its anti while developed countries with their and the timber-oriented approach of the cancer properties. This example, of course, kno w -ho w on-hand technologies need to policy in general especially in the develop is not reflected in the tables as the MFPs share them adequately and honestly and ing countries. If a country changes its deci have been analysed as groups namely notaim alwaysto tilt the balance of bene sion of exporting raw materials to proces- edible, medicinal etc. Similar examples fits in their own favour. Information on sed/sem¡-processed goods only, the foreign and other situations may also be end-use and end-destination of all MFPs exchange earnings are bound to increase. prevalent in o th er groups. should be explored / shared honestly and b. There may be simple dwindling of A simple increased rate of inflation is a 'must' for a thorough understanding resources due to over-exploitation. may also be cited as a cause for the same. for MFP export-import. Further, for a c. A number of items may not be balance between working policies of exported due to replacements by synthe developing and developed countries, tic substitutes. Challenges ahead international trade agreements like GATT d. There may be better - use options (General Agreement on Tariffs & Trade) available at home. Quantification of potential production and TRIPS (Trade Related Intellectual Pro e. Exports may come down if raw and actual production of NTFPs locally perty Rights) vis-a-vis provisions of natio n material quality does not conform to the used and marketed/traded within the al economic policies need to be investi prescribed standards. states and outside the states along with gated thoroughly. These studies would be II. There are a number of MFP items the quantum of exports/imports by India most needful in the construction and which record an increase in percentage is very essential for sustainability. Trade modification of trade regulations be quantities exported over both the periods data furnished here is likely to be helpful tween countries, and maintaining the (1990-91 over 1980-81 and 1980-81 over in partly accounting at least the actual export - import trade balance by a critical 1970-71) but the percentage value of production of different items of MFPs analyses into the exports - imports of a revenue/foreign exchange earning/ which enjoy export trade. NTFP resource country. Import analyses are equally remains static or has even decreased. items used locally by the forest and vil important for identification of processes

Tab. 3: Quantity and value o f NTFP groups exported.

1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 Quantity in Value in Quantity in Value in Quantity in Value in Tons Lakh. Rs. Tons Lakh. Rs. Tons Lakh. Rs. Edible Products 80084.62 7848.95 586728.86 57457.00 202174.67 79351.51 Medicinal Products 15057.21 552.32 68673.10 5452.74 71485.21 18755.95 Spices 24566.35 3147.74 73294.30 13807.74 76980.02 25278.72 Essential Oils 816.77 361.33 1362.70 947.31 4362.41 5353.45 Oil Seeds & Fatty Oils 22565.48 667.78 7200.42 774.14 50738.88 8994.75 Gums/Resins 47056.29 1572.50 63519.13 6969.25 65615.97 12034.13 Tans/Dyes 6627.81 87.20 5442.94 237.06 8608.61 1288.53 Fibers/Flosses 9187.10 224.46 3618.11 236.45 4605.67 724.56 Bamboo/Canes 1249.81 7.37 28206.57 124.24 41.26 10.25 Misc.: Plant Origin 4647.24 201.57 13184.53 1167.01 6207.27 2680.03 Animal Origin 2981.93 58.00 59.39 67.17 156.74 39.82 Mineral Origin 19560.92 1245.91 725471.36 2799.51 498480.37 13344.22 Grand Total 234401.53 15975.07 1576761.41 90039.62 989457.08 167855.92

183 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - John Joseph • Non Timber Forest Products of India

Tab. 4: Percentage contribution of differ The Recommendations for NTFP Food and Agriculture Organization of the ent NTFP groups to the total exports M anagem ent United Nations. 1995. Non-Wood (Value in Lakhs ofRs.) in the Year 1990-91. Forest Products: 3. Report of the 1. W ell laid objectives and approaches International Expert Consultation on NTFP Group Percentage for future management Non-Wood Forest Products, Yogya 2. Organized management for culti karta, Indonesia, 17-27 January. Edible Products 47.2 vation, harvesting and utilization Rom e. Animal Origin 0.023 3. Quantitative resource accounting Ranjit Issar, 1994. Development of market Essential Oils 3.1 and assessment of production intelligence and infrastructure for M edicinal 11.1 4. Nationalization of trades - consi agroforestry in India, in Raintree, J.B. Oil Seeds/Fatty Oils 5.35 dering the exploitation of poor/tribals and Francisco, H.A., eds., Marketing of Tans/Dyes 0.76 5. Procuring and value addition stra multipurpose tree products in Asia. Spices 15.05 tegies to benefit poor local/tribal people Proceedings of an international Fi be rs/F losses 0.43 6. Effective marketing/trade informa w o rkshop held in Baguio City, the P hil Gums/Resins 7.16 tion system ippines, 6-9 December 1993. Winrock Bamboos/Canes 0.006 7. Export and import balance consis International, Bangkok. Mineral Origin 7.94 tent with national economy Shukla, P.K. and Bhatnagar, Pratibha. Miscellaneous 1.59 8. Well defined symbiotically benefi 1994. Status of Non-Wood Forest Pro- cial balanced relationship between devel d u cts-A ca se study in Madhya Pradesh. oping and developed countries (To devel Sponsored by Ford Foundation. Cent which help to increase the natural resour op natural resources and share knowl re of Minor Forest Products, Dehra- ces and also to identify import substitutes. edge and technologies) dun. (eds. Shiva, M.P. and Mathur R.B.) It may also be possible then to identify 9. Viable working policies under GATT Suryanarayana, M.C. Promotion of MPTS and promote market support/inter- and TRIPs. for NWFP by Girijan Cooperative Cor vention organizations like the SPICE poration in A ndhra Pradesh: A Success BOARD and NDDB (National Dairy Devel "Minor forest products now form the Story. Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pra opment Board) which help to stabilize the potential pillars of sustainable forestry desh general market. which need more organized manage The bottom line for a healthy MFP ment in their cultivation, harvesting and Author's address: trade is a total transparency at all levels utilization aspects in catering to the chang w hich w o uld enable assim ilation and a n a ing needs of the people in a dwindling Dr. S. John Joseph lysis of all data for possible interventions, environment". M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation viz. market, institutional, financial and Community Biodiversity Conservation policies for improvement. This has to be References: Program m e further supported by an effective mar- Third Cross Street, Taramani Institutional ket/trade information system. Perhaps, Centre of Minor Forest Products. 1996. A rea India should take a cue from some of the Trends of Export and Import of Minor Chennai 600113, Tamil Nadu, India South East Asian Countries like The Phil Forest Products of India (During 1970- e-mail: mdsaaa51@giasmd01 .vsnl.net.in ippines which has developed community 71 to 1990-91). Compiled by: M.P. level market information systems. Further Shiva, Sarita Aswal, Abha Sharma, Pra- works and research, therefore, has to vin Mathur & Rakesh Chandra. Deh- steer in this direction for improvement. radun.

184 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

Management of Mangroves at Matang Authors' address: N. M anokaran and H. T. Chan Peninsular Malaysia: Forest Research Institute Malaysia Kepong, Selangor A Case Study on Conservation, MAL-52109 Kuala Lumpur Rehabilitation and Development e-m ail: [email protected] of Biodiversity

N. Manokaran & H.T. Chan

Abstract Even before the Convention on Bio logical Diversity was developed, manage The Matang Mangroves, located on the ment efforts at Matang Mangrove sub west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, is a scribed to the concept of conservation forested area of 40,151 hectares of 19 and sustainable utilisation. Though the reserves stretching a distance of 52 kilo production forests are n ow plantations of metres. Reserved in 1902, the Matang predominantly R h izoph ora species, the Mangrove has been sustainably managed emphasis in the management plans on for wood production through 10-year the maintenance of the mangrove system working plans developed since 1950. Pres ensures that a fishing industry continues ently about 8 2% o f the are is m anaged as to flourish and a variety of wildlife spe production forests of primarily Rhizo- cies are conserved. This em phasis is tran s p h ora , andthe remaining 18% of thearea lated through intensive reforestation of mainly accreting A vicen n ia and dry that follows the clean-felling form of har land forests is protected and managed as vesting, and the protection of the non functional forests for conservation of production forests. Recently, facilities biodiversity, and for ecotourism, research have been improved to integrated eco and education. tourism into the management of the mangrove ecosystem at Matang.

treatment but could also be thought of Remote Sensing for Quantifying to be any indirect effect of human activi ties on natural forests relicts. Mapping Structural Diversity in Forests the ecological value of forests in Germany ("Waldbiotopkartierung") has been for Forest Biodiversity Assessment done by several federal states ("Bundes länder"), mainly by field investigation. Klaus H albritter Aerial photographs have a high potential to considerably facilitate field work in forestry at large and medium scales, and A bstract related to its ecological value is not dis have been supporting the terrestrial data cussed here. This question has been dis collections in many cases. Aerial photo It is assumed in this study th a t there is a cussed vividly, and will most likely contin graphs at suitable scales have been made certain relation between the three- ue to be discussed intensively among available for the forest biotop mapping dimensional structure of a forest stand scientists. Nevertheless, many people activities of at least some of the Länder. and its biological diversity. If this is true, think that even if the ecological value of As for the terrestrial approach for data reliable and feasible methodologies a forest is not a strict function of its diver collection, the information content of the should be found to describe, inventory, sity, and vice-versa, there may be some photographs cannot be extracted before map and assess forest structure in its three kind of relation for certain types of and in course of the terrestrial mapping dimensions in order to further contribute forests, depending on the degree and work at the entire potential of a modern to quantifying forest biodiversity. type of human impact. In Europe 'Impact' high resolution CIRfilm exposed by a high Whether or not biodiversity of a forest is mainly means the type of its silvicultural precision 23 cm x 23 cm aerial survey

185 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - H albritter • Remote Sensing for Q uantifying Structural Diversity in Forests for Forest Biodiversity Assessment

camera. Therefore, a methodology is value for the biotop quality of the whole place was like in terms of its biotic and under developmentto extract their infor forest stand being investigated on. abiotic composition and structure when mation at higher intensity than is possi It seems to be an interesting question it was found there. Information of such ble at present, in order to correlate the to study w h e th e r such interdependencies kind, mainly about the characteristics of quantitative data with generally acknowl between the three-dimensional struc individual's behavior in relation to their edged indicators of diversity in the future. tures of a forest stand and certain species environment, should therefore be viewed Statistical and advanced mathematical residing in it with rather diverse distribu and recorded under three-dimensional m ethods are being tested in the course o f tion, either permanently or frequently, spatial aspects, even though they may be a research project, which will be com exist - and if so: which are these, how do rather complex. pleted soon at the 'Institut für Forstpolitik they function and how do these react to "Behavior" here does not refer to the und Naturschutz' of the University of disturbances? Which species, plants or option of a certain mobility of animals, to Göttingen, Germany. The European animals, behave in which way under cer move from one location to another in progress in finding suitable indicators of tain canopy conditions, and when do the accordance with environmental condi biodiversity and the ecological quality of organisms occur where within, under tions and momentary needs of the indi forest stands is closely observed in order neath, beside or above a certain type of vidual itself, but "mobility" here refers also to find new parameters to be correlated forest stand which is characterized by a to the growing and germination behavior with the findings of quantitative and qua certain canopy structure and patterns of of plants which depend significantly on litative evaluation of aerial photographs. structures. In which way dothey influence various conditions - which again are dy The au th o r is one of 26 m em bers from 18 each other, and finally: which species namic entities. Even micro-microclimatic European countries of a concerted action indicates what when and where, and how conditions in the closest proximity of a of the EU Commission, DG VI (Agriculture) obvious is its response to processes and single plant effects its growth pattern and with the aim to identify and classify disturbances that occur at certain places speed and thus its architecture, size, vol indicators for monitoring and evaluation and at certain times in the forest? How ume, mass and shape: at places favorable of biodiversity of forests in Europe can their response possibly be quantified, to a certain species at a certain tim e it m ay ('BEAR'). i.e. "measured"? Which are the patterns multiply its number of individuals, and it of their presence or absence at certain may reduce its number or even comple KEYWORDS moments in time? Do they change peri tely retreat at those which are not. Forest Biodiversity, Indicators, Forest odically or irregularly or apparently not Structure Analysis, Forest Resources in any systematic way or even not at all? Interdisciplinarity Inventory, Remote Sensing, Photogram- An extremely interesting aspect is to metry, Ecological Information Systems. study how do the "parties" involved, i.e.: Highly specialized groups of biologists the forest body, its environment and the have studied the known species. As spe Introduction organisms by which a forest stand and/or cies are numerous and often enough not its environm ent is populated, react to cer easy to classify, fauna and flora are com This study represents an effort to further tain influences, either anthropogenic or plex to study at depth with high intensi quantify forest biodiversity. It is assumed natural ones? ty. Therefore, in order to handle the here that there is a certain relation be In order to study such phenomena, variety of species, a rather high degree of tween the structure of a forest, its spatial two types of knowledge at least are specialization is necessary to have in both arrangement and "diversity" and the per necessary to have: first, knowledge about main branches of biological sciences. manent - or at least frequent - presence the indicator quality of forest-typical spe Some zoologists specialize in large mam of certain organisms within any of the cies and the structures they evolve and mals, e.g. deer or roedeer, and others in strata of the forest "body". The "body of second, feasible and approved methods invertebrates, e.g. snails and insects. a forest" here is defined as the total vol for analyzing the structure of forest Some botanists may be more familiar with ume of its immediate neighborhood, the stands in their three dimensions, i.e. lychenes and bryophytes, others with space directly influenced by the total of under a horizontal and a vertical aspect. woody plants. In order to see the entirety trees which represent a forest stand. This To acquire the first is the task of zoolo rather than only some aspects of it, expert "space influenced by a forest stand" iscer- gists and botanists, foresters and others knowledge should be pooled. tainly not strictly defined by the terrain who have competence in forest-typical W h ile any expert know ledge is a pre surface as its lower, and the canopy sur species. requisite for any scientific study, general- face as its outer, margins - neither of these istic, synoptic knowledge gets the more two surfaces are as strictly defined as Regionalization of data important the higher the degree of com some sort of membrane, e.g. a skin. Both plexity of the system is in which a certain border areas are characterized by inten Data should to-date not be collected any species or community of species is identi sive interaction between their neighbour longer without geographic reference at fied. Especially if their role is studied in ing volumina, i.e. the pedon and the small and large scale. It is no longer suf the context of "forest biodiversity", high atmosphere, respectively. ficient to know that a certain species exis ly specialized knowledge cannot reach The organisms considered under this ted in a forest at a certain date. Studying very far without a synoptic viewing of the aspect should be "typical" for a certain the complexity of a forest ecosystem facts. Under ecosystematic aspects this type of forest stand. Ideally, they should requires also to record where an indivi applies both in terms of a broad knowl have a definite or assumed indicator dual of a species was found and what the edge on species and their development

186 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity- Halbritter • Remote Sensing for Quantifying Structural Diversity in Forests for Forest Biodiversity Assessment and behavior in relation to their environ Faculty of Forestry and Forest Ecology of woodlands. The spatial volume (including ment as well as in terms of the scale at the University of Göttingen, Germany. the atmosphere within, below its 'surface' which biotopes are studied: either with a The European progress in finding suitable which can be rough or smooth, depend magnifying glass or at great distance, like indicators of biodiversity and the eco ing on the structure of the stand) on one from an airplane or even from space- logical quality of forest stands is closely hectare of forest ground dominated by borne platforms. The EU concerted action observed in order to find new parameters trees may be in the order of e.g., between 'Indicators for monitoring and evaluation to be correlated w ith the find ing s o f pho- some 50,000 m3 in a young spruce stand of forest biodiversity in Europe' (BEAR) is togrammetric and interpretative evalua and in the range of 150,000 to 300,000 m3 facing this kind of problematic, bringing tion of aerial photographs. in an old beech stand. These figures together scientists from various disci depend on how space is d efined , in w hich plines to work on the same issue. Inventoring forest structure for silvicultural way the stand has been trea biodiversity assessment by Re ted and whether diseases or natural disas Quantifying forest structure for mote Sensing ters have affected its three-dimensional biodiversity assessment by Re structure and density in the past. mote Sensing The global attention to the ecological Although mainly man-made, and value of forests has increased in the past often rather monotonous, the European The structure of a forest stand can be decade so that some states have reacted forests represent a multitude of very dif quantified in various ways. Data can be to the stakeholders' desire to have infor ferent characteristics and hence, repre collected either by terrestrial methods or mation about the ecological quality and sent very different types of biotopes in by remote sensing. The method described value of "their" wooded land and there terms of floristic and faunistic diversity. here is based on remote sensing, more pre fore have started inventorying their Plants, animals and abiotic features of a cisely, on aerial stereophotogrammetry. forest land with increased respect to its forest stand can be inventoried and clas The goal is to identify effectively by biotop qualities (e.g. ARBEITSKREIS sified by experts in various ways. Since which methodology forest structures can FORSTLICHE LANDESPFLEGE 1996). Espe structural diversity can be perceived even be quantitatively described, inventoried, cially in a period of limited public and pri without profound botanical or taxono mapped, evaluated and monitored with vate budgets, it seems to be highly desir mic knowledge by any person walking reference to the total forest "body" in its able to have at hand objective methods through a forest, itseemsdesirabletofind three dimensions in order to further con for classifying forests according to this a methodology for classifying this diver tribute to quantifying forest biodiversity. "new" value. The forest owner, a homo sity in a way which is generally agreed In a second step, analysis methods have to oeconomicus, wishes to know what the upon by scientists as well as by stakehol be identified which are suitable to extract actual value of his forest is, in addition to ders. For this purpose, forest stands maximum information from the collected the market value of the timber being should be considered in terms of spatial data for a minimal set of indicators. produced there and the real estate value geometry in a way which respects what At present, mapping the ecological of the forest ground. Validating the forests really are: a heterogeneous mass value of forests in Germany ("Waldbio- actual value of woodland to a country's of organic and inorganic matter, which topkartierung") is done by several federal economy, apart from the income received cannot be satisfactorily described just by states ("Bundesländer"), mainly by field by its owners, seems to have become one the distribution of tree heights, tree dia investigation. Aerial photographs have a of the major challenges of forest research meters at breast height (DBH), timber high potential to considerably facilitate and management. One major factor for volume, total biomass and tree positions field work in forestry at large and medi drawing nearer to this aim is to develop in relation to one another at a certain um scales. Although aerial photographs methodologies for the inventory and moment and observe the changes of these at suitable scales are available for the assessment of the ecological value of a variables after certain periods of time. forest biotop mapping in progress, their given forest stand, making use of most information content is extracted in prac sophisticated technologies (e.g. JEFFERS, Monitoring forest structure for tice before and in course of the terrestri 1996; KÖHL et al., 1996). Forests have biodiversity assessment by Re al mapping work not according to the full increasingly been considered to be a com mote Sensing potential of a high resolution CIR film plex system of biotopes, phytotopes and exposed in a high precision 23 cm x 23 cm zootopes, with various ecological ampli Remote sensing has substantial advanta aerial camera. tudes and frequencies of species. Being ges over pure field work when synoptic A methodology has been under devel consumers of organic matter, a myriad of viewing, observation of the forest cano opment since 1995 to extract their infor individuals from numerous species py surface and structure - and especially mation contained in more depth than is depend on the organization and quality the cost-benefit ratio of such an inventory possible at present, and correlate the of woody and herbaceous plants within are of interest. Moreover, in setting up quantitative data with indicators of biodi their habitats. To some stakeholders, the long-term m onitoring systems, it is im por versity. Unfortunately, no standards for quality of a woodland is measured in tant to document the situation at a cer generally acknowledged parameters terms of the existence of certain animal tain moment. For about a century, remote exist at present yet. Statistical and ad species, to some others, plants are the sensing has provided various techno vanced mathematical methods have been major factor. Considering all facts, plants logies for forest inventory and assess tested in the course of a research project, represent the most evident, dominant ment. Remote sensing will never be able which will be completed soon at the and characteristic organisms of European to entirely replace forest field work

