Antecedents and Consequences of Organizational Politics: a Study of the Public Sector Organizations of Pakistan

Antecedents and Consequences of Organizational Politics: A Study of the Public Sector Organizations of Pakistan

Adnan Riaz

A research thesis submitted to the Department of Management & Social Sciences, Mohammad Ali Jinnah University, Islamabad in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN MANAGEMENT SCIENCES (HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT)

DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT & SOCIAL SCIENCES MOHAMMAD ALI JINNAH UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

NOVEMBER 2013 Antecedents and Consequences of Organizational Politics: A Study of the Public Sector Organizations of Pakistan

Adnan Riaz A research thesis submitted to the Department of Management & Social Sciences, Mohammad Ali Jinnah University, Islamabad in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN MANAGEMENT SCIENCES (HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT)

DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT & SOCIAL SCIENCES MOHAMMAD ALI JINNAH UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

NOVEMBER 2013

All rights are reserved. No part of the material protected by this copy right notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without the permission from the author.

DEDICATION

To my loving father You encouragement and support motivated me to start this program.

To my praiseworthy mother ‘Your prayers are the basic reason behind this achievement’

To my supportive wife ‘Your support and facilitation helped me to complete this dissertation well in time’

To my loving children ‘you are the colors of my life’

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A thesis is a complicated piece of work that requires the support and direction of key individuals. The process I have taken to create and complete this thesis has provided me with a platform to better understand my capabilities and skills both personally and academically. This journey of research would not have been fulfilled without the guidance and support of several individuals. I was fortunate enough to have the support and guidance of some very special people throughout this research and I would like to acknowledge their contributions.

My deepest appreciation and gratitude to my father who not only encouraged me to initiate PhD programe but also extended every possible support at each stage. To me, you deserve the credit for all what I have achieved in my life and what I aspire.

I acknowledge with gratitude the dedication, direction and support of Dr. Aisha Akbar my supervisor. Her dedication has been great throughout the entire PhD Programme and her support is deeply appreciated.

I would like to articulate my gratitude to Dr. Khurram Shahzad and Dr. Amir Shah. Your efforts really helped me to enhance the quality of manuscript.

Many thanks to my brother Mr. Adeel Riaz and Mr. Salman Ali for their constant encouragement and motivation.

I am very thankful to the individuals helped me in data collection especially Mr. Hammad Saleem, Mr. Kamran Yar and Mr. Muhammad Jamil who gave their time and energies to complete this task.

Finally, I express my gratitude thank you to my family for the support throughout the past three years of the study. I am very lucky and fortunate to have parents who showed their support on every step of the way and for that I thank them.

(ADNAN RIAZ)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 ...... 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1. Background of the Study ...... 1 1.1 Problem Statement ...... 4 1.2 Rationale of the Study ...... 7 1.3 Cultural Context of the Research ...... 8 1.4 Competitive Perspectives in understanding Cultural Perspective ...... 10 1.5 Research Questions ...... 11 1.6 Research Objectives ...... 12 1.7 Significance of the Study ...... 12 CHAPTER 2 ...... 14 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 14 2.1 History of Organizational Politics ...... 14 2.1.1 Defining Organizational Politics ...... 16 2.1.2 Organizational Politics as a Productive Function ...... 18 2.1.3 Perspectives on Organizational Politics...... 20 2.2 Nature and Characteristics of the Public Sector ...... 23 2.2.1 External Political Influences in Public Sector...... 26 2.2.2 Public Sector of Pakistan ...... 28 2.2.3 Political Behavior and Perceived Politics in Public Sector ...... 30 2.3 Theoretical Foundation of the Study ...... 35 2.3.1 The Just World Theory ...... 35 2.3.2 Social Exchange Theory ...... 36 2.4 Antecedents and Consequences of Organizational Politics ...... 37 2.4.1 Participation in Decision Making ...... 37 2.4.1.1 Defining Participation in Decision Making ...... 37 2.4.1.2 Historical Evolution of Participation in Decision Making ...... 39 2.4.1.3 Antecedents and Consequences of Participation in Decision Making ...... 40 2.4.1.4 Participation in Decision Making and Perception of Politics ...... 42

2.4.2 Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity ...... 44 2.4.2.1 Defining Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity ...... 44 2.4.2.2 Historical Evolution of Role, Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity ...... 47 2.4.2.3 Antecedents and Consequences of Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity ...... 50 2.4.2.4 Role Ambiguity and Role Conflict in relation with Perception of Politics ...... 53 2.4.3 Machiavellianism ...... 57 2.4.3.1 Defining Machiavellianism ...... 57 2.4.3.2 Historical Evolution of Machiavellianism ...... 59 2.4.3.3 Antecedents and Consequences of Machiavellianism ...... 61 2.4.3.4 Machiavellianism and Perception of Politics ...... 62 2.4.4 Hirschman’s Exit, Voice, Loyalty and Neglect (EVLN) Theory ...... 65 2.4.5 Affective Commitment ...... 66 2.4.5.1 Defining Organizational Commitment ...... 66 2.4.5.2 Historical Evolution of Affective Commitment...... 67 2.4.5.3 Antecedents and Consequences of Organizational Commitment ...... 70 2.4.5.4 Perception of Politics and Organizational Commitment ...... 73 2.4.6 Whistle Blowing ...... 74 2.4.6.1 Defining Whistle Blowing ...... 74 2.4.6.2 Historical Evolution of Whistle Blowing ...... 76 2.4.6.3 Antecedents and Consequences of Whistle Blowing ...... 76 2.4.6.4 Perception of Politics and Whistle Blowing ...... 80 2.4.7 Counterproductive Behavior ...... 82 2.4.7.1 Defining Counterproductive Behavior ...... 82 2.4.7.2 Historical Evolution of Counterproductive Behavior ...... 83 2.4.7.3 Antecedents and Consequences of Counterproductive Behavior ...... 85 2.4.7.4 Perception of Politics and Counterproductive Behavior ...... 87 2.4.8 Turnover Intentions ...... 90 2.4.8.1 Defining Turnover Intentions ...... 90 2.4.8.2 Historical Evolution of Turnover Intentions and Actual Turnover ...... 91 2.4.8.3 Antecedent and Consequences of Turnover Intentions ...... 92 2.4.8.4 Perception of Politics and Turnover Intentions...... 94

2.5 Organizational Politics as a Mediator ...... 95 2.5.1 Participation in Decision Making to Affective Commitment, Counterproductive Behavior and Turnover Intentions ...... 96 2.5.2 Role conflict and Role Ambiguity to Affective Commitment, Counterproductive Behavior and Turnover Intentions ...... 97 2.5.3 Machiavellianism to Affective Commitment, Counterproductive Behavior and Turnover Intentions ...... 98 2.6 Gap Analysis ...... 98 CHAPTER 3 ...... 101 METHODOLOGY...... 101 3.1 Research Design ...... 101 3.2 Population ...... 102 3.3 Subjects and Procedure ...... 102 3.4 Measures ...... 103 3.4.1 Instrumentation ...... 103 3.4.2 Significance of Likert Scale ...... 104 3.4.3 Pilot Testing ...... 104 3.4.4 Perceptions of Organizational Politics ...... 105 3.4.5 Machiavellianism ...... 106 3.4.6 Participation in Decision Making ...... 106 3.4.7 Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity ...... 107 3.4.8 Turnover Intentions ...... 108 3.4.9 Counterproductive Work Behaviors ...... 108 3.4.10 Affective Commitment ...... 109 3.4.11 Whistle Blowing ...... 109 3.4.12 Confirmatory Factor Analysis ...... 110 CHAPTER 4 ...... 112 DATA ANALYSIS ...... 112 4.1 Demographical Analysis ...... 112 4.2 Descriptive Analysis ...... 117 4.3 Correlation Results ...... 118 4.4 Regression Results ...... 119

4.5 Mediation Analysis ...... 120 CHAPTER 5 ...... 138 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS ...... 138 5.1 Findings and Discussion ...... 138 5.2 Conclusion ...... 151 5.3 Contribution of the Study ...... 152 5.3.1 Managerial Contribution ...... 152 5.3.2 Theoretical Contribution ...... 153 5.4 Managerial Implications ...... 155 5.5 Future Direction ...... 156 5.6 Limitations of the Study ...... 157 References ...... 158 Appendix-A (Questionnaire) ...... 158 Appendix-B (Q-Q Plots) ...... 224

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Consequences of Organizational Politics: A Summary of Empirical Findings ...... 21

Table 2.2: Antecedents of Organizational Politics: A Summary of Empirical Findings ...... 22

Table 2.3: Previous Researches on Organizational Politics in Public Sector...... 33

Table 2.4: Previous Researches on Organizational Politics in Public Sector (Cntd.) ...... 34

Table 2.5: Various types of Counterproductive Behavior: a Summary of Empirical Findings .... 88

Table 3.1: Reliability Analysis for Perception of Politics…………………………………. 105

Table 3.2: Reliability Analysis for Machiavellianism ...... 106

Table 3.3: Reliability Analysis for Participation in Decision Making ...... 106

Table 3.4: Reliability Analysis for Role Conflict ...... 107

Table 3.5: Reliability Analysis for Role Ambiguity ...... 107

Table 3.6: Reliability Analysis for Turnover Intentions ...... 108

Table 3.7: Reliability Analysis for Counterproductive Behaviors ...... 109

Table 3.8: Reliability Analysis for Affective Commitment ...... 109

Table 3.9: Reliability Analysis for Whistle Blowing ...... 110

Table 3.10: Factor Loadings of the Questionnaires Items...... 111

Table 4.1: Age………………………………………………………………………………...... 113

Table 4.2: Gender ...... 113

Table 4.3: Highest Level of Education...... 114

Table 4.4: Cadre ...... 115

Table 4.5: Income Level ...... 115

Table 4.6: Years with this Organization ...... 116

Table 4.7: Nature of the Organization ...... 116

Table 4.8: Descriptive Statistics ...... 117

Table 4.9: Correlations ...... 118

Table 4.10: Hierarchical Regression Analysis for the Causes of Perception of Politics ...... 119

Table 4.11: Hierarchical Regression Analysis for the Consequences of Perception of Politics . 120

Table 4.12: Hierarchical Regression Analysis for the Causes of Perception of Politics ...... 123

Table 4.13: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of PDM, POP and AC ...... 124

Table 4.14: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of PDM, POP and TI...... 125

Table 4.15: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of PDM, POP and CPB ...... 126

Table 4.16: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of RC, POP and AC ...... 127

Table 4.17: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of RC, POP and TI ...... 128

Table 4.18: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of RC, POP and CPB ...... 129

Table 4.19: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of RA, POP and AC ...... 130

Table 4.20: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of RA, POP and TI...... 131

Table 4.21: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of RA, POP and CPB ...... 132

Table 4.22: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of MACH, POP and AC ...... 133

Table 4.23: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of MACH, POP and TI ...... 134

Table 4.24: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of MACH, POP and CPB ...... 135

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: “The Nature of Mediator Variables” by Baron and Kenny (1986) ...... 96

Figure 2.2: Research Model of the Study ...... 100

ABSTRACT

Organizational politics is a common and pervasive phenomenon of occupational life. This is the reason that various approaches have been used to understand and analyze the nature of organizational politics. Literature shows a main stream of researches conducted to examine the political behavior tendency and political skill capitalization among individuals. However, employees usually feel reluctant to report the political activities and tactics exercised for their personal benefits. Therefore, most of the contemporary researches are more focused on analyzing the perception of politics among employees which gives a clear picture of the prevalence of organizational politics. This study was an attempt to examine the perception of politics and its possible causes and effects. It endeavored to identify the reactions regarding organizational politics based on the Hirchsman’s theory of organizational decline also known as Exit, Voice, Loyalty, Neglect (EVLN) Model of Hirchsman’s (1970). The consequences were taped in terms of the intensity of the reactions such as they might start developing turnover intentions (exit), involve in counterproductive behavior (neglect), blow whistle (voice), or show affective commitment (loyalty) with the organization. All these reactions were triggered from extreme to lenient. Variables which have been repeatedly found key predictors to organizational politics in the literature, were selected as antecedents. In this way, participation in decision making, role stressors and machiavellianism were assumed to have influential effects on perceived politics. Perception of politics was also examined to have any mediating role between selected explanatory (participation in decision making, role conflict, role ambiguity and machiavellianism) and criterion variables (affective commitment, counterproductive behavior and turnover intentions).

For data collection, questionnaire survey was carried out based on statistically reliable measures adopted from various sources. Only public sector organizations operating within the vicinity of federal territory of Pakistan were approached. Out of 600 floated questionnaires, 424 usable responses of employees working at various levels in different capacities were received.

Results showed significant effects of both role stressors i.e. role conflict and role ambiguity as well as of machiavellianism towards perceived politics. Participation in decision making showed although negative but insignificant effects towards organizational politics.

Turnover intentions emerged as the strong and statistically significant outcome of flourishing politics followed by affective commitment which had inverse and highly significant relationship with perception of politics. Counterproductive behavior appeared as the third critical upshot of politicized environment. Last of all the results revealed the role of whistle blowing which also had positive and significant relationship with the perception of politics.

Mediating of perception of politics was also confirmed between participation in decision making and affective commitment, participation in decision making and turnover intentions, role conflict II and turnover intentions, role conflict and counterproductive behavior, role ambiguity and counterproductive behavior as well as between machiavellianism and counterproductive behavior. Furthermore, partial mediation was found between machiavellianism and turnover intentions.

This study provides valuable contribution due to various reasons. Literature shows a dominant contribution of researches and theories from western cultures which are characterized as more individualistic society in nature as compared to eastern culture. Hofstede (1980 & 1993) emphasized the contextual nature of theories to be generalized in different organizations and institutes therefore, this study was an attempt in this regard to know the causes and consequences of the perception of politics from a developing country which is more a collectivist society as specified by Hofstede’s dimensional scale. This study also incorporated role conflict and whistle blowing as antecedent and consequence of perceived politics which have rarely been used in any setting. 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1. Background of the Study

Organizational environment of the present era has become reasonably volatile due to a recent shift towards downsizing, outsourcing, and restructuring. Under such environments, lack of communication, distrust and insecurity are the critical factors that weaken the bond between employee-organization relationships. Organizations as well as employees take some extra steps to secure their position and interest under uncertain conditions (Rosen, Harris and Kacmar, 2009). This is probably one of the reasons that politicking is considerably observed in various organizations. Organizations are social units (or human groupings) deliberately constructed and reconstructed to seek specific goals (Etzioni, 1964). According to Katzenbach and Smith (1993) organizations are small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. Broadly “Politics” is an activity by which people make, protect and improve the general rules under which they live. There exist various views and perspectives on the term politics. Considering the radical definition of politics, it is about to derive, distribute and use of resources to protect social existence. This perspective elucidates politics in terms of power and stem from the unequal distribution of resources (Heywood, 2007). Organizational politics presents a more myopic view in this regard. Employees normally take it as conflict, power, influence, domination, cooperation, authority etc. Most common perception about politics is to exercise power. Reasons are quite obvious, politically charged persons exercise various tactics to influence others in pursuing their interests and personal agenda (Vigoda, 2003). On the other hand, Mayes and Allen (1977) defined organizational politics as the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the organization or to obtain sanctioned ends through non- sanctioned influence means. Ferris, Russ and Fandt (1989) took nearly a similar view and defined organizational politics as a behavior strategically designed to maximize self-interests and therefore contradict the collective organizational goals or the interests of other individuals. Such kind of self-centered behaviors can be in the form of ignoring chain of command, immoral and 2 unfair means to gain resources and equipment, lobbying with influential persons, deceptions to secure personal benefits etc. This also gives a push to other employees to establish some kind of association with political circles and alliances. In this way the whole structure gets politicized. In political environment, only few employees can take advantages which is often unfair and unjust (Bodla and Danish, 2008). But this gives rise to various negative attitudinal and behavioral outcomes such as turnover intentions (e.g. Vigoda-Gadot and Kapun, 2005; Harris, Andrews and Kacmar, 2007; Poon, 2004; Miller et al., 2008; Bodla and Danish, 2008) reduced job satisfaction (e.g. Ram and Prabhakar, 2010; Poon, 2003; Vigoda, 2000, Vigoda-Gadot, 2007; Poon, 2004; Buenge et al., 2007; Miller et al., 2008; Bodla and Danish, 2008) and organizational commitment (e.g. Vigoda, 2000; Wilson, 1995; Miller, 2008; Bodla and Danish, 2008). According to Gandz and Murray (1980) organizational politics is a perceptual phenomenon prevails when job holders had the perception that all employees including them were pursuing their own interests at the cost of others. The authors conceptualized organizational politics as perception of politics and emphasized to examine organizational politics in perceived terms to have better insight into politics within organizational setting. This is the reason most of the succeeding researches used perception of politics to gauge organizational politics (Bodla and Danish, 2008, Vigoda-Gadot and Kapun, 2005; Poon, 2003, Muhammad, 2007; Harrell-Cook, Ferris and Dulebohn, 1999). Despite the fact organizational politics has been a widely researched phenomenon for the last few decades, yet it needs more investigation due to its significance for every organization whether profit or non-profit, commercial or government, national or international etc. It would certainly help managers to alleviate the adverse effects of political behaviors in organizations. More specifically, there is a strong need to identify core factors that help to predict organizational politics and outcomes thereupon in various cultural settings (Poon, 2006; Drory and Vigoda-Gadot, 2010). Perception of politics as well as political behavior is a contextual phenomenon. Its intensity differs from culture to culture depending upon various situational and work related factors. Therefore, a wide gap exists into figuring out the key variables associated with perception of politics in various cultural settings. Existing literature shows that previous researches have been conducted by segregating the organizational factors, job factors and personal factors. Centralization and hierarchical level are commonly regarded as key organizational predictors for organizational politics (Valle and Perrewe, 2000). However, a 3 recent shift has been made towards participation in decision making which has appeared as an influential construct towards political activities and its perception in the organization. Participation in decision making shows the extent to which staff members participate in setting the goals and policies of the entire organization (Vigoda, 2001). High participation ensures less perceived politics among employees being clear about organizational plans and objectives (Witt et al., 2000; Vigoda, 2001; Parker, Dipboye and Jackson, 1995). Since public organizations are more bureaucratic in nature and allow less opportunity for employee involvement (Boyne, 2002) therefore an analysis of perception of politics in relation to decision making participation is worth analyzing. Previous researches have also proved formalization as the key antecedent of organizational politics (O'Connor and Morrison, 2001) which refers to the laid down job descriptions, establishing rules and the extent to which incumbents are controlled and monitored to comply with the standards established in job profiles (Hage and Aiken, 1967). Role ambiguity which connotes nearly opposite to formalization refers to lack of clear information about one’s work roles (Rizzo, House, & Lirtzman, 1970). Both formalization and role ambiguity has been endorsed as key predictors towards perception of politics (Muhammad, 2007; O'Connor and Morrison, 2001; Poon, 2003). However, the focus of contemporary researches are more towards role ambiguity (Poon, 2003). As far as the personal factors are concerned, machiavellianism has emerged as the unique predictor in explaining perception of politics (Biberman, 1985; Valle and Perrewe, 2000; O'connor and Morrison, 2010). Machiavellian is a personality trait which negates any bearing of morality in managing political affairs and favor the deception and maneuvering in acquiring the political power and exercising at any stage. Machiavellian personalities are more concerned with their personal agenda even at the cost of the organizational goals (Christie and Geis, 1970). Organizational politics is commonly described in terms of self-benefiting behaviors. This is probably one of the reasons that machiavellianism shows high association with perception of politics (O'connor and Morrison, 2001). Participation in decision making, role ambiguity and machiavellianism being most parsimonious variables endorsed though previous researches, may have strong effects towards perception of politics in Pakistani environment. Role conflict which is among role stressors besides role ambiguity may also have significant effects towards perception of politics. Though role conflict 4 is not highly endorsed predictors towards perception of politics. However, it can be analyzed as an antecedent to perception of politics because it refers to inconsistent tasks and assignments from various quarters which an employee has to carry out. Employees supposedly face more incompatible expectations from various pressure groups in collectivist societies such as Pakistan. According to many researchers, perception of politics may lead towards unfavorable outcomes such as job frustration (Harris, Wheeler and Harris, 2009), organizational cynicism (Buenger, Forte, Boozer and Maddox, 2007), negligent behavior (Vigoda, 2000), psychological withdrawal (Cropanzano, Howes, Grandey & Toth, 1997), alienation (Kumar & Ghadially, 1989) so on and so forth. But very few researches are conducted to explore the consequences in terms of highly harmful to least harmful outcomes for the organization. For instance, employees may retort in the form of turnover intentions (highly undesirable), counterproductive behavior (undesirable), blow-whistle (desirable) or stay committed with the organization (highly desirable). Though there exist some fragmented findings in this regard, but researches lack sufficient evidences where possible reactions in terms of highly detrimental to least detrimental are considered as a result of perception of politics. Vigoda (2001) made an attempt to analyze the responses to perception of politics based on the idea presented by Hirschman’s EVLN theory of organizational decline (1970) which postulates four responses to aversive situation such as exit, voice, loyalty and neglect. By exploring literature, turnover intentions (Randall, Cropanzano, Bormann and Birjulin, 1999), counterproductive behavior (Rosen, 2006) and affective commitment (Parker, Dipboye & Jackson, 1995) are proved to be the direct upshot of perception of politics. Blowing whistle as a response to political activities can be an important area of investigation which has been examined in relation to other unethical behaviors in past (Mesmer- Magnus and Viswesvaran, 2005; Dozier and Miceli, 1985).

1.1 Problem Statement

Organizational politics consists of influential acts through irregular and unofficial means to exercise influence with the intention to secure resources, power and other benefits. Organizational politics is widely known as unsanctioned and informal way of act and behavior (Gotsis and Kortezi, 2010). This is the reason, organizations take active measure to avoid, discourage or even eradicate politics from organizational work setting. Politically affected organizations have different weaknesses in nature because the essence of politicking is deception 5 and deception leads to other outcomes in the shape of dissatisfaction, low performance, high turnover and increased anxiety (Curtis, 2003). Though some favorable arguments exist about the politics penetration within the organization (Kumar and Ghadially, 1989; Randolph, 1985; Valle and Perrewe, 2000). But a common understanding about organizational politics is not encouraging. Politicized organizations lack credibility. Especially, concerns are raised with respect to politicized human resource decision-making process which is treated as irrational, invalid and unsystematic. The main reason is the biasness that makes all processes ineffective and illegitimate. Benefits and promotions are awarded to those having good political ties rather competencies which ultimately weaken productivity (Harrell-Cook, Ferris and Dulebohn, 2009). Most commonly, performance appraisal systems is the main victim in such environment. Employees have a feel that supervisors’ appraise the performance based on personal liking or disliking rather on performance. In essence, politically charged organizations secure the interest of an influential group which supports favoritism rather than merit to get ahead within the organization. Changes are made in policies that only serve the interests of few individuals, not the work unit or the organization (Karppinen, 2007). As a result of these, it increases frustration and stress among employees (Poon, 2003; Harris et al., 2009). Employees thus have negative attitude, disparaging and critical behaviors towards their organizations (Dean, Brandes & Dhwardkar, 1998; Buenger et al., 2007). Despite various efforts made to address organizational politics, yet it is widely prevailed in organizational environment (Davis and Gardner, 2004). Most of the previous researches examining organizational politics were conducted in the developed parts of the world particularly in North-America. An adequate contribution from the other parts of the world especially from the developing countries is required to refine the development of comprehensive theory in this field (Vigoda, 2001). This notion has been validated by many other authors (Poon, 2006; Drory and Vigoda-Gadot, 2010; Tsui, Nifadkar and Ou, 2007). Especially, Hofstede (1993) emphasized the contextual contribution of studies environment to know the clear pictures of different phenomenon (a detail discussion about Hofstede cultural context is given in section 2.3). Therefore, a comprehensive study was required to know the intensity, causes and consequences of organizational politics in a developing country such as Pakistan. Some of the key factors already confirmed as key antecedents may also be analyzed in relation with organizational politics to know similar or contradictory findings. 6

Considering the outcomes of organizational politics, employees may posit different responses, which may range from highly favorable to least unfavorable. According to frustration aggression theory (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer & Sears, 1939), when employees’ efforts are not yielding intended results due to partiality or other issues, it causes aggression. This aggression can be diverse in nature depending upon the circumstances or nature of incidences. Hirschman’s (1970) prescribed four possible responses as a result of any unpleasant situations faced by an employee. They may think of leaving the organization or may start deviating from the legitimate work assignments. On the other hand, they may raise their voice either to record protest or to suggest remedies. Employees’ reactions in response to organizational politics as an aversive conditions have rarely been tested. It also stimulates a need to examine turnover intentions, counterproductive behavior, whistle blowing and affective commitment as a conceptual foundation of Hirschman’s (1970) theory of exit, voice, loyalty and decline. In addition, public sector offers various unique characteristics as compared to private sector. The structure, orientation, services and functions of public sector organizations are different from private organizations. Organizations under government control had to follow stringent administrative system which is more bureaucratic in nature. The most important feature of public organizations rest with the strong influence and pressure exerted by the political and governmental groups (Rainey and Chun, 2007). This fact was also endorsed by Mihaiu, Opreana & Cristescu (2010) by claiming that public organizations were influenced directly or indirectly by politicians. This influence could be in the form of bargaining, public opinion and interest group reactions (Rainey, Backoff and Levine, 1976). Public sector of Pakistan even exhibits some unique features which prompt the need to examine the perceptual and behavior manifestation of the employees. External political influences pose a threat to the role of leadership in public sector organizations (Bourantas & Papalexandris, 2006). The influence of political circles on public organizations are quite natural. Theories also elaborate a vivid link between organizations and their environment. According to Resource- Dependency Theory (RDT), organizations have close association with their respective environment (Pfeffer and Salancik 1978).. Organizational dependence on external resources are the key determinants of their behavior therefore, this dependence has key bearing at the organizational working. More precisely this theory posits that organizations depend on resources which are in the control of organization's environment. Since institutes, organizations and 7 regulatory bodies constitute the environment of the organizations therefore key resources an organization needs, are with other organizations which provide the basis of power to the organization. Power and resource dependence can be considered as the same construct. Conclusively it can be said, all types of organizations have to some extent dependence on other external organizations. Keeping the notion of resource dependence theory, no one can ignore the dependence of organization on its environment. Since public organizations are closely associated and dependent upon their regulatory bodies, ministries or parent organizations which have close association with the politically elected offices therefore, these organizations have to comply with the political will of the external bodies which may foster political behavior within organizations and can subsequently give rise to perception of politics. External political influences may range from self-benefiting behavior, nepotism and favoritism, lobbying & small coalitions, compliance etc. which may have trickle down effects. Public organizations are directly under the control of government. Their ultimate reporting authorities are their respective ministries or other regularities bodies in Pakistan. They are treated as the subordinate institutions of their respective Ministries. Ministries provide directions, control their affairs and even influence them in either way. Established evidences also confirm the strong influence of environmental factors on individual and group behaviors in the organizations (Burnes, 2004; Hmelo-Silver & Pfeffer, 2004; Swanson & Holton, 2001). In nutshell, it may be concluded that individuals at micro level of the organization are duly influenced by the political forces within and outside the organization. As claimed by Bodla and Danish (2008), public organizations were considerably associated with political systems, this stimulated more influential tactics among employees. Therefore, organizational politics in the public sector was worth examining in relation with the antecedents and consequences associated with it.

1.2 Rationale of the Study

The study was designed to determine the intensity of perceived politics as well as the causes and consequences of perceived politics among public sector employees of Pakistan. The governance system of Pakistan has transformed from various democratic and autocratic systems. Pakistan has regained the democratic system of governance from preceding dictatorial system which 8 stimulates the need to know the prevailing politics in the public organizations under the control of government of Pakistan and the possible causes and consequences. Theories and empirical findings highlight a vivid link between organizations and their environment. Most of the previous researches on organizational politics in Pakistan have been conducted during the military era of governance, therefore this study provides a detail analysis of perception of politics and its causes and consequences in a democratic era ruled by political party. In addition, public sector offers various unique characteristics as compared to private sector. The structure, orientation, services and functions of public sector organizations are different from private organizations. Public sector of Pakistan even exhibits some unique features which prompt the need to examine the perceptual and behavior manifestation of the employees. Theories and empirical findings emphasize the contextual contribution of studies environment to know the clear pictures of different phenomenon (detail discussion about Hosfstede cultural context is given in the next section). Since researches on organizational politics were mostly contributed from developed world therefore, this study provides an insight of organizational politics from a developing country. Lastly, the research model is based on the key antecedents which have been confirmed with different conceptualizations in various environments. Moreover, the consequences of perception of politics are chalked out in terms of reactions based on their intensity.

1.3 Cultural Context of the Research

Hofstede (1980 &; 1993) stated that theories and implications originated from one cultural setting couldn’t be applied to other environment by disregarding the culture of the country. He emphasized the contextual significance of the phenomena and research models. Precisely, one should consider the cultural dissimilarities among societies and nations before applying any concept or theory to other culture (Hofstede, 1991; Hofstede and Bond, 1984). Hofstede (1980 & 1993) provided five dimensions to differentiate the values of national culture. Understanding these values might help to explain the current and potential behavior of individuals. Cultural dimensions included masculinity and femininity, individualism and collectivism, long and short term orientation, uncertainty avoidance and power distance. Power distance referred to the degree to which power was distributed among individuals. High power distance meant unequal distribution of power while low power distance showed equal power 9 distribution among individuals. Uncertainty avoidance pertained to unambiguous environment and need for vivid rules, procedures and policies. Masculinity vs. femininity referred to the extent to which people were concerned about work related goals as compared to personal and single goals. The dimension of individualism vs collectivism showed, whether people were concerned with the wellbeing of entire group or exercising self-centered behavior. The fifth dimension of long vs short term orientation revealed the value given to long and lasting relationship or otherwise. Now if the cultural dimensions of developing countries were compared with rest of the world, Considerable difference among these all might be found. More specifically, a defining gap existed when Pakistan’s cultural dimension as described by Hofstede (1980) cultural dimension was compared with USA and UK. USA was marked as high at individualism followed by masculinity and uncertainty avoidance whereas the power distance and long term orientation were last respectively in culture dimension score. Nearly the same score was calculated for UK from which Pakistan gained the independence and became sovereign political state. Contrary to both most developed and powerful nation of the world, Pakistan scored high at uncertainty avoidance followed by reasonably placed at power distance and masculinity while a very low score for individualism and no score for long term orientation (Geert Hofstede measure for cultural dimension calculation1). Keeping in view, the above discussion, researches conducted in developed world cannot be generalized to developing world generally and specifically to Pakistan. There exist a strong need to examine the organizational politics within different societies to understand differences and similarities. Organizational politics can produce any effects, which may be harmful or beneficial for the organizational well being. But the role of national culture, history, norms and values is important to consider. Culture based analysis provides an explicit understanding of organizational politics (Drory and Vigoda-Gadot, 2010, Poon, 2006). Therefore, this research was an effort to satisfy the concerns of various experts of organizational behavior (Hofstede, 1993; Drory and Vigoda-Gadot, 2010; Tsui, Nifadkar and Ou, 2007) to figure out the antecedents and outcomes of perception of politics in public sector organizations of Pakistan.

