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Robert Oeckl FA NOTES 6 01/06/2010 1 6 Hilbert Spaces 6.1 The Fréchet-Riesz Representation Theorem Denition 6.1. Let X be an inner product space. A pair of vectors x; y 2 X is called orthogonal i hx; yi = 0. We write x ? y. A pair of subsets A; B ⊆ X is called orthogonal i x ? y for all x 2 A and y 2 B. Moreover, if A ⊆ X is some subset we dene its orthogonal complement to be A? := fy 2 X : x ? y 8x 2 Ag: Exercise 30. Let X be an inner product space. 1. Let x; y 2 X. If x ? y then kxk2 + kyk2 = kx + yk2. 2. Let A ⊆ X be a subset. Then A? is a closed subspace of X. 3. A ⊆ (A?)?. ? 4. A? = (span A) . 5. A \ A? ⊆ f0g. Proposition 6.2. Let H be a Hilbert space, F ⊆ H a closed and convex subset and x 2 H. Then, there exists a unique element x~ 2 F such that kx~ − xk = inf ky − xk: y2F Proof. Dene a := infy2F ky −xk. Let fyngn2N be a sequence in F such that 2 limn!1 kyn − xk = a. Let > 0 and choose n0 2 N such that kyn − xk ≤ 2 a + for all n ≥ n0. Now let n; m ≥ n0. Then, using the parallelogram equality of Theorem 2.39 we nd ky − y k2 = 2ky − xk2 + 2ky − xk2 − ky + y − 2xk2 n m n m n m 2 2 2 yn + ym = 2kyn − xk + 2kym − xk − 4 − x 2 ≤ 2(a2 + ) + 2(a2 + ) − 4a2 = 4 This shows that fyngn2N is a Cauchy sequence which must converge to some vector x~ 2 F with the desired properties since F is complete. It remains to show that x~ is unique. Suppose x;~ x~0 2 F both satisfy the condition. Then, by a similar use of the parallelogram equation as above, 0 2 0 2 2 0 2 x~ +x ~ 2 2 2 kx~−x~ k = 2kx~−xk +2kx~ −xk −4 − x ≤ 2a +2a −4a = 0: 2 That is, x~0 =x ~, completing the proof. 2 Robert Oeckl FA NOTES 6 01/06/2010 Lemma 6.3. Let H be a Hilbert space, F ⊆ H a closed and convex subset, x 2 H and x~ 2 H. Then, the following are equivalent: 1. kx~ − xk = infy2F ky − xk 2. <hx~ − y; x~ − xi ≤ 0 8y 2 F Proof. Suppose 2. holds. Then, for any y 2 F we have ky − xk2 = k(y − x~) + (~x − x)k2 = ky − x~k2 + 2<hy − x;~ x~ − xi + kx~ − xk2 ≥ kx~ − xk2: Conversely, suppose 1. holds. Fix y 2 F and consider the continuous map [0; 1] ! F given by t 7! yt := (1 − t)~x + ty. Then, 2 2 2 kx~ − xk ≤ kyt − xk = kt(y − x~) + (~x − x)k = t2ky − x~k2 + 2t<hy − x;~ x~ − xi + kx~ − xk2: Subtracting kx~ − xk2 and dividing for t 2 (0; 1] by t leads to, 1 tky − x~k2 ≥ <hx~ − y; x~ − xi: 2 This implies 2. Lemma 6.4. Let H be a Hilbert space, F ⊆ H a closed subspace, x 2 H and x~ 2 F . Then, the following are equivalent: 1. kx~ − xk = infy2F ky − xk 2. hy; x~ − xi = 0 8y 2 F Proof. Exercise. Proposition 6.5. Let H be a Hilbert space, F ⊆ H a closed proper subspace. Then, F ? =6 f0g. Proof. Since F is proper, there exists x 2 H n F . By Proposition 6.2 there exists an element x~ 2 F such that kx~ − xk = infy2F ky − xk. By Lemma 6.4, hy; x~ − xi = 0 for all y 2 F . That is, x~ − x 2 F ?. Theorem 6.6 (Fréchet-Riesz Representation Theorem). Let H be a Hilbert space. Then, the map Φ: H ! H∗ given by (Φ(x))(y) := hy; xi for all x; y 2 H is anti-linear, bijective and isometric. Robert Oeckl FA NOTES 6 01/06/2010 3 Proof. The