187 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - H albritter • Remote Sensing for Quantifying Structural Diversity in Forests for Forest Biodiversity Assessment

because there are a number of features by photogrammetry. A study of such scanner w as im itated d uring the m easure which cannot be perceived or measured canopy modeling was already published ment. This means that the coincidence of from above, either because they are shield in the seventies (HILDEBRANDT et al., the measuring mark with the crown ed by branches or because of the limited 1976 and 1974), followed by a doctorate surface was defined to be at the height geometric resolution of the sensor in research (DJAWADI, 1977). In spite of the at which the measuring mark exactly relation to the dimensions of the objects considerable technical progress, no simil touched the first branch 'encountered' of interest. Yet, it can provide quantita ar approach had, to the author's knowl coming down vertically from above in the tive information in the radiometric as well edge, been reported until the mid-nine stereomodel. The planimetric Gauss-Kru- as in the spatial domains and the data can ties (BELEIT, 1994). For performing more ger coordinate and the height above sea- be stored for a long time for future refer intensive experiments with further sophis level of each point was registered in a file ence. The documentary effect of remote tication and with a larger data basis than which was later edited in the geographi ly sensed data should not be underesti the previous ones, it was felt necessary to cal information system (GIS), ARC/INFO. mated in the design of a biodiversity model and arlalyze very different struc To compensate for the influence of the monitoring scheme and of a forest eco tural types of forest stands (HALBRITTER, terrain morphology underneath the logical information system. Archived pri 1995, 1996, 1997). The Institute of Forest forest stand, a digital terrain model was mary data will be welcome by future Management of the University of Gottin measured from the 20 m contour lines of generations for refering to past condi gen received a set of color-infrared (CIR) a map of 1:2500 scale, using ARC/INFO and tions of the woodlands at their time, the 23 cm x 23 cm aerial photographs at an a digitizing table. For estimating the ter management of which might be subject average scale of 1:4,500, taken on rain height at the planimetric coordinate to more severe restrictions than nowa 19.07.1992 with sufficient overlap for ste- of every canopy surface point, a regres days. Although far from being overambi- reophotogrammetric measurements cov sion plain was calculated using the statisti tious by trying to provide a universal ering a forest reserve ("Naturwaldzelle cal program WINSTAT. Then the interpo monitoring and validation scheme this Hellerberg") located in the German lated terrain height at each gridpoint was project may contribute to a neutral clas federal state of Nordrhein-Westfalen, subtracted from the corresponding cano sification of the biotope characteristics of forest district Obereimer-Neuhaus, Staats- py height. Terrain influence on the 3D woodlands in Europe by a strictly quanti wald Naturschutzgebiet Breitenbruch, stand model was eliminated or at least tative approach, paying special attention which is part of a mountainous area in minimized by this procedure. The data to the aspect of spatial geometry of tree Sauerland. The average terrain elevation with such 'normalized' canopy heights stands in their three dimensions. is 320 m above sea level. Within one were stored in ASCII format, to be further stereomodel, 6 significantly different processed with the matrix-oriented pro Material, Methods, Techniques, structural types of forest and combina gramming language IDL (by Research Area Description tions of them were identified which have Systems Inc.) for visualisation and further served as training sites for these investi mathematical analysis. Forest structures have been extensively gations on the analysis of complex 3D analyzed based on data which have been forest surfaces. The test sites sizes are be Results collected more by fieldwork than by tween 0.5 ha and 1.0 ha. remote sensing (e.g. FUELDNER and VON An orthogonal grid of 1 m x 1 m was The result was a "normalized" 3-D model GADOW, 1994; PRETZSCH, 1992; HOUL- generated and placed above each train of the forest canopy surface of each of the LIER et al. 1991). The most popular ing site within the photo stereomodel test stands. In the appendix, exam ples for approach for forest ecological studies created in the analytical photogrammet graphical products from the collected based on remote sensing data is the ana ric plotter, KERN DSR 11-18. At each grid- data are displayed. The measuring mark lysis of spectral properties of forests imag point, the vertically "floating" measuring of the photogrammetric instrument was ed by various airborne or spaceborne mark was set, coming from above, to utilized according to the behaviour of a sensors, either quantitatively or by visual touch the crow n surface. For broadleaved laser beam emitted from approximately interpretation (e.g. KOCH et al., 1994; trees, e.g. mature beech (Fagussylvatica), vertically above the site. Whereas the ACKERMANN et al., 1994; GREAVES et al., there was little problem to define the ground is usually obscured to the operator's 1993; KENNEWEG étal., 1986). Foranalyz- crown surface at a given raster point, eyes by rather dense black shadow in the ing forest structures by remote sensing, because in July the foliage is w ell develop stereo model of a CIR aerial photograph spectral analysis alone usually does not ed, forming a closed crown surface. For the laser beam penetrates the shadow and lead to very good results due to great coniferous trees, i.e. spruce and larch can th ere fo re record the ground height in complexity of structures and textures of (Picea abies and Larix decidua), the crown canopy gaps with the same accuracy as on objects, and also their shadows. There surface is not well defined as the bran top of a branch illuminated by sunlight. fore, some authors have already applied ches protrude from the bole, star-shaped An operator who wants to measure the photogrammetric measurements of spa with only rather short secondary branches ground height within canopy gaps has tial properties within aerial photographs fillin g the space in betw een. To avoid sub considerable trouble to do so because he (MÜNCH, 1994; HENNINGER, 1983) rather jective influence on deciding where the usually cannot identify it and has to esti than classification based more on their crown 'surface' of a coniferous tree mate the height, introducing considera spectral properties. actually is (a tree crown has no smooth ble height errors. Before going deeper The technical approach here is the 'skin' like an animal), the behaviour of the into analysing 3D forest surface models it creation of digital canopy surface models return-signal (echo) of an airborne laser had to be verified if, for economic reasons,

188 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity- Halbritter • Remote Sensing for Quantifying Structural Diversity in Forests for Forest Biodiversity Assessment photogrammetric operator measure The amount of time and costs saved grammetric methods: whenever retro ments could possibly be replaced by auto by employing image matching algorithms spective analysis of forest structure dyna matic procedures, i.e. by image autocor depends on the complexity of a forest mics is desired one is obliged to w o rk w ith relation. It seemed rather unlikely that stand, mainly on the percentage of areas archived aerial photographs. In archives algorithms perform well enough on the with low or no texture in at least one of throughout the world a wealth of aerial complex surfaces of forest canopies. the images. This means that stands with photographs of woodland is stored, com A pilot study with the commercial ste many shadowed areas will produce more prising a wealth of forest structure infor reo-image autocorrelation algorithm faulty heights than stands with few mation of the past. First experiments with MATCH-T (by INPHO, Stuttgart; pilot and/or small shadow areas. Therefore, airborne laserscanner data give risetothe study reported in: INSTITUUT VOOR BOS- homogeneous, even-aged, monospecific, assumption that such data may well serve BOUW EN NATUURBEHEER IBN-DLO and dense, old stands of broadleaved species for effective 3-D modeling of forest GRONTMIJ GEOGROEP GEODATA SERV (e.g. 160 years old beech with closed cano stands. From a forest ecologist's point of ICE, 1996), and considerations forthe non py) will require much less editing by an view, it is a problem that this technology commercial program MEPAS (Institute for operator of the automatically collected was developed for efficiently digitizing Photogrammetry and Engineering Sur heights than heterogeneous, uneven- the terrain surface for producing digital veys, University of Hannover. Dr. K. Jacob aged, multispecies, recently thinned terrain models (DTM). Vegetation cover sen, personal communication, 1996) were stands of coniferous species. o f the terrain is an obstacle to this. T h e re betterthan expected but showed thatthe Time studies have shown thatthe pure fore, during a commercial laser scanner shadow effect within and between tree measurement of a single canopy surface mission, mainly the last echo ("last pulse") crowns has an even more serious effect heighttakes between 0.7 and 3.0 seconds, of each emitted laser beam is recorded. than on an operator's eyes when such a depending mainly on the roughness of The reason for this is that, when there is matching algorithm has to eliminate the the canopy. The time required for model a more or less dense vegetation layer parallax within the stereoscopic image orientation, aerotriangulation etc. has above the ground, the last echo of an model. The reason is that within the shad not been taken into account in these fig emitted laser beam will be reflected by an o w parts there is virtu a lly no te xtu re at all ures as the time needed for such tasks, in obstacle closer to the actual terrain than and therefore the program has not relation to the actual digitizing time, an earlier echo of the same beam. For 3D enough pictorial information in the vici depends very m uch on how m any percent forest modeling, it is exactly the first pulse nity of the coordinate where it shall of a stereoscopic model area will actual which is desirable to record, this desire match and, therefore, cannot eliminate ly be digitized. When continuously digitiz being adverse to the interest of the main the parallax between the two correspond ing extensive and coherent areas within civilian user group of such a type of data, ing images. The resulting effects depend one model, the model orientation time is i.e. the geodetic agencies and terrain on the matching algorithm employed. At negligible compared to the actual meas mapping companies. It should therefore present, there are several competing ste urement time. If only small areas in each be assessed which economic potential reo-image matching algorithms, both model are to be measured, the propor could be expected from people with inter commercial and scientific. At least two tion of model orientation time in the 3D est in detailed quantitative information majorprincipiescan bedistinguished: one modeling process rises. about the three-dimensional geometry of will register a height value at every pre forest stands. defined location, no matter if it is plausi Discussion and Conclusions The main issue of this research is to ble or not, whereas the other will register develop mathematical procedures for a point height only if the parallax could It must be emphasized that due to slow characterizing different types of wood be eliminated successfully. Consequently, ness of measurements and monotony of land so that the technology of 3-D model the first type w ill leave no gaps w ithin the the work, purely analytical photogram ing of forest stands might be incorporat area to be measured thus producing a metric ocular measurement by an opera ed into future woodland information complete orthogonal matrix of heights tor can be justified only for research pro systems for more effective inventory, clas z(x,y). This may produce rather absurd jects on small areas, and not really for sifying and monitoring of the diversity height values in shadowy areas. Points commercial purposes or for larger areas. and possibly the 'ecological quality' of with heights of 20 m or more above the For these, automatic data collecting forests. The results of the mathematical maximum canopy height, as well as 20 m methods are compulsory. At present, air procedures will be published after the or more below the ground level were borne laser scanner data are tested for completion of the project. The mathe encountered (Halbritter, 1996). The their suitability to generate accurate matical procedures developed for the second type will produce only reliable digital canopy models. Laser scanning of analysis of data collected by aerial pho height values but will leave gaps within forest canopies does not entirely make togrammetry may be also applied to the area to be measured at those coordi obsolete further investigation in more those collected by an airborne laser scan nates where there was not enough tex sophisticated image autocorrelation ner. The analysis of such 3D forest stand ture in at least one o f the tw o im ages. The algorithms which will perform better on models will be reported in anotherarticle. data file for producing a 3D stand cano complex forest surfaces with much shad py model will have missing values which ow within. Whereas for new data collect Acknowledgement impairs the quality and authenticity of ing missions airborne laser scanning will the model. In both cases, editing has to probably be preferable if the accuracy of The aerial photographs of the forest be done by a photogrammtry operator. the results compares to those of photo reserve "Hellerberg" have been provided

189 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - Halbritter • Remote Sensing for Quantifying Structural Diversity in Forests for Forest Biodiversity Assessment

by Landesanstalt für Ökologie, Boden Greaves, B.L., Spencer, R.D. (1993): An eva forest geomtry with digital photo ordnung und Forsten/ Landesamt für luation of spectroradiometry and grammetry. Version 1.0. Grontmij Agrarordnung (LÖBF/LAFAO) Nordrhein- multispectral scanning for different Geogroep Geodata Service, Roosen Westfalen, Ms. Schulte. The hard- and forest communities. In: Australian daal, The N etherlands, July 1996, 7 pp. software necessary to collect (KERN DSR Forestry, 1993 (1), 68-79 + 3 illustrations 11 -18) and process the data was provided Halbritter, K. (1997): Quantification of Jeffers, J.N.R. (1996): Measurement and by the Institut für Forsteinrichtung und Forest Structure and Diversity by characterisation of biodiversity in Ertragskunde of the University of Göttin Remote Sensing. Vortrag, Internatio forest ecosystems - New methods and gen (ARC/INFO, dBASE, WINSTAT) and by nale Konferenz "Biodiversity in man models. In: Assessment of Biodiversi the Gesellschaft für Wissenschaftliche aged forests: Concepts and solutions", ty for Improved Forest Management. Datenverarbeitung Göttingen (IDL). The Uppsala (Schweden), 29.-31.05. 1997 Proceedings of the International research was possible thanks to Halbritter, K. (1996): Steps towards a Workshop, 12-17 June 1995, Koli, Fin Prof. Dr. A. Ak^a (Institut für Forsteinrich forest biodiversity information land (Eds.: Bachmann, P, Kuusela, K., tung und Ertragskunde of the University system: Quantifying forest biodiversi UutteraJ.). EFI Proceedings No. 6, of Göttingen) by generously providing ty by photogrammetry and remote 1996 working time on DSR, ARC/INFO and sensing methodology. In: Proceed Kenneweg, H., Runkel, M. (1986): Wald- workspace. A pilot project in 1996 on the ings International Symposium schadens- und Waldstrukturanalyse measurement of forest geometry with "Applicaton of Remote Sensing in Schleswig-Holstein. Landschaftsent digital photogrammetry was sponsored Forestry" Zvolen, Slovakia, September wicklung und Umweltforschung. by Grontmij Geogroep, Roosendaal, The 10-12, 1996, 119-133 Schriftenreihe des Fachbereichs Land Netherlands, Dr. P. van Deventer and Wim Halbritter, K. (1995): Möglichkeiten der schaftsentwicklung der TU Berlin. Droesen, by providing access to their Bestimmung und Inventarisierung der Berlin, 125 pp. INTERGRAPH ImageStation including ökologischen Wertigkeit von Wäl Koch, B., Förster, B„ Schneider, T. (1994): Match-T and for operator support. dern mit Techniken der Photogram Fernerkundung bei forstlichen und metrie und Fernerkundung. Vortrag, ökologisch orientierten Nutzungspla DGPF-Tagung, Arbeitskreis Interpre nungen. In: Allgemeine Forstzeit References: tation von Fernerkundungsdaten, schrift 1994 (4), 160-164 Göttingen 29.-30. 05. 1995 Köhl, M., Zingg, A (1996): Eignung von Ackermann, J., Bömelburg, S., Weigel, C. Henninger, J. (1983): Zeitreihen der Diversitätsindizes bei Langzeitunter (1994): Eignung von CIR-Luftbildern Bestandesentwicklungen in natur suchungen zur Biodiversität in Wald bei der Waldbiotopkartierung. In: All nahen Waldbeständen aus Luft beständen. Allg. Forst- und Jagdzei gemeine Forstzeitschrift, 1994 (15) bildern. Dissertation Universität Frei tung, 167 (4) 1996, 76-85 851-855 burg, 153 pp. Münch, D. (1994): Struktur- und Entwick Arbeitskreis Forstliche Landespflege (Ed.) Hildebrandt, G., Djawadi, K. (1976): Digi lungsanalysen in Naturwaldreserva (1996): Waldlebensräume in Deutsch tale Beschreibung der Oberflächen ten aus Luftbildzeitreihen. In: Allge land: Ein Leitfaden zur Erfassung und struktur von Waldbeständen nach meine Forstzeitschrift 1994 (11), 594- Beurteilung von Waldbiotopen; Mit photogrammetrischen Messungen. 597 einer Übersicht der natürlichen Wald In: Remote Sensing in Forestry. Pro Pretzsch, H. (1992): Zur Analyse der räum gesellschaften Deutschlands. Ecomed ceedings of the Symposium held lichen Bestandesstruktur und der Verlagsgesellschaft, Landsberg, 1996, during the XVI. IUFRO World Con Wuchskonstellation von Einzelbäu 124 pp. gress, Oslo 21.-26. June 1976. Subject men. In: Forst und Holz, 47 (14) 1992, Beleit, S. (1994): Erfassung der Kronen Group S 6.05 Remote Sensing (Ed.: 408-418 dachstruktur mit Hilfe analytischer Hildebrandt, G.). 471-485 Photogrammetrie am Beispiel des Hildebrandt, G., Akça, A., Djawadi, K. Author's address: Buchenaltholzbestandes der Natur (1974): Characterization of the detail waldzelle Hellberg. In: Tagungsband, ed roughness of natural surfaces by a Klaus Halbritter Photogrammetrie & Forst - Stand der digital surface model. In: Internation Institut für Forstpolitik, Forstgeschichte Forschung und Anwendung in der al Society for Photogrammetry, Com und Naturschutz Praxis, Freiburg im Breisgau, Septem mission VII. Proceedings of Sympo Fakultät für Forstwissenschaften und ber 1994, 27-33 sium on Remote Sensing and Photo Waldökologie Djawadi, K. (1977): Eine photogramme Interpretation. Banff, Alberta, Cana Universität Göttingen trische Methode zur digitalen Erfas da. October 7-11,1974. Vol. II, 755-765 Büsgenweg 5 sung und Charakterisierung der Ober Houllier, F., Bouchon, J., Birot, Y. (1991): D-37077 Göttingen, Germany flächengestalt von Waldbeständen. Modélation de la dynamiques des e-m ail: [email protected] Dissertation. Universität Freiburg, peuplements forestiers: Etat et per 1977, 150 pp. spectives. In: Revue Forestières Füldner, K., Gadow, K. v. (1994): How to Française, 43 (2) 1992, 87-108 define a thinning in a mixed deci Instituut voor Bosbouw en Natuurbeheer duous beech forest. IUFRO Confer IBN-DLO, Grontmij Geogroep Geoda- ence, Lousa, Portugal. 25. 04. 1994 ta Service (1996): Measurement of

