Pre-contact Americas By Rosie Friedland, revised by Eman M. Elshaikh (adapted from Khan Academy) You thought the Aztecs were ancient? A thousand years before them, there were numerous states in Mesoamerica and the Andes. These states formed a variety of kingdoms that traded, fought, and thrived. 810L Pre-contact Americas Rosie Friedland, Eman M. Elshaikh

City of the gods The ruins of a huge ancient city lie northeast of Mexico’s modern capital, Mexico City. It’s an amazing sight. A four- mile-long road runs through the center of the city. It passes by ancient apartments and colorful murals, and then leads up to a giant pyramid that is more than 700 feet tall and 700 feet wide! This amazing structure is the same height as San Francisco’s Golden Gate Bridge. Yet, it is no modern building. It’s more than 2,000 years old.

A photograph of the Pyramid of the Moon in the ruins of Teotihuacán, Mexico. The pyramid is composed of about three stepped levels plus a multi-tiered mini-pyramid at the entrance. The surrounding countryside is green, covered with trees, with some big hills in the background. Pyramid of the Moon, Teotihuacán. By Daniel Case, CC BY-SA 3.0.

The Aztecs discovered this mysterious city long after it fell. They named it Teotihuacán, or “city of the gods.”

Between 300 and 600 CE, Teotihuacán had enormous power. It directly governed a surrounding area as large as 10,000 square miles. Its armies conquered other regions as far as 600 miles away. Around 200,000 people lived within the city itself.

Not much is known about Teotihuacán. There are no surviving written records from the city. But other evidence shows that Teotihuacán must have had a strong government, and it must have been rich. Otherwise, the city’s carefully designed center and its For comparison’s sake, the Golden Gate Bridge! Connecting San huge temples would not have been possible. Francisco to Marin County in California, the bridge is 4,200 feet long and 746 feet tall. Public Domain.

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We also know that Teotihuacán traded with other societies. For example, Teotihuacán-made tools have been found in Maya territory. Similarly, Teotihuacán-style pottery has been found all over Mesoamerica. Teotihuacán’s influence in the region must have been strong.

Records from the Maya city of Tikal tell us something about Teotihuacán. From these writings, we learn that the Teotihuacán army arrived in Tikal in 378 CE. Teotihuacán then seems to have become involved in the local government.

The Maya: Independent city-states The Maya people lived in what is now southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador. Maya societies arose in many areas. They included highly developed city-states. Local Maya lords struggled with one another for regional power. These rulers held great power within their own kingdoms and were possibly seen as gods.

Starting in the 200s BCE, or the third century, Maya people settled in the fertile highlands of modern Guatemala. The Maya city of Kaminaljuyú arose Stela 31 has been described as the near what is now Guatemala City. It contained grand temples. In the fourth greatest Early Classic sculpture to century CE, however, the city was conquered by Teotihuacán. survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument. Maya was not as united or large as most empires. The geography of the It describes the arrival of Siyaj K’ak’, who region was challenging. Mountains and rain forests cut cities off from one some historians believe to be a powerful another. That made it hard to keep the empire united and under central military general from Teotihuacán. By government control. Greg Willis, CC BY-SA 2.0.

This Mirror-Bearer figure is the best-preserved example of Maya wood sculpture from the Early Classic period (ca. 250– A zoomed-in map of modern-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, 550 CE). This figure represents a royal court dwarf, which was Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador—the former area of Maya thought to have divine powers. By The Metropolitan Museum of society. The map shows the Guatemalan highlands on the west Art, public domain. coast, the Gulf of Honduras to the south, and the Gulf of Mexico to the north. By Simon Burchell, CC BY-SA 4.0.

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The Andes: Innovations in agriculture The Andes region is now home to Peru and Bolivia. The early communities in the area faced geographical hurdles, just as the Maya did. The towering Andes mountain range and coastal deserts made it tough for different societies to come together. However, the region’s geography did have its advantages. Melted mountain snow trickled down into the many rivers, and that was great for agriculture. The Moche society flourished from 100-700 CE on the northern coast of Peru. The Moche developed a successful irrigation system. Its farmers harvested maize, cotton, beans, and squash.