anti-linearity of Φ follows from the properties of the scalar prod- uct. Observe that for all 2 , k k jh ij ≤ k k because of x H Φ(x) = supkyk=1 y; x x the Schwarz inequality (Theorem 2.35). On the other hand, (Φ(x))(x=kxk) = kxk for all x 2 H n f0g. Hence, kΦ(x)k = kxk for all x 2 H, i.e., Φ is isomet- ric. It remains to show that Φ is surjective. Let f 2 H∗ n f0g. Then ker f is a closed proper subspace of H and by Proposition 6.5 there exists a vector v 2 (ker f)? n f0g. Observe that for all x 2 H, f(x) x − v 2 ker f: f(v) Hence, f(x) f(x) f(x) hx; vi = x − v + v; v = hv; vi f(v) f(v) f(v) In particular, setting w := f(v)=(kvk2) we see that Φ(w) = f. Corollary 6.7. Let H be a Hilbert space. Then, H∗ is also a Hilbert space. Moreover, H is reexive, i.e., H∗∗ is naturally isomorphic to H. Proof. By Theorem 6.6 the spaces H and H0 are isometric. This implies in particular, that H0 is complete that its norm satises the parallelogram equality, i.e., that it is a Hilbert space. Indeed, it is easily veried that the inner product is given by hΦ(x); Φ(y)iH0 = hy; xiH 8x; y 2 H: ∗∗ Consider the canonical linear map iH : H ! H . It is easily veried that ∗ ∗∗ iH = Ψ ◦ Φ, where Ψ: H ! H is the corresponding map of Theorem 6.6. Thus, iH is a linear bijective isometry, i.e., an isomorphism of Hilbert spaces. 6.2 Orthogonal Projectors Theorem 6.8. Let H be a Hilbert space and F ⊆ H a closed subspace such that F =6 f0g. Then, there exists a unique operator PF 2 CL(H; H) with the following properties: 1. PF jF = 1F . ? 2. ker PF = F . Moreover, PF also has the following properties: 4 Robert Oeckl FA NOTES 6 01/06/2010 3. PF (H) = F . 4. PF ◦ PF = PF . 5. kPF k = 1. 6. Given x 2 H, PF (x) is the unique element of F such that kPF (x)−xk = infy2F ky − xk. 7. Given x 2 H, PF (x) is the unique element of F such that x − P (x) 2 F ?. Proof. We dene PF to be the map x 7! x~ given by Proposition 6.2. Then, clearly PF (H) = F and PF (x) = x if x 2 F and thus PF ◦ PF = PF . By ? ? Lemma 6.4 we have PF (x) − x 2 F for all x 2 H. Since F is a subspace we have ? (λ1PF (x1) − λ1x1) + (λ2PF (x2) − λ2x2) 2 F for x1; x2 2 H and λ1; λ2 2 K arbitrary. Rewriting this we get, ? (λ1PF (x1) − λ2PF (x2)) − (λ1x1 + λ2x2) 2 F : But Lemma 6.4 also implies that if given x 2 H we have z − x 2 F ? for some z 2 F , then z = PF (x). Thus, λ1PF (x1) − λ2PF (x2) = PF (λ1x1 + λ2x2): ? That is, PF is linear. Using again that x−PF (x) 2 F we have x−PF (x) ? PF (x) and hence the Pythagoras equality (Exercise 30.1) 2 2 2 kx − PF (x)k + kPF (x)k = kxk 8x 2 H: This implies kPF (x)k ≤ kxk for all x 2 H. In particular, PF is continuous. On the other hand kPF (x)k = kxk if x 2 F . Therefore, kPF k = 1. Now suppose x 2 ker PF . Then, hy; xi = −hy; PF (x) − xi = 0 for all y 2 F and ? ? ? hence x 2 F . That is, ker PF ⊆ F . Conversely, suppose now x 2 F . ? Then, hy; PF (x)i = hy; PF (x)−xi = 0 for all y 2 F . Thus, PF (x) 2 F . But ? we know already that PF (x) 2 F . Since, F \ F = f0g we get PF (x) = 0, ? ? i.e., x 2 ker PF . Then, F ⊆ ker PF . Thus, ker PF = F . This concludes the proof