1 http://geert-hofstede.com/united-states.html

1.4 Competitive Perspectives in understanding Cultural Perspective

There exist some other perspectives to understand human behavior and how it changes over time within society and across societies. An influential paradigm originated to understand organizational culture is Institutional theory, which provided deeper understanding about the social structure. It explains the processes by which structures such as norms, rules, schemas and other elements are established to guide social behavior. It further elaborates the process about how these elements are formed, adopted, capitalized and adapted over a period of time and also how these elements are discarded and disbanded (Scott, 2004). In this way, not only the culture which shapes individual behavior but also the institutions (regulatory frameworks) which may have strong bearing in shaping human behavior. Institutional theory can help a manager in many ways. It can help to understand how cultures within organizations are shaped in relation with cultures outside organizations. How culture changes over time, its transformation and translation and especially how various actors interplay to design organizational cultures (Zilber, 2012). Hofstede’s work on national culture and its various cultural dimensions are also criticized by various authors. Some authors partially figured out methodological and conceptual flaws (Fang, 2003) whereas some authors criticized the entire Hofstede’s work on different grounds (Baskerville, 2003; Javidan, 2006; Signorini, Wiesemes & Murphy, 2009). The critique presented by McSweeney (2002) is of paramount importance because the author categorically challenged the Hofstede’s work by characterizing it a blend of fallacious assumptions and inappropriate methodological execution. According to McSweeney (2002a), Hosfstede strived to hold his assumptions true rather accurately analyzing the propositions. Hofstede’s model of national culture and its five dimensions also lacked any sufficient literary foundations. Hosfstede work depicts fragmented and uni-level analysis which fails to highlight the interaction between various cultural and the non-cultural factors. Economic, political or institutional factors may also have varying influences on society and individuals. Some key methodological flaws were also identified. McSweeny (2002a) claimed that as an individual we may think about national culture, we may believe in national culture but Hofstede theories fail to exhibit how we think under national culture. Later Williamson (2002) emerged as the main proponent of Hofstede model of national culture. According to Williamson (2002), McSweeney (2002a) arguments lacked substantive grounds to 11 challenge the reliability and validity of Hofstede work. To refute Hofstede’s model of national culture, one should come up with comprehensive model of national culture. Williamson (2002) categorized McSweeney (2002a) arguments from functionalist paradigm. However, following functionalist paradigm, cultural studies could be more parsimonious. Williamson (2002) proposed to analyze national culture from various perspectives to add rigor to this particular phenomenon. Besides all these arguments, Geert Hofstede’s (1980) Culture’s Consequences is the most influential contribution highlighting cross cultural factors at national level and also the most cited sources in the Social Science Citation Index (Bond, 2002; Fang, 2003; Hofstede, 1997). The unique outcomes are the cultural dimensions i.e., power distance and masculinity vs femininity, short-term vs long-term orientation, individualism and uncertainty avoidance, originated by studying IBM subsidiaries in 53 countries (Fang, 2003). Most of the Hofstede’s contributions are hold true time and again in various setting. His hallmarks are helpful for scholars and practitioners in understanding cultural dynamics and carrying out cross cultural (Jones, 2007). These arguments raised following research questions.

1.5 Research Questions

Question # 1 : What are the causes of perception of politics in the public sector of Pakistan?

Question # 2 : What reactions employees show in response to high perception of politics in the public sector of Pakistan?

Question # 3 : Does perception of politics mediate relationship between participation in decision making and affective commitment, whistle blowing, counterproductive behavior and turnover intentions?

Question # 4 : Does perception of politics mediate relationship between role conflict and affective commitment, whistle blowing, counterproductive behavior and turnover intentions?

Question # 5 : Does perception of politics mediate relationship between role ambiguity and affective commitment, whistle blowing, counterproductive behavior and turnover intentions?

Question # 6 : Does perception of politics mediate relationship between machiavellianism and affective commitment, whistle blowing, counterproductive behavior and turnover intentions? 12

1.6 Research Objectives

This study attempted to understand the causes and effects of organizational politics within the public sector of Pakistan. Specifically, the study proceeded with following objectives;

1. To investigate the role of organizational factor such as participation in decision making in explaining perception of organizational politics. 2. To determine the impact of job/work factors such as role conflict and role ambiguity, on perception of organizational politics. 3. To find out the influence of personal factor such as machiavellianism on perception of organizational politics. 4. To investigate the predicting qualities of perception of organizational politics towards affective organizational commitment. 5. To find out the effects of perception of politics towards whistle blowing. 6. To explain the role of perception of organizational politics in explaining counterproductive / work deviant behavior. 7. To figure out the contribution of perception of organizational politics in explaining turnover intentions. 8. To examine the mediating role of perception of politics between selected explanatory (participation in decision making, role conflict, role ambiguity and machiavellianism) and criterion variables (affective commitment, counterproductive behavior and turnover intentions).

1.7 Significance of the Study

1. Organizational politics has been an area of interest from many decades. But still researchers lack any consensus about the core and common factors causing political perception and political behavior in an organization to establish an explicit theory. Although, previous researchers have highlighted various variables in this cause and effect domain. Yet key factors are missing with respect to developing world. Organizational politics can be seen as contextual phenomenon where antecedents and consequences of this construct needs more investigation with respect to environment where it exists. In 13

this way, this study adds to the existing literature by specifying the core factors impinging upon organizational politics in the public sector of Pakistan. 2. Predictors such as participation in decision making, ambiguous work environment, conflicting job demands and machiavellianism have been studied in various environments and found most striking variables in explaining the perception of politics and political behavior in the work environment. This is an attempt to find out the impact of such variables on perception of politics in the public sector of a developing country. 3. Perception of politics has been regarded as an aversive phenomenon which may yield various negative outcomes. This research has been designed to find out the reactions due to perception of politics from least desirable to most desirable. Such as employees may think to leave their organization (least desirable), show antisocial behavior (avoiding), below whistle (concerning) or stay committed with their respective organization (most desirable). Very few attempts have been made to determine the hierarchical consequences of organizational politics. 4. Whistle blowing as a criterion variable has never been tested previously in any environment in relation to politics perception. 5. Pakistan is a developing country with a lot of workforce diversity. Pakistan has also been struggling for nationwide political maturity and strengthening democracy. The findings of the study would be interesting to compare with the rest of the world. 14

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 History of Organizational Politics

Organizational politics is a common aspect of every occupational life. Historical analysis of organizational politics shows that it acquired the attention of scholars and researchers during 1950s and succeeding decade. Initially, Martin and Sims (1956) (see Power tactics published in Harvard Business Review) highlighted the use of power in managing affairs politically. Later various other efforts were made both theoretically and empirically, to examine the politics and political influence in the organizations. During 1960s, Burns (1961) and March (1962) and later Batten & Swab (1965) made a paradigm shift to examine the pervasive role of workplace politics in the organization and how to address the negative outcomes of the political behavior within the organization. Subsequent era witnessed some key contributions from Butler (1971), Pfeffer and Salancik (1974), and Mayes and Allen (1977). Butler’s (1971) attempt was significant enough, as the author evaluated politics in view of positive or negative effects associated with this particular construct. Whereas Mayes and Allen (1977) endeavored to define politics from organizational context by evaluating various tactics and activities associated with it. Initially, organizational politics was taken as the behavior associated with manipulating others for the sake of self-interest in competitive situations (Burns, 1961). Political behaviors were taken as influence tactics but the natures of such tactics were elucidated differently by different authors. Like Falbe and Yukl (1992) figured out inspiration, consultation, personal appeals, exchange, ingratiation, rational persuasion, legitimating to coalition and pressure as key influential tactics and among them consultation and inspirational appeals were found as most effective whereas rational persuasion could be effective if used in combination with soft tactics such as consultation, inspirational appeals, or ingratiation. Kipnis, Schmidt and Wilkinson (1980) considered assertiveness, ingratiation, rationality, sanctions, exchange, upward appeals, blocking, and coalitions as key dimensions of influence tactics. Moreover, attempts were made to know the causes and effects of influence tactics which might be termed as political behavior (Barbuto and Scroll, 1999; DuBrin, 1978 & 1988). Like the study of DuBrin (1978, 1988) showed younger and low-ranked workers had more tendencies to engage 15 in political behavior or influence tactics (DuBrin, 1978 & 1988). Whereas, Dubrin (1991) claimed both male and female were prone to exercise political tactics equally. As far as the outcomes were concerned, it helped in promotability (Thacker and Wayne, 1995). Employees exercising supervisor-focused influence tactics were likely to get enhanced supervisors' liking for subordinates (Wayne and Ferris, 1990). Hinkin and Schriesheim (1990) claimed that among other influence tactics ,”rationality” was proved to be the main source of expert and referent power. Higgins, Judge and Ferris (2003) analyzed the role of self-promotion, rationality, assertiveness and ingratiation as influence tactics and found ingratiation and rationality as positively related with extrinsic success and performance assessment. On the other hand, Kumar and Ghadially (1989) defined organizational politics in terms of power, influence and authority. Specifically considering the outcomes of organizational politics, it could impede organizational goals and promote misuse of resources. In political environment, employees suffered from frustration, tension, alienation, jealousies, distrust, suspiciousness and uncertainty (Allen and Porter, 1983; Madison et al., 1980; Zaleznik, 1970). It also had adverse effects on the performance and productivity of the organization (Mintzber, 1983, 1984 & 1985) and inhibited the successful implementation of risk assessment instruments (Schlager, 2009). According to Vredenburgh and Maurer (1984) there were some individuals, groups and situational conditions which stimulate the political behavior among employees. It was often seen that shrewd, expeditious and venturesome people are normally involved in political behavior. Employees have more likelihood to be involved in political behavior under the uncertain environment (Dalton, 1959; Pfeffer, 1978). Robbins (1979) was of the view that the main cause of political behavior rest with the performance measurement and rewards allocation approach. If management starts compensating poor performers by ignoring the merit criteria then it stimulates political behavior in the organization. Despite all these facts about organizational politics, the most influential developments were made by Gandz and Murray (1980) who categorized organizational politics as perceptual phenomenon which should not be used interchangeably with the influence, power and organizational conflict. The author operationalized the concept in subjective terms and argued that organizational politics prevailed when job holders had the perception that all employees including them were pursuing their own interests at the cost of others. Their findings suggested workplace politics as a negative aspect of organizational life and harmful to organizational 16 effectiveness. Perception of politics was spotlighted with the introduction of Ferris et al. (1989) model of organizational politics perceptions. The author recommended perception of organizational politics as a parsimonious measure of organizational politics. Basically, perceptual contention was based on the Lewin’s (1936) argument “perception is reality”. Individuals respond to what they perceive rather what is reality itself. Succeeding era witnessed a number of researches incorporated perception of politics as a measure of organizational politics. Ferris et al. (1989) model of organizational politics perceptions was based on predictors, moderators, mediators and outcomes. Some organizational, job/work and personal influences were suggested as key predictors to perception of politics while job involvement, job satisfaction and job anxiety and organizational withdrawal were proposed to be the outcomes of perception of politics. Moreover, perceived control and understanding posed moderating effects on the relationships. Ferris et al. (1989) model of organizational politics perceptions opened new avenues. Following era witnessed various researches to test and validate this model fully and partially (Kacmar et al., 1999; Bodla and Danish 2009; Muhammad, 2007; Poon 2003). Perception of politics has been examined in various environments to know its antecedents and outcomes (Table-2.1 and 2.2). Even if we consider the researches conducted on organizational politics in recent past. We can have three simultaneous approaches to analyze politics at the workplace. Some of the researches are still examining politics in terms of power, authority and influence tactics which is called political behavior (Putnam, 1995; Vredenburgh and Maurer, 1984; Buchanan and Badham, 1999; Valle and Perrewe, 2000; Thomas, 1992; Liu, Liu and Wu, 2010; Blackler, 2011). Whereas some researchers are more focused in examining the political skills possessed by different individuals at workplace (Ferris et al., 2005, 2007; Blass et al., 2007; Ahearn et al., 2004). The third approach is widely prevalent and accepted which is about to organizational politics through perception of politics (Muhammad, 2007; Rosen et al., 2009; Poon, 2003 & 2006; Vigoda, 2000; Harrell-Cook et al., 1999; O'Connor and Morrison, 2001).

2.1.1 Defining Organizational Politics

Organizational politics has been highlighted from last several years due to its wide prevalence in different work settings. Normally, it is believed that political behavior is a fact of workplace life and is probably necessary for their effective operations (Allen et al., 1979). Political tactics are thought to occur when individuals are reinforced directly for these behaviors, when the tactics 17 result in desired changes, and when they intend to increase power (Goltz, 2003). Political behavior and the use of power can influence any decision in the organizations (Bodla and Danish, 2008). Organizational politics is a broad concept which encompasses different facets relating to attitude and behavior. This construct has been defined differently in literature, like organizational politics is;

“… informal, parochial, typically divisive and illegitimate behavior that is aimed at displacing legitimate power (Mintzberg, 1983, p. 172)”.

“… activities that are self-serving, illegitimate, and often harmful to the organization or its members (Ferris et al., 1989; Kacmar & Baron, 1999)”.

“… a behavior strategically designed to maximize self-interests and therefore contradict the collective organizational goals or the interests of other individuals (Ferris et al., 1989)”.

“… the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the organization or to obtain sanctioned ends through non-sanctioned influence means (Mayes and Allen, 1977, p. 675)”.

“… actions by individuals, which are directed toward the goal of furthering their own self- interests without regard for the well-being of others or their organization (Kacmar et al., 1999)”.

“… a subjective state in which organizational members perceive themselves or others as intentionally seeking selfish ends in an organizational context when such ends are opposed to those of others (Gandz and Murray, 1980)”.

“… an informal approaches to gaining power through means other than merit or luck (Dubrin, 2001)”.

“… a social influence attempts directed at those who can provide rewards that will help promote or protect the self-interest of the actor (Zhang and Lee, 2010)”.

“…intentional acts of influence to enhance or protect the self-interest of individuals or groups (Allen et al., 1979)”.

“… activities undertaken primarily to increase an individual’s or group’s referent or legitimate power. Achieving increased political power, may or may not make more people dependent on the manager, but it does give the executive a greater capacity to influence events (Quinn, 1980)”.

“ (1) Social influence attempts, (2) that are discretionary, (3) that are intended to promote the self-interests of individuals and groups (units), and (4) that threaten the self-interests of others (Individuals, units) (Porter et al., 1983)”.

“… Politics is the process whereby individuals or interests groups use power to obtain or retain control of real or symbolic resources (Bacharach and Lawler, 1981)”.

“… intentional acts of influence undertaken by individual or groups to enhance or protect their self-interest when conflicting courses of action are possible (Gray and Ariss, 1985, p. 707)”.

“… involves activities taken within organization to acquire, develop and use power and other resources to obtain one’s preferred outcomes in a situation in which there is uncertainty or dissensus about choices (pfeffer, 1981, p. 7)”.

“… Consists of intentional acts of influence undertaken by individuals or groups to enhance or protect their self-interest when conflicting courses of action are possible (Gray and Ariss, 1985, p. 707)”.

“… ways in which people at work influence their colleagues, subordinates, and superiors to obtain personal benefits or to satisfy organizational goals (Kipnis et al. 1980)”.

The synthesizing conceptualization provided by various authors show organizational politics comprising influential activities using unauthorized means to secure personal interests (Gotsis and Kortezi, 2010). This is the reason, organizations strive to address politically activities on workplace. Political penetration in the organization brings various weaknesses. Among them deception is the core facet of politics which further lead towards other unwanted outcomes such as anxiety, stress, dissatisfaction and performance related issues (Curtis, 2003).

2.1.2 Organizational Politics as a Productive Function

Literature also shows some evidence in support of organizational politics. As Gotsis and Kortezi (2010) took a pragmatic view of the organizational politics by validating both positive and negative aspects associated with it depending upon the situation. It can be mere manifestation of social influence processes for the best interest of the organization or it can be a self-serving and unsanctioned activities, contrary to organizational objectives (Gotsis and Kortezi, 2010). Likewise Ferris et al. (1989b) also claimed organizational politics as a social-influence process directed to secure self-interest both in short-term and long-term. The self-interest can be aligned with the interest of others or may contrast significantly. In this way, politics in the organization may result positively or negatively for the organization. Kumar and Ghadially (1989) provided similar view by categorizing dual dimensions of organizational politics. According to the author, it may yield favorable or unfavorable outcomes for the organization. Favorable results can be 19 counted as success, task execution, power and position enhancement, status and recognition, personal goals accomplishment, enhanced sense of control, career progression and sense of achievement. Buchanan (2008) called political behavior as ethical and even necessary for change, reputation and for organizational effectiveness whereas Randolph (1985) claimed organizational politics instrumental for the betterment of the organization or mere an approach for personal advantages. It provides an opportunity to exceed from stated goals rather mere threat for organizational members (Pfeffer, 1981; Zanzi and O’Neill, 2001). According to Valle and Perrewe´ (2000), political behavior is all about the use of influential tactics by employees which are rational, conscious, and strategically goal-oriented and intended to promote self-interest which may be at the cost of or in favor of others’ interests. Thus a controlled political process within the organization may be treated as an opportunity to achieve established standard and goals. In short, organizations free from any disruptive effects of politics are in fact experiencing politics in the form of mentoring, persuasion, coalition-formation and networking (Gotsis and Kortezi, 2010). In short, the potential adverse affects of politics can be addressed by promoting social support and trust within the organizational climate (Vigoda-Gadot, Talmud & Peled, 2008). In the same way Ferris et al., (2007) presented more favorable arguments about workplace politics by stating that ‘‘The organizational-politics literature, frequently cast in a pejorative sense, has begun to recognize that politics are not necessarily inherently bad, and those who engage in influence do not always do so exclusively in a self-interested manner, and in direct opposition to organizational objectives (p. 198)”. On the other hand, Conner (2006) presented an indifferent view about workplace politics which posited that organizational politics is a way for some of the non-majority members of the organization to achieve their motives. But at large, organizational politics is considered as an adverse aspect of organizational life and majority of the authors have consensus that negative effects of organizational politics overweigh the positive effects. Employees start ignoring their work assignments and even intend to quit while working under political environment (Andrews et al., 2007). It induces employees towards lobbying. They start developing coalitions and informal groups in response to existing political group (Yen et al., 2009).

2.1.3 Perspectives on Organizational Politics

As mentioned in the section 2.1, political behavior and perception of organizational politics are the two key perspectives to analyze organizational politics. Organizational politics or the political tactics are perceived as self-serving behavior by employees to achieve self-interests, advantages, and benefits at the expense of others and sometimes contrary to the interests of the entire organization or work unit (Ferris and Kacmar, 1992). On the other hand, perception of organizational politics is a perceptual phenomenon which is defined as the degree to which respondents view their work environment as politically charged and therefore unjust and unfair (Ferris et al., 1989). Some other definitions refer perception of politics as;

“… the degree to which respondents view their work environment as political in nature, promoting the self interests of others, and thereby unjust and unfair from the individuals point of view (Kacmar and Ferris, 1989; Kacmar and Carlson, 1994”.

“… actions taken by employees who are perceived to be self-interested (Mayes and Allen, 1977; Kacmar et al., 1999)”.

“… the degree to which the respondents view their work environment as political, and therefore unjust and unfair (Vigoda and Cohen, 2002; Vigoda-Gadot, 2007, Ferris et al., 1989)”.

“… an individual’s attribution to behaviors of self-serving intent, and are defined as an individual’s subjective evaluation about the extent to which the work-environment is characterized by co-workers and supervisors who demonstrate such self-serving behavior (Ferris et al. 2000, p. 90)”.

“… (1) an attribution of intent regarding the behavior of others, (2) the interpretation of these behaviors as self-serving actions, and (3) subjective feelings regarding political activity in the workplace (Ferris, et al.2000; Ferris et al., 2002)”.

“… individual views about the level of power and influence used by other organizational members to gain advantages and secure their interests in conflicting situations (Vigoda- Gadot et al.2003)”.

“… a mean of assessing political behaviors in the workplace (Ferris & Kacmar, 1992; Kacmar & Carlson, 1997)”.

The most referred definition of perception of politics was presented by Kacmar and Carlson (1997) claiming it as the degree to which respondents view their work environment as political in 21 nature, promoting the self interest of others, and thereby unjust and unfair from individual point of view. Table 2.1: Consequences of Organizational Politics: A Summary of Empirical Findings Consequences Reported by (Ram and Prabhakar, 2010; Poon, 2003; Vagoda, 2009; Poon, 2004; Buenger et al., 2007; Miller et al., 2008; Bodla Job Satisfaction and Danish, 2009)

(Harris et al., 2009) Job Frustration

(Vigoda-Gadot and Kapun, 2005; Harris et al., 2007; Harris et al. 2009; Poon, 2003;; Miller et al., 2008; Bodla Turnover Intentions and Danish, 2009)

(Vigoda and Cohen, 2002; Wilson, 1995; Miller et al., Organizational Commitment 2008; Bodla and Danish, 2009)

(Kacmar et al. 1999; Ferris et al. 1996) Job anxiety

Psychological withdrawal (Cropanzano et al., 1997)

Organizational Cynicism (Buenger et al., 2007)

(Miller et al., 2008; Poon, 2003; Buenger et al., 2007; Job Stress Bodla and Danish, 2009)

(Bodla and Danish, 2009) Job Involvement

(Vigoda, 2000) Negligent Behavior

(Buenger et al., 2007) Distrust

(Vigoda, 2007; Buenger et al., 2007) Job Performance

Organizational Performance (Eisenhardt and Bourgeois, 1988; Zahra, 1987)

Alienation (Kumar & Ghadially, 1989)

Perceived innovation (Parker et al. 1995)

Antagonistic work behavior (Cropanzano et al. 1997)

Perception of politics has been viewed as true reflection of politicized organizational environment. A vast majority of researches concluded various negative aftermaths of prevailing perceived politics. 22

Table 2.2: Antecedents of Organizational Politics: A Summary of Empirical Findings

Antecedents Predictors Reported by

Hierarchy, Formalization, Centralization (Buenger et al., 2007) (O'Connor and Morrison, Organizational Climate and Formalization 2001) Organizational Scarcity of Resources and Trust Climate (Poon, 2003) Influences Formalization, Centralization, (Fedor et al., 1998) Organizational Size and Unionization

Formalization, Centralization, (Muhammad, 2007) Hierarchical Level Distributive and Procedural Justice. (Rosen et al., 2009) Influences, Advancement, Participation, (Buenger et al., 2007) Relationships Scarcity of Resources, Role Ambiguity, (Muhammad, 2007) Trust Climate

Feedback, Job Autonomy and Opportunity (Ferris and Kacmar, 1992) Job/Work for Promotion (Ashforth and Lee, 1990; Ambiguous and Uncertain Work Parker et al., 1995; Poon, 2003; Environments Muhammad, 2007) (O'Connor and Morrison, Work Locus of Control 2001)

Positive Affectivity, Negative Affectivity (Buenger et al., 2007)

Skill Variety (Ferris and Kacmar, 1992)

Individual (O'Connor and Morrison, Machiavellianism Influences 2001; Buenger et al., 2007) Sex, Age and Race (Buenger et al., 2007) Age, Gender, Nationality, And (Muhammad, 2007) Demographic Organizational Tenure Influences Hierarchy, Formalization, Centralization (Buenger et al., 2007)

In short, one can firmly believe that perceived politics is a key predictor in explaining employee’s attitudes and behavior (Rosen et al., 2009) such as decreased job satisfaction (e.g. Ram and Prabhakar, 2010; Poon, 2003; Vagoda, 2009; Poon, 2004; Buenger et al., 2007; Miller et al., 2008), organizational commitment (e.g. Vigoda and Cohen, 2002; Miller et al., 2008) and job performance (e.g. Vigoda, 2007; Buenger et al., 2007), turnover intentions (e.g. Vigoda- 23

Gadot and Kapun, 2005; Harris et al., 2007; Poon, 2003; Miller et al., 2008) and declining organizational performance (e.g. Eisenhardt and Bourgeois, 1988; Zahra, 1987). Previous literature shows diverse negative effects of organizational politics. Table-2.1 provides an overview in this regard. Few years ago Bodla and Danish (2009) conducted a study with respect to Pakistani environment to figure out the outcomes of organizational politics in terms of organizational commitment, job satisfaction, job stress, turnover intentions and job involvement. Organizational politics was found to be the parsimonious predictor towards all the variables especially job satisfaction. As mentioned before, deception is a vital ingredient of organizational politics (Curtis, 2003). Therefore, this distrust inclines majority of employees’ towards deviation and other counter work tactics. This is probably the main reason behind current paradigm shift towards exploring factors causing politics within the organization. From last few decades, numerous attempts have been made to identify core factors which motivate employees towards exercising influential tactics and other types of political behavior. Review of literature to explore the antecedents of organizational politics shows that ambiguous and uncertain work environments and unfair policies and procedures in managing organizational affair is among the main causes to penetrate politics within work setting (Harris et al., 2009; Byrne, 2005). Thus, politics perception can be controlled by establishing, implementing, communicating and complying with clear policies and procedures (Harris et al., 2009). Secondly, by flourishing fair policies and procedures may alleviate the negative effects of politics in organizations (Byrne, 2005). In short, trust is the core component that prevents political behavior within the organization. Employers should clearly establish job responsibilities and roles. Policies and practices should also be clear for promotion and compensation (Poon, 2006). Moreover, autocratic managerial style (transactional leadership) is also a key cause to penetrate politics. A visionary, team-oriented and helpful management style is a remedy to address politics at workplace (Ram, 2010). An overview of the core striking factors reported from different work settings are given in Table-2.1.

2.2 Nature and Characteristics of the Public Sector

Public and private sectors are the two broad categories based on the form of ‘ownership’ (Rainey et al., 1976; Scott and Falcone, 1998). Private sector is owned by entrepreneurs and/or 24 shareholders. Whereas public sector is owned and controlled by political government in charge (Bozeman, 1987). According to Rainey et al., (1976), organizations can be classified as either public or private based on four approaches. The first approach mainly deals with the perception of common people who can easily categorize them as any. The second approach relies heavily at standard operating procedure. The third approach categorizes them on the basis of key activities associated with public and private organizations. Following this approach, precisely one can believe that public organizations are commonly involved for public activities and the welfare of common people while private sector works for the concerns of the owners. The fourth approach is called analytical approach where organizational processes and structure helps to distinguish these two. More importantly, organizational goals and products clarify the difference (Rainey et al. 1976). In principle, the core values of public organizations are conceived as transparency, impartiality, dedication, efficiency, lawfulness, obedience, incorruptibility, responsiveness, serviceability and social justice. On the other hand, private sector organizations adopt sustainability, effectiveness, innovativeness, profitability, collegiality and self-fulfillment (Wal and Huberts, 2008). Public sector employees are categorized as rational in terms of their choices. Instead of following orthodox path, they strive to get respect for their family lives, working task, personal lives and time spent. Public sector is also reported as advantageous over private sector in terms of human resource management practices which are more prominently prevalent in public organizations as compared to private sector. Public sector widely exercises standardized and collectivized approach to manage human resources. Moreover, it shows high affectionate attitude towards employees. Training opportunities and career advancements are also a common feature of some the public sector organizations (Boyne et al., 1999). But opinion at large often criticized public sector on account of various factors. The productivity, performance and accountability of public sector were always a question (Mihaiu et al. 2010; Lægreid, 2008; Manasan, 2000). Moreover, corruption was a key factor hindering the reform process. Public sector also lacked stringent performance measurement and incentive system. In the absence of such system, employees did not have any motivation to uphold performance (Manasan, 2000). Low pay stimulated the various problems including corruption. All kinds of public transactions, small or major, were subject to the payment of bribes in many countries (Klitgaard 1997). Public 25 employees are perceived to be less efficient, less responsive to demand, less innovative and security-seeking than private employees (Barton, 1980; Weiss, 1974; Roessne, 1977). Their motivation is usually dependent upon the supportive working environment and work family balance (Buelens, and Broeck, 2007; Posner and Schmidt, 1996). As far as the reward system is concerned, there exists a big gap between the structure of emoluments paid to the employees in these two sectors in terms of pay, benefits, and psychic value (DeSantis and Drust, 1996). Employees working with public sector have insignificant extrinsic reward expectancies (Rainey et al., 1986) and less career facilitation and development while high turnover intentions (Aryee, 1992). It allows them very less opportunities to fulfill professional expectations. At contrast, private sector professionals perceive better quality of work experience than their public sector counterparts (Aryee, 1992). Various empirical efforts have been made to examine the attitudinal and behavioral aspects of public sector. Employees working in public sector show unfavorable work-related attitudes (Rainey et al., 1986). They are found to be less satisfied with their jobs as compared to their private sector counterpart (Traut and Blunt, 1986; Aryee, 1992; Rainey, 1989; Steel & Warner, 1990). One of many factors causing this dissatisfaction might be the high red tape culture and internal conflicts which restrict them to attain the higher order needs (Wright and Davis, 2003). This may further cause less involvement and work motivation of employees in their respective job (Aryee, 1992; Buelens and Broeck, 2007; Word and Park, 2009). Red tape in public organizations also reduces the risk-taking propensity of public sector managers. Decisions once taken are hardly changeable (Turaga and Bozeman, 2005). As far the organizational commitment is concerned, the common public opinion shows that public sector employees are relatively less committed (commitment here is defined in terms of loyalty) with their jobs (Gortner et al., 1987; Rainey et al., 1986; Buchanan, 1974a & 1974b) while in some cases public employees are found more committed (Romzek, 1990). Contrary to these findings, Baldwin (1990) revealed fewer mismatches between the attitude and behavior of private and public employees. Both were found to be equally motivated and satisfied especially at managerial positions and showed more or less same level of competency and ethical values (Baldwin, 1990; Steinhaus and Perry, 1996). 26

When it comes to the managerial level, public sector managers work under ill-defined policy and procedures and unguided decision making process. Moreover, there is always an influence of a group on policy decisions in public sector organizations (Ring and Perry, 1985). They have less discretion in exercising leadership than in private sector organizations (Hooijberg and choi, 2001). Moreover, public sector managers find less flexibility in defining purposes and diverse objectives to achieve. Planning process is heavily influenced by external groups. Selection and controlling of employees is difficult. Moreover employees show less motivation towards work which further gives low productivity and difficulty in achieving results (Rainey et al. 1976). According to Azeem (2005), managers in public sector organizations are less effective in handling managerial functions with competence and in managing union leadership, bureaucracy, resistance to change and attributed low professionalism. All these factors make it imperative for the people from academia to formulate and test theories related to performance paradox. Recent technological advancements have also helped to assess the performance of public sector. Now executive can’t cheat by presenting fake figures (Thiel and Leeuw, 2002). Most countries are earnestly working to modernize their public administration in a way to improve their performance and success (Emery and Giauque, 2005). Rauch and Evans (2000) recommend to concentrate at competitive salaries, internal promotion and career stability, and meritocratic recruitment for public sector growth. The role of job design is important for improving public sector professional work (Emmert and Taher, 1992).