A picture of terraced farmlands in modern-day Peru shows thirteen tiered rows of farmland that look like grassy steps. A mountain range is in the background. By Alexson Scheppa Peisino, public domain.

Farther east in the northern highlands of the Andes, the Wari built a powerful civilization from 500-1000 CE. The Wari planted crops in stepped rows along hillsides. Irrigation was provided by melted snow that flowed down from the mountains. The Wari kingdom also built a series of roads. These connected its major city to trade networks.

Early states in Mesoamerica and the Andes did not create large empires. However, they did build states with many of the advanced features we associate with empires. They had strong, central governments, irrigation for crops, and roadways for travel and trade. They also had armies to defend and increase their territories. We don’t know the full reach of the power of cities like Teotihuacán. However, we do know that their success must have been the result of a central government and relatively advanced technology.

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Sources Bentley, Jerry H., Ziegler, Herbert, & Salter, Heather S. Traditions and Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2015. Carmack, Robert M., Gasco, Janine L., & Gossen, Gary H. The Legacy of Mesoamerica: History and Culture of a Native American Civilization. London and New York: Routledge, 2016. Jimenez, Maya. “The Maya: An Introduction.” Khan Academy. Retrieved from https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art- history/art-americas/early-cultures/maya/a/the-maya-an-introduction Strayer, Robert W. and Eric W. Nelson. Ways of the World: A Global History. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s Press, 2016.

Rosie Friedland Rosie Friedland is a content contributor at Khan Academy. She has created materials for a variety of Khan Academy’s test prep offerings, including free SAT prep in partnership with College Board. She has also worked on course materials for Grammar, World History, U.S. History, and early-grade English Language Arts.

Eman M. Elshaikh Eman M. Elshaikh is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the United States and in the Middle East and written for many different audiences. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also completed her master’s in social sciences, focusing on history and anthropology. She was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP World History.

Image credits Cover: Illustration of Mayan temples © Dorling Kindersley / Getty Images A photograph of the Pyramid of the Moon in the ruins of Teotihuacán, Mexico. The pyramid is composed of about three stepped levels plus a multi-tiered mini-pyramid at the entrance. The surrounding countryside is green, covered with trees, with some big hills in the background. Pyramid of the Moon, Teotihuacán. By Daniel Case, CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Pyramid_of_the_Moon_from_Pyramid_of_the_Sun,_Teotihuacan,_in_sunlight.jpg For comparison’s sake, the Golden Gate Bridge! Connecting San Francisco to Marin County in California, the bridge is 4,200 feet long and 746 feet tall. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Golden_Gate_Bridge#/media/ File:GoldenGateBridge.jpg Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument. It describes the arrival of Siyaj K’ak’, who some historians believe to be a powerful military general from Teotihuacán. By Greg Willis, CC BY-SA 2.0. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tikal#/media/File:Tikal_Stela_31.jpg This Mirror-Bearer figure is the best-preserved example of Maya wood sculpture from the Early Classic period (ca. 250–550 CE). This figure represents a royal court dwarf, which was thought to have divine powers. By The Metropolitan Museum of Art, public domain. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/313256 A zoomed-in map of modern-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador—the former area of Maya society. The map shows the Guatemalan highlands on the west coast, the Gulf of Honduras to the south, and the Gulf of Mexico to the north. By Simon Burchell, CC BY-SA 4.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maya_civilization_location_map_-_ geography(1).svg#/media/File:Maya_civilization_location_map_-_geography(1).svg A picture of terraced farmlands in modern-day Peru shows thirteen tiered rows of farmland that look like grassy steps. A mountain range is in the background. By Alexson Scheppa Peisino, public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Pisac006.jpg#/media/File:Pisac006.jpg

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