190 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - Halbritter • Remote Sensing for Quantifying Structural Diversity in Forests for Forest Biodiversity Assessment

Appendix 1: Illustrations face. The surface o f a fo rest stand is repre The forest stand used here consists of sented by an orthogonal grid with 1 m x two tree species. Short Introduction 1 m mesh collected by remote sensing. A Coniferous (taller) trees: spruce (Picea digital terrain model was subtracted from abies), A ge 84 Various ways of representing the struc the canopy model in order to eliminate Deciduous (smaller) trees: Alder ture of a forest visually in three dim ension the influence of terrain morphology on (Alnus glutinosa), A ge 61 al space are displayed here. The data uti canopy surface morphology. The heights A forest road cuts through the stand lized to generate the models consist in a of gridpoints of the surface model coin in a curve. volume model of the space between the ciding with gaps in the forest canopy are terrain surface and the forest canopy sur zero meters.

Figure 1: Contour line model - The stand surface is represented by contour lines with 1.0 m height intervals. This type o f visual representation o f a surface is well known from topographic maps where terrain relief is represented by contour lines.

191 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - Halbritter • Remote Sensing for Quantifying Structural Diversity in Forests for Forest Biodiversity Assessment

Figure 2: Triple Image - Top: Contour line model - Middle: Fishnet model - The nodepoints o f the surface model are connected by triangulation - Bottom: Image - Canopy heights are displayed as greyvalues of pixels in an image (darker pixels: lower ele vations; brighter pixels: higher elevations - black: height = 0 m).

Figure 3 :3-D 'shaded surface' model - The stand surface is represented by a shaded surface model. It can be imagined to be an elastic skin draped over the trees from above and pulled down to the ground.

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In the forest zone a number of sub Challenges of the Forest zones can be recognized: - Picea abies subzone, where spruce is Genetic Resources in Romania predominating, covering the Carpathian territories in a continuous strip. There are Valeriu Enescu and Lucia lonitá mostly pure stands or stands mixed with rare hardwoods. - Fagus sylvatica subzone, covered by 1. N atural fram ew o rk Thus, the annual mean temperature pure beech stands or beech mixed with varies between 11.5 and 2.6 °C ; tempera Picea abies and Abies alba. It is th e largest The territory of Romania is geographical tures of the hottest month between 23.6 subzone both in altitude and in latitude ly situated on both sides of 45° parallel and 5.7 °C and of the coldest month bet where together with beech A b i e s a l b a and is crossed by 25° meridian. Romania ween 0.2 and 10.5 °C. The annual rainfall stands are to be found. It should be point lies in the zone of Central Europe, at the varies between 350 and 1500 mm. ed out that beech is the most important limits of the transition zone to East Eu forest tree species with 34% of total rope and South Europe. Romania's relief 2. Vegetation forest area, and, what is of great impor is characterised by a great complexity as tance, all stands are in natural state. well as by proportionality and harmony. Due to the variety of relief forms, the - Quercus sessiliflora (lato sensu) sub The relief's proportionality is expressed by vegetation generally has a specific distri zone, characterised by pure stands of ses the following distribution of the natural bution in relation to altitude and is cer sile oak and mixed stands with A c e r p s e u - unities: tainly influenced by different climates. doplatanus, Fagus sylvatica, Fraxinus - 30 percent mountains The total forest area in Rom ania is 6.3 excelsior, Carpinus betulus, Betula sp., - 37 percent hills and plateaus million ha which is 27% of the total land Populus sp., Sorbus sp. In th is area th ree - 33 percent plains. area. Historically, the forest area has been species o f oaks are to be fo u n d : Q . p e t r e a , decreasing from 9 millions ha at the Q. polycarpa and Q. dalecham pi. The re The harmony results from the way the beginning of this century to the present are several shrub species. great reliefs are spatially located and area. The highest proportion of this de - Quercus robur subzone, m ainly which as a whole form an interesting cline was due to the expansion of agricul covering the plains, partially the low hills natural amphitheatre, the center of ture, especially after the First World War. and riversides. We can find pure stands which is Transilvan's Plateau. Nowadays the pressure of anthropogenic and mixed stands (the so called "mixed factors on the forest is very strong. 69% broad-leaved forest"). Here are several The following relief units are to be found: of the forest area are hardwood forest species of hardwoods namely: A c e r c a m The Carpathian Mountains - all of and the remainder are softwoods. pestre, A. ta ta ri cum , A. platanoides, Fra them are located id Romania - with aver Romania's forest includes quite a x i n u s e x c e l s i o r , F. o r n u s , F. o x i c a r p a , A l n u s age elevations o f 1100-1300 m in the large number of native species, which are glutinosa, Juglans regia, M alus sylvestris, Eastern Carpathians, 1500-1700 m in the spread over natural ranges accurately M orus sp., Pirus sp., P opulus sp., Salix sp., Southern Carpathians and 800-1000 m in limited and stable enough. Prunussp., Tilia sp., U lm us sp., and sever the Western Carpathians. Heights over There is a latitudinal and mostly alti al others. There are also a lot of shrubs 2500 m are found only in a fe w massifs tudinal distribution of species within the and subshrubs. Among oaks we also can (Fágáras, Parang, Retezat, Bucegi). In the geographic territory of the country. There find Q. pedunculiflora, Q. pubescens, Q. center of Carpathians there is a plateau is natural vegetation towards the upper v i r g i l i a n a and a lot of natural hybrids and called Transilvania. part of the mountains in the alpine zone introgressions. The Carpathians are surrounded by with some bushes and grassy plants. In On the low hilly and plain regions in the Subcarpathians and hills which form low altitude forest areas there are no the Southern parts of Muntenia and the transition between the mountains limiting factors, many species grow satis Oltenia as well as in the Western part of and outskirts regions: plateaus and plains. factorily or even well both on so called Romania on heavy and compacted soils Outside the Carpathians arch there steppe and along riversides. th ere is a subzone o f Q uercus cerris and are two large plateaus - Moldavia in the In Romania, three zones of vegetation Q. frainetto. East and Getic in the South. Dobrogea is distribution are recognised: alpine, forest The silvosteppe covers the outskirts of also regarded as plateau. Among the lar and steppe: the forest zone being wider in the South gest plains in Rom ania is the Tisa Plain in The Alpine zone is located in the hig h ern and Eastern part of Romania. This the West and the Romanian Plain in the est parts of the mountains, lacking proper subzone consists mostly of xerophytic spe South; both are characterised by low alti forests. It is only in its low er parts (subalpi- cies nam ely Q. cerris, Q. pedunculiflora, tudes below 200m and even below 100m. ne subzone) th at bushes of Juniperussibir- Q. frainetto, Q. pubescens, Fraxinus The lowest and at the same time youn ca, Pinus m ontana, A lnus viridis, R ododen- ornus, Carpinus orientalis, Prunus m aha- gest reliefs are riversides and the Danube don kotschyi and others are found. The leb, U lm us sp., etc.. D elta. transition from the alpine to the forest On the flooded riparian land along Rom ania has a tem perate-continental zone includes usually Picea abies and so the rivers and in interzonal woody vege climate, the climatic elements vary within metimes even Fagus sylvatica, Larix deci tation stands of Salix alba, Populus alba, very large ranges mainly due to the relief. dua, Pinus cem bra and some hardwoods. P. n i g r a and Alnus glutinosa occur.

193 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - Enescu & lonita: Challenges of the Forest Genetic Resources in Romania

In some restricted areas or isolated stands listed in "seed stand catalogue of By e x s i t u measures, in Romania popu stands there are Pinus nigra var. b a n a t i - Romania", with a total area of 70,179 ha lation samples are conserved of different ca, Pinus sylvestris, Larix decidua, Pinus of which 32,886 ha are conifer and 37,293 geographic origin of several species (69 c e m b r a , etc. ha deciduous forest. trails), half-sib progeny tests (16 traits), As introduced species were planted Soon after 1989, Romania entered the comparative culture fortesting seed sour many years ago Pseudotsuga m enziesii, PanEuropean Process on Forest mainly in ces (10 trails), interspecific hybrids, clones Pinus strobus, Pinus nigra var. nigra, R obi the framework of the First Ministerial of poplar, willow and spruce and, not at nia pseudoacacia (on more than 250,000 Conference on the Protection of Forest in last, 1004,5 ha of seed orchards. hectares) and others. Europe - Strasbourg 1990: Resolution S2 To conclude, in Romania there is a "Conservation of Forest Genetic Resour Problems of forest genetic resources large variety o f species. W ith in fo rest spe ces". It followed the second Ministerial cies there is, at different levels, inter- and Conference - Helsinki 1993. The main present problems of forest intrapopulationally, a very large genetic According to the above documents, genetic resources in Romania are: diversity. From the point of view of gene Romania put in work a national policy of - Absence of a unitary legislation for resource conservation the most impor gene conservation, mainly i n s i t u . Goal is regulation of all aspects of practical activi tant fact is that many populations are still to promote the maintenance of the broad ty in protected areas in general and of in a natural state, growing on a very large genetic variation of all forest species in forest genetic resources in particular. variety of sites and many of them are of order to ensure the necessary evolution - Absence of a genetic management high productivity and quality. adaptability to a changing environment of forest genetic resources and a specific In several international trails establish over many generations. structure of silvic administration in a ed many years ago in Europe and North Objectives are to conserve: framework of general forest administration. America Romanian provenances of P i c e a - representative populations of phyto- - The main forest genetic resources abies, Abies alba, Fagus sylvatica and geographical regions, are not sufficiently studied, mainly with others proved to be among the best ones - marginal and endangered popula regard to genetic diversity using modern with regard to productivity and stability, tions, methods of genetic and molecular quality of wood and resistance to adver - characterised genetic diversity for m arkers. sities. The results of older or newer trails breeding, -There is not enough attention paid attest the truth that in Romania Carpa - large (sufficient) genetic variation in to the "minor" species (Prunus avium , thian Mountains, there are the most reproductive materials, S o r b u s s p . and so on) mainly for conser valuable gene centres (pools) of P ic e a - reference population for future re vation in a dynamic way within the abies, Abies alba, Fagus sylvatica and search, framework of their natural ecosystems. others. -still unknown genetic variation. - "Key-stone species" are not establish ed neither the implications for forest 3. Forest genetic resources Using an adequate methodology of work genetic resource conservation; in the 347 gene-resources were established with same situation are vulnerable ecosystems. The forest sector, between 1976 and 1978 a total area of 11,304.3 ha for all main All aspects of forest genetic resource realised a new re-examination of the seed species. For all resources the aims and conservation in the near future must be stands all over the country and re-valued approaches are active genetic manage treated, even at political level, as a prio the old areas according to the new "seed ment and requirements are: rity national task. zone map of R o m ania". All the criteria fo r - autochthonous origin or well adapt the selection of seed stands thus fell in ed "landraces"; Authors' addresses: line w ith the appropriate requirem ents in -target area of gene reserve forest at the "OECD Scheme for Control of Forest least 100 ha, mosaic of stands with differ Prof. Dr. hab. Valeriu Enescu Reproductive Material Moving in Inter entiated composition and structure. Academy of Agricultural national Trade". To all seed stands two For each source management is pro and Silvicultural Sciences main functions are attributed: viding: B-Dul Marasti 61 ■ to conserve the forest genetic resour - maintenance of genetic variation RO-71335 Bucharest, Romania ces and preservation of all natural evolution Fax: +401-2229139 ■ to produce seeds of the best quality. conditions, - preparation of conditions for suc Dr. Lucia lonita For this reason all seed stands are except cessful regeneration including thinnings, Forest Research and Management Institute ed from feeling and preserved as gene - natural regeneration only with Sos. Stefanesti 128 resources. In this way we preserve 2313 material of local origin. RO-71337 Bucharest, Romania

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The preparation of a National Stra Biodiversity and Some Aspects tegy and Action Plan is indispensable for of its Management in Albania biodiversity management in Albania. Albania: country of natural Vasil Marku and Fran Gjoka resources and of high biodiversity

Albania, as a Mediterranean Country, is A bstract servation is the establishment of a dense rich in natural resources (terrestrial, forest network of Protected Areas as an inten and water resources) with high ecologi Albania: country of natural resources and sive way of biodiversity maintenance. cal, economic and recreational values. In of high biodiversity. Based on the study carried out for this this context the very expressed complexi The high biodiversity in Albania is aim, the protected area increased to ty and biological diversity show a parti connected with the variability of the 107,455 ha or 10.7 % of the total forest cular interest and value, thus giving Alba physical-geographical conditions such as area in the year 1996, against 20,000 ha nia the status of "a country with high climatic differences, which are the results in 1995. biodiversity". o f m arine and continental airean currents A draft proposal on the Country's The physical-geographical conditions and of the very broken country's topo Representative Network of Protected such as the location along the coast of graphy; geopedological diversity and the Area, which includes 301,748 ha and 191 Adriatic and Jonian Sea, mostly mountain dense hydrographic network. km river course, has been developed and ous relief of wide varying altitudes, cli The very rich biota com pared w ith the proposed to the Government for approval. matic variability, geo-pedological diversi country's area (3,250 vascular species, that The achievement of the objectives of ty and dense hydrographic networks represent 30% of European species, 30 of Protected Areas requests that in the buf favour the development of a great biodi which are endemic in Albania; 5,287 ani fer zone the application of agricultural versity in A lb ania. mal species) and a large variety of habi practices should be based on ecological Combination's variegation of these tats and vegetation types, including principles. This can be arranged by legis factors has led to the creation of natural Mediterranean shrubs, forests (broad lation. habitats for a great number of plants and leaved, conifer, and mixed conifer-broad The selection of gene reserve forests animal species. The geographical position leaved), alpine and subalpine meadow is another way to protect biodiversity. (almost equidistanced from Equator and and pastures, sand dunes and psamofil These forests cover an area of 495 ha and North Pole), the influence of mainly vegetation, river delta and riverine vegeta consist of Austrian pine, Abies borisii marine airean currents and less of conti tion, coastal lagoons and marshes, streams regis, Pinus halepensis, Pinus pinea, Pinus nental ones, relief's features determine as well as rivers and rocky coastal and m aritim a. climatic variability in our country. On this marine ecosystems characterize Albania The network of Protected Areas is base, Albania's territory is divided into as a country rich in biodiversity. capable to protect only a part of the four climatic zones (Plane Mediterranean The forests, which cover an area of national biodiversity. Therefore, sustain Zone, Hilly Mediterranean Zone, Pre- 1,031,000 ha (or 35% of the total coun able management of the commercial mountainous Mediterranean Zone, try's area) contain a very precious and forests, pastures, agri-ecosystems is im Mountainous Mediterranean Zone) and important part of the country's biodiver portant to maintain biodiversity as a thirteen subzones. sity. In this context, the virgin forests w hole. The influence of the geological, cli (about 84,000 ha) constitute the most Since the forests represent the main matic, tectonic and biological factors has important habitats for threatened resource of biodiversity, the forestry made the country, although within a rela species. activity is essential. In this context the tively small area, very distinguished in Deterioration of the natural ecosys application of the silvotechnique terms of soil diversity. The vertical zonali tems and their conversion into agri-eco methods based on natural regeneration ty is characteristic for Albania although it systems and into new pasture ecosystems, has been the main way for maintaining can be distinguished in azonal and intra intensive harvesting of the forests and biodiversity in the productive forests. zonal soils. The group of zonal soils in other natural resources, fires, intensive Thustheshelterwood, selective, and strip cludes: meadows mountainous soils, brun exploitation of the aromatic and medical ed clear cutting systems have been used forest soils, brown soils, and grey-brown plants in their natural area, atmosphere in Albania. soils, whereas the intrazonal soils include and water pollution as well as agricultur The improvement of degraded oak bog and salty soils. The alluvial soils form al intensification are the factors that are forests by recoppicing (about 200,000 ha) the azonal soil group. threatening the biodiversity in Albania. and afforestation of 196,300 ha bare The soils of Albania are mostly devel For the protection of biodiversity it is lands has also resulted in an increase of oped on sedimentary rocks (limestones necessary to adopt a method based on the biodiversity. and dolomite limestones of different geo principles of maintaining or restoring Biodiversity of the agri-ecosystems, logical ages) and less on magmatique- biodiversity in all levels in the reserved estimated as an important part of the ultrabasique rocks. Soil-formation rocks and non reserved areas. country's biological resources, can be are distinguished according to the high An im portant aspect of GOs and NGOs increased by application of sustainable intensity of changes in their geological programs for nature and biodiversity con agricultural systems. composition and structure. Changes in

195 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - Marku & Gjoka • Biodiversity and Some Aspects of its Management in Albania

land use from human activity such as The vegetation is distributed in verti and Hornbeam forests (Carpinetum ori-

afforestation and deforestation, draining cal stripes or zones due to the climatic e n t a l i s ) . of swamps and creation of artificial lakes, variations which according to the main The Fagetum Zone covers an area of building of industrial complexes and species are denominated as follows: 530,000 ha. It spreads up to 1,500 m in the urban zones have modified the climatic 1. Mediterranean shrubs zone( Laure- north and up to 1,800-1,900 m above sea conditions, influencing biodiversity. tum ) level in the south. The main forests are

2. Oaks or Sweet Chestnut zone beech forests (Fagetum sylvaticae) and

Data on Albania's biodiversity (Castanetum) Austrian pine forests (Pinetum nigrae).