2.2.1 External Political Influences in Public Sector

Scott and Falcone (1988) differentiated the public sector from private by documenting three approaches; the first approach was termed as the generic approach. The proponents of generic approach perceived little differences between public and private organizations. The comparison criteria were based on organizational processes, management functions and managerial values. Particularly techniques and orientation for decision making were considered to be the same. In private organizations, decisions were made to enhance economic efficiency and monetary benefits whereas in public organizations, decision making was based by compromises, uncertainty, bargaining and political interest (Murray, 1975). The second approach was called core approach which was largely based on the notions presented through public choice theory and property right theory. The proponents of core approach suggested that the difference 27 between these two sectors was with respect to ownership transferability, market structure and externalities. For example, property right theory posited that private sector managers had vested interest to capitalize market opportunities by efficient use of resources which further enhanced their personal gains. In public sector, managers lacked such incentives and worked under red tape which caused inefficiency. Likewise, public choice theory stated that public managers did not have efficient market feedback system to set the optimal production level for goods. Under such constraint they had to produce maximum to avoid shortages causing inefficient production. Lastly, the dimensional approach differentiated both the sectors on the basis of political and economic authority influences. Bozeman (1987) argued that sectoral independence could be determined on some key dimensions of “pubilicness”. These dimensions included resource allocation, acquisition, composition of output, diversity of mission and environmental transactions. In addition, organizations influenced by some political and economic authority normally reflected same behavior irrespective of sectoral nature. Considering the example of public sector, organizations were heavily influenced by political and economic authority as compared to private organizations which were less influenced by red-tapism (Scott and Falcone, 1988). The most important feature of public organizations rest with the strong influence and pressure exerted by the political and governmental groups. They had to follow stringent governmental systems for personnel administration, purchasing and procurement (Rainey and Chun, 2007). Mihaiu et al., (2010) claimed that public organizations were influenced directly or indirectly by politicians and this influence could be in the form of bargaining, public opinion, interest group reactions (Rainey et al., 1976). Bodla and Danish (2008) also observed this notion and argued that public organizations in Pakistan were considerably associated with political system which stimulated more influential tactics among employees. External political influence posed a threat to the role of leadership in public sector organizations (Bourantas & Papalexandris, 2006). Leaders in the public sectors had limited control and influence over the organizational affairs. Addressing the problems of bureaucratic control with augmented reward power might help to enhance the role of leadership in public sector organizations (Bourantas & Papalexandris, 2006). Since external power elites were closely associated with public sector administration therefore, public sector reforms were the prime responsibility of the government usually elected through a democratic process. However, politicians considered the reforms as an investment which paid off 28 in terms of increasing the probability for their re-election. They wished to remain in control to get the benefits of reforms. This process could not take shape if the probability of re-election was unaffected by the reform choice (Hagen, 2002). So it can be said that this is the reason why government neglects reforms for its incumbent departments.

2.2.2 Public Sector of Pakistan

The administration system of public sector of Pakistan was inherited from British rule (Indian Civil Service). After partition, it was divided into Civil Services of Pakistan and Indian Administrative Services for two separate nations. In Pakistan, "civil servant means a person who is a member of an All-Pakistan Service or of a civil service of the Federation, or who holds a civil post in connection with the affairs of the Federation, including any such post connected with defense (Civil Servants Act, 1973)”. Therefore, civil services was the term adopted from the British to define public services employment. Civil services of Pakistan was said to be the real power, an elite group which managed the affairs of government machinery (Burki, 1969; Gorvin, 1965). Public sector employment accounts for over one-half of waged employment in Pakistan (Hyder and Raily, 2005). However, it is commonly perceived to be inefficient due to various reasons. Most of the governance issues are the root causes. Public sector of Pakistan is governed by complex and obsolete rules, laws and policies which are usually inconsistent and contradictory. Processes and procedures are unstandardized and fall short to protect the interests of public at large. Record-keeping and communication are stereotyped as well as maintained manually which is among key hindrances in the efficiency. Lack of standardization and ambiguous rules provide the opportunity to junior level officials to mould rules and policies according to their wills. Governments are least concerned to address the existing flaws in the public service organizations. People do not have any information about their rights, government services and grievance handling procedures (see syndicate report on Accountability2). In contrast, Haque (1998) argued that the main reason behind its inefficiency was due to the fact that employment in this particular sector was often politically manipulated. This political influence either constrained outperforming people to be inside the main stream or caused barrier

2 Syndicate Report (2010), Accountability in the Public Sector of Pakistan available at www.dgtrdt.gov.pk/Research/fol33.pdf 29 in their induction. Ultimately it had adverse impacts on the productivity of the organizations (Haque 1998). Another major cause was the heavy reliance of the public sector upon the foreign aid which was the principal source of development finance (Franco-Rodriguez et al., 1998). Public domestic resources were shifted to non-development activities with the induction of foreign aid, which were earlier allocated to productive activities and projects. Moreover, a substantial base of government finances was redirected towards social projects which were usually less productive in nature (Iqbal, 1997). It had further negative impact on tax efforts (Franco-Rodriguez et al., 1998). In addition to other causes of inefficiency, corruption was also a common attribute of public sector organizations. Most of the previous researches have emphasized the need to control the prevailing corruption (Davis, 2004). Rule of law and citizen empowerment might help to address the corruption problem (Shah 2006). Various attempts have been made to address the problems associated with the public sector throughout the world. There is a common belief that the private sector is better than public sector. This notion motivated various economies to proceed towards privatization process. Some empirical evidences also lent support to this notion (Megginson et al. 1994; Boubraki and Cosset, 1998). Popper (1980) claimed that public sector industrial enterprises were largely inefficient and should be privatized to bring them at efficient mark. Kessler and Lülfesmann (2001) also validated this contention and stated that privatization is imperative to achieve production efficiency. Naqvi and Kemal (1991) conducted a study in Pakistan to determine the impact of privatization of the public industrial enterprises on efficiency level of the firm. However, the authors couldn’t come to any definite conclusion in this regard. In an effort to enhance the performance of public sector, Shah (2006) emphasized the need of localization to eradicate the governance related issues which further caused high corruption. Localization referred to the accountability and decision making at local level. His contention demanded local political, administrative and fiscal autonomy which implied that local people should be authorize to hire and fire government employees, generate and spend finances as well as mobilize resources in their best interest (Shah, 2006). 30

2.2.3 Political Behavior and Perceived Politics in Public Sector

Public sector organizations work under public policy and show less flexibility and high rigidity (Lian and Laing, 2004). Lagrosen and Lagrosen (2003) claim public service organizations as less customer oriented as compared to private sector. Different attempts have been made to distinguish features, competencies and operations of public sector organizations from private sector. Literature shows negative perception of common people towards public sector organizations. For example, Schiflett and Zey (1990) concluded that public organizations generally have ambiguous, qualitative, and inconsistent goals usually unrelated to means. Their goals are often defined by other groups having vested interest and are usually unrealistic and ambiguous. Governments around the world are endeavoring to improve the performance of public organizations through regulations and educating professionals as well as managers (leaders). There is a strong need to change the behavior of leaders governing public sector organizations. But efforts made in this regard are not very encouraging because institutional context is usually ignored and the efforts remain futile. Therefore, micro, individual, situational and cultural approaches to leadership should be taken into account to change the scenario (Currie et al., 2009). Leaders in the public sector organizations need to be task, relations, change, diversity and integrity-oriented to positively influence the performance of public sector organization (Fernandez et al. 2010). In a broader context, organizations should also adopt modern principles such as team-based incentives, just-in-time inventory, lean manufacturing and some other key principles of total quality management (Matusik and Hill, 1998). Public sector managers work in an environment which poses indifferent and unusual demands on their behaviors (Ring and Perry, 1985). It cannot be believed that the most successful and adequately competent individuals can work productively in all of the functional areas. Success rests with the explicit formulation of objectives, commitment to the organization, skill sets, keen desire to excel and self-confidence (Lawson, 1994). Here the notion presented through public service motivation theory is worth to consider, which posits that the individuals with a strong public service orientation are comfortable in public sector hence performs well (Perry and Wise, 1990) therefore only individuals having interest and attraction to serve public should be employed in public organizations (Carpenter et al., 2011). Besides all these, there are numerous issues which need to be investigated in detail. For example, a complete understanding of the 31 formal and informal mechanisms are yet to be explored which are widely recognized as “regulatory hybrids” in the public sector (Barretta and Busco, 2011). The present era is witnessing internal politics in nearly every organizations and community. This led to the importance of examining the political behavior in different domains and functional areas because the consequences of internal politics differ significantly from sector to sector. This impression motivated various authors and researchers to explore this particular variable in public and private sectors separately and jointly to know the similarity if any (Vigoda-Gadot’s, 2006). Research efforts have been made to study the existing perception of politics and political participation among individuals in public sector organizations (Witt et al., 2000; Cohen and Vigoda, 1999; Parker et al., 1995). Reasons were quite obvious, public sector organizations offered a different working environment. It worked under the public policy and showed less flexibility and high rigidity (Lian and Laing, 2004). Lagrosen and Lagrosen, (2003) found public service organizations as least customer oriented as compared to private sector. Different attempts have been made to distinguish features, competencies and operations of public sector organizations from private sector. Keeping in view the different nature of public sector organizations various attempts were directed to explore the organizational politics in relation to the individuals associated with public sector in any way. In this regard, the most significant contribution was made by Vigoda (2000; 2001 and 2002). The focus of the author mainly remained on examining the perception of politics in association with other variables among various types of government and public service organizations. Vigoda (2000) concluded public sector employees’ and perception of politics had significant impact on various job and work outcomes. Later Vigoda (2001) made a comparative analysis of British and Israeli employees of public sector organizations. Although employees in both the countries felt the existence of politics but comparatively British employees perceived high politics in their respective public organizations. Another important contribution was made by Vigoda (2002) by conducting three studies based on the sample of private, public and third sector employees (third-sector represented employees responsible to provide child-care services) and found public sector employees perceiving high politics in their working environment as compared to private and other sectors. Later, Vigoda-Gadot and Kapun (2005) compared the perception of politics among various public sector employees and private sector. The result confirmed the high perceived politics of public sector employees as compared to private sector. 32

In Pakistani environment, Bodla and Danish (2009) conducted a study to find out the relationship between perceived organizational politics and work performance among various public and private sector employees studying management courses part time. Results showed high intensity of perception of politics and its relationship with various work related outcomes. In nutshell, sufficient evidences were available about the existence of organizational politics been evaluated in public sector. Table-(1.1) and (2.1) provides an overview in this regard;

Table 2.3: Previous Researches on Organizational Politics in Public Sector

Sample Authors Population (N) Main Variables Size n Ferris and Kacmar Public and Private Sector Perception of Politics, job satisfaction, organizational involvement, 1 264 1992 Employees Organizational and Personal Influences etc

Civilian Government Perception of Politics, Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, 2 Nye and Witt, 1993 1297 Organization Equal Opportunity, Organizational Support

Government organization Perception of Politics, Various Organizational, Job and Personal 3 Parker et al., 1995 associated with large scale 1641 Influences R&D projects

Perception of Politics, Antagonistic work behaviors, physical and 4 Cropanzano, 1997 Public Western University 185 psychological withdrawal behaviors, Job satisfaction, Job involvement, Work stress and Burnout etc

Cohen and Vigoda, Political Participation, Performance, Participation in Decision Making, 5 Public Health Organizations 200 1999 Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment

Perception of Politics, Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, 6 Vigoda, 2000 Two Local Municipalities 303 Intentions to Exit, Neglect, Performance

Perception of Politics, Participation in Decision Making , Job 7 Witt et al. 2000 Public-Sector Organizations 1251 Satisfaction, Positive and Negative Affectivity

Perception of Politics, Met Expectations, Person-Organization Fit, 8 Vigoda, 2000 Local Municipalities 303 Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) and In-role Behaviors

Perception of Politics, Justice, Support, leader–member exchange, Andrews and Kacmar, 9 Water Management District 418 centralization, formalization, co-worker cooperation, role conflict, and 2001 locus of control

Perception of Politics, Participation in Decision Making, Formalization, 10 Vigoda, 2001 Israeli Public Sector 411 Job Autonomy, Job Hierarchy, Exit, Voice, Loyalty, Neglect, Job Satisfaction, Absenteeism

Perception of Politics, Participation in Decision Making, Formalization, 11 Vigoda, 2001 British Public Sector 208 Job Autonomy, Job Hierarchy, Exit, Voice, Loyalty, Neglect, Job Satisfaction, Absenteeism

Perception of Politics, Distress, Aggressive Behavior, Job Satisfaction, 12 Vigoda, 2002 Public-Sector Employees 201 Organizational Commitment, Job Status

Perception of Politics, Job ambiguity, Scarcity of resources, Trust 13 Poon, 2003 Public Universities 208 climate, Job satisfaction, Turnover intention

Vigoda-Gadot et al., Local Government 169 + Perception of Politics, Organizational image, Job autonomy, Job 14 2003 Employees and Israeli Navy 224 Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment

Perception of Politics, Met Expectations, Person-Organization Fit, Job Vigoda and Cohen, satisfaction, Organizational commitment, Intentions of exit, Voice, 15 Large public Sector Agency 244 2003 Neglect, Perception of organizational politics, In-role performance, Organizational citizenship behavior

Table 2.4: Previous Researches on Organizational Politics in Public Sector (Cntd.)

Sample Authors Population Main Variables Size n Perception of Politics, job satisfaction, organisational commitment, job Vigoda-Gadot and Public and Private Sector 16 700 distress and burnout, self-reported turnover intentions, negligent Kapun, 2005 Employees behaviour and absenteeism

Public security division of a Perception of Politics, leadership styles, In-role performance and 17 Vigoda-Gadot, 2007 201 law enforcement agency organizational citizenship behavior

Bodla and Danish, Public and Private Sector Perception of Politics, Job Stress, Job Involvement, Job Satisfaction, 18 253 2009 Employees Organizational Commitment, Turnover Intentions

Semi-Government Perception of Politics, Frustration, Job satisfaction, Task performance, 19 Rosen et al., 2009 Organization dealing with 134 OCB, Supervisor and self-rated Turnover Intentions Family-Related Health Issues

Public and Private Sector Perception of Politics, Big Five personality, Employee Engagement, 20 Solano, 2009 323 Employees Willingness to share knowledge

Danaeefard et al., 21 Public Universities 307 Perception of Politics, Peer-reported and self-reported OCB 2010

Vigoda-Gadot, Talmud Perception of Politics, Various measures of Social Capital and Job 22 Public Universities 142 & Peled, 2008 Performance

Perception of Politics, leader–member exchange (LMX), organizational 23 Rosen et al., 2010 State Governmental Agency 157 justice etc

2.3 Theoretical Foundation of the Study

2.3.1 The Just World Theory

The Just World Theory provided the basic underpinning of our notion which pertains to the definite and predictable consequences of every action. According to Lerner (1980), the Just World theory which is also termed as the Just World Hypothesis, describes a perceptual phenomena (may also be termed as a contract) in which individuals feel that their every actions have a predictable, calculated and appropriate consequences in this world. Therefore, an individual has an implied believe that his action and behavior will lead to certain definite consequences and he can change the things as per his own intentions. Precisely, people have believes that the world would make justice to each of their action and behavior to expected consequences. This is the reason people have plans and objectives in life and subsequent goal- driven behavior. Hafer and Begue (2005) stated that believing at just the world concept is a fundamental need of people because people live in accordance with the principles of deservingness and this aspect force the individual to perceive and react in case of unexpected and contradictory evidences. An additional assumption of this theory is the personal immunity. But what happens sometimes especially in the work environment, they are confronted with the situations which reveals the fact that the world is not Just! Unjustified events and incidences are occurred without any precedence such as favoritism, prejudice, lobbying, ambiguous work environment, rigid work structures etc. This gives them a thought that the nature of working in their respective environment is mere pursuing the self-interest which is referred as Perception of Politics. Facing these situations, people (employees) formulate various rational and irrational strategies. Taking it positively they understand situation by accepting injustice and alter their frame of mind (commitment). The other strategy can be in the form of denial (deviant behavior), withdrawal (turnover intentions) and complaining (voice) (Lerner & Miller, 1978; Lerner & Montada, 1998). Employees consider themselves as invulnerable of facing negative outcomes like the decisions about them should be based on merit and they should not be a victim of politics. It depends on people as how they use their beliefs to deal with the vicissitudes of their occupational life and future intentions (Furnham, 2003). Experts and scientists also take Just World belief in terms of 36 causal attribution. As anything happened in this world should have pre determined causes or otherwise it can lead towards perception of illegitimate and un-sanctioned behavior which is termed as perception of politics from others point of view.

2.3.2 Social Exchange Theory

The second theory supporting our argument is social exchange theory which proposes that social behavior or human relationships are the outcome of exchange process (Blau, 1964). The basis of human behavior and relations within and outside the organizations are based on the cost-benefits analysis and the comparison of alternatives. This relationship is formed when employees feel that the benefits overweigh the cost. Costs can be taken as the input like time, money, effort etc. while rewards are the elements of a relationship that have positive value i.e. companionship, acceptance, support etc. Employees in the workplace strive to maximize benefits and minimize cost. Social exchange theory further proposes that the action and the behavior are more frequently performed when the action is rewarded both substantially and timely (Blau, 1964). Reverse analogy is also true, employees avoid those actions and behaviors when they are punished out of it, or when the action or behavior is not timely rewarded or the worth of the reward is not at par to the psychological benchmark of the employee (Homans, 1961). Individuals pursue those behaviors with high reward value and the probability to receive. If this cost-benefit equilibrium is not formed or when given input is not resulting into expected outcome, it causes to generate negative perceptions among employees. They may have a feeling that employers and other members are involved in favoritism and helping those who are close to them or who can be beneficial at any stage for him. This perception is termed as perception of politics in organizational behavior literature. Employees may show various reactions in response to weaken cost-benefit bond which need thorough examination.

2.4 Antecedents and Consequences of Organizational Politics

2.4.1 Participation in Decision Making

2.4.1.1 Defining Participation in Decision Making Managers of the contemporary era face various challenges. Some common issues include discrimination, avoiding responsibility, stringent rules and regulations, personal loyalty at work, subjectivity in evaluation and promotion, unwillingness to shoulder responsibilities, outdated administrative system, alliances and grouping in departments, and contradictory rules and regulations (Al-Kazemi, 2002). Among all other challenges, timely and affective decision making also pose a challenge for the managers. In organizational life, managers are confronted various situations when they have to take decisions both operational and strategic. Decision making is a key element of managerial job wherein they have to make choices about how to decide and with whom to decide (Ashmos et al., 1998). Participation in decision making (PDM) is generally defined as joint decision making or at least shared influence in decision making by a superior and his or her employee (Koopman & Wierdsma, 1998). Vogoda (2001) define it as the extent to which staff members participate in setting the goals and policies of the entire organization (Vigoda, 2001). Nearly similar views are presented by Jian and Jeffres (2008) who take it as how much say one has in the decision-making process of a work organization. The roots of participation in decision making can be traced back to the Goal Setting Theory presented by Locke (1968) and Theory “Y” presented by Mcgregor (1960). According to goal setting theory (Locke, 1968), employees’ participation in goal setting makes goal more acceptable and enhances work motivation. Theory “Y” stated that employees consider work as natural and enjoy work duties. They can be self-motivated towards assignments under favorable working conditions. However, managerial role is quite important to sustain this self-directed behavior. To uphold consistent working, a manager should foster trust climate by establishing open communication system and integration to enhance synergy. More importantly, it is imperative to take all employees on board during decision making process especially which have strong influence on them (Northouse, 2004). Authors have supported the participatory practices of employees’ in different culture, provided their capability and job demand (Aboyassin, 2008). Participation in decision making flourishes a 38 mechanism for continuous improvement. Stashevsky and Elizur (2000) claim participation in decision making as an integral part of total quality management processes which further affects improvement efforts and individual performance. Therefore, quality measures cannot take effects in the absence of employees’ involvement. At contrast, participative management is not recommended for situations which repeatedly occur on daily basis (Slate and Vogel, 1997). Previous studies show that the orientation and managerial inclination towards participation in decision making differ significantly across nations (Zoghi and Mohr, 2011). Employees working at different levels have some psychological attributes which needs to be examined to avoid problems for effective working. Value differences emphasize the need to analyze and understand the culture both macro and micro at organizational level. Usually, culture is derived from the people who are apart of society. Therefore, national culture coupled with tribal norms, may flourish a unique organizational culture which may or may not accept participating managerial approaches. For example, a study shows that local managers in middle east regions are consultative in nature and even other expatriates working at managerial position may like to adopt consultative style to manage affairs and take decisions (Ali et al., 1995). Although consultative decision making style being time consuming may create frustration when these managers deal with western managers (Ali, 1993). While considering the nature and personality of participation oriented managers, they are positive, team oriented and optimistic. This is the reason, they accept and favor modern management approaches such as change and restructuring, organizational development and job enrichment (Ali, 1993). Managers accustomed with participative decision making style, avoid unnecessary direction and strict supervision for the subordinates. They prefer to take all subordinates on board and develop consensus while taking all decisions and specifically which may affect their working. Moreover, they generously reward good performers and take lenient view for punitive measures. They regularly hold meetings to listen to their subordinates’ concerns (Bakhtari, 1995). Broadly, organizations that treat all employees as their internal customers and satisfy the needs of employees as a part of developmental strategy usually prefer employees’ involvement in organizational operations (Lin, 2006). To some experts, employees are now involved in decision making to some extent in the contemporary era. However, this involvement varies significantly at various levels and employees wish to have participatory approaches (Ejaz et al., 2011; Kahnweiler and Thompson, 39

2000). Usually young employees want more involvement in decision making. At contrast, older and less educated employees are not interested to participate in decision making (Kahnweiler and Thompson, 2000). In some situations, decisional deprivation may provoke a hostile attitude among employees (Alutto and Belasco, 1972). By providing opportunities to participate in decision making, confer an added assignment or workload to employees. But such participation is a type of autonomy that employees enjoy. Decision participation coupled with autonomy and increased workloads provide a motivation to work affectively (Scott-Ladd and Marshall, 2004).

2.4.1.2 Historical Evolution of Participation in Decision Making The origin of consultative decision making is traced back to basic Islamic principle “Shura” shūrā) which connotes “consultation” (Osman, 2001; William, 1963). It is a basic ﺷــﻮرى) principle of Islam which refers to deciding affairs with consultation especially from those who are to be affected by those decisions. Complying with the Shura, Muslims under a system of proportional representation are required to debate or discuss the issue and forward the consensus to the Khalifah (a spiritual leader of Islam) in the best interest of the Ummah (the Muslim community or people) (Osman, 2001). Shura has wide implications for Muslims which emphasize the consultative decision making at macro and micro level. At macro level, it is called Maljis-ash-Shura for elected or co-opted assemblies with advisory or legislative powers in Islamic countries. Like in Pakistan, the official term Majlis-e-Shoora represents the federal and supreme legislative body of Pakistan. recommended to take decisions by ( ﺻــــﻠﻰ ﷲ ﻋﻠﯿــــﮫ وﺳﻠﻢ) At micro level, Quran and Muhammad mutual consultation and consensus around 1400 years ago. This led to the importance of consultative and joint decision making in managing society affairs and at organizational level (Sulaiman, 1999). Whereas the history of consultative decision making from the western culture can be traced back to Iroquois Confederacy Grand Council or Haudenosaunee which is a league of several nations and tribes of indigenous people of North America. Haudenosaunee precisely called Iroquois developed consensuses formula of 75% for the first time to finalize decisions in 1142 (Gregory, 1987; Keesler, 2004; Johansen, 1995). Moreover, consensus decision making was also observed among the Anabaptists or Mennonites during 16th century (Lebold, 1989). But the most cited example of participative decision making from the western culture was basically rooted back to Quakers. Quakers doctrine was started in 40

1652 by George who emphasized to exercise inner ability of every person in decision making (Abbott et al., 2003; Bacon, 2006). Adhering to this principle, Quakers organize meetings to take decision on any issue which they call to get way forward from God. Quaker meetings are held in general meeting rooms where all Quakers sit in a circle. During meetings each quark is moved by spirit and speaks when convinced to share something important. Business or organizational meetings which are called "Meetings for Worship with a Concern for Business" are also held in this way to decide business matters. Meetings can be held for different purposes but the objective is to get individual contributions to come at definite conclusion (Schneider, 1999; Collins, 1996).

2.4.1.3 Antecedents and Consequences of Participation in Decision Making Employee participation has been analyzed in different domains due to its positive outcomes not only for the organization but also at individual level (Stashevsky and Elizur, 2000; Kalmi et al., 2005). Even community participation in government decision making is worth giving (Irvin and Stansbury, 2004). At organizational level, some of the key factors are proved to be the key outcomes of participation in decision making. For example, employee participation has negative relationship with occupational stress (Slate and Vogel, 1997) and positive relationship with work effort and autonomy (Scott-Ladd et al., 2004). It stimulates innovative behavior among employees (Axtell et al., 2000). This argument is also supported by De-Dreu and West (2001) claiming that participation in decision making played an interactive role to bring creativity and innovation. Dickson (1982) view employee participation as their moral right which is essential to develop and sustain their morale. Participatory management is also a technique to address the physical and occupational stress (Slate and Vogel, 1997). Moreover, participative decision making (PDM) has strong bearing at task variety and autonomy. It also influences task identity indirectly through autonomy. Moreover, decision involvement of employees augments performance effectiveness and productivity at workplace (Scott-Ladd and Marshall, 2004). Some of the most desirable and researched outcomes such as organizational commitment, job satisfaction and organizational performance also result due to participatory practices (Driscoll, 1978, Elele and Fields, 2010; Sukirno and Siengthai, 2011). There exist various evidences, where participation in decision making has shown close association with job satisfaction (Cotton, 1988). The study of Driscoll (1978) show that decision making style has strong bearing at the satisfaction level of employees. Whereas, Scott-Ladd et 41 al., (2004) and Wickramasinghe and Wickramasinghe (2012) has found indirect link between participation in decision making and job satisfaction. However, participation in decision making is like a self-accountable approach which demands better performance and productivity. High performance expectations in uncertain environment may not have healthy effects on job satisfaction (Scott-Ladd and Marshall, 2004). Moreover, it also directly and indirectly affects organizational commitment (Scott-Ladd et al., 2004; Elele and Fields, 2010; Johnson, 1990; Reyes, 1990; Wickramasinghe and Wickramasinghe, 2012). Whereas, Alutto and Belasco (1972) provide contradictory findings wherein decisional participation lack any influence to make employees’ committed. In some studies, it is also found to directly and indirectly influence organizational citizenship behavior (Bogler and Somech, 2005; Muhammad, 2004). Employees work even more willingly when their involvement is made in key decisions (Sukirno and Siengthai, 2011; Stashevsky and Elizur, 2000). At broad context, researches have shown strong positive impact of participatory approaches to overall organizational working. For example, Rodrigues (1994) concluded that employee participation programmes may ultimately increase organizational performance. Some other researchers have also endorsed its relationship with organizational performance (Sukirno and Siengthai, 2011; Scott-Ladd et al., 2004). Participative approaches make the organization more responsive and flexible. Organizations utilizing participative management are usually found to be more successful in conducting their operations (Oosthuizen and du-Toit, 1999). Organizations may enjoy various kinds of improvements such as reduced operating costs, improved quality, customer service and reduced absenteeism (Scott-Ladd et al., 2004). However, Cotton (1988) contradicts various stances and argues that the outcomes of participation in decision making depends on the type of participation and cannot predict consistent results. Informal participation in decision making has strong association with job satisfaction and organizational productivity but short-term participation may not necessarily give such results (Cotton, 1988). Due to pervasive influence of participation in decision making at various important outcomes, authors have specified different factors which helps to enhance employees’ participation in decision making and participatory practices. Generally, participation in decision making is an outcome of participatory work practices which may include joint consultative committees (JCCs), teams and quality circles (Zoghi and Mohr, 2011). While according to Cabrera et al., (2003) organizations with explicit differentiation strategy usually go for more employees’ 42 participation in decision making. Effectiveness of participatory practices largely depend upon the active involvement of all members and their support. Furthermore, time and resources also play an important role in this regard (Pashiardis, 1994). But trust is the main binding force to generate employees’ participation. Dependable, consistent and faithful employees should be invited to participate in decision making (Wang, 2003). The study of Lin (2006) has found a positive link between expressive relationship and organizational climate with employee involvement. Organizations having more focus at internal marketing enjoy more employee involvement as compared to low-intensity internal marketing (Lin, 2006). As far as the demographical variables are concerned, age and education has strong effects on the desire to participate in decision while gender doesn’t influence in this regard (Kahnweiler and Thompson, 2000). The study of Alutto and Belasco (1972) shows that decisionally deprived employees are normally older females, new inductees, employed at far areas and role conflict victims. Employees having strong ties with unions and involved in strikes also have likelihood to face decisional deprivation. To encourage employees’ participation in strategic decision making, Ashmos et al., (1998) highlighted the importance of strategic issues, rule orientation and past financial performance which may directly and indirectly influence participation in strategic decision making.

2.4.1.4 Participation in Decision Making and Perception of Politics Previous researches showed a keen focus towards structurationist perspective of organizational factor in explaining politics perception (Riley, 1983). For example, formalization as well as centralization which were the main characteristics of bureaucratic structure, had been analyzed in different settings and proved to be significant predictors of perception of politics (Willem et al., 2007; Buenger et al., 2007; Muhammad, 2007). Centralization and formalization alongwith the hierarchical level was first proposed by Ferris et al., (1989) in his famous model of perceptions of organizational politics which provided key insight into the major antecedents and outcomes of perception of politics. Later, Ferris and colleagues (1996) revalidated the model by observing the relationships of the variables again. Some researches conducted in recent past also showed the influence of formalization and centralization as key predictors towards perception of politics. As we can see in the study of 43

Buenger et al., (2007) and Muhammad (2007) formalization, centralization and hierarchical levels were formed to be key predictors towards organizational politics. Fredrickson (1986) defines centralization as the extent to which the decision involvement and evaluate activities, is concentrated while decentralization is the degree to which the right of decision-making is distributed to different structural components. Formalization refers to the degree to which standard policies, formal rules and procedures are explicitly laid down (Fredrickson, 1986). Since centralization had been individually proved as a significant predictor to perception of politics in different studies (Kacmar et al., 1999; Valle and Perrewe, 2000) therefore, participation in decision making remained apart of many researches due to its close operational resemblance with centralization. For example, Jaworski & Kohli (1993, p. 56) defined centralization as an inverse to the degree of delegation of decision-making authority throughout an organization and the extent of participation by organizational members in decision-making. Organizations following centralized structure had ultimate power and decision-making concentrated at the top rather than shared with lower levels of the organization (Menon & Varadarajan, 1992; Ruekert et al., 1985; Auh and Menguc, 2007). Since centralization was all about restricting the power and especially decision making involvement of employees, therefore participation in decision making was selected as key element in the succeeding era. Aiken and Hage (1968) was first to observe this construct similarity and measured decentralization in terms of participation in decision making under organizational behavior domain. Parker, Dipboye and Jackson (1995) also observed this similarity and defined participation in decision making “as the degree to which greater employee involvement provides opportunities for influence to lower levels of the organization”. Some other authors defined participation in decision making as the act of sharing decision making with others to achieve organizational objectives (Knoop, 1991; Jian & Jeffres, 2008). Vogoda (2001) defined this variable as the extent to which staff members participated in setting the goals and policies of the entire organization (Vigoda, 2001). While considering the significance of participation in decision making, it remained apart of various persimmons models to explain perception of politics. Parker et al., (1995) concluded that when employees were involved in decision making, they were less likely to perceive politics in their workplace. Same inverse relationship was found by Vigoda (2001) between participation in decision making and perception of politics. Perception of organizational politics was frustrating 44 for the lower status employees, who lacked decision involvement, influence and power to get advantage of political manipulations (Drory, 1993). However, Kacmer et al. (1999) and later Vigoda and Cohen (2004) couldn’t observe any effects of participation in decision making on perception of politics given the justification that when employees enjoyed more involvement in occupational affairs they had more likelihood to involve in organizational politics (Sobel, 1993). Participation in decision making was also found as having moderating effects on the relationship between perception of politics and job satisfaction. The negative relationship between perception of politics and job satisfaction was established in many studies (Cropanzano et al., 1997; Witt, 1995). However, the study of Witt et al., (2000) showed that perception of politics may change this relationship by providing more satisfaction to the employees when employees were involved in decision making. Reason lied in the sense that decision involvement was a tool to address the aversive conditions such as prevailing politics (Witt et al., 2000). As stated by Witt (1995), to address the negative effects of organizational politics, managers should involve their subordinate staff in decision making process. Decision involvement establishes a synergy and mutual understanding to avoid any aversive condition (Witt, 1995; Witt et al. 2000). In nutshell, if organization intends to minimize the adverse effects of organizational politics then managers should strive to avoid uncertainty, job ambiguity and establish decentralized mechanism for effective involvement of employees in decision making (Katrinli et al., 2010). Foregoing in view, the following hypothesis is developed. H1 : Participation in decision making negatively influences perception of politics.