the the existence of PF with properties 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Suppose now there is another operator QF 2 CL(H; H) which also has the properties 1 and 2. We proceed to show that QF = PF . To this end, consider the operator 1 − PF 2 CL(H; H). We then have (1 − PF )(x) = x − ? ? PF (x) 2 F for all x 2 H. Thus, (1−PF )(H) ⊆ F . Since PF +(1−PF ) = 1 Robert Oeckl FA NOTES 6 01/06/2010 5 ? and PF (H) = F we must have H = F + F . Thus, given x 2 H there are ? x1 2 F and x2 2 F such that x = x1 + x2. By property 1 we have PF (x1) = QF (x1) and by property 2 we have PF (x2) = QF (x2). Hence, PF (x) = QF (x). Denition 6.9. Given a Hilbert space H and a closed subspace F , the operator PF 2 CL(H; H) constructed in Theorem 6.8 is called the orthogonal projector onto the subspace F . Corollary 6.10. Let H be a Hilbert space and F a closed subspace. Let PF be the associated orthogonal projector. Then 1 − PF is the orthogonal projector onto ?. That is, − . F PF ? = 1 PF ? ? Proof. Let x 2 F . Then, (1 − PF )(x) = x since ker PF = F by The- orem 6.8.1. That is, − j .
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  • Chapter 1: Complex Numbers Lecture Notes Math Section

    Chapter 1: Complex Numbers Lecture Notes Math Section

    CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by Almae Matris Studiorum Campus Chapter 1: Complex Numbers Lecture notes Math Section 1.1: Definition of Complex Numbers Definition of a complex number A complex number is a number that can be expressed in the form z = a + bi, where a and b are real numbers and i is the imaginary unit, that satisfies the equation i2 = −1. In this expression, a is the real part Re(z) and b is the imaginary part Im(z) of the complex number. The complex number a + bi can be identified with the point (a; b) in the complex plane. A complex number whose real part is zero is said to be purely imaginary, whereas a complex number whose imaginary part is zero is a real number. Ex.1 Understanding complex numbers Write the real part and the imaginary part of the following complex numbers and plot each number in the complex plane. (1) i (2) 4 + 2i (3) 1 − 3i (4) −2 Section 1.2: Operations with Complex Numbers Addition and subtraction of two complex numbers To add/subtract two complex numbers we add/subtract each part separately: (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i and (a + bi) − (c + di) = (a − c) + (b − d)i Ex.1 Addition and subtraction of complex numbers (1) (9 + i) + (2 − 3i) (2) (−2 + 4i) − (6 + 3i) (3) (i) − (−11 + 2i) (4) (1 + i) + (4 + 9i) Multiplication of two complex numbers To multiply two complex numbers we proceed as follows: (a + bi)(c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi2 = ac + adi + bci − bd = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i Ex.2 Multiplication of complex numbers (1) (3 + 2i)(1 + 7i) (2) (i + 1)2 (3) (−4 + 3i)(2 − 5i) 1 Chapter 1: Complex Numbers Lecture notes Math Conjugate of a complex number The complex conjugate of the complex number z = a + bi is defined to be z¯ = a − bi.