3. Beech zone (Fagetum) Less common aresilverfirforests ( A b i e t u m

Albania is in relation to its area very rich 4. Norway spruce or mountainous a l b a e ) , located in the north of Albania. in biota. There are about 3,250 vascular Pines zone (Picetum) Silver fir forms mainly mixed forests with species growing in Albania, which repre 5. Alpine pastures zone (Alpinetum) European beech, but can also form pure sent 30% of all European species, 450 of stands as well. In this zone, in southern which (15%) are growing only in the Bal The m editerranean shrubs zone covers an Albania, there are some forest stands of

kan Peninsula, while 30 species are ende area of 1,040,000 ha. It is spread up to 300 Abies borisii regis (A bietum borisii regis), mic in Albania (7). Forest dendroflora con m above sea level in the north and up to while in northern Albania there are birch

sists of 330 species (about 10% of total 800 m in the south. The main forest types forest stands (Betuletum verrucosae). flora). The Albanian red book (9) contains or ecosystems are: Maquis, forests of Ker- The Norway spruce or mountainous the names of 320 species under varying mes oak (Q uercetum cocciferae), forests pines zone covers an area of 180,000 ha. degrees of threat from extinction. of Holm oak (Q uercetum Hicis), forests of It spreads up to 1,900 m asl in the north The studies on fauna shows that it Macedonian oak (Quercetum trojanae), and up to 2,000 m asl in the south. This consists of 69 mammals, 320 birds, 3,965 forests of Quercus m acrolepis Kotschy zone includes the Bosnian pine forests insects, 313 fish, 15 amphibians, 37 (Quercetum macrolepidis), forests of (Pinetum heldreichii) and the Macedoni

reptiles, 408 molluscs and 114 crustaces Aleppo-pine (Pinetum halepensis), mixed an pine forests (Pinetum peucis). Com (7). More than 100 animal species are forests of Aleppo-pine and stone pine mon spruce forests are less spread in our classified as threatened. (Pinetum pineae - halepensis). country and mainly grow in the northern The high biodiversity of Albania is re The oak zone covers an area of part of Albania. lated, above all, to the forest resources, 1,060,000 ha spreading up to 900 - 1000 The Alpine pastures zone begins at which cover an area of 1,031,000 hectares m in the north and up to 1.400 m above 1,900 - 2,000 m above sea level. The vege or approximately 35 % of the country's sea level in the south. It consists especial tation of this zone is mainly composed of total area. About 84,000 ha forests are ly of different kinds of oak forests (Q u e r herbaceous plant communities while considered as virgin forests, which consti cetum pubescentis, Quercetum cerris, mountain pine (Pinus m ugo) forms small

tute a natural richness of paramount Q uercetum frainettoi, Q uercetum petra- forest stands (Pinetum m ugo). importance for the biological diversity. e a e ) . In this zone, there also grow Sweet

More detailed data are given in Table 1. Chestnut forests (Castanetum sativae)

Tab. 1: Forests of Albania (According to the data o f the year 1995).

Forest Type Area (ha)x1000 Growing stock (m3)x1000 Timber Fuelwood Total A Forest Resources (total) 1031 51876 30944 82820 1 Coniferous Forests 176 12845 5845 18690 1 Austrian pine 110 7492 3691 11183 2 Maritime pine 35 542 481 1023 3 Silver fir 16 3032 904 3936 4 Other conifers 15 1779 769 2548 II Broadleaved Forests (total) 600 39031 17863 56894 1 Beech 195 30909 7266 38175 2 O ak 330 6783 7672 14455 3 Poplars 1,5 57 30 87 4 Other shrubs 73,5 1282 2895 4177 III Shrubland Broadleaves 255 - 7236 7236 1 A rbutus 59 - 2180 2180 2 Hornbeam 92 - 3026 3026 3 Other Broadleaves 103 - 2030 2030 B Protective Forests (total) 903 46839 26286 73125 1 Annual growth 1.4 m3 ha1 year1 - - - 1272 C Protective Forests (total) 128 - - 9695 1 For soil, water etc. 108 - - 7358 2 National Parks 8 - - 1535 3 Hunting Preserves 11,4 - - 738

4 Nature Monuments 0,6 - - 64

196 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - Marku & Gjoka • Biodiversity and Some Aspects of its Management in Albania

The beech forests, Austrian pine siderable amount. In this context is to be permanent threat for some of the game forests, high oak forests and mixed forests mentioned the total deforestation in the species and aquatic fauna.

consist of beech, Austrian pine, silver fir lowland zone of elm forest (Ulm us folla- and Bosnian pine. They are of paramount c e a e ) , ash forests (Fraxinus angustifolia), 3. The fires importance in economic aspects because English oak forests (Quercus robur) and of the limited extent. Scots pine forests large-scale deforestation for food crop Fires in forest constitute a serious threat

(Pinetum sylvestris ), birch forests ( B e t u l e - cultivation of the oak forests in the hilly for biologival diversity. They destroy tum albae), English oak forests ( Q u e r c e - land of the Hasi region (Kukes district) as natural biotopes and intensify erosion.

tum roboris), and Norway spruce forest well as of the Dumre region (Elbasan This phenomenon is becoming very fre

(Picetum albae) have a special value for our district). Likewise, about 15,000 ha shrub- quent over the last few years. country, while the Macedonian pine lands have been converted into cultivat

forests (Pinetum peucis) and Bosnian pine ed polyphite pastures which are suffering 4. Intensive exploitation of aro forests have Balcanic and European values. intensive erosion. matic and medical plants in their

The plant com m unities such as E u p h o r - The losses in biodiversity and in natur natural areal

bieto - G enistetum hassertianae, Forsythe- al habitats are connected to the drainage

tum europaea, Peterietum ram entacea arq of swamps and wetlands as well. The This practice has led to their rarefaction endemic or subendemic of Balkan ones arable land gained in this way has been and threat for extinction of some species with rare values of biodiversity (8). estimated to cover about 200,000 ha. such as: Mountain tea (S ideritis roeseri), There are regions with high value of Salvia officinalis, Colchicum autum nale, biodiversity almost in all of the country's 2. Intensive harvesting of the and certain kinds of O rchldaceae. territory, nevertheless the emphasis can forests and other natural resources be put on the typical Mediterranean 5. Atmosphere and water pollution forests and lagoons as well as on some During the last decades, under the con mountainous areas such as Bjeshket e ditions of centralized economy, forest The biological diversity is endangered Namuna (2,500 m asl), and Lura (1,500 m harvesting was characterized by a misbal- from different forms of industrial and asl) with its karstic lakes (1). In these areas ance between the annual increment of agricultural pollution. Emissions into th ere are a considerable num ber o f ende the forests (annual allowable cut) and the atmosphere from chemical, metallurgi mic species of plants and animals, which actual cutting. The ratio has been 1: 2.5- cal, cement and thermocentrales of con

constitute a richness of unique values. 3, thus reducing the country's forest siderable quantities of SO 2, nitrogen ox resources. ides, etc., the relatively high usage of agri Threats to biodiversity in Albania This problem has become more acute cultural inputs (fertilisers and pesticides) these last 7-8 years particularly for the have caused serious damage to biodiver The biological diversity in Albania has forest near roads and inhabitable centres. sity. In this context we can mention the faced a wide spectrum of man-made Also, during these years all the wind complete abolishment of about 1,200 ha threats, which can be classified as follows: breaks, vineyards and fruit trees planta broadleaved forests in Gjallica Mountain tions, the trees along roadsides and (Kukes district) due to the impacts of the 1. Deterioration of natural ecosy canals, which in their complexity have copper factory. The industrial residues stems and their conversion into functioned as "ecological corridors" have poured into streams and rivers have caus agri-ecosystems and into new been damaged. ed a considerable damage of their fauna. pasture ecosystems Because of uncontrolled cuts, over- grazing and pruning for fodder, a consid This phenomenon has affected a lot of erable area (about 200,000 ha) of forests 6. Agricultural intensification plant and animal species and communi has been degraded. ties, almost all ecosystems from mountain Also, non-use of fertilizers and over- The extreme concentration and speciali ous forests and pastures to aquatic eco grazing have led to degradation of about sation of agricultural production as well systems (lakes, lagoons). The change of 25,000-30,000 ha natural pastures, a as the creation of generally homogenous land use (Table 2) gives a clear view of this vegetation form which is dominated by agricultural landscapes in the lowland

phenomenon. N ardus stricta. areas has had a negative impact on agri The table shows that the forest and The infringement of the hunting rules ecosystems' biodiversity. As a result, the pasture area have been reduced to a con and the usage of illegal tools constitute a wildlife habitats have been destroyed.

Tab. 2: Land resources o f Albania (1000 ha).

Year 1950 Year 1991 Year 1997 ha % ha % ha % Total A rea 2875 100 2875 100 2875 100 Agricultural land 391 14 702 24 699 24 Pastures 816 28 417 15 403 14 Forests 1282 45 1051 36 1026 36 O thers 386 13 705 25 747 26

197 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity - Marku & Gjoka • Biodiversity and Some Aspects of its Management in Albania

Some aspects of the biodiversity systems, thus not all natural heritage of development in these zones can be based m anagem ent our country is represented. on the integration of ecological agricul In the year 1994 in the framework of ture combined with agri-tourism. In these For the protection of biodiversity it is the project "Forest Integrated Manage- cases the development of ecological agri necessary to adapt such a method that is ment"(FAO, World Bank) an "Ecological culture must be included in the national based on the principles of maintaining or Survey of High Forests" was carried out action plan for biodiversity protection. restoring of biodiversity in all levels in covering 85,000 ha, spread in the north Depending on the geoclimatic, socio reserved and non-reserved areas. ern, central, and southern part of Alba economic conditions and tradition, pro In particular, the protection of forest nia (2). The main aim of this study was the duction systems can be projected (sustain biodiversity is nowadays an important determination of environmental, recrea able agri-ecosystems) based on biotech duty, if we take into consideration the tional, landscape, touristic specific values nology, that consume less energy and fact that in forests live thousands of plant and biodiversity of these forests. These external inputs, that prevent erosion and and animal species, which may contain characteristics were taken into consider contamination of the environment and important chemical components or gene ation to determine the areas which must secure a harmonious integration of the tic codes with a high potential value for gain a special protection status. agri-ecosystems and natural ecosystems. humankind, providing natural medicine Based on the results of this study, with The application of such agricultural or resistant varieties towards diseases. the Decision of Council of Ministers of the systems requests funds to support finan Both, the intensive and the extensive year 1996, the protected areas reached cially the farmers fora period of 3-5years way, have been used to maintain the bio 107,455 ha, representing 10.7% of total (conversion period), education programs, logical diversity in Albania. forest area of Albania, or approximately technical assistance and an appropriate The intensive way of biodiversity 3.74 % of the country area. legislation. maintenance implies the establishment According to the management cate Taking into consideration the defini of a dense network of protected areas. gories of IUCN the existing system of pro tion of biodiversity which includes as well Protected areas, according to the defi tected areas is divided as shown in Table 3. the genetic diversity, gene conservation is nition of the Rio Conference, are deter In the last years, nature protection has an important activity connected with mined areas that have been defined, been the subject of NGOs' activity. Thus, nature protection in general and the uti arranged and classified to reach particu we can mention the study "A NGO Nature lization of biological resources. There lar objectives of preservation. Conservation Strategy" carried out by fore, in Albania, gene reserve forests have In fact, establishing protected areas is PPNEA (Protection & Preservation of been determined of the main species indispensable because though the man Natural Environment Association), AAB which are used in afforestation (Table 5 ). agement methods of productive forests (Albanian Association of Biologists), imitate natural phenomena, it can not be ASPBM (Albanian Society for the Protec expected that forestry is reconstructing tion of Birds and Mammals). The network of Protected Zones pro ecosystems equivalent to natural forests In the workshop organized in the tects only a part of the national biologi (6). The only means to preserve the typi framework of this project, "The Represen cal diversity, therefore sustainable man cal flora and fauna of natural forests is to tative Network of Protected Areas of agement of the commercial forests, establish a sufficiently dense and repre Albania" has been approved. In this net pastures, agri-ecosystems and aquatic sentative network of preserved areas. work are included marine, coastal, forest ecosystems is important for maintaining Therefore, in Albania, a network of pro and pasture ecosystems, which constitute biodiversity as a whole. tected areas has been established. From about 10% of the country area. Table 4 In the extensive way of biodiversity 1966 on, the Decision of Council of Minis shows this network, which has been pro protection the action of forestry is essen ters stated the first six Forest National posed to the Government institutions for tial. It must be such that as less modifica Parks. Until 1995, three categories of pro approval. tions as possible of the environmental tected areas have been determined: The avoidance of negative impacts by conditions are caused and habitats are Forest National Parks, Game Reserves, agriculture in the protected areas affords maintained. and Natural Monuments, which include that in the buffer zone agricultural prac Such an objective can be realized by about 20,000 ha forests. In these catego tices, inthe cases oftheirapplications, have application of silvicultural methods which ries have been mainly included forest eco to be based on ecological principles. Their are based on the natural regeneration of

Tab. 3: The existing system of Protected Areas (PAs) o f Albania.

PAs Category No of PAs Hectares Strict Nature Reserves/Scientific Reserves 4 14500 National Parks 11 25860 Nature Monuments 300 4360 Managed Nature Reserve/Species and Habitat Management Area 26 42940 Landscape/Seascape Protected Area 3 2550 Protected Area of Multiple Use/Managed Resource Protected Area 4 18245 Total 348 107455

198 WS Tools and Measures for Conservation, Rehabilitation and Development of Biodiversity- Marku & Gjoka • Biodiversity and Some Aspects of its Management in Albania

Tab. 4: The proposed Protected Areas (PAs) of Albania.