2.4.2 Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity

2.4.2.1 Defining Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity The contemporary business environment demands consistent efficiency in each sphere of organizational life (Harris, 2006). This force organizations to assign various high demanding job responsibilities to its employees (Stamper and Johlke, 2003). By adding more and more work assignments generate role and stress related issues (Stamper and Johlke, 2003). A role is defined as a pattern of behaviors (Ilgen & Hollenbeck, 1991) whereas role stressor refers to the pressure experienced by employees due to job demands and related constraints (Kahn et al., 1964). According to Jackson and Schuler (1985), job-related role stresses mainly consists of two components known as role conflict and role ambiguity. This notion is well received because 45 around 200 studies have been published highlighting the importance of role ambiguity and role conflict so far (Van-Sell et al., 1981, p. 44). Role dimensions have varying impacts on employees working. Roles are accepted because it brings various psychological benefits for them such as status, ego gratification and increased self-esteem (William & Alliger, 1994). Besides some key benefits, there exists substantial cost associated with the roles when employees cannot perform upto desired expectations. Employees fail to fulfill the role demands when they do not have clear guidelines regarding their role’s responsibility and authority. This incongruence further causes dissatisfaction, stress and inefficiency (Lee & Schular, 1980). However, employees usually put their sincere efforts to comply with the role expectations because goal achievements and rewards thereupon are tied with work roles (Ashforth & Lee, 1990). On the other hand, when roles and performance criteria are vague and confusing, employees feel these uncertainties as intimidating to their interests (Idris, 2011). Path-Goal Theory provides the basic underpinning about how roles in the organizations are explained and how leaders help their subordinates in streamlining role problems. Path/Goal Theory which is also called path–goal theory of leader effectiveness accentuates the need of guidance provided by the managers’ to their subordinates in a way to achieve their goals as well as the organizational goals (House, 1971). However, the influential work of Kahn and colleagues are worth to discuss in a way to understand the dynamics of roles within organizations. Kahn and colleagues presented organizational role theory in 1964 which stated that organizational factors generated role expectations which were transmitted by role senders. These expectations further became role pressures to a specific person called role incumbent (Kahn et al., 1964). Organizational Role Theory (ORT) provides basic understanding of the processes that have strong bearing at the emotional state of employees which may further affect their behavior (Kahn et al., 1964). ORT explains the acceptance of role, employee’s relationship with the employer and society, and the inconsistency arising while performing roles within the organization (Parker and Wickham, 2005). Since employees’ behavior is the key antecedent to employee performance therefore, an understanding of employees’ behavior may help to enhance their performance. Notwithstanding the development of ORT around five decades ago (developed in 1960), its 46 implications are still helpful in understanding the dynamics of organizational behavior in contemporary environment. In organizational setting, employees working at various positions have different expectations from the role incumbents. Especially employees associated with role incumbent in anyway holds varying expectations. For example, immediate boss, peers, customers and some others certainly have some expectations. There exist possibilities that some conflicting expectations may arise from role incumbent due to multiple roles demanding jobs or from different individuals working at various positions. This situation turns into opposing role requirements. Kahn et al., (1964) describe such situation as role conflict. Katz and Kahn (1978) refer role conflict as the simultaneous occurrence of two or more role expectations in a way that compliance with one would make compliance with the other more difficult whereas Van-Sell et al., (1981) take it as incongruity of the expectations associated with a role. Kahn et al., (1964) further states that when role incumbent faces the problem of inconsistent roles may lead towards dissatisfaction, stress, eroding performance and commitment. Precisely, role conflict can drastically affect the psychological well being of the employees. Another problem identified in the role theory is “Role Ambiguity” which refers to the unavailability of role-related information. Guimaraes (1997) defined role ambiguity as the condition where desired roles sent to the employee are vague and the employee is likely to experience confusion and uncertainty in performing the roles expectations. Therefore, role incumbent requires certain information to conform or to perform the role expectations held by the role senders. Employees should explicitly know the expectations of the role sender as well as the responsibilities, activities and the rights associated with the position. In short, he should know his responsibilities and activities to be performed and how to be performed. Under ambiguous environment, such information does not exist or if it exists, the role incumbent lacks such information thus creates role ambiguity. Precisely, role ambiguity arises due to non-existent of necessary information to perform in accordance with the expectations or inadequately disseminated information to the role incumbent. Same as role conflict, Kahn et al., (1964) prescribe some key problems associated with role ambiguity which may be in the form of anxiety, stress and inefficiency. Kahn et al. (1964) also argue that the intensity of role ambiguity increases with the increase in individuals’ span of comprehension. House and Rizzo (1972) claim role ambiguity as a powerful variable than role conflict while both are widely known as job 47 related stressors (Jackson and Schuler, 1985). In nutshell, Kahn et al., (1964) elaborates role stressors as the pressure experienced by an individual as a result of organizational and job- specific factors in the form of demands and constraints that have been placed on them. Among other striking issues, role ambiguity and role conflict are the leading social psychological stressors examined initially to understand occupational work stress (Lu and Lee, 2007). But some other types of role stressors have also been identified in view of the situational environments. For example, Frone (1990) and, Glazer and Beehr, (2005) investigated role overload in addition to role conflict and role ambiguity, while Morley and Flynn, (2003) added role novelty and Ngo et al., (2005) work–family conflict in addition to other role stressors. However, a large body of literature shows the dominant role of role conflict and role ambiguity in organizational behavior (Schuler, 1977; Lu and Lee, 2007; Teh, Ooi and Yong 2008). Role stressors not only affect the occupational life of the individuals but also negatively influence the home life which weakens the bond between employee and the organization. How can an employee stay committed with the organization which is causing pain and discomfort (Hogan et al., 2006). Therefore, management should listen to employees with respect to the factors causing role conflict and ambiguity and take measures to reduce the effects of any kind of role stressors (Hogan et al., 2006). In contemporary environment, employees see role conflict and ambiguity as a reality of work life. Leigh et al., (1988) argue that role stressors should not be taken as a failure to leadership or communication, rather as an opportunity which let employee respond to work complexities. Organizations taking strict measures may limit the work assignment to large extent (Leigh et al. 1988).

2.4.2.2 Historical Evolution of Role, Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity The emergence of organizational behavior as a distinctive discipline is due to the fact that individual behavior can be predicted and largely influenced by some social forces. These behaviors are contingent upon the situations and social position of individuals. By providing the same factors, we can predict the behavior to a greater extent. Various theories have been presented to support this argument and among them role theory explicitly elucidate this phenomenon (Hindin, 2007). The origin of role theory is rooted back to sociology and social psychology but its implications has benefited to other fields. This theory explains the multiple roles occupied by people which are also characterized as “a social position”. 48

Initial contribution towards role theory was made by Linton (1936) which was widely known as functionalist role and consensus theory. It described role as a reflection of shared and normative expectations explaining behavior vested in social position. Roles were said to be culturally driven phenomenon possessing some key expectations and norms inherent in a position. In this way roles were considered as position specific which let certain role behaviors acceptable and appropriate for some positions while inappropriate for some others. Individuals under the social system strived to get familiarity with these norms and let others to conform respectively. Precisely, functional role theory provided basic codes of conduct under stable system pertaining to acceptable and unacceptable roles in different domains. Functional role theory was not free from criticism. Since some roles were not related with any functions and social positions therefore lacked conformity. They fell under other normative expectation and cognitive processes (Jackson, 1988; Biddle, 1986). Some significant work on functional role theory could be observed from the contribution of Bartels and May (2008), Horowitz (1992), Godfrey-Smith (1993) and Cummins (1975). Later the role paradox witnessed symbolic interactionist role theory. The emergence of interactionist social theory was linked with the work of Mead (1934) which emphasized the roles of individual actors. According to Mead (1934), roles were evolved through social interaction particularly through cognitive process which helped social actors to understand behavior. Assuming these contentions, role could not be considered as uniform or prescribed phenomena rather kept on changing in a tentative and creative way. As Pollard (1985, p. 152) stated that individual's understanding about a role was an outcome of the interaction between his or her subjective experiences and manifestation on others responses. Mead’s seminal work was inspired from the way children learn by observing and imitating others (role-taking). Same applied with adults who adopted roles or behavior patterns from other people around them in creative ways through social interaction process. They either adopted the role as it was or made modification if deemed necessary (Biddle, 1986). Symbolic interactionism also received some criticism as it lacked the contextual boundaries in applying the insights. It also ignored the structural constraints upon roles and failed to address actors' expectations for other persons. Moreover, symbolic interaction perspectives couldn’t clarify relationship between expectations and conduct. Whether expectations were supposed to be generated or emerge conjointly with roles etc (Biddle, 1986). Some significant work on 49 symbolic interactionist theory were contributed by Stryker (1968), Kuhn (1964) and Stryker (2001). These criticism provided grounds to structural role theory which emphasized the influence of society rather than individuals on roles. Ralph Linton presented the idea of structured role relationships in 1936 through mathematically expressed model about role behavior. Linton (1936) effort was more focused towards social structure rather on expectations for conduct and social interaction. Role was defined as a position in a particular pattern comprising various rights and duties. Social structures were referred to stable organizations of sets of persons. These sets of persons were termed as "social positions" or "statuses". Therefore, when someone took on his duties it constituted his status and he was performing his role. Roles couldn’t be isolated from statuses and statuses from roles. Individuals in a given society had many statuses which brought many roles. Precisely, total of all statuses constituted the unique status of a person which could be considered as one’s position in a society. In this way, role comprised sum of all the roles carrying a person. It also showed the behavior pattern of a person in a society and what society might expect from him (Merton, 1957; Linton, 1936). Later the work of Oeser and Frank entitled “A mathematical model for structural role theory: I (1962), II (Oeser and Frank, 1962) and III (Oeser and Frank, 1962)” were of paramount importance in relation with structural role theory. Although the work of Linton showed explicit calculations but usually some behavioral scientists were least interested in studying mathematical symbols. Secondly, Linton notion did not provide any mechanism for nonconforming person. Furthermore, structural role theory lacked any explanation regarding behaviors and phenomenal experience (Biddle, 1986). Keeping the significance of functionalists, structuralists, and symbolic interactionists aside, organizational role theory emerged as an explicit theoretical approach to understand work roles and their complexities in the organization. Work on organizational role theory was initiated by Gross et al., (1958) but it acquired attention with seminal work of Kahn et al., (1964). Organizational role theory posits that organizational environment has strong influence on the way employees behave, thinks, and perceives different situations. There exists different expectations formed by various position holders in the organization about the role behaviors of employees (may be termed as focal person or role incumbent) (Kahn et al., 1964). These expectations are consisting of both norms and pressures to behave in a specific way. Whenever a focal person receives messages, decodes them and act in certain way. However, problem lies 50 when the focal person feels the messages are unclear, difficult to interpret or feel constrained to act upon due to message falling beyond limits. In such situation, he feels uncertain and indifferent to act upon and may respond in such a manner that is not intended by the sender. There exist various factors that help to improvise expectations. These factors can be role itself, society, the people who perform role, and others who have any interest in the role. Organizational role theory has substantial impact on organizational behavior, psychological and management domain. Organizational behavior and industrial psychology literature have witnessed variety of researches based upon organizational role theory presented by Kahn et al., (1964). However, organizational role theory is not free from criticism. The main criticism lye upon ignoring the emerging roles or role evolving other than normative expectations. Moreover, organizational role theory is duly based on some assumptions. Key assumptions consider organizations as stable and rational entities and the problems may arise due to conflicting roles. Once role conflict is addressed in the organization, its members can work productively. Despite the criticism associated with role theory, it has provided an explicit path in understanding the complex structure of roles in the organizations and their implications. This is the reason, a wide variety of contemporary researches are based on organizational role theory (Biddle, 1986).

2.4.2.3 Antecedents and Consequences of Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity Role perceptions have been found as key indicators to the various important outcomes. Researchers have analyzed the impact of both role ambiguity and role conflict collectively and separately. Reason being, role ambiguity is a multidimensional construct (Bosselut et al., 2010; Beauchamp and Bray, 2001) while role conflict is a unidimensional with regard to offensive and defensive role functions (Beauchamp and Bray, 2001). If we consider the sole outcomes of role ambiguity, it causes dissatisfaction and anxiety (Senatra, 1980; Munthe, 2003; Hamner and Tosi, 1974; Hamner and Tosi, 1974). The study of Chen and Bliese (2002) shows the negative impact of role ambiguity on self-efficacy of employees which reveals the fact that when employees are confronted with ambiguous role to play in the organization, it ultimately diminishes their confidence to control and manage the event affecting their lives. A wide variety of research also shows the indirect relationship of role ambiguity with self-efficacy (Jex and Gudanowski; 1992; Chen and Bliese, 2002; Li and Bagger, 2008). However, the studies of Jex and Gudanowski (1992) and Li and Bagger (2008) lack any support about the significant relationship between these two. 51

In addition to all these adverse findings, managers usually have the perception that some degree of ambiguity is useful which let them manage the affairs affectively. Ambiguous environment allows them to exercise their experience and expertise (Schulz and Auld, 2006; Agarwal, 1999). Furthermore, role ambiguity is a cultural specific construct which may either augment or decrease value of certain outcomes in different culture (Bosselut et al., 2010). On the other hand, role conflict has some different yet unfavorable outcomes affecting performance measures. For example, it increases the likelihood of depression (Good and Mintz, 1990), job related tension (Senatra, 1980) and, threat and anxiety (Hamner and Tosi, 1974). Role conflict is also a strong positive predictor towards depersonalization and emotional exhaustion (Piko, 2006). It has also been observed that employees facing role conflict are not high performers (Behrman and Perreault, 1984). But the study of Meurs et al., (2010) shows that employees facing conflicting demands at work are high performers provided the political skills of their respective managers. Managers with strong political skills use different influence tactics and strategies to redirect efforts in their own way and when employees are faced with conflicting work assignments, managers can control its negative effects and avoid potential harm at employees’ performance (Meurs et al., 2010). A significant count of literature shows both role ambiguity and role conflict examined collectively to know their predicting qualities. In most of the researches, it has been emerged as key explanatory variables towards emotional and psychological outcomes. Both role conflict and role ambiguity are considered as the key predictors towards job stress (Rosse and Rosse, 1981), resourcefulness (Harris, 2006), emotional exhaustion and depersonalization (Schwab et al., 1982) as well as threat and anxiety (Hamner and Tosi, 1974). However, the study of Parker and Decotiis (1983) can not show any categorical influence of role conflict and role ambiguity on job stress. In addition, role ambiguity and role conflict can have significant impact on some attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. For example, the negative relationship between role ambiguity and role conflict with job satisfaction is well documented in literature (Boles and Babin, 1996; Rosse and Rosse, 1981; Bedeian and Armenakis, 1981; Schaubroeck, Cotton, Jennings, 1989; Jackson & Schuler, 1985; Gregson et al., 1994; Rebele & Michaels, 1990; Senatra, 1980; Churchill, Ford & Walker, 1974; La Rocco et al.1980; Behrman and Perreault, 1984; Van-Sell et al. 1981). Moreover, some other attitudinal and emotional outcomes of role ambiguity and role conflict 52 includes decrease organizational commitment, (Rosse and Rosse, 1981; Schaubroeck, et al. 1989; Jackson & Schuler, 1985) and Job-related tension (Bedeian and Armenakis, 1981; Schaubroeck, Cotton, Jennings, 1989; Jackson & Schuler, 1985; Van-Sell, Brief and Schuler, 1981) as well as high turnover intentions (Gregson, 1992; Jackson & Schuler, 1985; Jennings, 1989; Rosse and Rosse, 1981). Moreover, role ambiguity and role conflict can drastically affect the performance of employees (Behrman and Perreault, 1984; Getzels and Guba, 1954; Brief and Aldag, 1976; Bagozzi, 1978; Michaels et al. 1987; Szilagyi, 1977; Tubre and Collins, 2000; Jackson & Schuler, 1985). In addition to these consequences, role conflict and role ambiguity are strongly related with lower perceptions of organizational effectiveness (House and Rizzo, 1972), unfavorable attitudes toward role senders (Miles, 1975; Miles and Perreault, 1976) and lower confidence in the organization (Kahn et al., 1964). Van-Sell et al., (1981) concluded with meta-analytical review that role ambiguity and role conflict may cause lower productivity and psychological withdrawal from the work group. Besides significant relationships with various important antecedents and outcomes, both role ambiguity and role conflict are also closely related with each other (Chang’s 2003; Redfern et al. 2002; Biton and Tabak’s, 2003; Chu et al. 2003; Wu and Norman, 2006). However, Pasework & Strawser, (1996) oppose this contention and claimed that role ambiguity and role conflict have either no direct association (Senatra, 1980) or only indirect association through job satisfaction (Pasework & Strawser, 1996). In short, role conflict and role ambiguity have been highlighted as key factors towards various, psychological, behavioral and attitudinal outcomes. This induced various researchers to know the antecedents and causes of both role stressors. The findings of Viswesvaran, Sanchez and Fisher (1999) show that social support may either directly reduce stressors (such as role conflict and ambiguity) or moderate the stressor-strain relationship by providing synergistic effects to reduce the impact of these stressors on the outcomes or strains (e.g., job dissatisfaction). Whereas, Worrell and Wallin (1981) reported inverse relationship between leaders reward behavior such as positive instrumentality, punitive instrumentality and advancement instrumentality with role conflict and role ambiguity. Beside all these factors, organizational work design can’t be ignored in preventing the role stressors. Role ambiguity and role conflict are emerged as an outcome of organizational work 53 design which includes the nature of supervision, structuring of the job, promotion processes and the internal environment (Bacharach et al., 1990). Moreover, the role of mentor is also very important. Organizations usually provide the traditional career development and psychosocial support function through mentor services. Mentors clarify the organizational role of employees which ultimately help to cope with role ambiguity (Viator, 2001). However, the study of Viator (2001) shows indifferent findings wherein mentoring provided higher role conflict perception to employees due to added expectations of mentors. Van-Sell et al., (1981) took a meta-analytical review and reveals the high dependence of role ambiguity and role conflict upon organizational structure, leader behavior and job contents. Literature further reveals bifurcation in identifying the causes of role stressors. A wide array of researches are conducted to know the key predictors towards role ambiguity. Past researches empirically demonstrate the strong relationship between boundary-spanning activities and role ambiguity (Singh, 1993; Singh & Rhoads, 1991). Influence over standards (Teas, 1983), communications frequency (Behrman and Perreault, 1984; Walker et al., 1975), job experience (Walker et al., 1975) and closeness of supervision (Ditz 1964; Behrman and Perreault, 1984) has also been validated as key influencing factors towards role ambiguity. Besides the significance of all these variables, Sanatra (1980) argued that role ambiguity is increased when employees violate the chain of command within the organization and top- management is not receptive to listen employees. Furthermore, decision timeliness and adequacy of authority also play an important role in predicting role ambiguity (Senatra, 1980). In an effort to explore the causes of role conflict, past researches have showed locus of control (Behrman and Perreault, 1984; Anderson, 1977; Houston, 1972), integration (Behrman and Perreault, 1984; Miles 1976), influence over standards (Behrman, and Perreault, 1984; Walker et al. 1975; Teas 1983) and innovativeness (Walker et al., 1975) as critical factors in explaining role conflict. Information suppression may also cause high role conflict (Senatra, 1980). Senatra (1980) is of the view that employees may have conflicting role demands when employees lack or do not follow chain of command as well as when formal rules and procedures are not available to follow.

2.4.2.4 Role Ambiguity and Role Conflict in relation with Perception of Politics Role stress theory states that organizational factors generate role expectations among role senders, who then transmit these as role pressures to the person called role incumbent. Consistent 54 and prolonged role pressures produce unhealthy effects on employees’ psychological and emotional well being (Kahn et al., 1964). According to the operationalization provided by Rizzo et al., (1970), role conflict and role ambiguity appears to be two separate construct. Rizzo et al., (1970) explained role ambiguity in terms of “predictability” of the outcomes or responses to one’s behavior and the existence of clear behavioral requirements, often in terms of input from the environment which would serve to guide behavior and provide knowledge that behavior is appropriate. On the other hand, role conflict is about the dimensions of congruency- incongruency or compatibility-incompatibility in the requirements of the role, where congruency or compatibility is judged relative to a set of standards or conditions which impinge upon role performance. Various evidences are available concerning the direct effects of role ambiguity on perception of politics. For example, the study of Poon (2003) shows the significant positive affects of job ambiguity on perceptions of organizational politics which implies that when employees have vague job responsibilities and objectives it fosters a perception about rising politics on work floor (Poon, 2003). Madison et al., (1980, p.97) also claims that perceived organizational politics is highly related with the conditions of uncertainty. In the same way, Ashforth and Lee (1990) states that prevalence of ambiguity in the organizational environment may generate various kinds of defensive political tactics. When employees face equivocality surrounding the task environment, it either stimulates escapist behavior or any behavior consistent with the self-interest of the individual. Ashforth and Lee (1990) further recommends that organizations should formulate rules and procedures consistent with the organizational policies to counter the effects of uncertainties. Task environment may pose various unclear and non-routine situations which demands actions and decisions in the best interest of the organization. Normally, organizations lack any clear policy and procedures for every problem arising time to time. However, employees facing consistent equivocality allow them to deny responsibilities and avoid tasks. Such conditions may stimulate defensive political behavior like helplessness, over-conforming, depersonalizing etc. On the other hand Muhammad (2007) takes a more myopic view and recommends managers to keenly address the negative effects of organizational politics in the best interest of the organization. Role ambiguity has strong positive relationship with perception of politics which emphasis management to mitigate all equivocalness and formulate clear and consistent policies. 55

Employees are less threatened with the negative effects of organizational politics when they have clear roles, objectives and responsibilities (Muhammad, 2007). Literature further shows that there exist some construct similarities between the role ambiguity and formalization, or one can see formalization as opposite to role ambiguity. When formalization is enacted, it brings role ambiguity at minimum level. Owing to the definition of role ambiguity, it is about the existence of blurred behavioral requirements (Rizzo et al., 1970). It is a condition where desired roles sent to the employee are vague and the employee is likely to experience confusion and uncertainty in performing the roles expectations (Guimaraes, 1997). Whereas formalization is about the use of rules in an organization (Hage and Aiken, 1967). It refers to the extent to which an organization’s rules, policies, and work procedures are officially specified (Smith & Grenier, 1982). Under truly formalized environment, employees’ behaviors are strictly governed by established rules and regulations (Taggart & Mays, 1987, p. 186). This similarity is first observed by Parker et al., (1995) who consider clarity of roles/responsibilities as one of the predictor to politics perception. Results show negative relationship between role clarity and responsibility with politics perception which clearly shows that by mitigating the role ambiguity, organization can control the perception of politics in the organization. Moreover, O'Connor and Morrison (2001) report organizational climate and formalization as key determinants of perception of politics. Formalization in terms of role clarity is also apart of organizational politics perceptions model presented by Ferris et al. (1989). This might be the reason, authors prefer role ambiguity as a substitute of formalization in recent past (Poon, 2003; Muhammad, 2007). This provide the basis of following hypothesis;

H2 : Role ambiguity positively influences perception of politics.

Besides the importance of role ambiguity in the organizational work life, Kahn et al. (1964) also accentuates to address the problems of role conflict which refers to the simultaneous occurrence of two or more role expectation in a way that compliance with one would make compliance with the other more difficult (Katz and Kahn, 1978). Role conflict involves the incompatibility of job demands facing an individual (Ilgen & Hollenbeck, 1991). Literature shows very few evidences about the relationship between role conflict and perception of politics. Andrew and Kacmar (2001) considered both role conflict and perception of politics in his research model but did not hypothesize the relationship between two (Andrew and Kacmar, 56

2001). Some of the evidences are available where political skills has been considered as moderating variables to buffer the adverse effects of role conflict on job performance (Meurs et al., 2010) and burnout (Jawahar et al., 2007). At contrast, Harris et al., (2010) took a different view for the relationship between perception of politics and role conflict. Role conflict was assumed to be predicted by perception of politics directly and indirectly. Results showed significant impact of perception of politics on role conflict directly and indirectly through perceived organizational support. Besides all these evidences, theoretical support for role conflict and role ambiguity can be obtained from the Path-Goal Theory which provides the basic underpinning about how roles in the organizations are explained and how leaders help their subordinates in streamlining role problems. Path/Goal Theory which is also called path–goal theory of leader effectiveness accentuates the need of guidance provided by the managers’ to their subordinates in a way to achieve their goals as well as the organizational goals (House, 1971). As stated before, Rizzo et al., (1970) define role conflict as the incompatibility of requirements and expectations from the role, where compatibility is judged based on a set of conditions that impact role performance. Under highly role conflict environment, employees may have the feelings that their work assignments are unnecessary, rules violating and contradictory. Under such situations, the role of leaders/managers are quite important. Managers should provide every possible support to employees in understanding the goals and the path required to achieve those goals. They may exercise all relevant approaches such as directive path-goal clarifying leader behavior, the achievement-oriented leader, the participative leader behavior and the supportive leader behavior. Among all these behaviors, directive path-goal clarifying leader and supportive leader behavior are essentially needed under highly role conflicting and role ambiguous situations. In this behavior, managers not only apprise them about their actual work assignments and tasks but also guide them about how to perform those duties and how to address the multiple as well as contradictory work roles. Otherwise, employees may fall a victim of role stressors due to multiple expectations in the environment which may further give a thought that employees in the organization including managers are just pursuing their self-interest which is termed as perception of politics (Madison et al., 1980). Although the direct positive relationship between role conflict and perception of politics has not been much established in literature, only the study of Darr and Johns (2004) found role conflict 57 as a significant predictor to perceptions of politics. Role conflict is considered as a predictor towards perception of politics in this study keeping in view the different cultural and study environment of Pakistan which is a developing country with unique socio/economic conditions. Based on these arguments, following hypothesis is developed H3 : Role conflict positively influences perception of politics.

2.4.3 Machiavellianism

2.4.3.1 Defining Machiavellianism Among the unscrupulous and aversive personalities categorized by Kowalski (2001), machiavellianism, narcissism and psychopathy which are also famous as The Dark Triad of Personality, has been highlighted in psychology literature. Although, all three have the negative connotations, but machiavellianism acquired the keen attention due to its wide implications in management, leadership, organizational behavior, psychology and other disciplines (Paulhus and Williams, 2002). Generally, Machiavellianism (Mach) refers to the personality trait of making use of others for one’s success (Chen, 2010). It involves interpersonal strategies that promote the use of manipulation, deception and exploitation. Whereas machiavellian (high on machiavellianism) can be categorized as cynical, domineering, expediency, deceit, cunning, aloof and practical (McHoskey et al., 1998). Rational choice theory explains the nature and behavior of machiavellian, which highlights the deviant and conforming phenomenon of self-concerned individuals. Self-interested individuals are strictly influenced by their preferences to make choice. Social exchanges are not more than economic exchange for them, therefore optimizing their self-interest (profit, pleasure, gain or advantage) is the basic criteria (Scott, 1991; Scott, 1995). Considering neoclassical economic theory which is based on the principle that all human behaviors are driven for the sake of self-interest (this self-interested behavior is defined as utility in economics). Self-centered people deliberately follow the patterns that maximize their interest and minimize their pain (Swanson, 1996). Moreover, it further entices power seeking behavior in politically charged environment and pursues their self-interest through cooperation and integration (Robinson, 1962; Gilpin, 1987; Swanson, 1996). 58

Consistent with the neoclassical economic theory and rational choice theory, Christie and Geis (1970) called Machiavellians as good manipulators based on emotional detachment from others and greater concern for the manipulation itself (also termed as low ideological commitment), lack of interpersonal affect in interpersonal relationships, lack of concern with conventional morality and lack of gross psychopathology (Ali et al., 2009). Christie and Geis (1970) further describe machiavellians (Machs) as self-centered persons with low affective participation in interactions. They have a strong desire to rule and grab authority (Dahling et al., 2009) so much so they are proved to be opportunist for the sake of their own interest (Gunnthorsdottir et al., 2002; Liu, 2008; Sakalaki et al., 2007). Machiavellians (Machs) can offset the moral norms in their affairs and have a strong belief that deceptions are justified in pursuing and maintaining political power. High Machiavellians are self-concerned in nature and consider their organizations or society instrumental to achieve their self-satisfying goals even at the cost of others. Whereas, they don’t feel any remorse or empathy at their deeds (Dietz, 1986; Christie and Geis, 1970). A thorough review of literature shows various facets of machiavellianism as a construct. For example, Christie and Geis (1970) identified various aspects of machiavellianism like a willingness to utilize manipulative tactics, act amorally, endorse cynical and untrustworthy view of human nature, whereas Dahling et al., (2008) specified four discrete dimensions of machiavellianism as distrust of others, amoral manipulation, desire for control, and desire for status (Dahling et al., 2008). At contrast, Nelson and Gilbertson (1991) viewed it as a discontinuous construct based on predatory and benign. In nutshell, machiavellianism can be conceived as the principle disregarding any morality and empathy coming in a way to acquire and maintain power. Machiavellianism doctrine is based on both truth and fantasy (Leonard, 1984). High Machs have the qualities of being deference, flattery, ingratiation and dependence. They can be motivated by teamwork merely to pursue their interpersonal goals. Low Machs are insensitive to situational variables and tend to behave differently in different situations. Especially their behavior is not well coordinated with situational demands (Blumstein, 1973). Materialism is also the key attribute of Machiavellianism (Tang et al., 2007). According to Touhey (1973), Machiavellian personalities are shaped at very early stage of human growth. Normally machiavellianism is inculcated when children are not given due 59 attention and identification from their families and particularly from their parents. Violence and strictness from parents are the key impetus to form such personalities. On the other hand, non- family elements such as children social circle may also play a big role in this regard. Despite all unfavorable arguments, Hacker and Gaitz (1970) supported such kind of individuals on the basis of their strength which helps them to capitalize opportunities (Hacker and Gaitz, 1970). Machiavellian as a personality construct provides a realistic approach to analyze and predict human behavior. This is the reason, it has been discussed in organizational behavior and management literature from last several years. Especially, Machiavelli’s thoughts provide a complete framework for implementing and sustain changes which enhance the insights of the managers in understanding organizational dynamics (McGuire and Hutchings, 2006).

2.4.3.2 Historical Evolution of Machiavellianism Considering the historical perspective of Machiavellianism, it was initially proposed by Christie and Geis (1970) after studying the political and religious extremist groups and their leaders’ behavior, as to how they manipulate their followers according to their wishes and intentions. The analysis was largely based upon the initial political research conducted by Eysenck (1954) and historical power and politics manipulation of various leaders. But particularly, the role of Niccolo Machiavelli was examined in view of his famous publications “The Prince (1513/1981)” and “Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livius (1531/1984)’’. NiccolÓ Machiavelli (1469–1527) was an Italian poet, civil servant, political and military theorist, historian and playwright. He worked in various government capacities and developed publications which revealed his intentions about future work. Among his key publications, The Prince (1932) was regarded as his philosophy towards life and rule. This short book highlighted some principles which were not supposedly aligned with morality. For example, the author claimed that all means can be utilized to acquire and uphold authority – “end justifies the means”. A man could go to any limit to secure the best results according to his vision. Regardless of methods used whether fair or foul, legal or illegal, truth or lies, kind or cruel, democratic or dictatorial, soft or hard, evil or good, if results were in the best interest, it justified everything. In nutshell, morality rested with the outcomes received. Irrespective of actions taken in this regard, if morally justified outcomes were received, it could overweigh all processes and procedures used. 60

Some other view points of Niccolò Machiavelli’s for effective ruler include misanthropic, cynical, pragmatic, and immoral beliefs, lack of affect and empathy, strategically oriented, lust for power and money, and self-loyal (Fehr et al., 1992; Jones & Paulhus, 2009 & 2010; Rauthmann & Will, 2011). Machiavelli is generally seen as the first "truly modern" political thinker (Peterman, 1987). Machiavelli work is famous for various reasons. The most important contribution stems from highlighting the key hindrance in bringing change. Machiavelli accentuates leaders to unfold benefits that will result after change. He emphasizes leaders to utilize their strategic orientation and personal competence to enhance organizational control. In addition, he also highlights the foundation for effective decision making (McGuire and Hutchings, 2006). High Machs supports the bureaucratic power structure and top management teams but remain skeptical about the upper elites due to their self-benefiting strategy. Machiavelli provides a realistic view of behavioral patterns (McGuire and Hutchings, 2006). He supports a more centralized form of power structure. Transactional leadership style with strict disciplinary approaches are core to his philosophy. His work strongly emphasizes leaders to increase the power base and address the disloyalty with disciplinary measures. Machiavelli view that every individual is keenly motivated to secure their self-interest and personal objectives, especially keen to pursue physiological objectives (McGuire and Hutchings, 2006). Organizational loyalty comes after ones’ personal loyalty. Even contemporary literature also shows that employees are initially motivated to satisfy their basic physiological needs (see Maslow's hierarchy of needs by Maslow, 1943 and ERG Theory of Motivation by Alderfer, 1972). After thorough analysis of the believes and patterns given in the two books of NiccolÓ Machiavelli et al., (1970) presented three themes identifying highly Machiavellian behaviour:  Advocacy of manipulative strategies like untrustworthy flattery, deceit and use of guile in interpersonal relations;  A cynical perception on human nature as coward and weak  A disregard for conventional morality in thought and action Based on these arguments, Christie and Geis (1970) coined the term Machiavellianism and defined it as the tendency to cynically view towards individuals in terms of dishonest and naïve, and to exploit others for own benefits and others without feeling and compunction and empathy 61

(Christie & Geis, 1970). Moreover, they developed MACH IV/V with 20/10 items to measure Machiavellianism tendency among individuals which is considered as reliable and valid scale.

2.4.3.3 Antecedents and Consequences of Machiavellianism The conceptualization of machiavellians construct associate it with self-concerned personality attribute with weak ideology. The definition makes it a more opportunistic kind of personality dimension with weak ethical standards. Notwithstanding, Mach individuals are highly achievement-oriented employees yet not an ideal candidate for high ranked positions due to their aversive attitude and behavior (Gable and Topol, 1988). Machiavellian tendency is highly related with ethical orientation which further guides the unethical behavior (Liu, 2003). Studies show that they do not take the ethical problems seriously (Singhapakdi and Vitell, 1990) and can effectively lie than non-Machiavellians (Fatt, 1988). This is probably the reason that Mach individuals are not much recommended for marketing jobs assuming that they can drastically affect the organizational image. Depending on the situation, high Machs can take the advantage of cheating on service guarantee (Wirtz and Kum, 2004) and easily misrepresent the truth to get an order (Ross and Robertson, 2000). Resultantly, marketing is criticized being manipulative and unethical, or "Machiavellian" in nature (Shelby and Chonko, 1984). However, contradictory finding was observed by Zhihong (2008) who found high Machiavellians as more sensitized to the perceived ethical context. Precisely, perceived organizational ethical culture has great influence on affective organizational commitment for high machiavellians. A thorough review of literature shows that Machiavellian orientation has been given keen attention in different disciplines. For example, the study of Ghosh and Crain (1995) conclude a negative relationship between machiavellianism and taxpaying intentions. A study conducted in the information technology sphere reveals that employees high on machiavellian scale as insensitive to privacy rights and intellectual property of others (Winter et al., 2004). Literature further shows an array of researches showing strong predicting qualities of machiavellian towards different variables. For example, the study of Topol & Gable (1990) considers some demographical variables in determining the machiavellian orientation among employees. Results confirm that lower rank employees and females are more machiavellized than male and lower rank employees. Moreover, highly successful and satisfied employees are also less machiavellian (Topol & Gable, 1990). 62

Machiavellianism also has strong negative relationship with some of the key variables of organizational behavior like organizational commitment, job satisfaction, job performance and others. Machs are supposed to be less committed with their organization, supervisor, and team (Zettler et al., 2011) and more likely to engage in counterproductive work behavior and antisocial behavior (Meyer, 1992; Fehr et al., 1992; Dahling et al., 2009). It has strong negative relationship with job satisfaction (Gable and Topol, 1988, Siu and Tam, 1995; Goodboy and McCroskey, 2007) job success (Gable and Topol, 1988; Topol and Gable, 1990) and occupational attainment (Turner and Martinez, 1977). At contrast, literature shows fragmented findings about machiavellian orientation and job performance. Some researches show direct positive link between machiavellianism and job performance (Gable and Dangell, 1994; Chonko, 1982; Zagenczyk et al., 2011) while in some studies no relationship is observed for machiavellianism and job performance (Hollon, 1983; Turnbuirs, 1976). There exist some evidences where antecedents of Machiavellian are attempted to be figured out. Guterman (1970) specifies punitive and restrictive behavior of parents cause machiavellianism tendency at later stage. This notion is also supported by Christie and Geis (1970) who states that machiavellian lacks support and affection form their parents. Kelman (1958) highlights the role of lacking parental identification towards developing machiavellian personality. Touhey (1973) also considers parental behavior and sources outside the family to know their impact on developing machiavellian behaviors. Results confirms the role of sources outside the family as key contributor to machiavellian behaviors.

2.4.3.4 Machiavellianism and Perception of Politics The existence of organizational politics can be traced back to the time when the organizations started taking shape. However the concept became the centre of debate of many studies around three to four decades ago (Vigoda-Gadot & Drory, 2006). As mentioned earlier, there exist three common perspectives on organizational politics (Vigoda, 2003). A common approach pertains to view organizational politics in relation with influence tactics and actual political behavior; second approach deals with the perception of politics while the last dominant approach deals with examining the political skills of individuals working in various capacities (Drory and Vigoda-Gadot, 2010). The third approach closely relates with the machiavellian perspective which accentuates leaders to show good political skills to rule affectively. The implication of this 63 philosophy in organizational setting has emerged recently which emphasizes managers to demonstrate good political skills to manage organizational affairs affectively (Drory and Vigoda- Gadot, 2010). But the roots of this contention are connected to the philosophy of NiccolÓ Machiavelli (1469–1527) an Italian writer, historian and playwright. He provides deep insight into how to rule and how to manage people for their own interest. Although his thoughts are criticized being cruel and against social justice but he provides politics a distinctive identity and autonomy. This is the reason, Machiavelli is called as founding father of political science on this unique discovery (Sartori, 1973). According to NiccolÓ Machiavelli, politics has no connection with religion and morality, although morality and religion are the core ingredients of politics, but can be ignored in political affairs. His ruling principles posit that to manage state affairs the ruler can go against humanity, religion, faith and morality (Sartori, 1973). Machiavelli is recognized as the first modern political thinker who favors the idea of “Politics of Deception” (Dietz, 1986; Peterman, 1987). Some of the current management theories also focus on the value of outcomes received while ignoring the means used to acquire desired outcomes (Cavanagh et al., 1981). This doctrine has its root to Machiavelli’s notion which states that end justifies the means. After keen examination of the philospy of NiccolÓ Machiavelli given in his publications, Christie and Geis (1970) proposed the term Machiavellianism identifying individuals who are amoral, untrustworthy view of human nature, willingness to utilize manipulative tactics and endorse a cynical attitude. Precisely, machiavellianism refers to a behavior in which an individual uses another person as an instrument for achieving his/her goals (Wrightsman, 1991; Chen, 2010; Byrne & Whiten, 1988; Christie & Geis, 1970; Linton & Wiener, 2001; Paal and Bereczkei, 2007; Wilson et al.1996) and Machiavellian individuals may be described as exploitative, domineering, suspicious, impersonal, deceitful, practical, cold and impervious (McHoskey et al., 1998). Academic research on the "Machiavellian personality" has identified a parallel traits that involves: (1) Lack of emotional affect in interpersonal relations i.e., being cool, distant, and treating people as objects to be manipulated (2) Lack of concern for traditional morality i.e., finding deceit utilitarian rather than reprehensible. (3) Low ideological commitment i.e., focusing upon maintaining oneself in power rather than upon inflexible ideals (Turner and Martinez, 1977). 64

Now if we consider the definition of political behavior, it is described as a behavior strategically designed to maximize self-interests and contradictory to collective organizational goals or the interests of other individuals (Ferris et al., 1989). It comprises the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the organization or to obtain sanctioned ends through non- sanctioned influence means (Mayes and Allen, 1977). Dubrin (2001) call it as an informal approach to gain power through means other than merit or luck. Another well accepted definition is presented by Mintzberg (1989) who call organizational politics as illegitimate force between the organization's members. Considering all these arguments, the core essence of this concept pertains to the self-serving behavior not sanctioned by the organization (Ferris et al., 1996; Valle and Perrewe, 2000; Harris et al., 2005; Randall et al., 1999). Employees may fall into political behavior in the form of bypassing the chain of command to secure benefits, following inappropriate channels to obtain resources, lobbying with higher elites in the organization and so on. Such behaviors create unjust and unfair environment, which is against the productive working environment. Scrupulous employees following laid down procedures feel resentment out of such tactics which drastically affect their morale (Muhammad, 2007; Parker et al., 1995). Therefore, we may figure out some construct resemblance between machiavellianism and political behavior. If machiavellianism uses another person as an instrument for achieving his/her goals (Wrightsman, 1991) then political behavior is a self-serving behavior for own interest which may be at the cost of the organization (Ferris et al., 1989). This is the reason, authors hypothesized and confirmed that highly machiavellian employees may have the tendency to exercise political behavior and perceive organizational environment more politicized (Ferris et al., 1989; Valle and Perrewe, 2000). The relationship between Machiavellianism and perception of politics and political behavior is well documented. Biberman (1985) put the first attempt to know the association between these two constructs and found that employees with high political tendency are somewhat higher in machiavellianism. Machiavellian is also apart of the key personal influence towards organizational politics perceptions in the famous model of organizational politics perceptions presented by Ferris et al. (1989). Ferris et al., (1989) stated that “Individuals who have a manifest need for power, internal locus of control or who are risk seekers have been posited as the more likely individuals to engage in organizational politics”. Mudrack (1993) claim that individuals 65 high in machiavellianism, manipulation and opportunism possess heightened saliency; thus, such individuals may be prone to interpret actions and events in political terms. Valle and Perrewe (2000) has put an effort to specifically examine the impact of machiavellianism on perception of politics and find that high machiavellian perceives their working environment more political. While analyzing dispositional variables, work locus of control and machiavellianism together, only machiavellianism has been emerged as significant predictors of perceptions of organizational politics (O'connor and Morrison, 2001). Ferris et al., (2002) provides a comparative analysis of theoretical and empirical researches published under organizational political ambit and concludes that despite inconsistent findings in terms of various predictors specified by the Ferris et al., (1989) in his famous Model of organizational politics perceptions, only machiavellianism has been emerged as a consistent predictor towards perception of politics. This fact is also endorsed in the meta-analytical review of Stepanski et al., (2000). High Mach can demonstrate any kind of political behavior which may range from innocuous, flattery to ingratiation. In extreme cases high Machs can exercise other political tactics such as character assassination, deception and sabotage (Sussman, 2002). Foregoing in view, the following hypothesis is developed; H4 : Machiavellianism has strong positive relationship with perception of politics.

2.4.4 Hirschman’s Exit, Voice, Loyalty and Neglect (EVLN) Theory

Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States (1970) The consequences of organizational politics are supported by the Hirschman’s EVLN (exit, voice, loyalty and neglect) theory of organizational decline (1970) which proposes that in response to unsatisfactory situation in a society, organization or country, one can show four types of reactions. The first response can be in the form of leaving the situation without putting an effort to fix the problem (exit). The second response can be in the form of speaking up to highlight the issues (voice). The third one is loyalty wherein a person stands persistently and waits for the better time (loyalty). The last one is (neglect) wherein individuals ignore the problem or may show some deviances (Hirschman’s, 1970). Hirschman’s EVLN Theory has been used in various environments to know the individual behavior in response to unfavorable and frustrating situations such as shareholders dissatisfaction 66

(Kostant, 1999), voters discomfort (Feld, 1997), parents discomfort with child education (Wilson, 2009), dissatisfaction with health services provided by the government (Dowding and John, 2011), antigovernment swings (Weber, 2011), dissatisfaction with public services (Dowding and John, 2008), double deviation scenarios (customers facing both the initial service failure and a failed service recovery (Casado-Díaz and Nicolau-Gonzálbez, 2011), psychological contract breach (Turnley and Feldman, 1999; Si et al., 2008) and job insecurity (Sverke and Hellgren, 2001) etc. Hirschman’s Exit, Voice and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States (1970) was originated to highlight the reactions of customers’ dissatisfaction with a product. However, literature shows some empirical evidences wherein Hirschman’s theory of organizational decline (1970) has been used as a reaction to politicized environment of the organization. For example, Ferris, Harrell-Cook and Dulebohn (2000) provided the basic underpinning of Hirschman’s (1970) EVLN theory as a reaction to perception of politics in the form of turnover intentions (exit) and political behavior (Voice). According to Bacharach and Lawler (1980), employees may start exhibiting political behavior as an alternate voice. Later Vigoda (2000) took various reactions to perception of politics as prescribed by the Hirschman’s (1970) such as intentions of exit and neglect further to job performance, turnover, absenteeism and organizational citizenship behavior. Vigoda (2001) provided another evidence by integrating the Hirschman’s (1970) theory of organizational decline as an outcome of perception of politics by incorporating all the variables proposed in EVLN theory such as Exit, Voice, Loyalty, and Neglect (EVLN). This attempt was basically focused at comparing the reactions to organizational politics in two different environments of England and Israel. Results showed British as more inclined towards leaving the organization (exit), higher tendencies to negligent behavior (neglect) and lower levels of loyalty with the organization as compared to Israeli (Vigoda, 2001).

2.4.5 Affective Commitment

2.4.5.1 Defining Organizational Commitment Organizational commitment (OC) is defined in terms of attitude as well as a set of intentions. Attitudinal commitment exists when the identity of the person is linked to the organization’s 67

(Sheldon, 1971) or when the goals of the organization and those of the individuals become increasingly integrated or congruent (Hall et al., 1970). Generally, commitment refers to the congruence between the goals of the individual and the organization whereby the individual identifies with and extends effort on behalf of the general goals of the organization (Steer, 1977). Northcraft and Neale (1996) define organizational commitment as an attitude reflecting an employee's loyalty to the organization and an ongoing process through which organizational members express their concern for the organization and its continued success and well being. Organizational commitment encompasses an individual’s willingness to extend efforts in order to pursue organizational objectives and the degree of alignment the organization has with the goals and values of the individual (Mowday et al., 1979). However, the most accepted definition of organizational commitment is presented by Meyer and Allen (1991) who proposes that organizational commitment is a psychological state, characterizing an individuals’ relationship with the organization, in accepting the goals of the organization and the willingness to exert considerable efforts to achieve its goals (Meyer and Allen, 1991). It is a multidimensional psychological state that characterizes the person's relationship with the organization in question (Meyer & Allen, 1997).

2.4.5.2 Historical Evolution of Affective Commitment Organizational commitment has been an area of interest of many researchers from last several decades. It may be considered as one of the most researched phenomenon due to its wide significance for the organizations. Tracing back the history of organizational commitment, it was initially taken as uni-dimensional factor. Becker (1960) was the first to shed light at this particular construct. He took it as side-bet, as when someone had something on stake it caused commitment or when he linked other outer interests with his present line of activity. Becker (1960) stated that "Commitments come into being when a person, by making a side-bet, links extraneous interests with a consistent line of activity”. Side-bets refer to the all valued investments that an individual makes during his course of employment which are presuming be lost by leaving the organization. Employees undergo a comfort zone that makes them difficult to leave current organization. They will have to leave set patterns of activities, membership and associations by quitting an organization. Moreover, lack of alternatives also put them committed. To better understand commitment, an individual needs to examine the system of value where side-bets are held (Becker, 1960). Later two inconsistent 68 findings are contributed by Alutto et al., (1973) and Ritzer & Trice (1969). Ritzer & Trice (1969) claim organizational commitment as a psychological phenomenon instead of structural phenomenon, which is formed when employee value something. When psychological commitments are formed then individuals go towards structural constraints. Alutto et al., (1973) on the other hand again supported Becker’s (1960) notion by claiming commitment as a structural phenomenon and the understanding of "side-bets" is key to realize individuals' commitments to organization or occupation. Becker (1960) side-bet theory has also been tested in various environments from time to time (Wallace, 1997; Shore et al., 2000; Powell and Meyer, 2004, Griffin and Hepburn, 2005). Even this operationalization of commitment construct is more related with the continuance commitment as described by the Allen and Mayer afterward in 1991. Later the paradigm shift was made by Porter (1974) who defined organizational commitment in terms of individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organization. An employee is committed with his respective organization when (1) he has a belief in and accepts the goals and values, (b) and willing to exert efforts on behalf of the organization and (c) has a definite desire to maintain membership. Same argument was supported by Mowday et al., (1979) by taking organizational commitment as an emotional attachment to the organization. Multi-Dimensional Approach to Organizational Commitment (OC) The third pervasive paradigm shift was observed when organizational commitment (OC) was taken as a multi-dimensional approach. Various theorists and scientists operationalized the concept in view of its multi-facet nature. First initiative was made by O'Reilly and Chatman (1986) who described organizational commitment in terms of organizational identification. It is a bond between an employee and an organization which can take three forms: compliance, identification, and internalization. Compliance referred to the instrumental behavior to achieve extrinsic rewards. Identification reflected the employees’ intention to hold the relationship with the organization on account of its attractive goals and values. This relationship could be found despite unacceptability of values and goals. Internalization pertained to the behavior influenced by the intrinsic values or goals which were accordingly aligned with that of organization. Later, Meyer and Allen (1991) presented a dominant model claiming organizational commitment composed of three components affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment. 69

Affective commitment is about the employees’ identification with, emotional attachment and involvement in the organization. If employees are affectively committed with their organization, they stay because they are personally attached with their respective organization. This facet was previously emphasized by Mowday et al., (1979). Continuance commitment reflects the cost that an employee bears while leaving an organization i.e. social and financial. By leaving an organization, he will have to develop new friendships and establish a new comfort zone. This dimension was previously emphasized by Becker (1960). Lastly, normative commitment is about the feeling of obligation to stay with the organization. This form of commitment is developed when organization cares its employees and put investment for their personal development (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Considering the dimensional approaches to organizational commitment, one cannot ignore the work of Meyer and Herscovitch (2001) who stated organizational commitment as a bond between an employee and a course of action duly associated with a target. It can be bundled with various mind-sets playing role in determining behavior. Later Reichers (1985) argued that commitment couldn’t be taken separately. Its multiple natures should be analyzed to completely conceptualize this construct. It required to be analyzed in terms of the extent to which employees were committed with the goals and values what he termed as foci of commitment. Foci of commitment comprised commitment to co-workers, superiors, subordinates, customers, and other groups and individuals that collectively make apart of the organization. Foci of commitment remained the interest of many later researches (Becker, 1992; Hunt and Morgan, 1994). Randall (1990) also observed the inconsistency among researchers in defining OC global construct. Reason lied in its multiple natures which should be studied in terms of commitment with a particular company, industry, or occupation. In short, a consensus was developed about organizational commitment which should be analyzed as a model of commitments and not as single dominant variable (Freund and Carmeli, 2003). This provided a new thought in analyzing commitment in terms of constituency specific approach by segregating it into various facets. No matter what kind of multiple aspects of commitment have been investigated, organizations need to develop their own constituency according to specific environment of the organization as well as the industry (Boyle, 1997; Freund and Carmeli, 2003). 70

This was the reason, numerous researches were conducted in relation with multiple aspects of commitment. For example, Commitment to supervisor/boss (Snape, Chan and Redman 2006; Vandenberghe Bentein, and Stinglhamber, 2004; Vandenberghe, Bentein and Stinglhamber, 2004; Wasti and Can, 2008; Boshoff and Mels, 2000; Boyle 1997) Commitment to work group (Snape, Chan and Redman, 2006; Vandenberghe Bentein, and Stinglhamber, 2004; Baruch and Winkelmann-Gleed, 2002; Vandenberghe, Bentein and Stinglhamber, 2004; Wasti and Can, 2008), Commitment to organization, (Snape, Chan and Redman, 2006; Gumusluoglu, Karakitapoğlu-Aygün and Hirst, 2012; Vandenberghe, Bentein and Stinglhamber, 2004), Client affective commitment (Jacqueline, Coyle-Shapiro, Morrow, 2006), Work commitment, (Cohan, 1993; Cohan, 1997; Cohan, 1998), Occupational commitment (Cohen and Freund, 2005; Cohan, 1998; Baruch and Winkelmann-Gleed, 2002), Career commitment, (Baruch and Winkelmann- Gleed, 2002), Trust commitment (Baruch and Winkelmann-Gleed, 2002), Commitment to management, (Redman and Snape, 2005), Commitment to co-workers, (Wasti and Can, 2008; Redman and Snape, 2005; Boyle 1997), Commitment to union (Redman and Snape, 2005), Commitment to the profession, (Boshoff and Mels, 2000), Commitment to customer, (Boyle 1997), Commitment to profession (Boyle 1997; Boshoff and Mels, 2000), Commitment to the leader (Gumusluoglu et al., 2012), remained apart of multiple commitments paradox.

2.4.5.3 Antecedents and Consequences of Organizational Commitment Various attempts have been made to know the antecedents and core factors impinging upon organizational commitment. Job satisfaction is usually considered as a core variable that affects job commitment. Especially high satisfaction with extrinsic factors such as evaluation system and quality of working life can foster commitment among employees (Savery and Syme, 1996). Effective leadership also plays a big role to augment commitment. Leaders who are conscious about their employees’ needs can make them better committed. Therefore, they need to have clear vision translated into key objectives and goals of the organization and also expressed clearly to the members, may have enhanced commitment among members (Rowden, 2000). Supervisors are also required to highlight the personal contribution made by each employee and acknowledge them properly to enhance organizational commitment (Cohen, 1995, Cho and Huang, 2012). Elizur and Koslowaky (2001) confirmed the significance of work values (such as work independence, working conditions, work achievement) as key influential variable to increase commitment. An effective reward system bundled with work values may also help in 71 this regard. Nearly similar findings are reported by Al-Hussami et al., (2011), who highlight the contribution of job autonomy and equitable workloads in addition to the influence of salaries and wages. Weng (2010) proposes a comprehensive framework by providing key human resource practices that are important to generate organizational commitment. Especially, progress towards career goal is found directly associated with all three forms of commitment as proposed by Meyer and Allen (1991). Therefore managers should consider the employees’ career goal during different phases of hiring process (recruitment, selection and orientation). This would enable them to properly place the individuals in positions that meet their career aspirations. If employees are not clear about their career goals, help them in doing so aligned with organizational goals. Other HR practices may also help to enhance the commitment, such as inculcating professional skills and abilities, reward system based on employees’ competence and their contribution, as well as the career advancement opportunities. These factors may establish a strong bond between an employee and the organization (Weng, 2010). On the other hand, individuals who have work interferences such as child care and medical problems are less likely to be committed with their organization (Cannon, 1998). But career growth is among the most striking aspect that establish or even re-establish emotional attachment with the organization during aversive times (e.g., layoffs, restructuring) (Weng, 2010). The significance of culture towards organizational commitment has been confirmed by Lok and Crawford (1999). Their study shows that both organizational and subculture variables has strong relationship with commitment. But the relationship between subculture and commitment is found stronger than the relationship between culture and commitment. Likewise, Newman and Sheikh (2012) are of the view that organizational commitment can be increased with the help of two main factors. First, employees should be given adequate autonomy and must also be effectively supervised. Secondly, the organizational reward system should be transparent and valued. Besides these, cultural values must also be considered which have dominant impact on this relationship. Cultural sensitivity cannot be ignored in any setting. A generalized formula should not be adopted for every organization or industry or sector. Organizational commitment is more like an environment specific and time specific phenomena. Managers need to keep themselves well aware about the latest issues that can erode commitment. But key factors such as job 72 satisfaction, working conditions, inequitable compensation, peer support are also given due importance to develop lasting organizational commitment (Al-Hussami et al., 2011). Organizational commitment has wide implications; therefore, it has been used as a predictor to most of the important organizational outcomes. For example, organizational commitment has been found as key predictor to employee performance in various researches (Riketta, 2002, Jaramilloa, Mulkib and Marshall, 2005; Khan, 2010; Ladebo, 2003). However, such findings lack consistency in terms of the types of commitment and proposed outcomes. For example, the studies of Meyer (1989) and Riketta (2002) found affective commitment strongly correlated with job performance while continuance commitment was inversely associated with job performance. On the other hand, Steers (1981) found no relationship between commitment and job performance. However, organizational commitment contributes significantly to company performance that is, it helps to influence sales volume, return on investment and earnings positively (Steyrer et al., 2008). Angle and Perry (1981) reported organizational commitment as strongly associated with tardiness rate and organizational adaptability. Turnover also emerged as a key outcome of organizational commitment in various settings (Angle and Perry, 1981; Steers, 1981; Neininger, 2010; Kim, Leong, Lee, 2005; Newman and Sheikh, 2012). Perryer and Jordan (2010) were of the view that employees who are not much committed with their organization but have support from the organization, are less likely to quit. Organizational commitment can also moderately affect employees’ attendance (Steers, 1981). Affective Organizational Commitment as Organizational Loyalty As mentioned earlier, Meyer and Allen (1997) proposes that organizational commitment is composed of three main parameters and can’t be considered in isolation i.e. affective, continuance, and normative commitment. These are the distinguishable components constituting the construct of organizational commitment. Affective organizational commitment (AC) is an emotional attachment, identification with, and involvement in the organization. Employees’ affectively committed always identifies with the goals of the organization and desires to be a part of the organization (Meyer and Allen, 1990). Continuance organizational commitment (CC) refers to the commitment based on the costs associated with loosing the organization (Hackett et al., 1994). The third component, normative organizational commitment (NC) refers to employees’ feelings of (moral) obligation to stay with the organization (Meyer and Allen, 1991). 73

While taking into account the definition of organizational loyalty provided by Adler and Adler (1988), one can find some similarities in both the construct composition. Organizational loyalty is a comprehensive phenomenon, about a bond formed either to an organization or to some person or group within it that can be either individually or collectively forged. It consists of feelings of attachment, of belonging, of strongly wanting to be part of something; it involves the readiness to contribute part of one's self; it incorporates trust, the voluntary alignment of self with the group, and a willingness to follow faithfully the leadership or guidelines of the organization (Adler and Adler, 1988). Same applies with the definition provided by Mccarthy (1997) who refer employee loyalty as an employee’s feeling of attachment to his/her employing organization and willingness to perform extra work. On the basis of arguments provided by Meyer and Allen (1991), Adler and Adler (1988) and subsequently Mccarthy (1997), the affective component of organizational commitment can be seen as same or more close to the measurement of organizational loyalty. Therefore, affective component of organizational commitment can be used to measure organizational loyalty (Landy & Conte, 2004; Klehe et al., 2011). Affective organizational commitment has been found as most parsimonious variable in explaining various criterion variables. It has strong effects on employee performance (Shaw et al., 2003; Cichy et al., 2009) and it may significantly predict work outcomes such as job stress, work withdrawal, turnover intentions etc (Wasti, 2005). Employees lacking affective organizational commitment may either leave the organization (Cooper-Hakim & Viswesvaran, 2005) or remain absent from work (Luchak & Gellatly, 2007).

2.4.5.4 Perception of Politics and Organizational Commitment Previous researches confirmed and validated the strong inverse association between perception of politics and organizational commitment. For example Miller et al., (2008) concluded strong negative relationship between perception of politics and organizational commitment. Same finding was also reported by Vigoda (2000) which implied that when employees perceived high politics in their working environment then it negatively affected their emotional attachment with the organization. Vigoda and Cohen (2002) made a different attempt to determine the impact of organizational commitment towards perception of politics and found high predicting qualities of organizational commitment in this regard. Recently in Pakistan, Bodla and Danish, (2008) confirmed the significant influence of perception of politics on organizational commitment as reported by the students of business school. 74

Likewise, the study of Cropanzano et al., (1997) is worth to mention because the author considered the component of affective commitment representing the entire construct of organizational commitment in a way to determine the impact of perception of organizational politics over it. Results showed highly significant effects of perception of politics on organizational commitment as compared to job satisfaction, job involvement, job tension etc. All these findings helped to develop following hypothesis; H5 : Perception of politics negatively influences affective commitment.