PAs Category No of PAs Hectares/km Strict Nature Reserves/Scientific Reserves 12 16040 ha and 2 km river course National Parks 7 100000 ha Nature Monuments 358 ha Managed Nature Reserve/Species and Habitat Management Area 9 16650 ha and 44 km river course Landscape/Seascape Protected Area 17 120400 ha and 145 km river course Managed Resource Protected Area 3 12400 ha Areas of not yet defined protection status/Undetermined protected Areas 4 35900 ha Total 52 301748 ha and 191 km river course forests. Natural regeneration enables the In some pure beech forests depending total afforested area until 1993 reached realization of forest stands' functions on site conditions it has been intervened 196,230 ha. The main aim of these affor without evident interruptions of them. It to create mixed forests by sowing silver estations, besides the production of favours the maintenance of existing natur fir seeds and planting seedlings of differ wood material, has been soil protection al ecosystems. At the same time, natural ent maple species such as Acer pseudo- against erosion and the protection of the regeneration preserves the genetic diver p l a t a n u s and Acer platanoides. As a hydropower stations and pool basins. The sity maintained in native forests by natur result, not only the productive potential priority had been given to indigenous al selection. of the site can be exploited better, but the species, prefering monospecific planta Thus, in A lb a nia, the shelterw ood cut pure stands are gradually converted into tions. Among the conifers have especially ting system with two or three phases has mixed stands leading to increased biodi been used the species: Pinus nigra A m ., been especially used in the beech and versity. Pinus halepensis M ill., Pinus pinaster A it. Austrian pine forests. Taking into consi In our country, besides the shelter- and Pinus sylvestris L, while among the deration the fact that conifer timber in wood cutting systems, have also been broadleaved species Populus x euram eri- our country is showing a deficit and the used the striped clear and selective cut c a n a (Dode) Guinier, R obinia pseudacacia natural extension tendency of silver fir in tings. The striped clear cuttings have been L , Betula pendula Roth, and different beech forests, the cutting method has applied in Austrian pine forests only for kinds of the genus Salix have been used. experimental objectives, while selective The species Fraxinus ornus L , Fraxinus an- Tab. 5: The gene reserve forests. cuttings have been applied very rarely, g u s t i f o l i a Va hi., Castanea sativa M ill., T i l i a Species Area (ha) although this system imitates better the s p . and A c e r s p . have rarely been used. action of nature and preserves more hete Biodiversity of the agri-ecosystems Pinus nigra 320 rogeneous structure of stands. should be treated as an important part of Abies borisii régis 140 The management of productive the country's biological resources. Biolo Pinus halepensis 3 forests must aim, beside others, at main gical complexity and diversity, stability Pinus pinea 26 taining and increasing biodiversity, too. and resilience are essential characteristics Pinus pinaster 6 For this purpose, in the management of sustainable agro-ecosystems. Thus, the favoured the increase of its percentage in plan, besides the information on site con sustainable agriculture is considered as a order to create mixed forests (beech with ditions, forests stands structure and other tool for establishment and maintenance silver fir). Whereas in mixed forests silvi characteristics (age, height, diameter, of biodiversity in the agricultural land cultural practices have aimed at maintain density, cutting systems, sustained yield scapes. ing the existing composition of species. of timber products, stand improvement Policultures, hedgerows, fragmenta The forest management plans recom techniques and forest protection), must tion of agricultural landscapes and of pro mend that a strip of about 50 m along be determined the characteristic biotopes duction systems and the establishment of side watersheds and streams are left which may be for example wetlands, "ecological corridors" provide considera uncut. Uncutting of the rare species has depression, rock outcrops and swamps. bly increasing biodiversity. been recommended, too. Also, the improvement of degraded An action plan for sustainable agri In cases of wrong applications of the oak forests by recoppicing, which cover culture development in our country was cutting intensity, in pure beech forests about 200,000 ha, has resulted in increas prepared in the framework of the Project: gaps dom inated by Rubus idaeus and F r a ing biodiversity. "A NGO sustainable agriculture develop garia vesca have been created. In mixed A good part of improved forests ment strategy in Albania", implemented forests composed of beech and silver fir, which growon favourable ecological con by two NGOs (Union of Agrarian Coopera gaps are dominated by Vaccinium m yrtil- ditions will be converted into high forests tors of Albania and Albanian Consumer). lu s and Erica herbaceae, w h ile in the Aus where biological diversity will be higher. In conclusion, the preparation of a trian pine forests the gaps are mainly The afforestation of bare lands and National Biodiversity Strategy and Action dominated by Erica herbaceae. These shrublands in the mountains, hills, and Plan is indispensable. phenomena modify temporarily the ver coastal sands has provided an adequate This can include: tical structure of forests because of the increase in biological diversity. - Improvement of the existing legisla abstractions of establishment in time of The first three hectares have been tion for the protection of biodiversity. tree seedlings. afforested in the year 1938, while the - Extension of the Protected Areas

199 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

Network in conformity with the interna Literature 7. Protection and Preservation of Natur tional agreements. al Environment Association in Alba - Deepening studies for identification 1. Council of Europe, 1995 Euro-Diary / nia, etc. 1997. Nature, Landscape and of the biological richness in our country. Euro-Agenda, Italy Biodiversity Conservation in Albania. - Preparation of biodiversity manage 2. Instituti i Kerkimeve Pyjore dhe Kullo- Tirana ment plans for the Protected Areas. tave, etj, 1997. Pyjet e virgjer te Shqi- 8. Shoqata per Ruajtjen dhe Mbrojtjen e - Inclusion into the management plans perise Tirane Mjedisit Natyror ne Shqiperi, etj. 1997. of production forests of the instructions 3. Marku V., Klasifikimi tipologjik i pyje- Libri i Kuq. (Bime, shoqerime bimore for the protection of biotopes with parti ve te masivit "Tuc-Munelle. (Diserta dhe kafshe te rezikuara) Tirane cular values of biodiversity. ción ne kerkim te grades shkencore 9. Vangjeli J.; Ruci B.; Mullai A.-, 1995 - Education and participation of local "Kandidat i Shkencave") Tirane Libri i Kuq (Bimet e rralla dhe te ker- population in the protection of nature 4. Mollison B., 1991 Introduction to Per- cenuara te Shqipeorise) Tirane and biodiversity. m aculture - Equilibrium of cutting with forest 5. Olson K. R., 1992. Integrating Sustain Authors' address: natural increment (annual allowable cut able Agriculture, Ecology, and Envi ting) and decrease of wood consumption ronmental Policy Prof. Vasil Marku by usage of alternative resources of ener 6. Parvianien J., Schuck A. &, Bücking W. Dr. Fran G joka gy must be the main objective of forestry Forestry research on structure, succes Faculty of Forestry, Agricultural and other state institutions. sion and biodiversity of undisturbed University of Tirana - Passing towards the obligated appli and seminatural forests and wood Kamez, Tirana, Albania cations of ecological agriculture practices lands in Europe. Presented at the Fax: +355-42-27804 Fax: +355-42-25373 in buffer zones should be considered as an W W F W orkshop held in Zvolen July 7- important tool to maintain biodiversity. 9, 1994 Poster Presentations and Additional Contributions

So far, the preliminary results are A Biodiversity Forecasting encouraging. There is every indication that, once refined, the model can be used Model Using Bird Assemblages to characterize the bird life (species and relative abundance) in most of Québec's Jean-Luc DesGranges, Richard Poulin forests based solely on data obtained through LANDSAT-TM satellite imagery. This data will be used to produce bird dis A bstract development of expert systems for use in tributional maps using remote sensing. forest management. Maps showing the geographical distribu Forest managers now face the challenge We thus developed a computer model tion of birds should greatly facilitate inte of sustainable development. This entails using ornithological and botanical data grated forest management, since forest considering all forest components and from some 1700 nesting bird censuses managers will be able to pinpoint, at least their interdependences to ensure that conducted overthe past 25 years in north for one major group of vertebrates, spe measures targeting one component do eastern North American forests. Using cies-rich sites and sites with a concentra not harm another. New approaches to neural networks, we developed a fore tion of rare species. This knowledge will decision-making are based largely on the casting model that can be used to predict allow them to plan environmentally res use of mathematical model to establish bird populations based solely on the ponsible silvicultural treatment plans that silvicultural treatment plans that com dominantvegetation inthethree primary protect forest biodiversity. bine optimum forest yield with more ef forest cover strata. Data collected in some ficient resource enhancement. 175 sampling sites in the Lower St. Authors' address: Since birds inhabit most forest com Lawrence Model Forest were used to test partments (canopy, trunks, shrubs, the accuracy of the model's forecasts. We Jean-Luc DesGranges ground, gaps, etc.) they are considered to are confident that the remaining few Service Canadien de la Faune be a good indicator of biodiversity and, deviations can be corrected as the model 1141, Route de l'Église thereby, a relevant source of information is updated with more data from exploit Sainte-Foy, Qc, G1V 4H5, Canada on the impact of silvicultural practices. ed forests. Any remaining flaws will be e-m ail: [email protected] Since it is impossible to census all species clearly identified and suggestions made inhabiting a particular forest (i.e. real to guide future work, particularly as Richard Poulin biodiversity), studying an easily inven regards the development of an expert Groupe DRYADE Ltée toried group comprising a hundred or so system that can be easily consulted by Quebec, Canada bird species should support the rapid forest managers.

200 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

keywords: Hot Spots for Biodiversity Biodiversity, conservation, key woodland in Swedish Forests habitats, hot spots, red-listed species Author's address: Lena Gustafsson

Lena Gustafsson The Forest Research Institute of Sweden, A bstract used for identification. The estimated Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden number of the key woodland habitats for e-m ail: [email protected] The Swedish forests have been affected the whole country is 60 000 - 80 000 and by forestry for a long time and today they, on average, cover 1 % of the forest almost all forest land is intensively man land. In two research projects the pres aged for timber and pulp production. The ence and abundance of red-listed lichens, natural forests have been converted into bryophytes, macrofungi and vascular production forests and this has caused plants has been investigated in key wood considerable impacts on the flora, fauna land habitats and has been compared and habitats. Still, areas with a high con with the surrounding production forests. centration of rare plants and animals In this paper, the woodland key habitat occur. Such "woodland key habitats" are inventory is described and results from at present being mapped in a nation-wide the two studies on red-listed species are survey, coordinated by the National given. The application on forestry and Board of Forestry. Aerial photographs are biodiversity conservation is discussed.

Phenolic Compounds Content Authors' address: Prof. Maria Krzakowa as a Measure of Genetic Diversity Department of Genetics Adam Mickiewicz University in Conifers ul. Miedzychodzka 5 60-371 Poznan, Poland Maria Krzakowa, Jan Matras e-m ail: [email protected]

Jan M atras A bstract Individual trees belonging to three Institute of Forestry Research coniferous species (Pinus sylvestris, A bies W arsaw Phenolic compounds are present in all a l b a and Pseudosuga m enziesii) w e re POLAND plant tissues and are considered the most investigated according to the phenolic stable chemical characters in plants. They compounds content. Taxifolin polymor are not hormones themselves, though phism was examined in Scots pine popu they may effect plant growth by interac lations. Six other compound frequencies tion with one of the major class of plant (mericetin, quercitin, laritricin, kaemfe- hormones such as the auxins. Phenolics rol, isorhamnetin, and syringetin), detec are also significant in providing resistance ted chromatographically (HPLC), describe to various fungal, bacterial and viral intraspecific diversity as well as interspe infections, functioning not only as pre cific differences between A b i e s a l b a and formed antifungal compounds but also as Pseudotsuga m enziesii. phytoauxins formed postinfectionally. 201 NNA Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

key words: Forest Biodiversity from the soil, biology, biochemistry, enzymatic activity, Basidiomycetes, nutrient mana Soil Biological and Biochemical gement, trophic chains

Pedogenetic Processes Author's address: Gilles Lemieux Prof. Gilles Lemieux Laval University GIK7P4 Quebec A b stract know that we are dealing with a biologi Canada cal process based on the enzymatic activi e-m ail: [email protected] Over the last 100 years, understanding of ty of Basidiomycetes breaking apart large forest ecosystems behaviour only dealt molecules of lignin through lignoperoxi- with the hypogeous ecosystems descrip dase enzymatic activity enhancing tro tion in a completely productivist manner phic chains as well as soil structure based for man's consumption. Our last 20 years on aromatic remaining rings. work has brought us to the conclusion This is fundamental for the establish that the living soil is fundamentally re ment of the quality of the food chains re sponding to the evolution of the hypo sponsible for energy storage and the geous as a bank containing the memory, the management of many minerals such as food and the energy accumulated during nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, manganese, the previous life of the forest ecosystem. etc... At this point, diversity is a vital con Trying to enhance depleted forest tribution to a better use and convenient soils by adding chipped twigs in the first biological storage of both chemical and 10 cm produced an outstanding response biochemical nutrients and other biologi w e can o nly begin to u nderstand. W e now cal soil managers.

27 community types in the potentially The Impact of the Three Gorges flooded area will be eliminated from the area as well, since the original habitats of Hydroelectric Project on and the some species will be destroyed after the reservoir is filled w ith w ater. Flooding w ill Preservation Strategies for the directly lead to the extinction of species and community types in the region unless Biodiversity in the Affected Region preservation strategies are to be taken. Even if it is assessed solely based on the Ma Chuo, Han Jin loss of natural vegetation and the destruction of the habitats that are cur rently cultivated, the economic loss caus ed by flooding will be severe. A b stract 20 rare species and 5 threatened species, have been listed in the "Plant Red Data keywords: The impact of the Three Gorges Hydroe Book of China". Vegetation types in the biodiversity. Three Gorges Hydroelectric lectric Project on the plant diversity in the reservoir area, except for those found in Project, preserving strategies, impact of reservoir region was assessed based upon the cultivated land, have 89 formations. the hydroelectric project field surveys of the plant species and The coniferous forests are most widely vegetation surrounding the reservoir distributed, while broadleaf evergreen Authors' address: area that will be influenced by this pro forests are only scattered in the central ject. The reservoir area harbors more than parts of the mountain. The plants belong Ma Chuo, Han Jin 190 plant families (except Bryophytes), ing to 120 families, 358 genera and 550 The Chinese Academy of Forestry, 1012 genera, and 3012 species (including species that are at present distributed 12-1-301, An Yuan, An Hui Bei Li, Beijing 29 sub-species, 286 varieties and 16 under the flooded line (185m) in the 100101, China forms). Of these, 37 endemic species can reservoir will be affected by the project, e-m ail: [email protected] only be found in the reservoir region, 47 based on their current distribution range species, including 22 endangered species. from the established database. Moreover,

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Can Miniature Forests Author's address: Dr. E. S. M ahend rarajah Ameliorate Loss of Biodiversity? Gnanammah Integrated Research Farm 7/4 King Street E. S. Mahendrarajah M atale P.C. #210OOSri Lanka e-m ail: [email protected]

Abstract ence, the most valuable groups are sole- lygrounddwelling mammals. Inthe8acre The human demands on forests have forest that I have created, I was happy to been so terrible in recent years, that loss note the arrival of the barking deer - an of tree cover has resulted in erosion of the endangered species of small mammals. available medicinal plants from those Our happiness was shortlived for some areas. Creation of miniature forests of 8- neighbours, on spotting the animals, kil 25 acres has been thought to ameliorate led them for food. the depletion of biodiversity. These man Miniature forests can provide suste made forests need intense knowledge for nance to many species of life forms except the introduction of plant species. The dis solely ground dwelling mammals. If a advantage is that while they can create chain of such miniature forests can be temporary abodes to animal and bird spe created with sufficiently wide corridors, cies, they usually become death traps to some actions can be taken to protect the hapless small mammals. In my experi these animals, too.

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From Tree to Region: Evaluating Tree Local level The main factor determining the qualita Species Diversity in Tropical Rainforests, tive and quantitative characteristics of the species mixture around a tree is local Examples from French Guyana dominance (i. e.theoutnumbering of one species over others). Unevenness of local J.-F. Molino, D. Sabatier, P. Birnbaum & M.-F. Prevost dominance, which results in different spe cific dispersion patterns and variations in species mixture, has a lot of causes, Introduction On the other hand, exhaustive field among which the most often cited is inventories give true measures of species disturbance (mortality and structural dis O ur kno w led g e o f tre e species diversity in diversity but are hardly possible on large organization) [4] (Fig. 1 ). tropical rainforests comes from two dif surfaces (for tree species studies, plots ferent approaches. The first one is taxo range usually from 1 to 20 ha, very rarely Plot level nomic and floristic surveys, based on the up to 50-100 ha). Data collected show not study of herbaria collections, and the only high levels but also important varia Rainforest tree species are often very second one is field inventories on perma tions of tree densities and species richness reactive to faint environmental varia nent or semi-permanent plots. (e. g. in French Guyana, 450 to 800 indi- tions. Such a fine tuning leads to short- Floristic studies are still incomplete in viduals/ha and 130 to 200 species/ha, for distance changes in community composi most parts of the tropical world. Many trees with DBH - diameter at breast tion [5]. plant families strongly need to be accura h e ig h t-a b o v e 10 cm [4, 6]), but also th at This drift generates between-commu- tely revised, species unknown to science inventoried plots are never large enough nity (p) diversity w hich is com bined at the are frequently collected and have to be to allow any extrapolation of the results plot level with within-community ( a ) described and named. Such works give to a larger scale. diversity. estimations of species richness at regional, In other words, tree species diversity, Then it is almost impossible to meas national or continental scales but accord which is an aspect of tropical rainforests ure independently a and p diversity. In ing to the disparity of collection densities heterogeneity, is very high at all scales, practice, to point out spatial variations of they do not account for the geographical but also very variable, and we do not the species mixture within a plot, one has variations of both species richness (i. e. know how to measure or estimate it at to discretize the whole diversity into pin number of species) and diversity (i. e. the intermediate scales (10 to 10 000 km2). point values measured on adjacent small properties of the species mixture). But it is just at these intermediate surfaces (Fig. 2a & b). scales that there is a great need of infor Comparison between observed and mation today, either for biodiversity con theoretical variations in local diversity servation or for forest management values emphasizes the importance of purposes. local dominance, which reflects uneven Since the mid-80s, our team of dispersion of some species. ORSTOM's botanists have conducted eco Interpreting local-scale images of the logical studies in French Guyana, through forest is a major challenge and the real field inventories of forest trees. A census blocking point on the way to regional- of the tree community covering about 30 scale evaluation of biodiversity. ha has been made in various locations all Among many interrelated/correlated over the country, but particularly in two data collected from w ith in the fo rest eco research stations, Piste de St. Elie's system in a 3-D space (Figs.2 & 3), which (5°18'N, 53°3'W) and Les Nouragues are visible from above, on a 2-D image (4°5'N, 54°40'W). The numerous botani (Fig. 4). cal vouchers collected during this work Is biodiversity well correlated to one have been deposited in Cayenne's Herba (or more) characteristics of forest cano rium (CAY), contributingtotheglobalflo- py's remote views? ristic knowledge of the region (see Flora of the Guianas series and Flora Neotropi- Landscape level ca monographs). Starting from these basic works, we Between-plots comparison of species now aim at investigate intermediate richness emphasizes the different sources scales using new methods and tools. o f p diversity, both environmental (topo Hereafter our goal is to present, at each graphy, variations in water availability Fig. 1: Emergent tree near an old gap, scale o f study, th e relevant aspects of tree and/or microclimate) and historical (dis Montagne Cacao. Example of canopy species diversity and the problems to be tribution and frequency of perturbations, structure generated by natural distur solved to achieve a multi-scale evaluation rhythm and nature of subsequent regen bance. m ethod. eration [1, 2]) (Fig. 5).

204 M olino et al. • From Tree to Region: Evaluating Tree Species Diversity in Tropical Rainforests, Examples from French Guyana

30 S p e c ie s Hurlbert ’s Index for a standardized sample Richness 25 (n = 30 individuals) ( E 3 0 )

Topography 40

CO soil 0 dark red ¡sáltente ■ bed rock □ DVD: deep vertical drainage. IH Alt : red alloterite at a depth of less than 1,2 m E2 SLD: superficiel lateral drainage. □ H : full hydromorphy. ■ DhS: downhill hydromorphic system □ UhS: uphill hydromorphic system

H urlbert’s Index fo r a standardized sam ple S p e c i e s (n = 15 individuals) R i c h n e s s ( E 1 5 )

C a n o p y H e i g h t ( m )

Fig. 2: Variations of tree species richness are not obviously linked to environmental changes. Examples from an undisturbed forest Piste de St. Elie. a: 10 ha plot, trees with DBH >10 cm, edaphic factors, b: 1 ha plot, understorey trees with 2 cm < DBH <10 cm, comparison with canopy upper surface.

205 M olino et al. • From Tree to Region: Evaluating Tree Species Diversity in Tropical Rainforests, Examples from French Guyana

Fig. 3: Distribution of the local diversity values. A: Observed Humbert's Index values (see Fig. 2A). B: Theoretical values for a random species dispersion model (weak local dominance). C: Theoretical values for an over-dispersion model (no local domi n ance).

The expression of these factors on the canopy in terms of roughness, grain of crowns or spectral variations can be more or less easily mapped on a picture (Fig. 6), following patterns scarcely perceptible at plot level.

Regional level

The main challenge at regional scale (Fig.7) is to identify biogeographical units, i. e. areas in which all landscape units share the same patterns of varia tions and have a common floristic poten tial. Understanding the rules underlying these patterns is part of the evaluation m ethod.

Conclusion

There is today an urgent need for new methods of biodiversity evaluation at landscape and regional scales. Field stud- Fig. 4: Both structural and radiometric heterogeneity o f the canopy roof reflect spe- ies on limited areas are still necessary, but des diversity. Comté flat, near Nancibo. w e should now fin d a w ay to extrapolate

206 M olino et al. • From Tree to Region: Evaluating Tree Species Diversity in Tropical Rainforests, Examples from French Guyana

2 0 0

s 150 s o CJ

*3 a J a Foot-si ope, high canopy 1 0 0 (ZÎ M id-slope, High canopy M id-slope, very high canopy Flat hilltop, high canopy H illtop, low canopy M id-slope, high canopy M id-slope, irregular canopy, near liana forest 50 o o o o o o o o o o o on o on o on o on o on (N (N CO CO T f on on Individuals

Fig. 5: Changes in species richness among seven 1-ha plots distributed along a topographic gradient, Les Nouragues station. Liana forest represents a high degree and frequency of perturbation.

from these scattered, local-scale mea sures to regional-scale evaluations, which necessarily involve remote-sensing and modeling tools.

Acknowledgements

This research program is granted by the French Ministry of Environment as part of the SOFT programme (Sols et Forêts Tro picaux) managed by the GIP-ECOFOR.

Selected references

[1] BIRNBAUM, P., 1997-M odalités d'oc cupation de l'espace par les arbres en forêt guyanaise. Thèse de Doctorat Univ. Paris VI, 221 pp. [2] BRÜNIG, E.F. & Y.-W. HUANG, 1989. - Patterns of tree species diversity and canopy structure and dynamics in humid tropical evergreen forest on Borneo and in China. In Holm-Nielsen, Fig. 6: Patterns o f structural and radiometric heterogeneity o f the canopy roof reflect L. B., I. C. Nielsen & H. Balslev (Eds.) : changes in the tree community related to edaphic factors as well as recent or histor Tropical forests, botanical dynamics, ical events. Inini region, near Dorlin.

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spéciation and diversity. Academic Author's address: Press: 75-88. [3] HURLBERT, S.H., 1971. The non con Jean-François Molino cept of species diversity: a critique and ORSTOM, Department of Botany/Forestry alternative parameters. Ecology, 52: 911, avenue Agropolis BP 5045 577 - 586 F-34032 Montpellier Cedex 1, France [4] PREVOST, M.-F. & D. SABATIER, 1996 - e-m ail: [email protected] Variations spatiales de la richesse et de la diversité du peuplement arboré en forêt guyanaise. In: Guillaumet, J.- L, M. Belin & H. Puig (Eds.) - Actes du Colloque "Phytogéographie tropicale. Réalités et perspectives", Paris, 6-8 Juillet 1993. ORSTOM, pp. 263-277. [5] SABATIER, D„ M. GRIMALDI, M.-F. PREVOST, J. GUILLAUME, M. GODRON, M. DOSSO & P. CURMI, 1997 -The influence of soil cover organiza tion on the floristic and structural heterogeneity of a Guianan rain forest. Plant Ecology 131:81-108. [6] SABATIER, D„ 1993 - Diversité des ar bres et du peuplement forestier en Guyane. In: Actes du Congrès SEPAN- Fig. 7: Landsat view of Sinnamary Basin, GUY "Gestion de l'écosystème fore 17/08/1988 (data Processing: A. Minghel- stier et aménagement de l'espace li. Maison de la Télédétection, Montpel régional", Cayenne, 16-17 Février lier). 1990. pp. 41-48.

w ith in the lim its of one coenopopulation. Functional Role of Biodiversity The similar phenomenon is revealed and in populations of a number of grassy spe in Forest Ecosystems of Caucasus cies (Synskaja, 1948). Thus the high pro ductivity phenotypes occupy positions of Mikhail V. Pridnya the leaders, whose growth submits to the law of rank behaviour, rather than the formation coenocells being caused. A bstract The special role in forming of phyto At a number of the vital forms the coenosises and formations as organized organization of populations raises by for The structural organization of forest eco components of ecosystems and land mation of extensive durable clones (rho systems is largely determined by follow scapes belongs to the phenomena of con doretums, aspen), and also - by self-in ing functional population and coenotic stitution (incumbation) of cirdesof vegeta oculations between copies ( P a r r o t i a mechanisms. tion, which are brightly expressed in a P e r s ia n ) . Centuries-old exchange of the gene subalpine belt on Caucasus. Incumbation The organization of ecosystems is tic information, forming integrated of circles are characteristic for the east defined by volume and structure of the genetic funds of populations of the beech, common birches, high-mountain phenotypical and coenotypical informa dominants in ecosystems, causes its orga ous maple, Rhodoretums = Caucasian and tion, in this aspect the decoding of a role nization. The subordinated circles are yellow, bilberry heath = Caucasian and of a biodiversity of Colches and Girkani- connected by population systems and ordinary, and also subalpine tall her an te rtiary relict centres is im portant. Tax coenotic mechanisms and are adapted by baceous vegetation. ons of different geological age of a num the vital form s and cycles o f developm ent The differentiation of populations of ber of ecosystems are reliable objects for to the environment formed by dominants. Caucasian fir on phenotypes of different revealing laws of functional organization In populations of sympatric species the efficiency forms structural elements of of ecosystems. A saturation by them of a spatial structure of populations, species, phytocoenosises, in which the circles are number ecosystems: Girkanian, Colches, phytocoenosises and formations prevails. allocated dominant and subordinated Mediterranean and boreal, is natural

208 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999 scientific basis to the decision of a prob Author's address: lem of evolution, of the different forms of a biodiversity. M ikhail V. Pridnya, The laws o f flo w s o f energy on pastur Research Institute of Mountain Forestry able and soil cycles and mechanisms and Forest Ecology, sinergetics on ontogenetics and ecosys Russian Forest Service, , tem, levels together with the marked 74 Kurortnyi pr., 354002 Sochi, Russia above functions of a biodiversity, allow to e-m ail: [email protected] build system of revealing, monitoring and checking of its preservation in dynamic modern ecosystems.

Diversity of Medicinal Plants Authors' address: Shyamal K. Roy & Pinaki Sinka in Bangladesh and their Uses Department of Botany, Jahangirnagar University as a Resource Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh Fax: +880-2-833 054 Shyamal K. Roy & Pinaki Sinka

A bstract forest, hill forests, plainland forests, unclassed state forests, village groves etc. There is growing interest in medicinal More than 200 plants growing in the plants and traditional medicine within forests are found to have medicinal the last decade. With the increasing use values. We visited different Ayurvedic and of medicinal plants in many countries, Unani manufacturing firms in Bangladesh and with the accelerating destruction of and enlisted the names of plants being natural resources in the tropics, it has used as raw materials. 110 plants are become clear that the exploitation of extensively used by these manufacturing medicinal plants must be accompanied by firms to produce crude drugs. At present, conservation measures, otherwise these there are many Ayurvedic and Unani plants become depleted as resources or manufacturing firms in Bangladesh, of may even face extinction. Bangladesh has these nine are quite big and supplying the a rich heritage of medicinal plants. Geo major bulk of the traditional medicines in graphically, the location of Bangladesh is the market. These manufacturing firms very unique; it is a short stretch of land exploit the nature by collecting the medi between the Himalyan mountains and cinal plants indiscriminately for their raw the Bay of Bengal, and a fertile deltaic materials. So the conservation of these region criss-crossed by the Ganges, the plants is needed for their sustainable use. Brahmaputra, the Meghna and their net An inventory of 200 medicinal plants with work of tributaries. Naturally, Bangladesh their uses is given in this paper and a bio has a rich forest resource having diver technological approach for their conser sified ecosystems, such as in mangrove vation is also mentioned.

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Columbia (El-Kassaby and Yanchuk 1994). Impacts of Market Pressure on the Recent reports with fragmented popula Genetic Diversity of the Yew tions suggest that inbreeding can drive (Taxus): small, spatially isolated populations to A Forest Bioresource for Therapeutic extinction (Kaiser 1998). Impacts of related forest manage Taxanes ment activities Stanley Scher Introduction of non-local nursery-grown seedlings or rooted cuttings into native habitats during artificial reforestation Introduction and background ■ Direct effects occur at the same time may also contribute to disrupting the and place as the cause; genetic structure, and changing geno For many centuries, the yew (Taxus) s u f ■ Indirect effects appear later in time or type frequencies in future generations. fered declining populations from econo farther removed in distance, but are rea Pacific yew cuttings collected from locali mic pressures, such as habitat loss as fo r sonably foreseeable; ties throughout its range were rooted at ested lands were replaced by expanding ■ Cumulative effects may result from several nurseries in western North Ame agriculture, and during the period when incremental impacts when added to other rica for artificial reforestation initiatives, resilient yew wood was exploited for con past, present, and reasonablyforeseeable but impacts on genetic structure of native structing long bows. Over the last several future actions. populations has not yet been reported decades, forest management activities re ■ Cumulative impacts can also result (Daust 1991; Mitchell 1997; Kaplow and placed natural forests w ith even-aged plan from individual minor, but Scher 1998). tations, contributing to the further de ■ collectively significant actions taking Commercial nurseries and large-scale cline of yew abundance; short-rotation fo place over a period of time. plantations of yew cultivars and hybrids restry se I ected a g a i nst s I o w-g ro wi n g Taxus in northeastern, and mid-western United species. Road building, clear-cut logging, Impacts of bark harvesting on States, as well as federal land manage and forest fragmentation increased ac Pacific yew populations ment agency counterparts - USDA Forest cess to ungulate browsing. Clear cutting Service and US Department of the Interi follow ed by slash burning of understorey Intensive use and management of yew or, Bureau of Land Management - in the shrubs and saplings in the tree regenera species as a source of medicinal agents Pacific northwestern United States, Brit tion layer selected against temperature- poses risks to fragmented yew popula ish Columbia, CA, in Europe and Asia pose se n sitive Taxus species. The thin yew bark tions. Present guidelines developed by the a potential impact on the gene pool of conferred vulnerability to prescribed burn United States Department of Agriculture native yew species. Pollen clouds from in g a n d fu rth e r reduces Taxus populations. (USDA) Forest Service and the British yew hybrids cultivated at 1 0 , 0 0 0 in d iv i The recent discovery of paclitaxel Columbia Ministry of Forests in Canada duals per acre represent a potentially (Taxol) - an anticancer agent - in the bark require yew bark stripping for taxol pro serious threat to the genetic architecture and other tissues of Pacific yew (Taxus bre- duction prior to commercial timber har of native populations in the surrounding v ifo lia ) and other yew species adds an vesting on clear cuts (Daust 1992; El-Kas- forests. Taken together, the direct and other dimension to the environmental and saby and Yanchuk 1995). Accordingly, indirect effects of large-scale bark har anthropogenic threats to the viability of Taxus abundance on forested lands dim i vesting and cumulative impacts of related these slow-growing, long-lived conifers. nishes with the progress of timber har forest management practices call atten Currently, commercial production of pac v e stin g . tion to the need for bold conservation litaxel and othertaxane-based anticancer Studies w ith Taxus and other heavily efforts to diminish further erosion of the agents depends upon the access to relia exploited conifer populations provide Taxus gene pool. ble and sustainable sources of bioactive evidence that the greatest risks to gene taxanes or their proximate precursors tic diversity appear at the level of the Conserving the genetic integrity from yew species. gene pool (M illar and Libby 1991; El-Kas- of native yew populations This report addresses the direct, indi saby and Yanchuk 1994; 1995). Negative rect, and cumulative impacts of large- (dysgenic) selection from highgrading - Inventories of yew abundance by diame scale bark harvesting on Pacific yew, a non harvesting the largest yew trees on a site, ter class in remaining stands or studies of renewable resource, and related forest leaving the inferior trees to regenerate regeneration on harvested sites appearto management activities on the genetic the stand - represents a direct impact on be lacking. We urge actionsto restore yew diversity of this species in the temperate the gene pool. abundance to pre-harvest levels, insure a forests of western North America, and Marked reduction in the breeding wide range of age and size classes, encour urges conservation measures to protect population contributes to inbreeding, age the development of alternative, non its gene pool from further degradation. expression of recessive genes, and depres destructive, renewable, semisynthetic Direct, indirect, and cumulative sion of viability in future generations-an and other sustainable approaches to main impacts are defined by the National Envi indirect effect. Evidence for inbreeding in tain long-term viability of this economi ronmental Policy Act as follows: Pacific yew has been detected in British cally valuable, non-timber bioresource.

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Literature Coited: Kaplow, D. and Scher, S. 1998. Status of Key Words: Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) p o p u la Genetic diversity, non-timber forest Daust, D.K. 1992. An interim guide to the tions at their southern geographic bioresource, Pacific yew, Taxus brevifolia, conservation and management of the range limit. In: Propagation of Native native populations, cultivars, hybrids, Pacific yew. USDA Forest Service, Paci Plants, (in press) paclitaxel, taxol, taxane, anticancer, fic Northwest Region, Portland, OR. Millar, C.l. and Libby, W.J. 1991. Strate negative selection, dysgenic, highgrad- 70 pp. gies for conserving clinal, ecotypic, ing, artificial reforestation, plantations, El-Kassaby, Y.A. and Yanchuk, A.D. 1994. and disjunct population diversity in habitat loss, short-rotation, clear-cut log Genetic diversity, differentiation, and widespread species. 149-170 In: D. A. ging, forest fragmentation, ungulate inbreeding in Pacific yew populations Falk and K.E. Holsinger, eds. Genetics browsing, regeneration, gene pool, from British Columbia. J. Hered. and conservation of rare plants. genetic architecture, inbreeding, semi 85:112-117. Oxford University Press, N.Y. synthesis, sustainable development, long El-Kassaby, Y.A. and Yanchuk, A.D. 1995. Mitchell, A.K. 1997. Propagation and term viability. Genetic variation of Pacific yew in Brit growth of Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) ish Columbia and its conservation. cuttings. Northwest Science 71(1): 56- Author's address: 227-235. In: P. Bardat, W.T. Adams, and 63. G. Mueller-Starck, eds. Population Stanley Scher, genetics and genetic conservation of Department of Environmental Science, forest trees. SPB Academic Publishing, Policy, and Management A m ste rd a m . University of California Kaiser, J. 1998. Inbreeding's kiss of death. Berkeley, CA 94720-3114 Science 280: 35. e -m a il: [email protected]

lip nut project" to create an economic Sustainable Use of the Galip Nut alternative to the imminent logging of a and Rainforest large part of the concession area on Sias Canarium indicum si. A t the same tim e the SEF and its legal assistant are trying to file a law suite to Conservation on Siassi, Papua New immediately halt further deforestation o n th e island. The G a lip n u t is a p ro Guinea teinaceous product from the rainforest. Klaus Schilder Its high acceptance among the local population renders it an ideal source of income for the village communities on the local market (Bourke 1996). On the W ith a total forest cover of more than mental awareness campaigns in remote neighboring Solomon Islands these nuts 80% of its land mass Papua New Guinea areas with the implementation of a long have now been successfully marketed for currently belongs to one of the most dense term strategy for the sustainable use of years. Ripe nuts are purchased by the SEF ly forested areas. Community-based community-owned forests as an alterna from the village families during the sea agroforestry systems, owned and operat tive to industrial logging is at the center son from September to December at a ed by traditional resource holders, can of the effort of the project partners. guaranteed price. The nuts are processed contribute substantially to the protection According to general experience in Mela in a small facility that was built in 1997. and conservation of such forests in devel nesia a successful conservation concept Nuts are cracked and pealed, then roasted o p in g c o u n trie s (A sh e r 1995). T he Siassi always hasto includethe rightforsustain- and packed in 50 or 100 g units for retail E n v iro n m e n t F o u n d a tio n (SEF), a local able economic development. With the on the local city markets. From November NGO on the island of Siassi of the north present project we therefore aim at to December 1996 a student team from ern coast of PNG, is, supported by the providing a sustainable and renewable the University of PNG, Port Moresby, con Rainforest Forum Northern Bavaria, source of income for the communities ducted a survey to evaluate the distribu aiming at a sustainable rural develop in vo lve d . tion and density of Canarium indicum on ment by using the Galip nut Canarium Insummer 19959village communities the island. Mean overall density is 15.2 indicum . The integration of environ through the SEF jointly founded the "Ga- trees per hectare, a density similar to that