2.4.6 Whistle Blowing

2.4.6.1 Defining Whistle Blowing Whistle-blowing (WB) is a deliberate non-obligatory act of disclosure, which gets onto public record and is made by a person who has or had privileged access to data or information of an organization, about non-trivial illegality or other wrongdoing whether actual, suspected or anticipated which implicates and is under the control of that organization, to an external entity having potential to rectify the wrongdoing (Jubb, 2000). A broad definition of whistle blowing encompasses disclosure by employees and former employees of wrongdoing about illegal acts or omissions at work (Lewis, 1995). Near & Miceli (1985) defined whistle blowing as revelation by organization members (former or current) of illegal, immoral, or illegitimate practices under the control of their employers, to persons or organizations that may be able to effect their action. Whistle blowing provides a direction to uphold integrity of the organization by influencing irregular and unsanctioned behaviors (Berry, 2004). The reporting can be internally or externally directed depending upon situation. Employees are usually comfortable in reporting wrong doings to external agencies as opposed to using internal communication channels (Miceli et al., 1991). However, some researches endorse internal source as first resort (Berry, 2004; King, 1997). Employees report irregularities externally when they have high fear of retaliation internally and when they feel that internal machinery may not react due to their vested interest (Miceli and Near, 1985). Secondly, this report also depends on the nature of incidence. For example, the victims of sexual harassment or the observer usually report this behavior to the most dependable agency (Lee et al., 2004). Whistle blowing has increased quite a lot during contemporary era therefore, various efforts have been made to know the impetus behind blowing whistle (Vadera, Aguilera and Caza, 2009). 75

Employees overtly or covertly seek to report and rectify the problems through all possible means within the organization. But when feel helpless, they start raising their voice by blowing whistle (Jubb, 2000). However, this practice is not very healthy every time. Mostly employees avoid blowing whistle because of the retaliation made by some organizational members on account of disclosing confidential information, despite the fact it is in the best interest of the organization (Lewis, 1995). Such reactions can be demotion, termination, social retaliation and alienation (Reckers-Sauciuc and Lowe, 2010). Very few examples exist wherein whistle blowers are rewarded financially or non-financially. Picture at large is not much encouraging. Normally whistle-blowers are likely to suffer from social isolation, victimization and financial losses (Jubb, 2000). Organizational reprisals are high when the wrong doings are reported about the employees who have the worth for the organization because of their age, experience, and education, or when the source lack credibility and public support, or when the wrong doings threaten the interest of the organization and lastly when the source has weak bond in employee- employer relationship (Parmerlee et al., 1982). Retaliations are also high when the leakage of information has adverse impacts on the profitability and other organizational performance measures (Rothschild and Meithe, 1999). According to Dworkin & Baucus, (1998) external whistleblowers are more likely to experience severe retaliation as compared to internal whistle blowers. Employees witnessing wrongdoings but avoiding whistle-blowing, are those who feel insecure against retaliation, vulnerable to jeopardizing their career/job and who are uncertain about the remedial actions in this regard (Miceli and Near, 1984). This causes a very low involvement of employees in reporting misconduct to the management. Considering these facts, organizations should formulate policies to encourage employees to report any illegal and irregular activities in the best interest of the organization (Miceli and Near, 1988; Reckers-Sauciuc and Lowe, 2010). Moreover, new laws and statutes should be formed to protect whistle-blowers (Lewis, 1995). By doing this, organizations can cope with different kinds of malpractices to a great extent. Some countries have made developments in this regard by introducing new laws to protect whistle-blowers to report wrong-doings in the best interest of public. Likewise, confidentiality measures may also be taken to keep the whistle-blowers’ anonymity supreme (Miceli and Near, 1984). In view of this, some firms have established anonymous hotlines to encourage the employees towards safe reporting of illegitimate and unfair acts within the organization (Reckers-Sauciuc and Lowe, 2010). 76

2.4.6.2 Historical Evolution of Whistle Blowing Misconducts, legal issues and corruption have long history. However, the way corruption is reported, has to be dig out to know its origin. It is probably Chinese who coined the term “Jubao” to report any wrong doings occurred at the part of government officials or institution. Through Jubao, Chinese government attempted to control the organizational employees to refrain from illegal act or corruption (Easthorpe, 2009; Uys, 2006). The term “whistle blowing” was actually replicated from the sports where a referee blow whistle in case of any foul or illegal act. Ralph Nader (US civic activist) was perhaps the first one who used this terminology in social sciences during early 1970s (Nader et al., 1972). Prior to this era, employees were supposed to be loyal to their organization irrespective of circumstances. Organizations had the autonomy to terminate the services of any employee without assigning any reason. The legislative history of whistle blowing can be traced back to a century ago when the federal government’s False Claims Act was promulgated in 1863. This Act offered some incentives to a person reporting any kind of fraud rendered against the government functionaries. The act was established by the President Abraham Lincoln in 1863 to specifically fix the responsibility for selling fake gunpowder during the Civil War. Later modifications were made and anti-retaliation protections were also added in this act. In 1986, Taxpayers against Fraud False Claims Act was introduced which gave around $17 billion dollars recoveries to the U.S. government in short time. This act also provided adequate financial rewards to whistleblowers. But this enticed many incumbents to report bogus claims therefore; penalties were added on false reporting at later stage. The most regarded act which provided protection to whistle blower was passed in 1989 and named as the Whistleblower Protection Act. This act protected whistle blower from any kind of retaliation from management or employers on revealing threat to public safety, fraud or waste. Some amendments were brought in during 1994 to provide more protections to employees in federal government. Following era also witnessed some more acts and legislation like SOX requirements 2002, Supreme Court decision 2006 and National Defense Authorization Act 2007 which further safeguarded the whistle blowers (Eaton and Akers, 2007).

2.4.6.3 Antecedents and Consequences of Whistle Blowing Whistle blowing in general and particularly whistle blowing culture, provides various positive outcomes which have been supported by many researchers and experts. Countries who do not 77 protect whistle-blowers may threaten the survival of its valued employees (Lewis, 1995). An effective whistle-blowing also have strong bearing on organization's future (Farrell & Petersen, 1982). According to Perry (1991), organizational response to wrongdoing has strong bearing on the performance in long-run while wrongdoings at corporate level may hamper the overall performance of the organization (Clinard & Yeager, 1980). Organizations can be progressive if they have high number of whistleblowers. When most of the incumbents take part in whistle blowing with the intention to eliminate misconduct, delinquency and malpractices, it would certainly help to flourish a high morale culture within organizations. With the heightened ethical culture in different organizations, we can move towards morally responsible society which would have positive influence on the beliefs of the organizational members (Nair, 2002). In the same way, Ewing (1983) emphasized the importance of whistle blowing and stated that if organization does not pay attention to the voice of whistle blower or disregard the reported facts, it may cause serious problem to the organizational working. Reason being, any kind of wrong doings affect the organizational performance not only in short run but also in long run because whistle blowing invites attention of the concerned authorities. Ignoring the irregularities and mal-functioning may adversely affect the organizational operations. Keeping the importance of whistle-blowing in view, various attempts have been made to explore the antecedents and factors motivating individuals to blow whistle. According to Stansbury and Victor (2009), employees have multiple identities, which bring their multiple identifications. Therefore, understanding their identities is imperative to know the motivations towards whistle blowing. Literature shows diverse and fragmented findings about the causes of whistle blowing. To resolve these conflicting results we need to adopt an identity lens to gauge why individuals engage in whistle-blowing (Stansbury and Victor, 2009). Literature shows some theoretical explanation of the causes of reporting illicit behaviors. For example, Ellis and Arieli (1999) made an attempt to explain whistle blowing intention and actual behavior with the help of Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA). TRA model in relation with whistle blowing posited that attitude towards whistle-blowing and subjective norm (an individual’s perception of social normative pressures, or relevant others’ beliefs to below whistle) were the key predictors to whistle blowing intentions which lead towards actual whistle blowing. All the assumed relationships were hold true. Likewise, Brewer and Selden (1998) incorporated theory of Public Service Motivation to explain the causes of whistle blowing and 78 found that employees’ inclination to blow whistle was to uphold the best interest of the general public and their well being (Brewer and Selden, 1998).Whistle blowers were normally the key employees of the organization, generally high performers as well as duly committed and satisfied with their organization (Brewer and Selden, 1998). Miceli, Near and Schwenk (1991) also claimed that reporting behavior was high when the lapses were against the interest of public or their co-workers. This might be the fact that whistle-blowing was more commonly observed in public sector organizations rather than in the private (Rothschild and Meithe, 1999). A thorough review of the literature shows that the causes of whistle blowing can be classified as organizational, work and personal related. Organizational Causes Organizational culture has strong bearing on the willingness to blow the whistle. Organizations need to flourish a culture embedded with a code of conduct, an explicit disclosure policy, an ethical standards committee and supported with ethic officer to provide safe place for whistle blowing (Zhang et al., 2009). Berry (2004) highlights key dimensions of organizational culture as vigilance, engagement, credibility, accountability, empowerment, courage and options which may promote whistle blowing. In addition to these, organizations should provide friendly and team oriented environment to increase the temptation and frequency of blowing the whistle (Rothwell and Baldwin, 2007). While taking organizational structure into account, organizations stringently following bureaucratic structure and operating under highly regulated environment may have more possibility to face whistle blowing (Miceli et al., 1991). Organization's degree to encourage whistle-blowing by providing explicit channels to report strongly influence the likelihood of blowing whistle (Keenan, 2000; Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesvaran, 2005). This supports the notion of Mathews (1987) that organizational policies relating to whistle blowing and the channel to report them have keen effects on whistle blowing tendency. Treviño & Victor (1992) argued that when code of conducts are enacted to report illegal activities made by peer, may cause more inclination towards whistle blowing. These all arguments accentuate the need to design internal reporting channels adhering confidentiality. So much so, organizations should also appreciate and highlight the whistle blower when such behaviors bring fruitful change (Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesvaran, 2005).

Personal Causes As far as the personal factors are concerned, various researches have been conducted to know the impact of gender towards reporting wrong doings (Sims and Keenan, 1998; Dworkin & Baucus, 1998). The most consistent findings are observed relating to the tendency of men who are more likely to blow whistle as compared to women (Miceli et al. 1991). But the study of Dworkin & Baucus (1998) showed that external whistleblowers are usually females, relatively unskilled and low ranked employees (Dworkin & Baucus, 1998). The tenure of employment, level and position also has strong bearing on whistle blowing. Experienced and empowered employees working at executive cadre having key information relating to concerned person are also more comfortable in this regard (Keenan, 2000; Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesvaran, 2005). At contrast, the study of Sims and Keenan (1998) lack any support for formal policies, organizational tenure, age, education in explaining whistle blowing. Usually, whistle blowers are typically above-average performers who are highly committed with the organization (Graham, p. 683) and witnessing consistent wrongdoings (Dworkin & Baucus, 1998). Some people are religiously motivated to report wrong-doings. Their religious believes motivate them to raise voice against any deviation (Grant, 2002). Employees’ intentions to blow whistle are also high when the impact of misconduct are strongly harmful for peers and co-workers (Treviño & Victor, 1992). Subjective Causes

As far as the role of other subjective variables are concerned. It all depends on the environment, where wrong doings are occurred. For example, Sims and Keenan (1998) made an attempt to know the impact of some organizational variables over whistle blowing. Supervisor support, informal policies and ideal values were found to influence whistle blowing whereas the other variables such as formal policies, satisfaction, or commitment couldn’t show any predictive qualities (Sims and Keenan, 1998). The study of Dozier and Miceli (1985) was also an attempt to know the factors affecting whistle blowing. They concluded that whistle blowing was a function of lower, rather than higher levels of moral judgment. Likewise, King (1997) confirmed the significant impact of relational closeness and issue seriousness towards likelihood of reporting a wrongdoing (King, 1997). Employees’ ethical judgment also played an important role towards this particular construct (Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesvaran, 2005). A main stream of research highlighted the significance of role responsibility. Whistle-blowing was more likely to be observed when employees considered it as an important part of their jobs 80 and a feeling of personal responsibility (Treviño & Victor, 1992; Miceli and Near, 2002). For example, policemen have greater tendencies to blow whistle whenever and wherever they see any malpractice (Rothwell and Baldwin (2007). The influence of role responsibility had also been reiterated by many other researchers (Victor, Trevino and Shapiro, 1993; Miceli and Near, 1984; Miceli, Near, & Schwenk, 1989) however, the study of Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesvaran, (2005) could not endorse such findings.

2.4.6.4 Perception of Politics and Whistle Blowing Whistle blowing provides a direction to uphold integrity of the organization by influencing injustice and right wrongs through reporting facts (Berry, 2004). The reason the whistle-blower blow the whistle is because he/she sees a great injustice or wrongdoing occurring in his/her organization that has not been resolved despite using all appropriate channels within the organization (Fletcher, 1998). Considering the definitions of organizational politics (OP) conceived by Ferris et al., (1989), it is a behavior strategically designed to maximize self-interests at the cost of others’ goals or ignoring the interest of the organization or organizational objectives at large (Ferris et al., 1989). Dubrin (2001) stated organizational politics as an informal approach of gaining power through unfair means or unethical practices. In this way employees view their work environment as political, promoting the self-interests of others, and thereby unjust and unfair (Kacmar and Ferris, 1991; Kacmar and Carlson, 1994). Do employee actively report or raise voice against this unethical, immoral, self-centered and illegitimate behavior in the public sector of Pakistan by blowing whistle? This is another question to be answered in this regard. According to Hirschman (1970), voice is among the responses to unsatisfactory situations in one's firm or organization that is, speaking up and trying to remedy the defects. Literature shows some evidences where different voice inventories are used to measure this construct as a response to problematic events. For example, as a response to job dissatisfaction (Farrell's, 1983, Rusbult 1988, Hagedoorn, 1999) and job insecurity (Sverke and Hellgren, 2001), voice as a construct has been measured. Even in organizational behavior domain, some evidences are available where voice is considered as a consequence of organizational politics. The voice category included informal methods of interest articulation and a formal mechanism for attempting to bring about positive change (Farrel & Rusbult, 1992). The most recent example is available from the study of Vigoda (2001) wherein voice construct is measured using Farrel & 81

Rusbult (1992) scale (Sample item was ‘I am not afraid to ‘blow the whistle’ on things I find wrong with my organization) but the support is not found for the assumed relationship due to cultural differences. Initially, Ferris and Kacmar (1992) provides a framework parallel with the study of Ferris et al., (1989) showing mainly three responses to politics perceptions. Individuals may withdraw from the organization (neglect or exit), remain apart of the organization and involve in politics (voice) or remain apart of the organization but do not involve in any political activity (loyalty). By exploring literature to understand the existing association between organizational politics and whistle blowing, it becomes evident that employees generally report mismanagement, sexual harassment or legal violations more actively as compared to discriminatory practices (such as politics etc) (Near & Miceli, 1985). This is the reason voice content couldn’t acquire much attention as an outcome of politics. The initial argument in this regard is presented by Mayes and Ganster (1988) who assert that the voice element may take various forms including employee surveys, grievance handling procedures, suggestion programs and some others. Voice can also be transformed into exercising legitimate authority to cope with the aversive conditions. On the other hand, when formal power is not vested, employees are likely to engage in political behavior as well. This argument is also supported by Bacharach and Lawler (1980) and Ferris et al., (2000) who claim that employees may initiate political behavior as an alternative to voice under highly political environment. Ferris et al., (2000) further elaborates that employees’ political behavior in response to politicized environment may be in the form of ingratiation and/or self-projection. They act for gaining acceptance or affection for themselves by persuasive and subtle blandishments or use self-promotion as a tactic for gaining the attention of supervision. However, Dozier and Miceli (1985) state that employees’ whistle blowing is an effective approach to report wrong doings or to report illegal, immoral, illegitimate, unjust, unfair, self-projected and self-interest maximizing behavior to the concerned authorities when no other political behavior alternative is available. Whistle blowing is among last option available to an employee to respond in highly politicized environment. Likewise, Near and Miceli (1985) call whistle-blowing as a form of dissidence on an organization like civil disobedience on the government. It’s like Hirschman's (1970) prescribed expression of Voice' by the dissenter in addition to showing other kind of resentment. Whistle-blower disseminates information about the organization that may 'harm third parties' 82

(Elliston, 1982a). The legitimacy of the act is determined by the whistle blower. If anyone in the organization perceives the activities illegitimate and self-promoting then whistle-blowing may occur (Near and Miceli, 1985). Considering all above arguments, whistle blowing is taken as third reaction and following hypothesis is formed; H6 : Perception of politics positively influences whistle blowing.

2.4.7 Counterproductive Behavior

2.4.7.1 Defining Counterproductive Behavior Counterproductive behavior is a behavior that has detrimental effects on organizations and their members. It can include overt acts such as aggression and theft, or more passive acts, such as purposely failing to follow instructions or doing work incorrectly (Fox, Spector and Miles, 2001). According to Robinson and Bennett (1995), counterproductive behavior as a voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and in so doing threatens the well-being of an organization, its members, or both. Counterproductive behavior is an old phenomenon and exists in various shapes. This is the reason, literature shows different definitions of counterproductive behavior. According to Sackett and DeVore (2001) counterproductive behaviors were any intentional behavior on the part of an organization member viewed by the organization as contrary to its legitimate interest while Martinko et al., (2002) called it as a behavior by an organizational member that resulted in harming the organization or its members. Later, Spector & Fox (2005) explained this as volitional behaviors that harm or intended to harm organizations or people in organizations. The most influential and accepted definition of counterproductive behavior was presented by Robinson and Bennett (1995) which was aligned with the idea of Kaplan's (1975). Robinson and Bennett (1995) called it employee deviance and termed it as voluntary behavior that violated significant organizational norms and in so doing threatens the well-being of an organization, its members, or both. Employee deviance was defined as voluntary in that employees either lacked the motivation to conform to normative expectations of the social context or became motivated to violate those expectations. Considering all definitions, we can conclude that counterproductive behavior is a behavior which may cause adverse effects to the organization. These adverse effects may range from low to high adversity but certainly impair the functioning of employees and the organization as whole. 83

Collins and Griffin (1998) validate this argument and explain counterproductive workplace behaviors as ignoring the societal and organizational values and rules, while its intensity ranges from low (e.g. petty stealing) to high (e.g. violence).

2.4.7.2 Historical Evolution of Counterproductive Behavior Counterproductive behaviors are all about the acts and tactics that are against the norms of the organization and threaten its functioning. Kaplan (1975) calls it employee deviance and describes it as “when employees start violating normative expectations or less motivated towards these (Kaplan, 1975). Deviation occurs when employees break the standards, formal and informal organizational policies, rules, and procedures. Individuals follow the standards set by a specific social group rather than complying with the principles and practices set by the employer or the organizations. Considering these arguments, its hard to figure out a unique definition of counterproductive behaviors, rather any act, behavior or practice against the interest of the organization is called counterproductive behaviors. It can be believed that counterproductive behaviors exists in any form since the time organizations started taking shape. During 1970s, it has been termed as organizational aggression (Spector, 1978), disparate behaviors (Wheeler, 1976), counterproductive behavior and doing little (Mangione and Quinn, 1974), and Sabotage (Mangione & Quinn, 1975) while during subsequent decade some examples are found in the form of property deviance and production deviance (Hollinger and Clark, 1982), interpersonal conflict (Mintzberg, 1985), noncompliant behavior (Puffer, 1987), delinquency (Hogan & Hogan, 1989) and many more. Some recent examples conceptualize counterproductive behavior as organizational aggression (Spector, 1978; Neuman & Baron, 1998; Fox & Spector, 1999), antisocial behavior (Giacalone & Greenberg, 1997; Robinson and O'Leary-Kelly, 1998), deviant behaviors (Salgado, 2002), delinquency (Hogan & Hogan, 1989), deviance (Hollinger, 1986; Robinson & Bennett, 1995), noncompliant behavior (Puffer, 1987), counterwork behavior (Furnham and Siegel, 2012), retaliation (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997), revenge (Bies, Tripp & Kramer, 1997), and mobbing/bullying (Knorz & Zapf, 1996). The common understanding implies counterproductive behavior as dysfunctional behavior and harmful to the organization by directly affecting its operations, property or by hurting employees in a way that reduce their effectiveness. Some researchers have conceptualized the dysfunctional behavior as follows which can be interchangeably used as counterproductive behaviors; 84

 Deviant workplace behaviors defined as voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and threatens the wellbeing of the organization, its members, or both (Galperin, 2002).  Employee deviance, voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and in so doing threatens the well-being of an organization, its members or both (Robinson & Bennett, 1995).  Antisocial behavior negative behaviors in organizations which are harmful or have the potential to cause harm to individuals and/or the property of an organization (Giacalone & Greenberg, 1997).  Organizational misbehavior as any intentional action by members of organizations that violates core organizational and/or societal norms (Vardi & Wiener, 1996).  Dysfunction work behavior as “motivated behavior by an employee or group of employees that has negative consequences for an individual within the organization, a group of individuals within the organization, and/or the organization itself (Griffin et al., 1998).  Workplace incivility as a low intensity deviant behavior with ambiguous intent to harm the target (Behavior characterized by rudeness and disregard for others (Andersson & Pearson, 1999).

Literature reveals various categorization of counterproductive behavior or deviance at workplace. Hollinger and Clark (1982) categorized employee deviance into property deviance (any behavior damaging the giving physical loss to a company) and production deviance (sloppy work or long breaks, delaying tactics). Mangione and Quinn (1974) suggested two similar categories of deviance as counterproductive behavior (purposely damaging employers' property) and doing little (producing output of poor quality or low quantity). On the other hand, O’Neill and Hastings (2011) made a broad classes, as interpersonal and organizational deviance (ID and OD, respectively (Berry et al., 2007). Interpersonal deviance are directed towards co-workers like teasing, rude behavior etc, whereas organizational deviance affects the organizational operations like committing petty theft, malingering etc. But the most appreciated typologies in this regard were given by Robinson and Bennett (1995); 85

1. Property Deviance (Sabotaging equipment, Accepting kickbacks, Lying about hours worked, Steeling from Company) 2. Personal Aggression (Sexual harassment, Verbal abuse, Stealing from co-workers, Endangering co-workers) 3. Political Deviance (Showing favoritism, Gossiping about co-workers, Blaming co- workers, Competing non-beneficially) 4. Production Deviance (Leaving early, Taking excessive breaks, Intentionally working slow, Wasting resources) Counterproductive behaviors in the workplace are usually considered as the behaviors which are not the part of one’s’ job and may harm the operations of the organization. Such behaviors include theft, absenteeism, sabotage and mistreatment of co-workers (Muafi, 2011). It poses a serious challenge to all members and can drastically erode the firm's effectiveness and efficiency (Jelinek and Jelinek, 2008). Employees inclined towards deviance have the perception that they would not be caught or they are least threatened by the consequences of misbehavior (Jensen and Patel, 2011). Therefore, trainings in this regard should be organized to realize all stakeholders about the consequences of deviance for the organization and for their self interest. Moreover, organizations can establish an effective control system which can be either behavior based or outcome based. In behavior based systems, employees are directly and closely watched by their managers while in outcome based approach, employees evaluation is based on end results achieved. By adopting such systems, organizations can cope with the counterproductive behavior by the employees. Moreover, deviance in workplace certainly has some causes and lead towards some key outcomes. Organizations need to explore the causes and consequences of counterproductive behavior within contextual working environment and may take help from the academic and industrial experts in coping with such harmful behaviors (Jelinek and Jelinek, 2008).

2.4.7.3 Antecedents and Consequences of Counterproductive Behavior Counterproductive behavior or workplace deviant behavior has some serious repercussions, this might be the fact that lot of researches have been undertaken to know the factors causing deviance propensity among employees. Organizations poised with deviant employee, have to bear cost in terms of low morale, decreased productivity, legal expenses and damaged property (O'Leary-Kelly et al., 1996). Some other outcomes can be in the form of damaged self-esteem, 86 increased fear and insecurity at work, and psychological and physical pain (Henle, 2005; Griffin et al., 1998). Counterproductive behavior not only results in low individual performance (Muafi, 2011) but the presence of deviant employees in business units impinges upon the performance of the business unit as a whole (Dunlop and Lee, 2004; Bolton, Becker and Barber, 2010). The study of Appelbaum et al., (2007) shows that employees engaged in negative behavior or deviant behaviors may threaten the integrity of the organization and transform it into toxic organization. Toxic organizations depend on employees who are dishonest and deceitful for their success. This may further lead towards inefficient work environment by offsetting productivity, status and reputation of the organization (Nasir and Bashir, 2012). An article published in “The Risk Management Magazine” shows that theft and fraud have become a common practice in most of the organizations in USA and increasing consistently. It costs around $50 billion annually to the US economy. Theft and fraud are also the main cause of nearly 20% business failures in US (Coffin, 2003). Counterproductive behavior damages the organizational working. During organizational working, employees face some positive and negative shocks. Shocks are obvious happenings that cause an employee to consider his or her loyalty to an organization like exchange of words with boss, undue promotions, unjust bonuses, observing boss against company policies etc. All these negative shocks increase the likelihood of counterproductive behavior from employees (Holtom, et al., 2012). The relationship between negative shocks and employee deviance is also corroborated by O’Neill and Hastings (2011). Counterproductive behavior can be a protest against the shocks. Kelloway (2010) claims counterproductive behavior as a type of protest which is mostly initiated as a response of injustice. Justice has been considered as a key instrument causing work deviance from employees in different researches (Ambrose, et al. 2002; Spector and Fox, 2002; Skarlicki & Folger, 1997). Fox et al., (2001) also argue that employees start indulging in counterwork behavior under stressful conditions which may be caused due to injustice and negative emotions. But the study of O’Neill et al., (2011) lack any support for the influence of justice towards counterproductive behavior of an employee. Literature further emphasizes the prevention of those factors which may give a feeling of depravation and inequity. For example, Jonge and Peeters (2009) claim that employees with high physical job demands but low physical job resources also have the tendency to involve in counterproductive work activities. In the same way, Aquino and Douglas (2003) conclude that 87 when employees receive actions that threaten their dignity, sense of competence and self-worth may provoke them towards counterproductive behavior. Thau (2009) provides strong positive relationship between abusive supervision and organizational deviance under high situational uncertainty. Moreover, employee deviation is high when leaders mistreat them, especially those who are certain about the effectiveness, ability, and success of their jobs in the workplace (Mayer et al., 2012). Some studies have highlighted the importance of spirituality (Roberts and Jarrett, 2011) emotional intelligence (Jung and Yoon, 2012) trait anger and self-control (Restubog, 2010) as key parsimonious variable towards counterproductive behavior. Another stream of research accentuates the need to understand the personal in understanding employee deviation (O’Neill, Lewis and Carswell). Normally, interpersonally patient and calm employees are less inclined to engage in counterproductive behavior directed towards the organization or others (Jensen and Patel, 2011). Personality attributes such as delinquency, locus of control, trait anger and anxiety have also been proved as key motivators to counterproductive behavior (Spector and Fox, 2002). O’Neill and Hastings (2011) argue that employees with high integrity show distasteful attitude towards work deviance during office times whereas seduce and risk takers are more prone towards counterproductive affairs. Some of personality or personal factors based researches have considered big five personality traits to gauge the counterproductive behavior tendency (Bolton et al., 2010; Salgado, 2002). For example, Bolton et al., (2010) have reported conscientiousness as a good predictor of both sabotage and theft related behavior while extraversion can effectively predict theft. At contrast openness to experience can only predict production deviance.

2.4.7.4 Perception of Politics and Counterproductive Behavior Counterproductive behavior has adverse effects normally on organizations and their members (Robinson and Bennett, 1995; Fox et al., 2001). In short, any act or behavior against the smooth working of the organization is counted as counterproductive behavior. This is the reason various conducts, activities and behaviors are categorized as counterproductive behavior. For example, following table-2.3 provides a snapshot of various types of deviances and counterproductive behaviors in different environments. Politics in the organization may give rise to counterwork activities in the form of emotional outcomes (Ferris et al., 1996a; Kacmar, 1999). Previous researches show that counterproductive 88 behaviors are the direct outcomes of organizational politics (Rosen, 2006). Reason being the concept similarities between these two. For example, the core facets of counterproductive behavior such as bullying, lobbying, long-breaks, sloppy working, gossiping etc, are counted as illegitimate and undesirable behaviors by the employer or organization. Same is true about political behavior, which is described as the behavior that is informal, ostensibly parochial, typically divisive, and above all in the technical sense, illegitimate – sanctioned neither by formal authority, accepted ideology, nor certified expertise (Mintzberg, 1983. p. 172). Precisely, counterproductive behavior includes all activities which are unproductive for the organization and since organizational politics comprises all tactics, behavior and activities which are destructive for the organization therefore, political behavior can be itself called a counterproductive behavior. Table 2.5: Various types of Counterproductive Behavior: a Summary of Empirical Findings

Reported by; Counterproductive Behaviors

Mack et al.1998 Individual and organizational distress, Alcohol and drug abuse, Absenteeism, Theft, Verbal harassment and threats, Sabotage

Collins and Griffin, 1998 Tardiness, Harassment, Interpersonal conflict, Claiming others' work, Cheating customers, Personal use of company property

Martinko et al., 2002 Drug and alcohol use, absenteeism, depression, passivity, aggression, violence sabotage, terrorism, steeling, fraud, vandalism, harassment

Nasir and Bashir, 2012 theft, fraud, taking excessive breaks, working slow, showing favoritism, leg pulling, verbal abuse

Salgado, 2002 Measures of theft, admissions, actual theft, disciplinary problems, substance abuse, property damage, organizational rule breaking, and other irresponsible behaviors

Hogan & Hogan, 1989 Delinquency

Skarlicki & Folger, 1997 Retaliation

Bies et al., 1997 Revenge

Knorz & Zapf, 1996 Mobbing/bullying

Mintzberg, 1985 Interpersonal conflict 89

The study of Cropanzano (1997) shows two different types of counterproductive behaviors as psychological withdrawal and antagonistic work behaviors. Antagonistic work behaviors are operationalized in terms of the activities related to antagonism and contentiousness like gossiping or arguing with co-workers. Findings confirm the inverse relationship between antagonistic work behaviors and organizational politics (Cropanzano, 1997). Some previous studies also endorse the positive relationship between antagonistic work behaviors and perceived political behavior (Cheng, 1983; Randall et al., 1994). Cheng (1983) state that while working under politically manipulated environment, employees exercise acrimonious influence tactics, such as threats, instead of positive techniques to achieve objectives. Cropanzano (1997) further evaluate the impact of political behavior on psychological withdrawal. Psychological withdrawal are defined in terms of non-work related subjects such as daydreaming, or chatting with co-workers and found direct relationship between these two. In political environment, employees may only be physically present. Hogan and Hogan (1989) claim counterproductive work behavior as a complex construct bundling all deviant behaviors with low to high adversity for the organization. In the same way, Gruys (1999) in his doctoral dissertation strive to extract the dimensionality of deviant employee behavior in the workplace and identified 87 separate counterproductive behaviors which had been specified in different researches and classified them in 11 categories of counterproductive behaviors. These categories include theft and related behavior, destruction of property, misuse of information, misuse of time and resources, unsafe behavior, poor attendance, poor quality work, alcohol use, drug use, inappropriate verbal actions and inappropriate physical actions. A glimpse of some other types of counterproductive behaviors are given in the table-2.3. There exists few examples where organizational politics lack any association with some kinds of counterproductive behavior. Like Gilmore et al. (1996) and Vigoda-Gadot and Kapun (2005) cannot establish any association between perception of politics and employee attendance. But opinion at large characterizes organizational politics as a key predictor to different types of counterproductive behavior. Ferris et al., (1989) and Vigoda (2001) finds positive relationship between perception of politics and absenteeism. Likewise, Vigoda-Gadot and Kapun (2005) and Vigoda (2000) also observe strong positive relationship between perception of politics and negligent behavior. Later, he concludes that perception of politics evoke aggressive behavior in 90 the organization (Vigoda, 2002). Withdrawal which is an integral dimension of counterproductive behavior (Spector et al., 2006) also has positive association with perception of politics (Ferris and Kacmar, 1992; Kacmar et al., 1992). Withdrawal comprises different types of destructive behaviors, for example when employees work less than the time stipulated by the employer and use different tactics such as absence, arriving late or leaving early, and taking longer breaks than authorized. Considering all above discussions, the following relationship is hypothesized; H7: Perception of politics positively influences counterproductive behavior.