211 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

found for other Canarium species in the able use of NTFPs the developm ent of cer Author's address: South Pacific. In 1995 a total of about tified eco-timber production by means of

1 0 0 0 kg of nuts was purchased from two portable sawmills will provide a broad Klaus Schilder, villages, in 1996 another 1500 kg. Part of basis to the communities for a sustaina Rainforest Forum Northern Bavaria the harvest was distributed through the ble ecological, economic and social devel M ittlerer Neubergweg 10, Lutheran Health Service in Lae. After opment and for risk minimization on 97074 W ürzburg, Germany deduction of total costs the SEF received Siassi. Fax: +49-931-85265 a net gain of 13.7 US$ per 30 kg pack e -m a il: snoopy@ biozentrum.uni-wuerz- aging unit. These funds are used by the SEF b u rg .d e to provide school fees, teaching materi Literature: als or to finance small community pro jects. Ascher, W. 1995 Communities and sustain The right of indigenous communities able forestry in developing countries. for a self-determined development is Institute for Contemporary Studies integral part of the conservation concept. Press, San Francisco The Galip nut as a novel NTFP (non-tim Bourke, M. 1996 Edible indigenous nuts ber forest product) has a high market in Papua New Guinea: Their poten potential on the local and global scale. In tial for commercial development. addition to the community-based sustain WANATCA Yearbook 20(0): 37-40

A Special Biotope in a watery areas w ith special ecological char Pinus halepensis acteristics. These areas are under special legal status of management. Forest in Chalkidiki - N. Greece The objectives of this work is to de scribe and evaluate a special biotope named Konstantinos A. Spanos1, Georgios Malamidis1, 'Mavrobara', which has been identified in loannis A. Spanos1 & Georgios Klonaris2 Kassandra Peninsula in Chalkidiki (Greece), to analyze the forest ecosystem which dominates the area, and possibly to de A bstract resulted in disturbance of terrestrial and clare the biotope as Natural Protective watery ecosystems, extinction of valuable Area (NPA). In this study a valuable biotope, which has species of flora and fauna and degrada been identified in Kassandra Peninsula - tion of the natural environment. All these 2. Description of the area - Analy Chalkidiki, is described and analysed for activities have negative impacts, even ses of natural environment evaluation as special protected area. An threatening the human life. As a result inventory of flora and fauna has been car the last years an international 'ecological The study area is located at 40° 00' 5" Lati ried out. The dynamic and evolution of reaction' has risen, expressed in interna tude and 23° 30' 5" Longitude and covers the ecosystem is also discussed. A preli tional resolutions (Strasbourg 1990, Rio an area o f 50-60 ha. Its distance from Poly- minary study for biotope's evaluation for 1992, Helsinki 1993) with three main chrono Village is about 3 km and the area recreation and environmental studies has objectives: belongs to the public forest of Polychro- been done. Finally, management meas 1. To prohibit and control human activi no. The area is distributed altitudinally

ures and recommendations are reported ties which cause negative impacts on the fro m 2 0 0 to 260 m with exposures most in this work for declaration of biotope as ecosystems and intervene the natural ly northern and average inclination of Natural Protected Area for recreation, rules. 30%. Geologically, the area of Kassandra environmental studies and conservation 2. To rehabilitate degraded ecosystems consists of strata of neogenic formations of biodiversity. and restore their natural status. (loam, sandstone, limestone) (Marinos et 3. To identify natural areas which have al., 1970). The dominated rocks of the 1. Introduction not been disturbed by human activities broader area are marl, alluvia, sands and and posses special ecological and cultural marl limestones. The bedrock of the study It is known that the overexploitation of characteristics, important aesthetic and area consists of sedimentary white marls the natural resources in our planet, par recreational components of the landscape, and the soil is deep to moderately deep. ticularly after the second world war, covered by rare species of flora and fauna, The area of 'Mavrobara' is considered to and in general have scientific interest. have been formed by a geological plunge Based on the third objective, the law of the bedrock. The climate of the area 1 N.AG.RE.F.-Forest Research Institute Vassilika, Thessalo niki, Greece of Natural Protected Areas (PNA) has been of Kassandra Peninsula is of mediterra 2 Forest D istrict O ffice, K assandreia-C halkidiki, Greece established which includes terrestrial or nean type w ith hot and dry summers and

212 Spanos et al. • A Special Biotope in a Pinus halepensis Forest in Chalkidiki - N. Greece

mild winters. A summary of the climatic fo re s t m a n a g e m e n t is a p p lie d , it is re c o m 4. Analysis and description of the parameters of the meteorological station mended to favour the noble species. The forest ecosystem - flora of Kassandra (altitude: 50 m, Latitude: 40° silvicultural system is the uneven-aged. 03', Longitude: 23° 25'), based on obser Data of the standing wood volume for The dominant forest species is Aleppo vations of the last decade, is shown in various diameter (DBH) classes are shown p ine (Pinus halepensis Mill.). The forests of Table 1 (FRL, 1997). in Table 2 (Klonaris, 1991). Aleppo pine belong to the dry mediter The forest soils of the broader area of The risks from human activities are ranean ecosystems and are found natur Kassandra are mainly sandy-clayey-loamy higher in summer due to many visitors ally in the forest vegetation type of ever and clayey-loamy w ith high proportion of which visit the area and m ight cause envi green broadleaves - Quercetalia llicis. P. clay. Characteristic of the soils of Kas ronmental problems and disturbance of halepensis is distributed in the sub-type sandra is the high pH (usually 7.0-8.4) some fauna species (e.g. turtles). o f Oleo-Ceratonion, particularly in O/eo which results in release of big amount of In the broader area, stock-breeding is -Lentiscetum growth sub-division, and as free carbonates (up to 55%) (Tsitsoni, restricted and depends (to about 30%) w e ll as in th e Quercion ilicis sub-type, 1991). The soils of the study area are upon the understorey and ground vege more specifically in Adrachno-Quercetum moderately deep to deep, clayey to tation. In general, grazing in the study ilicis sub-division, where it meets the opti sandy-clayey, loosen and easily eroded. In area is restricted due to the dense under mum of its growth (Dafis, 1976; Athan- the area, the length of the streams is small storey and the thickness of the climbers asiadis, 1986). A le p p o p in e is easily a d a p t and surface water(apart from the small which obstruct the feeding and move ed to the postfire environment, usually ponds) rarely appears during the dry sea ment of the animals. Game management shows rich regeneration after fire and its son. However, the study area which is a inthesurrounding area is exercised under presence and distribution depends upon part of the broader hydrological basin, some control (according to the rules of fires (Dafis, 1987). In the study area the plays an im portant role in the water per 1996). fo re s t o f P. halepensis is c o n sid e re d t o be ception and runoff and enrichment of the The inhabitants of Kassandra Penin in thefinal stage (Climax) of a postfire suc streams of the lower elevations with sula number to 15,000 and the tourists cession. In the particular environment, groundwater. Thus, the study area is during the period July-August to about due to the adequate soil humidity, P. important from hydrological view since 250,000. In the greater area there are halepensis is m ixe d w ith Quercus ilex a n d contributes directly to the water-supply beautiful sea-shores which tourists visit in some cases there is a displacement of of the Polychrono Community and the for about six months a year. The main P. halepensis by Q. ilex. For the same broader area. occupation of the local people is tourism reason there is a good growth of the and the income is high to moderate. climbing species which in many cases 3. Land use - Present manage Recreation is an increasing use of the climb to over half or more of P. halepensis ment status of the area forests of the peninsula and soon will and Q. ilex trees. need regulation. The use of the area for From the broadleaves im portant spe The suggested protected area belongs to beauty and recreation is in general moder cies fo u n d is Q. ilex, which in some sites the State. The main land uses in the ate. However, many tourists visit the area of the study area is a co-dom inant species broader area are forestry, agriculture, api mainly to observe the turtles which live in with Aleppo pine. Other important spe culture, farm ing and recreation. In gener the small ponds. The signing, however, is cies are 0- pubescens a n d Fraxinus ornus. al, the land uses are not well defined. The temporary and information about the Sporadically individuals of Sorbus tormi- management of Pinus halepensis fo re sts biotope and appropriate facilities in the nalis, Carpinus orientalis, Ulmus campe- is not well organized and the manage area for recreation and environmental stris a n d Cercis siliqu astrum can be found ment plan for the broader area is not fully studies does not exist. in humid sites and along the streams. In applied. The dom inant forest species is P In the area of Polychrono there is a the understorey the following species halepensis. From the understorey species, prehistorical settlement called Neromiri have been identified: Pistacia lentiscus, important are the species Quercus ilex and as well as newer settlements there Quercus ilex, Q. coccifera, Phillyrea and the noble broadleaves (e.g. Fraxinus exist in the localities of Hellinika-Palini. In media. Arbutus unedo, A. adrachne, Myr- ornus, Sorbus to rm in a I is). The understo the ancient times the area used to have tus communis, Prunus spinosa, Crataegus rey is composed of trees and bushes as many naval stations controlled by the monogyna, Paliurus aculeatus, Pyracan- mentioned above. In general, when Athenians, Korinthians and Eretrieis. tha coccinea (Crataegus pyracanta), Pista cia terebinthus, Pirus amygdaliformis, P. Tab.1:. Climatic data o f Kassandra meteorological station. communis, Juniperus communis, Olea europea. Erica arborea. Also the climbers Mean annual precipitation 602 m m Smilax aspera. Clematis flamula, C. vital- 16.3 °C Mean annual air temperature ba L., Vitis vinifera a n d Hedera helix are July Hottest month often found and in many cases climb on Ja n u ary Coldest month Aleppo pine trees. The natural regenera Mean maximum air temp, of the hottest month 30.2 °C tion of the pine is restricted on sites where 4.7 °C Mean minimum air temp, of the coldest month there is no dense understorey and ground 25.5 °C Annual temperature range vegetation. The silvicultural system is un- 81.2 Q2 Emberger even-aged and the ecological complex is Subhumid with mild winters Bioclimatic type stable.

213 Spanos et al. • A Special Biotope in a Pinus halepensis Forest in Chalkidiki - N. Greece

Tab. 2: Standing wood volume of the pine forest in 'Mavrobara'.

Mean volume m3/ha Mean annual increment Diameter class (m3/ha) 1 II III IV Total 10

The study area of the biotope is clas are also other important tree species, Therefore, it should be further evaluated sified into the site type I (Ositsoni, 1991). mentioned above, with higher predomi and properly protected (Spanos et al., This site type is found on good sites and nance o f Quercus ilex. The age of the pine 1997a). The benefits for the biotope and mostly on N, NE and NW exposures and forest is 40-80 years and the structure in general for the broader area will be usually in the understorey dominate the (stratification) of the vegetation is m ulti multiple: ecological, scientific, economi species Q. ilex and F. ornus. The ground storied. There are many symbiosis, some cal and cultural (Trakolis et al., 1996; vegetation consists of mesophyta species decayed old trees and in general the Spanos et al., 1997b). However, at present w ith moderate ecological range and can forest shows high naturalness and is time the following actions should be be found on relatively good sites (Constan- considered to be in the final succession d o n e : tinidis, 1990; Tsitsoni, 1991). In the over stage (Climax). Apparently this status of ■ To be declared as Natural Protected storey Aleppo pine isthe dominant species the forest can be explained by the follow Area and officially protected. while in the understorey the following spe ing events: ■ A management plant must be orga cies are common: Pistacia lentiscus, Smilax ■ The forest has not been burnt in the nized for the following purposes: aspera, Phillyrea media, Quercus coccifera, last decades (last 50 years). - To protect and to make known the Asparagus acutifolius, Lonicera implexa, ■ The forest has not been managed on b io to p e . Cistus incanus, Lonicera etrusca, Anthylis economical basis by the local forest serv - To provide facilities for recreation hermanniae, Calicotome villosa. Clematis ice. and environm ental studies to the visitors. flamula, Q. pubescens, Myrtus communis. ■ The grazing pressure is low. The characteristic woody species of ■ There is a small pressure for conver References: the site type I are the following: Quercus sion of forest land to agricultural land. ilex, Fraxinus ornus, Cercis siliquastrum, Athanasiadis, N., 1986. Forest Phytoso Hedera helix, Colutea arborescens. Thy The ecological value of an ecosystem is as ciology. Dep. of Forestry & Natural mus sibthorpii. From the ground vegeta high as the ecosystem approaches to the Environment, Univ. of Thessaloniki, tion, characteristic species are: Rubia succession stage of Climax. As much ma 114 pp (in Greek). peregrina, Brachypodium retusum, B. pin- ture is an ecosystem as higher is its biodi Constantinidis, R, 1990. Study and inves natum, Carduus pycnocephalus, Carex versity for the following reasons (Odum, tigation of relationships between flacca. Astragalus monspessulanus. The 1971): physiographic units of Aleppo pine key herb species found are: Calam intha ■ The total organic matter is higher. forests of Sithonia -Chalkidiki and the nepeta, Carex distans, Galium aparine, ■ The species biodiversity is higher. found phytosociological units. PhD Viola arvensis, Aremonia agrimonoides, ■ The stratification is higher and more thesis, Dep. of Forestry & Natural Envi Poa memoralis, Pteridium aquilinum. c o m p le te . ronm ent, Univ. of Thessaloniki, 145 pp A list of species, identified in the study ■ The size of organisms is bigger. (in Greek). area and classified according to Tutin et ■ The life cycles are longer and more Dafis, S., 1976. Classification of forest al.(1964-1980), is shown in Table 3. complicated. vegetation of Greece. General Direc ■ The cycles of nutrient elements are torate of Forests, Ministry of Agricul 5. Fauna more closed and completed. ture, No. 36, pp. 3-12 (in Greek). ■ The qualitative production exceeds Forest Research Institute, 1997. Climatic For ecological evaluation of the ecosys the quantitative. data 1978 -1995 - Forest meteorologi tem of 'Mavrobara', besides vegetation, ■ The internal symbiosis is more devel cal station of Kassandra - Chalkidiki. the fauna and particularly amphibious o p e d . Thessaloniki, Greece. and birds of prey, are also important. A ■ The information is much more higher. Klonaris, G., 1991. Management plan for preliminary inventory of important spe m ultiple uses of pine forests of Kas cies of fauna has been carried out and the As it is c o n clu d e d fro m th e above, th e area sandra. Forest District Office, Kas- follow ing species have been observed in of 'Mavrobara' is a valuable biotope, eco sandreia - Chalkidiki, Greece (in the broader area (Tab. 4). logically and recreationally. The biotope G reek). is a natural core where valuable genetic Marinos, G., Sakelariou, E., Sotiriadis, A., 6. Discussion - Conclusions - resources can be protected and possibly Sapoutzis, E., 1970. Paleography of Recommendations used for human needs in the future North Aigida in the area of Chalkidi (Spanos, 1998). The ecosystem is some ki. In 'Geological chronicles of Greek The main tree species of the forest ecosys thing special for the Peninsula of Kas- lands' No. 22, pp. 1-27. Athens, Gree tem in 'Mavrobara' is Aleppo pine. There sandra, w h ic h is fa m o u s fo r its sea-shores. ce (in Greek).

214 Spanos et al. • A Special Biotope in a Pinus halepensis Forest in Chalkidiki - N. Greece

Tab. 3: List of species (flora) found in the area.

A. TREE AND BUSHES Rhamnaceae Cistaceae GYMNOSPERMAE Paliurus spina-cristi Cistus incanus Pinaceae Rosaceae Cistus monspeliensis Pinus halepensis Crataegus monogyna Cistus salvifolius Cupressaceae Prunus spinosa Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Juniperus communis Pyracantha coccínea (Crataegus pyracantha) Origanum heracleoticum ANGIOSPERMAE - Pyrus amygdaliformis Thymus sibthorpii DICOT. Pyrus communis Thymus capitatus Anacardiaceae Rosa canina Leguminosae Pistacia lentiscus Rosa sempervirens Anthyllis hermanniae P. terebinthus Rubus ulmifolius Calycotome vilosa Cotinus coggygria Sorbus torm inalis Colutea arborescens Betulaceae B. CLIMBERS Coronila emerus ssp emeroides Carpinus orientalis Araliaceae Coronila crética Ericaceae Hederá helix Spartium Junceum Arbutus unedo Caprifoliaceae Trifolium campestre Arbutus adrachne Lonicera caprifolium Trifolium repens Erica arbórea Lonicera implexa Rubiaceae Erica m anipuliflora Liliaceae Rubia peregrina Fagaceae Smilax aspera Violaceae Quercus ilex Ranunculaceae V io la ssp. Q. pubescens Clematis flammula ANGIOSPERMAE - MONOC. Q. coccifera C. v ita lb a Liliaceae Lauraceae Vitaceae (Ampelidaceae) Asparagus acutifolius Laurus nobilis Vitis vinifera Ruscus aculeatus Leguminoseae C. LOW BUSHES A N D HERBS Poaceae (Gramineae) Cercis siliquastrum PTERIDOPHYTA Aremmonia agrimonoides Myrtaceae Hypolepidaceae Brachypodium sylvaticum Myrtus communis Pteridium aquilinum Dactylis glomerata Oleaceae ANGIOSPERMAE - DICOT. Poa memoralis Fraxinus ornus Asteraceae (Compositae) Thymelaeaceae Olea europea var. oleaster Cirsium arvense Thymaelaea tortonraira Phillyrea media Cirsium creticum

Tab. 4: List of species of fauna found in the area.

A . M A M M A L S INSECTIVORA D. REPTILES CARNIVORA Talpidae Testudinata Mustelidae Talpa caeca Testudo hermanii boettgeri (Mediterranean turtle) Martes foina B. BIRDS (n o d a ta ) Emys orbicularis (European Pond Terrapin) Meies meles C. AM PH IB IAN S Mauremys caspica (Stripe-necked Terrapin) LAGOMORPHA Caudata Sauria Leporidae Salamandra salamandra Anguis fragilis Lepus europeus Anura Lacerta viridis RODENTIA Bombina variegata L. trilineata Sciuridae Bufo bufo spinosus Podacris erhardii Sciurus vulgaris B. v irid is P. muralis albanica VESPERTILIONIDAE Rana graeca Ophidia Vespertilionidae R. temporaria C o lu b e r Myotis blythi Natrix tessellata Myotis oxygnathus Vipera ammodytes meriodionalis Nyctalus noctula

215 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

Odum, E. P., 1971. Fundamentals of Ecolo European Forests. Council of Europe, Author's address: gy. W. B. Saunders Company, Philadel 26-29 October, 1997, Strasbourg, p h ia , USA. France. Dr. Kostas Spanos Spanos K. A., 1998. Conservation of forest Trakolis, D., Tsiontzis, A., Platis, P., Spanos, NAGREF-Forest Research Institute biodiversity in Mediterranean coun K.A., Malamidis, G., 1996. Pindos (Silviculture & Forest Genetics) tries. Electronic Conference on Re National Park Management Plan. 57006 Vassilika, Thessaloniki, Greece search and Biodiversity. 4th May-14th Ministry of Agriculture, General Fax: +3031-461 341 June, 1998. European W orking Group Secretariat of Forests and Forest Envi e -m a il: [email protected] on Research and Biodiversity - Minis ronment, Athens, 164 pp (in Greek). try of Environment, Autonomous Tsitsoni, T., 1991. Structure analysis and Government of Catalonia, Barcelona. conditions of natural regeneration Spanos, K. A., Malamidis, G., Trakolis, D., after fire in the forests of Aleppo pine 1997a. A method for preliminary eval in Kassandra - Chalkidiki. PhD thesis, uation of protected forest ecosys Dep. of Forestry & Natural Environ tems. Intern. Conf. on "Biodiversity in ment, Univ. of Thessaloniki, 144 pp (in Managed Forests", May-June 1997, G reek). Uppsala, Sweden. Tutin N. G., Heywood V. H., Burges N. A., Spanos K., Trakolis D., Spanos I. & Mala Valentine D. H., Walters S. M. & Webb midis G., 1 997b. Forest ecosystems and D. A (1964-1980). Flora Europea. Vol. conservational management of Pin- 1-5, Cambridge University Press, Cam dos National Park - Greece. Interna b rid g e . tional Conference - Naturalness and

The Role of Traditional Use in the Author's address:

Yanzhima Vasilyeva Conservation of Forest Ecosystem Buryat Regional Department on Lake Baikal Forestry Project Biodiversity in the Baikal Region Kluychevskaya 40 A Yanzhima Vasilyeva 670042 Ulan-Ude, Russia e -m a il: [email protected]

A bstract tives ( russian-american project). - Sacred places - points of ecological framework 1. The lake Baikal Siberia. supporting biodiversity in the centre of - Natural environmental traditions in the the Europe-Asia area (Baikal Siberia). Baikal region people's religions. - The The role of the lake Baikal Region history of specially protected areas found biodiversity preservation for sustainable ed since Chingiz-Khan times untill the development in the Europe-Asia area. present. Shamanism. Buddism. - Problems and objectives with the -O verview of thè Baikal Regionforest lake Baikal Reg ion forest ecosystem biodi fund. The rebirth of traditional use of versity preservation. - Organization of nature by native people. Examples: sacred ecologically responsible forest use on the groves ( shaman's burial places); Kaiser territory of W orld Heritage (the lake Bai adler - sacred bird of Mongolians. kal coastal protected strip). 2. The rebirth of traditional use of - Sacred places - a new category of nature - the basis of sustainable forestry especially protected nature territories. and biodiversity preservation in the lake - Preservation of virgin forests; for Baikal region forest ecosystems. - estry keeping to the basis of traditional Contemporary forestry management use of nature by the lake Baikal Region methods in the Republic of Buryatia. natives- guarantee of biodiversity preserva - Foundation of the sustainable for tion, dim inution of the risk of the Europe- estry model on the basis of traditional use Asia area disstabilization, contribution to of nature by the lake Baikal Siberia na dim inution of global warming.

216 NNA-Reports, Special Issue 2/1999

The result was a legend w ith 650 cate Woodlands Pattern and Territorial gories at its maximum detail, although they can be gathered together on six dif Diversity in Madrid ferent levels, as it can be shown in this e xa m p le : Velarde, M. D.* *1, González García, C.*2, Martín Fernández, S.*2, 6 . Pine forests García Cañete, J.*1, Martín Fernández, A.*2, Muñoz Cuesta, M.*2, 6 .a. Pinus sylvestris De Castro, L * 2 6.a.1. Natural or partially natural fo re sts 6.a.1.a. Rocks not seen (< 5%) Abstract Quantitative analysis of these rela 6.a.1.a.1. 20-50% canopy cover tionships requires the development and 6.a.1.a.1.a. Presence of pastures Biodiversity deals with the pattering of use of quantitative measures of landscape

ecosystems in space, which can be corre pattern. A wide variety of pattern indices Three of these levels (1st, 3rd and 6 th ) lated w ith ecological processes. The pres may be necessary to accommodate the have been compared on this research. ent research applies tw o indices of pat many different data types and formats tern derived from inform ation theory and used by landscape e co lo g ists and to m eas 4. Landscape diversity indexes fractal geometry. Using a digitized land ure different aspects of pattern. (Turner, used use map, the indices are measured both M. G. and Gardner, R. H., 1991). for the whole province of Madrid, and for Two indexes have been used in order to three different zones w ithin it. The terri 2. Description of the research measure the territorial diversity of Ma torial diversity is measured, as well as the drid province: proportion of this diversity that is given Two indices of pattern have been develop - Shannon Diversity Index by the forests. Different levels of detail ed, one based on information theoretic D = - mPjLnPj have been also compared, calculating the measures (Shannon, C. E. and Weaver, Pi = surface proportion of landscape indices for 11, 166 and 650 land units at 1962) and one on fractal geometry (Man u n it i each zone. d e lb ro t, B., 1983). m = number of different types of land The aim of the research has been to scape units 1. Introduction measure the landscape diversity in the Measures the extent to which one or a province of Madrid (800,000 hectares) few land uses dominate the landscape. Territorial diversity is concerned with and the proportion of this diversity that Maximum values observed on ecosystems relationships between ecological proces is given by the forests, based on the Shan are close to 5.3. A community with two ses and spatial pattern, particularly at non index and the fractal dimension. The species equally frequent would have a large scales. Ecological processes such as indexes have been calculated both forthe value of 1 (Turner, M.G., 1989; Calatayud, plant succession, biodiversity, foraging whole province and for three different T., 1997). patterns, predator-prey interactions, zones in Madrid (Zone 1-North; Zone 2- dispersal, nutrient dynamics, and the Middle; Zone 3-South), as shown in the - Fractal dimension spread of disturbance all have im portant m ap be lo w . LogP« (1/2) d LogA spatial components (Turner, M. G. and Another important aim of the re d = fractal dimension G ardner, R. H., 1991; F orm an , R. T. T., search was to compare the results of apply A = A re a 1997). ing the indexes at different detailed levels P - Perimeter a Biodiversity refers to the variety of life within the land use map (different num It is an index of the complexity of shapes forms, specially the number of species, ber of land units), in order to determine on the landscape. Its estimation is based but including the number of ecosystem h o w fa rs h o u ld w e g o f o r t h e b e tte r m eas on the regression of LogA in relation to types and the genetic variation within uring of diversity. The work has been Log P. Values vary between 1 and 2: sim species: the effect of patch size on species done for three levels: the first one with ple geometric forms have values close to number has been much studied; the struc 1 1 land units, the second one using 166 1 (Calatayud, T., 1997). ture of the mosaic strongly affects crop units, and the third and most detailed growth and erosion on a farm, biodiver level with 650 land units. 5. Results of applying the indexes sity and aesthetics in a park, wood pro in Madrid Province duction and fish in a forest, w ildlife move 3. Description of the Land Use Map ment and extinction in a refuge, water Shannon index has been calculated both and livestock production on a ranch, and This map, which has been used as the basis for the whole province and for the three ecological characteristics of a town. (For of the work, was created digitizing over zones separately, with the following man, R.T. T„ 1997). SPOT satellite images (20x20 m resolu results: tion), with the assistance of color aerial The maximum value has been calcu photos on 1:18,000 scale searching for as lated considering all land use types were *' Environm ental and Agroforestry Dept. Universidad much detail as possible, and with the present in equal proportions (O'Neill et C atólica de Á vila. checking work of travelling around the abl., 1988), in order to have a reference to * 2 Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de M ontes. U ni versidad Politécnica de M adrid. area on several field trips. which comparethefigures obtained, (Fig. 2).

217 Velarde et'al. • Woodlands Pattern and Territorial Diversity in Madrid

LAND) USE MAP Crops Irrigated crops Mixture of crops/pastures/wooded and shrub-like lands Scrublands Rocky areas OF MADRID Pine forests Juniperus oxycedrus and J. Thuryfera Evergreen hardwoods Deciduous hardwoods Urban or industrial areas, garbage dumps, degraded sites and extractive Reservoirs

Z o n e 1

Z o n e 3

Scale 1:500,000

Fig. 1: Land Use Map of Madrid.

The values considering the maximum Fractal index shows the shape of the ■ For the whole province, forested areas detail (650 landscape units) are very high, land units' border (Fig. 4). Values are low, represent the 30% of the total diversity

close to the maximum values observed on which means we are in a zone highly (forested surface = 2 0 %), a n d th is is espe ecosystems (5.3), and also close to the human influenced. These results can also cially underlined at Zones 2 and 3, where maximum for this zone (6.4). An impor be due to the digitizing process, where total diversity is lower than in Zone 1. tant difference is shown between these the person in charge may tend to draw ■ Fractal dimension analysis shows that

and the values for 166 or 1 1 landscape simpler lines than the ones in Nature. Madrid has a high human influence, as

units. The highest detail, the highest They also bring up the slight difference the index shows low values (close to 1 ), diversity is shown. Nevertheless, if the aim between the three detail degrees, what which means that the landscape exhibits was only to compare diversity between is to say that the borders have simple simple patterns. The distinction between different zones, such a detail is not geometric forms no matter if we are different detailed legend categories, as necessary, and lower levels would be talking about 11, 166 or 650 units. well as the different zones (1, 2 and 3), sufficient. Fractal dimension shows slightly high doesn't give much information, as the Zone 1 isthe m ountain rangethat cros er values for forested areas (Fig. 5), number or location of land units make ses Madrid from Northeast to Southwest, especially in Zones 2 and 3, which means no difference regarding their simple and the diversity is quite higher there. that these areas are less human in geometric shapes. Diversity contributed by forest areas fluenced than the rest. ■ Nevertheless, the fractal index reveals is especially relevant in Zones 2 and 3, slightly higher values when is applied only

where the proportion of diversity contri 6. Conclusions to forest areas, especially in zones 2 and buted is quite higher than the proportion 3. In these zones forests represent areas of the area occupied by them. In zone 1, ■ Diversity index shows a very high with less human influence within the the forested area is very similar to the value for Madrid province (5). Maximum w h o le . proportion of diversity contributed diversity is shown in Zone 1, which is the (Fig. 3). most mountainous and forested one.

218 Velarde et al. • Woodlands Pattern and Territorial Diversity in Madrid

Landscape diversity in Madrid

ÉH11 Landscape units Ü 166 Landscape units Diversity irtdex □ 650 Landscape units

T o * á

M a d r id

Fig. 2: Landscape Diversity in Madrid.

Fig. 3: Diversity Contributed by Forested Areas.

7. Bibliography Indices of landscape patterns. Land Authors' address: scape Ecology 1:153-62. Calatayud, T., 1997. Anólisis metodológico Shannon, C. E. and Weaver, 1962. The Dr. Maria Dolores Velarde de la transformación espacial del pai mathematical theory of communica Universidad Católica de Avila saje. D is s e rta tio n . E.T.S.I. de M ontes, tion. University of Illinois Press, Urba- Dept, of Environment and Agroforestry M a d rid . na. 125 pp. d Los Canteros s/n F orm an, R. T. T., 1997. Land Mosaics. The Turner, M. G., 1989. Landscape ecology: E-05005 Avila, Spain ecology of landscapes and regions. the effect of pattern on process. e -m a il: [email protected] Cambridge University Press, Cam A n n u a l R eview o f E cology a n d Sys- bridge.632 pp. tematics 20: 171-97. M andelbrot, B., 1983. The fractal geomet Turner, M. G. and Gardner, R. H. (Eds.), ry of Nature. W.H. Freeman and Co., 1991. Quantitative methods in Land New York. 460 pp. scape Ecology. Ecological Studies, Vol. O'Neill, R. V, Krummel, J.R. et al., 1988. 82. Springer-Verlag, New York. 536 pp.

219 Velarde et al. • W oodlands Pattern and Territorial Diversity in Madrid

Fractal Index ¡n Madrid

E3 11 Landscape units

Bi 166 Landscape units

□ 650 Landscape units

Total Madrid X\\vIvX;XvXvXvXv

Fig. 4: Fractal Index in Madrid.

Fig. 5: Forests Fractal Index.

220 NNA-Reports. Special Issue 2/1999

Combining the classification results w ith Analysis of High Resolution Satellite topographic data allows the identifica tion of areas with high erosion risk. Data for Recording Composition and The second part of the presentation includes the description of the experi Structure of Forests ences of tw o ongoing projects in Eastern Germany, where the applicability of Indi C. Werner, B. Coenradie & H. Kenneweg an IRS-1 C image data for forestry and landscape planning w ill be analyzed. This includes the examination of different A bstract Because of the intensive logging image processing methods and the eval activities, the forests of the test site are u a tio n in a GIS. The use of satellite remote sensing data mainly composed of secondary forest The first results show that digital for analyzing forested areas has been stands, which are partially severely de image processing methods allow a detail lim ited due to insufficient ground resolu graded. Importance was therefore at ed differentiation of composition, struc tion. Data of conventional systems do not tached to the registration of the condi ture and condition of forests. Boundaries contain detailed inform ation about struc tion of the forest stands, which can be of forest stands can be identified with ture and composition which are impor described by structure (density, age, high accuracy. tant factors to describe the condition of vertical layering). The classification results are a suitable the stands. A new generation of optical The spectral and textural properties of instrument for analysis in a GIS. Minimal satellite systems with high ground reso the MOMS-02 image data enable a detail areas, different shape of stands, distance

lution (less than 6 m 2) e n a b le a m ore ed analysis of the vegetation stands. The measures for habitat network planning detailed evaluation of these features. The crowns of adult rain forest trees of the and the estimation of the degree of Indian Remote Sensing System (IRS-1 C/D), upper canopy can be identified. Mature naturalness of the vegetation stands are which has been ready for operation since long-living trees, young trees and examples for the applicability of these December 1995 and the German MOMS- pioneers can be differentiated, an im por satellite remote sensing data 02-Sensor (Modular Optoelectronic Mul- tant fact for the description of the vege tispectral Stereo Scanner), which is still an tation structure. The application of differ Authors' address: experimental system, are representatives ent image analysis methods and the com of these modern satellite sensors. b in a tio n in a GIS a llo w a d e ta ile d d e scrip C. Werner, B. Coenradie & H. Kenneweg In the first part of this report, the tion of composition, density and vertical Institute of Landscape Development, results of the analysis of MOMS-02 image structure, which are important parame Technical University of Berlin data of a tropical rain forest area in Min ters for the examination of the conditions Franklinstr. 28/29 danao, Philippines, w ill be presented. To of the forest stands. D-10587 Berlin, Germany find out the potential of the newly devel Furthermore, the analysis of vertical e -m a il: werner@ ile.tu-berlin.de oped sensor, different methods of image structure in a GIS may enable the estima analysis were applied, compared and tion of areas with high regeneration e v a lu a te d . potential of primary forest tree species.

221 NNA-Reports - Special Issues 'Forests in Focus', 1999 - 2000

No. 1 Forests and Energy, 175 p.

No. 2 Biodiversity - Treasures in the World’s Forests, 225 p.

No. 3 Forests as Source of Raw Materials, 105 p.

No. 4 Forests and Atmosphere - Water - Soil, 242 p.

No. 5 Forests and Society, 112 p.

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