2.4.8 Turnover Intentions

2.4.8.1 Defining Turnover Intentions Retention of high performing employees has acquired keen attention of managers from last decades due to the recent focus towards downsizing, globalization, advancement in technology, increase in demand of skilled labor and so on. This caused pervasive influence on different strategies to retain human capital and cope with the turnover problems (Hinkin & Tracey, 2000). Various individual, organizational and environmental factors cause employees’ turnover but cause heavy cost to the organization (Abelson and Baysinger, 1984). This cost can be direct and indirect depending on the situation, occupation and industry (Hinkin and Tracey, 2000). Turnover refers to the individuals voluntarily quitting or resigning from an organization (Mobley, 1977; Price, 1977) while turnover intentions refer to the intention of individuals to voluntarily quit or resign from an organization (Layne, 2001). According to Tett & Meyer (1993) it is an individual's estimated probability that they will leave an organization at some point in the near future. Turnover intentions are considered as critical predecessor to actual turnover behavior. Employees having strong turnover intentions ultimately quit from the organization (Alexander et al., 1998). But some moderators can influence this relationship between turnover intentions and actual turnover (Allen et al., 2005). Various authors have categorized turnover in different ways. Turnover can be internal-external, functional-dysfunctional and voluntary-involuntary (Wasmuth and Davis, 1983). Same as multi-dimensional nature of commitment, turnover can be categorized as internal turnover (intent-to-leave the location and intent-to-leave the job) and external turnover (intent-to- leave the organization) (Birdseye and Hil, 1995). As far as voluntary and involuntary turnovers 91 are concerned, when employees are leaving the organization on account of their own will, like resignation by choice, death, moving abroad and chronic sickness etc, are counted as voluntary turnover. While when they are forced to leave an organization, it is called involuntary turnover as termination by employers or dismissal due to theft, inefficiency, inability or like reasons etc (Madanoglu et al., 2008; Stumpf and Dawley, 1981; Bluedorn 1978). According to Winterton (2012) mostly employees leave their organization due to retirement, dismissal or voluntary resignation. Among these, retirement and dismissal are something in the control of management whereas resignation depends on employees will. Literature shows more emphasis given by the experts to functional and dysfunctional dimensions of turnover. When a high performing employee quit the organization and replacement is made with low performing individuals, this is dysfunctional turnover. Whereas when low performers leave the organization to give way to good performers then this is called the functional turnover (Johnson et al., 2000; Abelson and Baysinger, 1984). As Ilmakunnas et al., (2012) claim that sometimes organizational productivity may increase due to labor turnover, when new competent workers are hired and they perform up to their best.

2.4.8.2 Historical Evolution of Turnover Intentions and Actual Turnover By tracing back the historical evolution of turnover studies, we can observe that the era before 1985 witnessed various models of turnover which were focused on attitudinal predictors such as job satisfaction and job commitment and some others like job involvement, met expectations etc. Moreover the unique causes such as factors relating to jobs (job scope, autonomy, role stress, reutilization etc) and individual differences (personality, ability etc) were also highlighted in various research studies. During this period, the contribution of Price and Mueller (1981, 1986), Steers and Mowday (1981), Porter and Steers (1973), Mobley et al., (1979), Mobley (1977) were of paramount importance. Later the researches held between 1985 to 1995 (Holtom, 2008) accentuated the turnover models in association with the various contextual factors such as organizational culture, organization size, stress & strain, psychological uncertainty etc. Moreover, contextual variables were further broken down into two major classes i.e.: i. Organizational context such as organizational culture, demography, organization size, group cohesion, reward system etc. 92 ii. Personal context such as leadership, attachment, person fit, justice, realistic job previews, interpersonal relations etc. In recent past, turnover researches have passed various transitory phases. According to Holtom (2008), studies on turnover are focused at; 1. Contextual variables in relation with interpersonal relationships 2. Predictors (e.g., job embeddeness and organizational commitment) showing association with the organization 3. Key differences among individuals in terms of turnover intentions 4. Stress/mental exhaustion and change related attributes 5. Unfolding models are investigated in western societies which are largely based on shocks, scripts, image violations, job satisfaction etc and job search. 6. Reconfirmation is made regarding established relationships with turnover 7. Time is also considered as moderator to have an impact on the turnover relationships.

Despite all developments made in the field of turnover, yet consensus could not be developed about the core causes and outcomes of turnover and turnover intentions. Still, literature showed segregated findings. As we can see in the proceeding part;

2.4.8.3 Antecedent and Consequences of Turnover Intentions Turnover intentions have been given due importance due to the fact that it causes high operating cost and lower profitability (Davidson et al., 2010). It has close relationship with job performance (Zimmerman, 2009). But the research has yet not concluded the unified findings about this relationship. It can be considered as a predictor to job performance (Hui et al., 2007; Mossholder et al., 1988) and even reverse is also true, like employee performance can predict turnover intentions (Werbel and Bedeian, 1989). Turnover may substantially influence organizational operating costs and profitability along with the levels of service, consumer experience and value (Davidson et al., 2010). Hurley and Estelami (2007) have corroborated the negative influence of turnover intentions on customer satisfaction in a way that when experienced employees leave the organization, it establishes poor working environment which ultimately lead towards loss of customers too. According to Holtom (2008), the relationship between turnover intentions and organizational performance needs to be refined, especially the role of mediating factors between these two may also be determined. 93

Researches at large, have proven the negative relationships of job satisfaction (Dole and Schroeder, 2001) and organizational commitment (Elangovan, 2001) with turnover intentions. In most of the researches, job commitment and job satisfaction has been taken altogether as key factors impinging upon turnover intentions (Alniacik et al., 2011; Schwepker, 2001, Baroudi, 1985; Bartol, 1983; Steers, 1977; Reed et al., 1994; Lum et al., 1998; Guimaraes, 1997). But the evidences in general confirm the high influence of job commitment on turnover intentions as compared to job satisfaction (Baroudi, 1985; Bartol, 1983; Steers, 1977). This shows that when employees are emotionally attached with their organization it usually enhances their intention to stay for longer time period (Lum el al., 1998; Baroudi, 1985; Shore and Martin, 1989). Turnover intentions can be stimulated due to various factors. It has been observed that involuntary part time workers have lower job attitudes and greater intentions to quite as compared to full time workers (Maynard et al., 2006). According to Muliawan et al., (2009), managers need to satisfy the personal and professional growth needs of employees to avoid such temptations. Usually employees leave their organization for the sake of better career and career growth (Yang et al., 2012). Failure to invest in training and development may also cause high labor turnover (Winterton, 2012). Employees dissatisfied with the organizational culture may have high tendency to leave the organization (Parker and Skitmore, 2005). Moreover, realistic job previews can also play a major role towards these particular intentions. Relevant, accurate and detailed job information with respect to different aspects of job, plays a significant role in reducing employee turnover intentions especially for the new inductees (Ramaseshan, 1997). Nevertheless, the role of leader is also very important in addressing the turnover problems. When employees have strong relationship with their supervisor, it reduces their chances to leave (Kim, Lee and Carlson, 2010). This is the reason, managers strive to strengthen their bonds with subordinates. When mangers are more transformational in nature, it can also address the problem of turnover intentions. Supervisors who clearly communicate the purposes and expectations, and share inspiring vision to its employees may control the turnover intentions (Wells and Peachey, 2011). Literature makes it evident that core factors grounding the turnover intentions cannot be established. Various diversified factors exist which cause turnover intentions such as distributive justice, workload, resource inadequacy, supervisory support and kinship support (Chen et al., 94

2008) leader attachment, organization attachment and co-workers attachment (Maertz et al. 2003) perceived organizational support (Perryer, 2010) employees’ perceived service (Bigliardi, et al., 2005) social comparisons (Eddleston, 2009), monotonous work, stressful work environment, adverse working conditions, lack of career development opportunities, better job opportunities (Budhwar, 2009), breach of psychological contract and human resource practices (Carbery, 2003), leadership behaviors i.e. transformational and transactional (Wells and Peachey, 2011), age, salary type, status, family obligations, length of service, pre-employment job expectations, , job satisfaction, relationship with coworkers (Pizam et al., 2000) and many more, may stimulate turnover intentions among employees.

2.4.8.4 Perception of Politics and Turnover Intentions When employees perceive politics in their working environment, it generates different attitudinal and psychological responses such as job stress, job satisfaction and turnover intentions (Poon, 2003). Various researches have shown positive relationship between perception of politics and turnover intentions (Cropanzano et al. 1997; Poon, 2003; Randal, 1999; Hochwarter, 1999; Vigoda, 2001; Kacmar, 1999; Ferris et al., 1989). The studies of Ferris et al., (1993) and Vigoda- Gadot and Kapun (2005) also endorsed the positive link between these two. Poon (2003) reported that perceptions of organizational politics have significant effects on turnover intentions both directly and indirectly through job stress and job satisfaction. Even organizational commitment can influence the relationship between perception of politics and intent to quit (Hochwarter, 1999). According to Valle and Perrewe (2000) employee perceives politics negatively and these negative feelings may cause emotional and behavioral reactions. Among all of such reactions, intentions to quit is most critical outcome. When political culture prevails in the working environment, it gives rise to insecurity and helplessness to some employees which further lead towards stress and dissatisfaction. Since political environment brings uncertainty therefore, it makes long-term investment at risk. Resultantly, turnover intentions and physical withdraw are increased among employees and they may slow down their efforts to pursue organization objectives. At contrast, when organization is caring, employees devote all of their energies for the success of the organization. In short, employees in secure environment work enthusiastically for the sake of organizational as well as for their own well being and have minimum turnover intentions (Cropanzano, 1997). 95

The meta analysis of Miller et al., (2008) also shows a positive link between perception of politics and turnover intentions. The work of Vigoda (2000) can be regarded as important because he reported organizational politics as a significant predictor to intentions of exit in public organizations over and above other variables. Even in Pakistani Environment Bodla and Danish (2008) found significant positive relationship between turnover intentions and perception of politics. These findings help to develop following hypothesis; H8: Perception of politics positively influences turnover intentions.

2.5 Organizational Politics as a Mediator

Literature further reveals that perception of politics has been characterized as moderating and mediating variables between various causes and effects frameworks. Perception of politics can significantly moderates the relationship between organizational citizenship behavior and turnover intention (Chen and Wei, 2009), conscientiousness and job performance (Hochwarter et al., 2000) and, trust-in-supervisor and willingness to help their co-equals (Poon, 2006). As well as previous researches also validated its mediating effects between situational antecedents (e.g. job ambiguity, scarcity of resources, and trust climate) and job stress, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions (Poon, 2003) as well as supervisor’s leadership style and organizational citizenship behavior (Vigoda-Gadot, 2007). Likewise, Poon (2006) concluded that the relationship between trust-in-supervisor and helping coworkers depends upon the level of perceptions of organizational politics within the organization. Some of the variables like organizational status (e.g. Drory, 1993), reactive political behaviors (e.g. Valle and Perrewe´, 2000), goal congruence (e.g. Witt, 1998), understanding (e.g. Kacmar et al., 1999), teamwork (e.g. Valle and Witt, 2001), and job self-efficacy (e.g. Bozeman et al., 2001) are proved to be having moderating effects on the relationship between perceived politics and some of the organizational outcomes. In addition to figure out the antecedents and outcomes of the perception of politics, the research model also helps in finding the mediating role of perception of politics between some of the relationships. According to Baron and Kenny (1986), a variable can function as a mediator when following conditions are proved; i. When mediator is significantly explained by the independent variable (i.e., Path a) ii. When dependent variable is significantly explained by the mediator (i.e., Path b) 96

And iii. When path a & b are controlled, the significant relationship between the independent and dependent variables becomes insignificant To hypothesize the mediating effects of perception of politics, the literature was explored in terms of the relationship between independent variable to outcome variable subsequently referred to dependent variable treating perception of politics as mediating variable (A to C). Other relationships (A to B and B to C) have been cited in preceding parts. On the basis of empirical evidences given in the past literature, we could then draw a hypothesis considering perception of politics (POP) as mediator. Since this study is first in nature to know the direct effects of perception of politics towards whistle blowing therefore, the mediating role of perception of politics between selected explanatory variables and whistle blowing as criterion variable are not hypothesized.

Figure 2.1: “The Nature of Mediator Variables” by Baron and Kenny (1986)

2.5.1 Participation in Decision Making to Affective Commitment, Counterproductive Behavior and Turnover Intentions

Importance of employees’ involvement in organizational decisions has been highlighted by various authors and experts. Participation in decision making has strong bearing on affective and normative organizational commitment but this relationship varies from culture to culture (Elele and Fields, 2010). Scott-Ladd, Travaglione and Marshall (2006) validated the notion that participation in decision making enhances affective commitment. On the other hand, participation in decision making is also a strong antecedent to turnover intentions (Jackson, 1983). Involving employees in organizational decision making can effectively reduce the problem of staff turnover (Hung et al., 2006). Participatory decision making and goal setting also emerged as salient predictors towards counterwork behavior such as absenteeism (Malka, 1989). 97

Considering these facts, following hypothesis were formed. H9: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between participation in decision making and affective commitment. H10: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between participation in decision making and turnover intentions H11: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between participation in decision making and counterproductive behavior

2.5.2 Role conflict and Role Ambiguity to Affective Commitment, Counterproductive Behavior and Turnover Intentions

Role conflict and role ambiguity are categorized as among the role stressors in organizational behavior domain. This is the reason both are taken all together in various environments to predict critical outcomes. For example, various studies have reported the strong inverse relationship between role conflict and role ambiguity with organizational commitment (Cuhadar, 2008; Gormley, 2005; Gormley and Kennerly, 2010; Addae et al., 2008). Welsch and LaVan (1981) also claimed role conflict and role ambiguity as detrimental to various types of organizational commitment, especially to affective commitment. Likewise, role stressors (role conflict and role ambiguity) are among the factors causing high turnover intentions or and even actual turnover (Hang-yue et al., 2005; Solli-Sæther, 2011; Gormley, 2005; Wang, 2011). As far as the relationship between role stressors and counterproductive behavior are concerned, role stressors have strong bearing at various kinds of counterproductive behavior (Spector & Fox, 2005). Spector (1997) claimed counterproductive behavior as a direct outcome of situational frustrators, which includes role ambiguity and role conflict, an unfavorable work environment, lack of support and information. Gardner and Martinko (1998) also claimed role ambiguity as key situational variable towards counterproductive behavior. These arguments provide the basis of following hypothesis; H12: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role conflict and affective commitment. H13: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role conflict and turnover intentions. H14: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role conflict and counterproductive behavior H15: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role ambiguity and affective commitment. 98

H16: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role ambiguity and turnover intentions H17: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role ambiguity and counterproductive behavior.

2.5.3 Machiavellianism to Affective Commitment, Counterproductive Behavior and Turnover Intentions

Machiavellianism is recognized as a negative personality trait therefore it shows negative association with individuals’ intention to stay (Palomino and Cañas, 2010). Wilson et al., (1996) categorized machiavellians as highly tempted towards turnover. However, Kim and Choi (2011) claimed that machiavellianism can affect turnover intentions indirectly through distancing and manipulative behaviors. However, individuals rated high at machiavellianism are also inclined to exercise various kinds of counterproductive behavior like theft, opportunism, and defection etc (Harrell and Hartnagel, 1976; Fox & Spector, 1999; Gunnthorsdottir et al., 2002; and Wilson, et al., 1996). However, the direct relationship between machiavellianism and counterproductive behavior as a discrete construct was proved by Dahling et al. (2009). Moreover, machiavellianism is also found as key predictor to various types of commitments. The study of Shafer and Wang (2010) and Zettler et al., (2011) shows that machiavellianism is negatively related with organizational commitment. Foregoing helped to develop following hypothesis;

H18: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between machiavellianism and affective commitment. H19: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between machiavellianism and turnover intentions. H20: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between machiavellianism and counterproductive behavior.

2.6 Gap Analysis

Theories and empirical findings accentuate for more contribution from developing parts of the world particularly in organizational politics domain. Especially organizational politics need more investigation from developing parts of Asia. In this way, some of the key factors such as participation in decision making, role ambiguity and machiavellianism, which have been found 99 key predictors towards organizational politics, may also be examined in other study settings to know any similarities and differences with rest of the world. Literature further shows that there exist some informal groups, coalitions and alliances which are always active to pursue individual or group interests under highly politicized environment which exert role pressures in the form of contradictory expectations or role demands contrary to policies and procedures set by the organizations. Since Pakistan is characterized as highly collectivist society therefore, it also prompts the need to examine the influence of role conflict towards organizational politics in Pakistani environment. Considering the outcomes of organizational politics, employees may exhibit different reactions. The reactions against politicized environment are quite natural because according to frustration aggression theory (Dollar et al., 1939), when employees face any injustice or inimical conditions, it stimulates frustration which may further guide any kind of aggressive behavior. Aggression may vary from person to person and environment to environment. Previous empirical findings suggest turnover intentions and counterproductive behavior as the key outcomes of organizational politics. However soft responses include raising voice or stay committed with respected organization. Hirschman’s (1970) propose exit, voice, loyalty and neglect (EVLN) as the most likely reactions to any aversive conditions. Exit and neglect can be more detrimental in nature while voice and loyalty are the favorable responses. Since politics is not an encouraging feature of organizational life therefore underpinning Hirschman’s (1970) EVLN theory through exit as turnover intentions, voice as whistle blowing, loyalty as affective commitment and neglect as counterproductive behavior, is worth to examine. In addition, literature further unfolds the employees’ intentions to raise voice as a reaction to any unwanted behavior or activity going on within the organization. How employees blow whistle when they observe any illegitimate activity within their working environment? The answer still lack clarity in the organizational behavior literature. Some empirical evidences confirm the mediating role of perception of politics between various explanatory and criterion variables. However, the mediating effects of perception of politics between participation in decision making, role conflict, role ambiguity and machiavellianism as explanatory variables and, affective commitment, counterproductive behavior and turnover intentions as criterion variables in one unified model is yet to examine. 100

2.7 Conceptual Framework

Figure 2.2: Research Model of the Study 101

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

Type of study : This study was relational or causal in nature. The relationship between various explanatory variables such as participation in decision making, role stressors (role conflict and role ambiguity) and machiavellianism were examined with the criterion variable i.e. perception of politics. Later the predicting qualities of perception of politics were also investigated towards affective organizational commitment, counterproductive behavior, whistle blowing and turnover intentions. Data collection: Questionnaire surveys were employed to collect data being advantageous in terms of response rate, unbiased, ease in data punching and analysis, cost and time efficiency etc (Sekaran, 2008). Details about the questionnaire/instrument are discussed in the later part of this chapter. Unit of Analysis : Since organizational politics or influential tactics could be perceived by any employee within the organization therefore, employees at various hierarchical levels were targeted for data collection. Time Horizon : This study endeavored to collect data by observing the response of target subjects at a particular point of time. Employees working with government organizations were approached to get the required instrument (questionnaire) filled. Precisely, we can call this a cross-sectional study wherein research efforts were made at a single point of time for system being studied or each subject, at contrast to longitudinal studies which involve collecting data over an extended period of time or at different point of time. Study setting: This study was non-contrived in nature. All the data were collected in natural environment without any artificial or controlled arrangements. The researcher showed minimum interference for the execution of study. The selected components were assumed to be appropriate in view of the objectives of the study despite some inherent limitations. Brief limitations about research design and other components are presented in Chapter 5. 102

3.2 Population

Public sector organizations usually face more politics as compared to private organizations (Vigoda-Gadot and Kapun, 2005; Bodla and Danish, 2008) because such organizations work in more bureaucratic, less participatory and responsive environment. Moreover, they also work under the direct control of political governments which also cause political practices and political perception (Bodla and Danish, 2008). Therefore, employees in government organizations were treated as the population of this study. As stated before in preceding chapter, Government organizations are governed by their respective ministries and the ministries work under the direct control of Prime Minister Secretariat. Presently, government of Pakistan has established 42 ministries to administer the public organizations. Ministry is a government department administering the public organizations under their jurisdiction (Merriam-Webster, 2013). The heads of the executive ministerial departments are known as ministers of their respective ministries, forming the Cabinet the Pakistan. There is wide debate about the power game between political elected officers and bureaucrats (Rainey et al., 1976; Rainey et al., 1986) however ministers are assumed to be the power centered above the hierarchy in Pakistan, elected through political process. Public organizations under the control of government are broadly categorized as;  Pure government organizations  Semi-government organizations  Autonomous bodies Government organizations are widely scattered at different corners of Pakistan even in an areas experiencing high insurgencies. Therefore, the study was delimited geographically and organizations under government control within the vicinity of capital/federal area were treated as the population of the study. In nutshell, any kind of organization under the control of federal government within capital city of Pakistan constituted the population of the study, irrespective of sector and their type.

3.3 Subjects and Procedure This study was an attempt to know the perception of politics among government employees and their possible causes and effects, therefore perception of politics could be held by any individual 103 at any hierarchical level whether working at officer or staff cadre. Therefore, all employees were approached randomly for data collection irrespective of their position and cadre. Most of the previous researches also concentrated at heterogeneous population across cadre and subsequent sampling subjects to examine the perceived politics in their respective organizations (Parker et al., 1995; Bodla and Danish, 2009, Vigoda-Gadot, 2007; Vigoda-Gadot and Kapun, 2005; Byrne, 2005). Such type of sampling method is known as convenience sampling wherein sampling units are selected based on easy access or availability. It is considered as most economical and time effective way of collecting data. According to Krejcie and Morgan (1970), sample of 384 (n = 384) subjects can be sufficient for population strength of equal or above 75000 (N => 75000). Roscoe (1975) and Cohen (1969) prescribed a sample size between 30 and 500 subjects, appropriate for most of the studies. According to an estimate, more than 0.2 million employees were working in various capacities of government organizations. Therefore, it was targeted to collect sample size of around 384 employees. To achieve the targeted sample size, total 600 questionnaires were floated to the population of the study. For this study, some volunteers / research associates were employed who were given 25 questionnaires each with list of organizations to visit and collect responses. Before the inception of field study, all the research associates were given orientation, training about the nature of study and its significance as well as the confidentially measures to keep the anonymity supreme. All the research associates were advised to brief the subjects on these lines before giving the questionnaire. Some questionnaires were enclosed with return envelopes. Subjects intending to post the filled in questionnaires, were given the return envelope to post them at their ease. However, research associates were supposed to ask the date and time to collect the filled in questionnaires back. All such measures were taken to collect the responses in timely manner. After the consistent efforts of two months, a total of 424 out of 600 (response rate = 71%) usable questionnaires were obtained which were later punched and analyzed with the help of SPSS 15.0.

3.4 Measures

3.4.1 Instrumentation

Various efforts have been made at government level to flourish research culture in the educational institutes of Pakistan but the fact persists about lack of understanding with regard to 104 the significance of research studies. Reason lies with the widely prevailing illiteracy across country (Xenium, 2010). It has been observed that respondents are not either comfortable to respond and if they do they respond in haste, which drastically affects the results of the study. Keeping all the constraints in view, the author attempted to establish a precise but reliable questionnaire. Reason being, long questionnaires produce some psychological reluctance and may cause low or abrupt response. Keeping all these facts in view, the author looked for precise but statistically reliable items set to measure each variable. Later part explains the measures adopted in this regards. All items were measured on five point likert scale with different options given in view of the nature of items.

3.4.2 Significance of Likert Scale

Likert scale was invented by Renis Likert in 1932 and commonly used in attitude surveys. It helps to measure the intensity or magnitude of responses made by the subject. Significance of the likert scale rest with the ease it provides in understanding the options. The responses obtained from likert scale can be easily coded and analyzed for further statistical process. Since it avoids the dichotomy of “yes/no” options therefore, respondents can easily show their level of agreement or disagreement or even mark “uncertain” if feel indifferent about the given statements. Moreover, likert scale is also categorized as an efficient, quick and inexpensive way to collect data. In nutshell, instruments developed through likert scale may be transmitted to the respondents through electronic mail, postal service or in person. Keeping these facts into account, all the measures were based on likert scale as given in Appendix-A.

3.4.3 Pilot Testing

As mentioned earlier, the questionnaire was adopted from different sources therefore, a pilot phase was organized to be familiarized with the research design in practical terms and also to ensure the reliability and validity of the questionnaire items. It is pertinent to mention here that all the efforts were made to figure out the questionnaire items duly proved reliable and valid in various research settings. However, because of the different socio-economic environment of Pakistan a pilot testing phase was organized to initially collect around 100 questionnaires from different individuals working in the public sector of Pakistan. But attempts were made to select respondents conveniently and willingly available to participate in the survey. After the consistent 105 efforts of a month, around 94 questionnaires were obtained which were punched and analyzed to know their statistical reliability and validity. Cronbach alpha co-efficients of all the items were examined to determine the relaibility. Usually, item(s) with cronbach alpha value greater than 0.7 is considered reliable even greater than 0.6 is also considered acceptable (Sekaran, 2008). Following parts explain the nature, source and reliability values of the questionnaire items.

3.4.4 Perceptions of Organizational Politics

Perceptions of organizational politics was measured with a shorter version of POPS which was developed by Kacmar and Ferris (1991) and later used by Kacmar and Carlson (1997) and Vigoda and Cohen (2002). The original scale developed by Kacmar and Ferris’s (1991) included 40 items, while Kacmar and Carlson (1997) used a shorter version of original scale included 12 key items. All items were measured on five point likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Reliability of the scale in this study was reported high as 0.87, as compared to previous studies e.g., 0.74 in Ferris and Kacmar, 1992; 0.77 in Vigoda and Cohen (2002). Moreover, all the 12 items showed the internal consistency of more than 0.85.

Table 3.1: Reliability Analysis for Perception of Politics Items Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted POP1 0.863 POP2 0.858 POP3 0.856 POP4 0.853 POP5 0.857 POP6 0.858 POP7 0.857 POP8 0.855 POP9 0.856 POP10 0.860 POP11 0.861 POP12 0.863 Overall 0.868 POP = Perception of politics

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3.4.5 Machiavellianism

Machiavellianism construct was measured with the help of five items adopted from the study of Valentine and Fleischman (2003). These five items were extracted from the original Mach-IV scale developed by Christie and Geis (1970). Valentine and Fleischman (2003) selected five most parsimonious items after various "principal component" exploratory factor analyses using oblique rotations. All the items for the present study were based on five point likert scale. Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient showed quite acceptable reliability values. Overall internal consistency remained as 0.82.

Table 3.2: Reliability Analysis for Machiavellianism Items Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted MACH1 0.752 MACH2 0.730 MACH3 0.822 MACH4 0.787 MACH5 0.811 Overall 0.820 MACH = Machiavellianism

3.4.6 Participation in Decision Making

To measure participation in decision-making, 4 items were employed from the study of Aiken and Hage (1968) which were later used by Vigoda and Cohen (2002) and reported reliability of 0.85. All the items were measured on five point scale ranged from 1 (never) to 5 (always). The pilot phase of this study also confirmed the reliability of the measures adopted for this construct. All the four items showed more than 0.85 value of cronbach alpha with overall internal consistency of 0.916.

Table 3.3: Reliability Analysis for Participation in Decision Making Items Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted PDM1 0.883 PDM2 0.866 PDM3 0.897 PDM4 0.914 Overall 0.916 PDM = Participation in Decision Making 107

3.4.7 Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity

Both role conflict and role ambiguity were measured with the help of 4 items for each, adopted from the study of Rizzo et al., (1970). Original measures prescribed by Rizzo et al., (1970) contains 15 items each to measure role conflict and role ambiguity which were commonly used to measure role related stress (Tubre and Collins, 2000). A shorter version comprising 4 items was used in this study which was earlier used by Muliawan et al., (2009) and reported construct reliability of 0.64 and 0.65 for role conflict and role ambiguity respectively. Items measuring role conflict and role ambiguity were phrased in a way that higher mean values could indicate higher role conflict and role ambiguity. All items were measured with the help of five point likert scale. During pilot testing, role conflict measures emerged as quite reliable with 0.82 cronbach alpha value. All the four items were found with reliability value of more than 0.72. Likewise role ambiguity provided the overall internal consistency value as 0.811 with more than 0.73 cronbach alpha value for all the four adopted items.

Table 3.4: Reliability Analysis for Role Conflict Items Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted RC1 0.796 RC2 0.722 RC3 0.761 RC4 0.799 Overall 0.817 RC = Role Conflict

Table 3.5: Reliability Analysis for Role Ambiguity Items Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted RA1 0.800 RA2 0.731 RA3 0.745 RA4 0.772 Overall 0.811 RA = Role Ambiguity

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3.4.8 Turnover Intentions

Intentions to quit was measured with the help of three items. These three items were adopted from the study of Tepper et al., (2009). Usually turnover intentions were measured in terms of withdrawal attitude e.g. looking for better alternatives etc (Tett & Meyer, 1993). However, the three items prescribed by Tepper et al., (2009), measured the maximum probability of leaving the job very often. Tepper et al., (2009) reported the reliability over 0.95 for the three items used in his study. Five point likert scale was employed to record the responses ranged from from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The three items of turnover intentions showed overall cronbach alpha coefficient value of 0.86. Moreover, all the items were found with more than 0.73 reliability values.

Table 3.6: Reliability Analysis for Turnover Intentions Items Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted TI1 0.923 TI2 0.740 TI3 0.730 Overall 0.857 TI = Turnover Intentions

3.4.9 Counterproductive Work Behaviors

Counterproductive behaviors were measured with the help of 5 items adopted from the study of Jung and Yoon (2012). Fox and Spector (1999) established 33 items on the basis of five dimensions such as sabotage, withdrawal, theft, abuse and production deviance. Jung and Yoon (2012) adopted five key items measuring these dimensions individually and reported 0.94 reliability coefficient. These five items were extracted from the previous studies conducted by Fox et al., (2001), Bechtoldt et al., (2007) and Marcus and Schuler (2004). All the five items were measured on five point likert scale ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Counterproductive behavior showed the overall consistency of 0.79 while all the items indicated more than 0.70 cronbach alpha value.

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Table 3.7: Reliability Analysis for Counterproductive Behaviors Items Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted CPB1 0.766 CPB2 0.759 CPB3 0.755 CPB4 0.752 CPB5 0.708 Overall 0.789 CPB = Counterproductive Behavior

3.4.10 Affective Commitment

Meyer and Allen (1991) developed famous organizational commitment questionnaire widely known as OCQ. Original OCQ (commonly used now) is consisting of 18 items to measure three dimensions of organizational commitment such as affective, continuous and normative commitment with the help of six items to measure each (Meyer and Allen, 1997). Since our purpose was to measure affective organizational commitment (loyalty with the organization) therefore, five items were adopted from the study of Wasti (2002) previously showed 0.83 reliability of these items. All the items were based on five point likert scale ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Reliability values for various items measuring affective commitment were found more than 0.70. Collective internal consistency was calculated as 0.78.

Table 3.8: Reliability Analysis for Affective Commitment Items Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted AC1 0.733 AC2 0.713 AC3 0.736 AC4 0.740 AC5 0.763 Overall 0.779 AC = Affective Commitment

3.4.11 Whistle Blowing

The main purpose to measure this construct was to know the likelihood of blowing whistle from employees working in the public sector of Pakistan in case of witnessing any illegitimate, self- 110 serving behavior or influential tactics from their counterparts or peers, to secure personal benefits at the cost of organizational goals. Therefore, four measures were adopted to know the whistle- blowing intentions from the study of Park and Blenkinsopp (2009). Some modifications were made in view of the nature of study. Park and Blenkinsopp (2009) noted the cronbach alpha reliability as 0.88 and eigenvalues as 11.55 with 35.75 cumulative percent for all the items. Five point likert scale was employed ranged from 1 (Not at all likely) to 5 (Completely likely). Overall cronbach alpha coefficient for the items selected to measure whistle blowing was calculated as 0.859. More than 0.80 reliability value was calculated for all the items of this particular construct.

Table 3.9: Reliability Analysis for Whistle Blowing Items Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted WB1 0.808 WB2 0.823 WB3 0.841 WB4 0.808 Overall 0.859 WB = Whistle Blowing

3.4.12 Confirmatory Factor Analysis

In addition to analyzing the internal consistency of the items, factor analysis was further applied to ensure the validity of the questionnaire items using AMOS 16.0. Since all the items were adopted from various sources with slight modifications where required therefore confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was deemed to be the best option to determine the validity of the survey instrument. CFA was performed on the 94 questionnaires collected during pilot testing phase. All the items used in the survey along with their factor loadings are given in the table-IV. Table-3.10 shows the high factor loadings (i.e. > 0.4) with p < 0.01 for all the variables. According to Cua et al., (2001), factor loadings greater than 0.4 are acceptable. In view of this, CFA validated all the questionnaire items for further data collection. Ultimately, counterproductive behavior with 5 items, participation in decision making with 4, role conflict and role ambiguity with 4 each, turnover intentions with 3, perception of politics with 12, affective commitment (organizational loyalty) with 5, machiavellianism with 5 and whistle blowing with 4 items, were further used for data collection process. 111

Table 3.10: Factor Loadings of the Questionnaires Items

Estimates / Factor Items <--- Variables P-Value Loadings (> 0.4) CPB1 <--- Counterproductive Behavior 0.535 < 0.01 CPB2 <--- Counterproductive Behavior 0.568 < 0.01 CPB3 <--- Counterproductive Behavior 0.616 < 0.01 CPB4 <--- Counterproductive Behavior 0.697 < 0.01 CPB5 <--- Counterproductive Behavior 0.835 < 0.01 PDM1 <--- Participation in Decision Making 0.859 < 0.01 PDM2 <--- Participation in Decision Making 0.946 < 0.01 PDM3 <--- Participation in Decision Making 0.856 < 0.01 PDM4 <--- Participation in Decision Making 0.762 < 0.01 RC1 <--- Role Conflict 0.769 < 0.01 RC2 <--- Role Conflict 0.945 < 0.01 RC3 <--- Role Conflict 0.623 < 0.01 RC4 <--- Role Conflict 0.548 < 0.01 RA1 <--- Role Ambiguity 0.602 < 0.01 RA2 <--- Role Ambiguity 0.817 < 0.01 RA3 <--- Role Ambiguity 0.794 < 0.01 RA4 <--- Role Ambiguity 0.669 < 0.01 TI1 <--- Turnover Intentions 0.631 < 0.01 TI2 <--- Turnover Intentions 0.918 < 0.01 TI3 <--- Turnover Intentions 0.935 < 0.01 POP1 <--- Perception of Politics 0.526 < 0.01 POP2 <--- Perception of Politics 0.605 < 0.01 POP3 <--- Perception of Politics 0.639 < 0.01 POP4 <--- Perception of Politics 0.673 < 0.01 POP5 <--- Perception of Politics 0.619 < 0.01 POP6 <--- Perception of Politics 0.630 < 0.01 POP7 <--- Perception of Politics 0.614 < 0.01 POP8 <--- Perception of Politics 0.610 < 0.01 POP9 <--- Perception of Politics 0.641 < 0.01 POP10 <--- Perception of Politics 0.577 < 0.01 POP11 <--- Perception of Politics 0.532 < 0.01 POP12 <--- Perception of Politics 0.529 < 0.01 AF1 <--- Affective Commitment 0.629 < 0.01 AF2 <--- Affective Commitment 0.805 < 0.01 AF3 <--- Affective Commitment 0.703 < 0.01 AF4 <--- Affective Commitment 0.574 < 0.01 AF5 <--- Affective Commitment 0.485 < 0.01 MACH1 <--- Machiavellianism 0.828 < 0.01 MACH2 <--- Machiavellianism 0.907 < 0.01 MACH3 <--- Machiavellianism 0.500 < 0.01 MACH4 <--- Machiavellianism 0.696 < 0.01 MACH5 <--- Machiavellianism 0.544 < 0.01 WB1 <--- Whistle Blowing 0.806 < 0.01 WB2 <--- Whistle Blowing 0.780 < 0.01 WB3 <--- Whistle Blowing 0.718 < 0.01 WB4 <--- Whistle Blowing 0.813 < 0.01 Results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis

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CHAPTER 4

DATA ANALYSIS Data for the study was cross-sectional in nature. Therefore, following analysis were carried out in view of the objectives of the study;  Descriptive statistics;  Correlation analysis  Regression analysis (linear regression and mediated regression) Descriptive statistics were calculated to describe the characteristics of sample taken out of the population comprising public sector organizations working within the vicinity of capital territory of Pakistan (n = 424). While correlation analysis was used to know the association and relationship between the variables of investigation. Lastly data was analyzed with the help of regression analysis to know the effects and predicting qualities of independent variables towards various postulated dependent variables. However, demographical analysis was performed initially to describe and understand the demography of the subjects;

4.1 Demographical Analysis

Age: The results of the demographical analysis of the survey showed that most of the respondents belonged to the age bracket of 26-30. The consolidated comparison showed that most the respondents were between the age ranged 21 to 35 scoring 63% of the overall participation. During last few years, the government has inducted various individuals in the public sector of Pakistan to cope with the rising unemployment within the country. The private sector has squeezed quite a lot due to recent recession prevailing in the country and the power shortages. This induced the government to accommodate the graduates and also the victims of right sizing from private sector. Therefore, most of the respondents belonged to young class who easily get convinced to participate in questionnaire survey. Another high figure was obtained from the employees above 41 years of age. The response of such segment was also very important because they had served adequate span of their life in various capacities. Therefore, 113 they were in a better position to show a clear and accurate picture of the state affairs about the variables of interest. In nutshell, the age data apprised the responses of diverse groups.

Table 4.1: Age Cumulative Frequency Percent Percent 20 or below 12 2.83 2.83 21-25 60 14.15 16.98 26-30 128 30.19 47.17 31-35 78 18.40 65.57 36-40 51 12.03 77.59 41 or above 95 22.41 100 Total 424 100

Gender: Respondents were also required to reveal their gender. As expected, most the respondents were males constituting the 78% of the overall participation in the study. Whereas female participation was as low as 22%. Pakistani society is categorized as a male dominant society. Usually, males are supposed to work to cover the living cost of whole family. Females are not allowed to play an active role professionally especially in the rural and sub-urban areas. Even in remote areas minimum level of female employment in public and private enterprises are observed. At contrast public sector is normally considered to be comparatively better employment opportunity for females due to less working hours and leave privileges. Females are commonly responsible to look after the domestic and household affairs therefore a very low participation of females in various occupational lives are observed. Same findings were found in this survey where only 22% females were randomly approached to reflect their attitude towards various measures of perception of politics and its possible causes and effects.

Table 4.2: Gender Cumulative Frequency Percent Percent Male 329 77.59 77.59 Female 95 22.41 100 Total 424 100

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Highest Level of Education: Education of the respondents was taped by giving six options. These six options reflected the complete representation of all the levels which a student could undergo during academic life in Pakistan. Secondary school certificate which was equivalent to ten years of education, marked by only 10 respondents. Candidates with secondary school certificate are eligible to apply for the entry level of white collar jobs. But it has been observed that a wide majority of individuals had bachelors and masters level degrees. In Pakistan, graduates are considered for the entry level positions and even for the mid-career positions in the public sector organizations. Therefore, a reasonably healthy figure of 33% for bachelors degree holders and 42% for masters degree holders were observed which collectively represented 75% of the sample drawn. Only 3% had the doctorate level of education. PhD degree is not a pre- requisite for common jobs in the public sector of Pakistan. However, the data was collected from the educational institutes/universities working under government umbrella therefore; this figure might reveal the respondents from academia.

Table 4.3: Highest Level of Education Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent SSC 10 2.36 2.36 HSSC 25 5.90 8.25 Bachelors 138 32.55 40.80 Masters 179 42.22 83.02 MS/M.Phil 58 13.68 96.70 PhD 14 3.30 100 Total 424 100

Cadre: The cadre of the government servants are broadly divided into three categories i.e. gazzetted officers, non-gazzetted officers and the staff members. Gazzetted officers are the most privileged class starting from basic pay scale (BPS)-17 and above, which constitute the middle to upper level of management (officer level). Whereas, non- gazzetted officers comprises BPS-16 and below, who are counted in officer category but lack some of the privileges as compared to gazzetted officers. Staff level, as the name implies are the operational staff responsible for routine work. The results show a relatively equal representation from the all three levels. 46% of the gazzetted officers participated in the survey while the figure for non-gazzetted officers was calculated as 115

34%. Rest of the 20% were employees at staff level. Since organizational politics is a phenomenon which can be perceived and even exercised at any level irrespective of where and at which capacity the incumbent works, therefore it was deliberately attempted to take all the employees on board from various levels to get a clear picture. Table 4.4: Cadre Cumulative Frequency Percent Percent Gazzetted Officer 196 46.23 46.23 Non- Gazzetted 142 33.49 79.72 Officer Staff 86 20.28 100 Total 424 100

Income Level: Respondents were also required to reveal their approximate monthly income. The results showed that most of respondents were earning between 11,000-50,000(PKR) which reflects the 62% of all participants. Government of Pakistan has revised the pay structure of the employees in view of the present inflation. Even pay and wages of the government sector is considered quite competitive in the labor market. This was the reason around 31% were of the view that their monthly income was ranged between 51,000-100,000(PKR). Rest of the low figures were noted as 3% and 5% for below 10,000(PKR) and above 100,000(PKR) respectively. Table 4.5: Income Level Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Below 10,000 12 2.83 2.83 11,000-30,000 145 34.20 37.03 31,000-50,000 117 27.59 64.62 51,000-75,000 88 20.75 85.38 76,000-100,000 43 10.14 95.52 Above 100,000 19 4.48 100 Total 424 100

Years with this Organization: The demographical results were also encouraging in terms of total tenure of services served by employees with their respective organizations. Balanced results were obtained for various categories prescribed to elicit responses. Most of the respondents had served the period between 1 to 5 years with their respective organizations. This figure was quite aligned with the results obtained for the age variable. Since most of the respondents were found 116 young, likewise majority of the respondents were at the start of their career. Precisely, 51% of the respondents claimed 5 years or less employment period. The second highest figure was obtained for 10 years or above which comprised 29% of the whole responses. Employees worked within the tenure ranged 6-10 years were reported as 19%. In nutshell, responses from diverse segments were also obtained in terms of length of service.

Table 4.6: Years with this Organization Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Less than a year 53 12.5 12.5 1-5 Years 166 39.15 51.65 6-10 Years 81 19.10 70.75 10 or above 124 29.25 100 Total 424 100

Nature of the Organization: as mentioned earlier, government organizations are broadly divided into three categories. Pure government organizations work under the direct control of the government and follow the rules and regulations promulgated by the government of Pakistan. Whereas, semi-government organizations are given some autonomy to establish their own administrative and financial rules approved by the respective governing bodies and also to generate their own finances. But semi-government organizations are not free to work on its way. They are bound to comply with the parameters set by the government of Pakistan. Lastly, there exist some autonomous organizations with least government control. More than 50% responses were obtained from the semi-government organizations. It is relatively easy to collect responses from the semi-government organizations at contrast to pure-government sector which follow more bureaucratic hierarchy and sometime stringent channels had to be followed to get approval to conduct survey. However, an utmost effort was made to collect sufficient responses from the organizations working under pure-government sector and in total 152 responses were collected constituting the 36% of total. Table 4.7: Nature of the Organization Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Pure Government 152 35.85 35.85 Semi Government 227 53.54 89.39 Other 45 10.61 100 Total 424 100 117

4.2 Descriptive Analysis Descriptive analysis was carried out to know the attitude to employees towards investigating variables. Since the data was collected through questionnaire based on five point likert scale, therefore mean values indicated general attitudes of employees towards various items and variables of interest. Table 4.8: Descriptive Statistics Variables Mean Median Mode Skewness Kurtosis PDM 2.82 2.75 3.00 0.11 -0.86

RC 2.74 2.75 3.00 0.26 -0.10

RA 2.48 2.25 2.00 0.41 -0.58

Mach 3.28 3.40 3.60 0.13 -0.08

POP 3.12 3.08 3.50 0.06 0.43

AC 3.52 3.60 4.00 -0.50 -0.29

WB 3.41 3.50 4.00 -0.30 -0.29

CPB 2.52 2.40 3.00 0.52 -0.44

TI 2.57 2.50 2.00 0.19 -0.75

PDM = Participation in Decision Making, RC = Role Conflict, RA = Role Ambiguity, Mach = Machiavellianism, AC = Affective Commitment, WB = Whistle Blowing, CPB = Counterproductive Behavior, TI = Turnover Intentions, POP = Perception of Politics

Since the study endeavored to examine following hypothesis (1-8), therefore later part examined the association, dependence and strength of relationships between the variables with the help of correlation and regression analysis;

H1: Participation in decision making negatively influence perception of politics. H2: Role conflict positively influences perception of politics. H3: Role ambiguity positively influences perception of politics. H4: Machiavellianism has strong positive relationship with perception of politics. H5: Perception of politics negatively influences affective commitment. H6: Perception of politics positively influences whistle blowing. H7: Perception of politics positively influences counterproductive behavior. H8: Perception of politics positively influences turnover intentions. 118

4.3 Correlation Results

As mentioned earlier, correlation analysis was carried out to know the relationship between the independent and dependent variables (table 4.9). According to the research model of the study, participation in decision making, role conflict, role ambiguity and machiavellianism were assumed to be having significant relationship with perception of politics. Correlation matrix showed significant negative relationship between participation in decision making and perception of politics (r=-0.13, p<0.01). Role conflict (r=0.28, p<0.01) and role ambiguity (r=0.29, p<0.01) were also found to be having significant positive association with perception of politics of politics. Machiavellianism which was taken as the only personal variables also revealed significant positive relatedness with perception of politics (r=0.18, p<0.01). In addition to these relationships, perception of politics was also examined in terms of its various outcomes such as affective commitment, whistle blowing, counterproductive behavior and turnover intentions. Correlation analysis further confirmed the significant negative relationship between perception of politics and affective commitment (r=-0.15, p<0.01). Perception of politics also showed positive and significantly high relationship with whistle blowing (r=0.12, p<0.05) and turnover intentions (r=0.15, p<0.01). Relatively strong and statistically significant correlation was observed between perception of politics and counterproductive behavior (r=0.13, p<0.01).

Table 4.9: Correlations

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 PDM 1

2 RC -0.14(**) 1

3 RA -0.18(**) 0.31(**) 1

4 MACH -0.15(**) 0.13(**) 0.16(**) 1

5 AC 0.11(*) -0.08 -0.28(**) 0.04 1

6 WB 0.12(*) 0.09 -0.14(**) 0.01 0.27(**) 1

7 CPB 0.02 0.10(*) 0.10(*) 0.10(*) -0.08 0.13(**) 1

8 TI -0.10(*) 0.13(**) 0.41(**) 0.24(**) -0.36(**) -0.13(**) 0.11(**) 1

9 POP -0.13(**) 0.28(**) 0.29(**) 0.18(**) -0.15(**) 0.12(*) 0.13(**) 0.15(**) 1

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). PDM = Participation in Decision Making, RC = Role Conflict, RA = Role Ambiguity, Mach = Machiavellianism, AC = Affective Commitment, WB = Whistle Blowing, CPB = Counterproductive Behavior, TI = Turnover Intentions, POP = Perception of Politics 119

Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) was also calculated to know any multicollinearity before proceeding for regression analysis. All the values were less than 1.12 which was quite below than the threshold value of 5 (Chatterjee & Price, 1991) with acceptable tolerance level (tolerance > 0.7) (Hair et al., 1998). To know the normality of the distribution, Normal Q-Q plots were also drawn as shown in appendix-B.

4.4 Regression Results

Regression analysis was applied to know the variation explained by the predictors towards criterion variable (table 4.10). According to the proposed model, participation in decision making, role conflict, role ambiguity and machiavellianism were assumed to be having strong effects on the perception of politics. Whereas, affective commitment, whistle blowing, counterproductive work behavior and turnover intentions were hypothesized as possible reactions to organizational politics.

Table 4.10: Hierarchical Regression Analysis for the Causes of Perception of Politics Dependent Variable : POP Predictors  R2  R2 F Main Effect : PDM, RC, RA and

MACH Step-1

Control Variables 0.043

Step-2

PDM -0.025 n.s. 0.177 0.134 8.060*** RC 0.144***

RA 0.10***

MACH 0.075* Notes: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001

PDM = Participation in Decision Making, RC = Role Conflict, RA = Role Ambiguity, Mach = Machiavellianism, POP = Perception of Politics, n.s. = Not Significant

Regression analysis was carried out to know the variation caused by the key explanatory variables which showed strong positive effects of role conflict (=0.144, p<0.001) and role ambiguity (=0.10, p<0.001) on the perception of politics. Machiavellianism was also found as 120 key predicting variable towards perception of politics (=0.075, p<0.05). However, participation in decision making although showed negative but insignificant effects on the perception of politics (=-0.025, p>0.05). In total, 17% variation in the perception of politics is explained by four of the predictors while 83% variation is unexplained or explained by other variables (Adj R²=0.17, F=8.06, p<.001). Table 4.11: Hierarchical Regression Analysis for the Consequences of Perception of Politics Predictor  R2  R2 Dependent Variable : AC Step-1

Control Variables 0.032

Step-2

POP -0.233*** 0.056 0.013 Dependent Variable : WB Step-1

Control Variables 0.029

Step-2

POP 0.167* 0.039 -0.004 Dependent Variable : CPB Step-1

Control Variables 0.031

Step-2

POP 0.285** 0.053 0.059 Dependent Variable : TI Step-1

Control Variables 0.034

Step-2

POP 0.305** 0.055 0.012 Notes: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001 AC = Affective Commitment, WB = Whistle Blowing, CPB = Counterproductive Behavior, TI = Turnover Intentions, POP = Perception of Politics

Linear regression was also applied on each reaction of the perception of politics i.e. affective commitment, whistle blowing, counterproductive behavior, turnover intentions and perception of Politics. Table – 4.11 explains the results of the analysis which showed the dominant role of affective commitment as an outcome. Perception of politics had strong negative effects on the 121 affective commitment (=-0.233, p<0.001). Another strong and significant impact of perception of politics was observed towards turnover intentions (=0.305, p<0.01). Furthermore, perception of politics was also found to be having significant positive impact towards counterproductive behavior (=0.285, p<0.01). Lastly, perception of politics showed although significant but relatively low effects toward whistle blowing (=0.167, p<0.05) as compared to other outcomes taken on-board in relation with organizational politics.

4.5 Mediation Analysis

Some of the relationships were hypothesized (H9 – H20) to know the mediating role of perception of politics between various independent and dependent variables as given below;

H9: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between participation in decision making and affective commitment. H10: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between participation in decision making and turnover intentions H11: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between participation in decision making and counterproductive behavior H12: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role conflict and affective commitment. H13: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role conflict and turnover intentions. H14: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role conflict and counterproductive behavior H15: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role ambiguity and affective commitment. H16: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role ambiguity and turnover intentions H17: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role ambiguity and counterproductive behavior. H18: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between machiavellianism and affective commitment. 122

H19: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between machiavellianism and turnover intentions. H20: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between machiavellianism and counterproductive behavior.

To establish mediating effects, few theoretical and analytical conditions are to be satisfied. Theoretical support should be available to form mediating effects which have been produced previously in chapter-II. Baron and Kenny (1986) narrated the three causal relationships which are reproduced as under; “To establish mediation, the following conditions must hold: First, the independent variable must affect the mediator in the first equation; second, the independent variable must be shown to affect the dependent variable in the second equation; and third, the mediator must affect the dependent variable in the third equation. If these conditions all hold in the predicted direction, then the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable must be less in the third equation than in the second. Perfect mediation holds if the independent variable has no effect when the mediator is controlled”. Our data fully confirms the second (Table- 4.12) and third order condition (Table- 4.11). Some scholars and behavioral experts have argued that first condition is not mandatory to confirm mediating effect (Mathieu and Taylor, 2006; Kenny et al., 1998). However, some of our results even supported the first order condition in addition to other two.

123

Table 4.12: Hierarchical Regression Analysis for the Causes of Perception of Politics Dependent Variable : POP Predictors  R2  R2 Main Effect : PDM Step-1

Control Variables 0.043

Step-2

PDM -0.06** 0.06 0.017 Main Effect : RC Step-1

Control Variable 0.043

Step-2

RC 0.207*** 0.119 0.076 Main Effect : RA Step-1

Control Variable 0.043

Step-2

RA 0.143*** 0.125 0.082 Main Effect : MACH

Step-1

Control Variable 0.043

Step-2

Machiavellianism 0.126*** 0.069 0.026 Notes: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001

PDM = Participation in Decision Making, RC = Role Conflict, RA = Role Ambiguity, Mach = Machiavellianism, POP = Perception of Politics

124

Table 4.13: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of PDM, POP and AC Mediator Variable : POP Dependent Variable : AC Predictors  R2  R2  R2  R2 Main Effect : PDM

Step-1

Control Variables 0.043

Step-2

PDM -0.06** 0.060 0.017

Main Effect : PDM Step-1

Control Variable 0.032

Step-2

PDM 0.067* 0.042 0.010 Mediation : POP

Step-1

Control Variable 0.032

Step-2

POP -0.233*** 0.056 0.024

Step-3

POP -0.217** 0.062 0.006

PDM 0.054 n.s. Notes: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; PDM = Participation in Decision Making ; POP = Perception of Politics; AC = Affective Commitment, n.s. = Not Significant

Table-4.13 shows the mediating analysis of perception of politics between participation in decision making and affective commitment. First condition to test the mediation held true with the significant effects of participation in decision making on affective commitment (=0.067, p<0.05). Second condition met with the significant effects of participation in decision making on perception of politics (=-0.06, p<0.01). Likewise, the strong impact of perception of politics towards affective commitment also satisfied the third condition (=-0.233, p<0.001). Lastly, when both participation in decision making and perception of politics included in the regression equation to explain affective commitment, the effects of participation in decision making became insignificant thus providing support to the mediating role of perception of politics between participation in decision making and affective commitment.

125

Table 4.14: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of PDM, POP and TI Mediator Variable : POP Dependent Variable : TI Predictors  R2  R2  R2  R2 Main Effect : PDM

Step-1

Control Variables 0.043

Step-2

PDM -0.06** 0.060 0.017

Main Effect : PDM Step-1

Control Variable 0.034

Step-2

PDM -0.101* 0.046 0.012 Mediation : POP

Step-1

Control Variable 0.034

Step-2

POP 0.305** 0.055 0.021

Step-3

POP 0.280** 0.094 0.039

PDM -0.084 n.s. Notes: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; PDM = Participation in Decision Making; POP = Perception of Politics; TI = Turnover Intentions, n.s. = Not Significant

Table-4.14 shows the mediating role of perception of politics between participation in decision making and turnover intentions. To test the first condition, participation in decision making was included in the regression equation to predict turnover intentions and found as significant predictor (=-0.101, p<0.05). Second condition had already been satisfied with the significant impact of participation in decision making towards perception of politics (=-0.06, p<0.01). Third condition was met, when perception of politics was found a significant predictor of turnover intentions (=0.305, p<0.01). At a later stage, when turnover intentions was regressed on participation in decision making and perception of politics, the effect of participation in decision making became insignificant. This also highlighted the mediating role of perception of politics between participation in decision making and turnover intentions.

126

Table 4.15: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of PDM, POP and CPB Mediator Variable : POP Dependent Variable : CPB Predictors  R2  R2  R2  R2 Main Effect : PDM

Step-1

Control Variables 0.043

Step-2

PDM -0.06** 0.060 0.017

Main Effect : PDM Step-1

Control Variable 0.031

Step-2

PDM 0.005 0.031 0.000 Mediation : POP

Step-1

Control Variable 0.031

Step-2

POP 0.285** 0.053 0.022

Step-3

POP 0.291*** 0.054 0.013

PDM 0.022 Notes: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; PDM = Participation in Decision Making; POP = Perception of Politics; CPB = Counterproductive Behavior, n.s. = Not Significant

Three steps process as prescribed by Baron and Kenny (1986) was followed to test the mediating role of perception of politics between participation in decision making and counterproductive behavior. Which provided the following outcomes;

 Insignificant effects of participation in decision making on counterproductive behavior (=0.005, p>0.05).

 Significant effects of participation in decision making on perception of politics (=-0.06, p<0.01).

 Significant effects of perception of politics on counterproductive behavior (=0.285, p<0.01). The influence of participation in decision making was insignificant towards counterproductive behavior (=0.005, p<0.05). Thus the mediating role of perception of politics between participation in decision making and counterproductive behavior relationship was not substantiated (Table-4.15).

127

Table 4.16: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of RC, POP and AC Mediator Variable : POP Dependent Variable : AC Predictors  R2  R2  R2  R2 Main Effect : RC

Step-1

Control Variables 0.043

Step-2

RC 0.207*** 0.119 0.076

Main Effect : RC Step-1

Control Variable 0.032

Step-2

RC -0.075 n.s. 0.037 0.005 Mediation : POP

Step-1

Control Variable 0.032

Step-2

POP -0.233*** 0.056 0.024

Step-3

POP -0.222** 0.057 0.001

RC -0.029 n.s. Notes: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; RC = Role Conflict; POP = Perception of Politics; AC = Affective Commitment, n.s. = Not Significant

Three steps process was followed to test the mediating role of perception of politics between role conflict and affective commitment relationship, as prescribed by Baron and Kenny (1986). Which provided the foll3.owing three outcomes;

 Insignificant effects of role conflict on affective commitment (=-0.075, p>0.05).

 Significant effects of role conflict on perception of politics (=0.207, p<0.001).

 Significant effects of perception of politics on affective commitment (=-0.233, p<0.001).

The insignificant effects of role conflict on affective commitment (=-0.029, p>0.05) was further reduced with the inclusion of perception of politics in the regression equation. Since the first order condition could not be established therefore, the mediating role of perception of politics between role conflict and affective commitment relation was not proved (Table-4.16). 128

Table 4.17: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of RC, POP and TI Mediator Variable : POP Dependent Variable : TI Predictors  R2  R2  R2  R2 Main Effect : RC

Step-1

Control Variables 0.043

Step-2

RC 0.207*** 0.119 0.076

Main Effect : RC Step-1

Control Variable 0.034

Step-2

RC 0.193** 0.05 0.016 Mediation : POP

Step-1

Control Variable 0.034

Step-2

POP 0.305** 0.055 0.021

Step-3

POP 0.25* 0.063 0.008

RC 0.141 n.s. Notes: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; RC = Role Conflict; POP = Perception of Politics; TI = Turnover Intentions, n.s. = Not Significant

Table-4.17 shows the mediating analysis of perception of politics between role conflict and turnover intentions. First condition to test the mediation was fulfilled with the significant value of role conflict in explaining turnover intentions (=0.193, p<0.01). Second condition was met when perception of politics was regressed with role conflict and showed significant effects of role conflict again (=0.207, p<0.001). To satisfy the third condition, turnover intentions was regressed with perception of politics and provided significant results (=0.305, p<0.01). During the last step, both role conflict and perception of politics were included in the regression equation to predict turnover intentions. Role conflict became insignificant in the presence of perception of politics, thus substantiating the mediating role of perception of politics between role conflict and turnover intentions.

129

Table 4.18: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of RC, POP and CPB Mediator Variable : POP Dependent Variable : CPB Predictors  R2  R2  R2  R2 Main Effect : RC

Step-1

Control Variables 0.043

Step-2

RC 0.207*** 0.119 0.076

Main Effect : RC Step-1

Control Variables 0.031

Step-2

RC 0.159* 0.044 0.013 Mediation : POP

Step-1

Control Variable 0.031

Step-2

POP 0.285** 0.053 0.022

Step-3

POP 0.243* 0.059 0.006

RC 0.108 n.s. Notes: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; RC = Role Conflict; POP = Perception of Politics; CPB = Counterproductive Behavior, n.s. = Not Significant

Table-4.18 shows the mediating analysis of perception of politics between role conflict and counterproductive behavior. To test the first condition, counterproductive behavior was regressed with role conflict and yielded significant results (=0.159, p<0.05). Second condition was met by observing the significant influence of role conflict on perception of politics (=0.207, p<0.001). Later, perception of politics also showed strong predicting qualities towards counterproductive behavior thus satisfied the third order condition (=0.285, p<0.01). Lastly, when both role conflict and perception of politics were included in the regression equation to know their effects towards counterproductive behavior, the influence of role conflict became insignificant which validated the mediating role of perception of politics between role conflict and counterproductive behavior relationship.

130

Table 4.19: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of RA, POP and AC Mediator Variable : POP Dependent Variable : AC Predictors  R2  R2  R2  R2 Main Effect : RA

Step-1

Control Variables 0.043

Step-2

RA 0.143*** 0.125 0.082

Main Effect : RA Step-1

Control Variable 0.032

Step-2

RA -0.208*** 0.111 0.079 Mediation : POP

Step-1

Control Variable 0.032

Step-2

POP -0.233*** 0.056 0.024

Step-3

POP -0.119 0.117 0.061

RA -0.191*** Notes: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; RA = Role Ambiguity; POP = Perception of Politics; AC = Affective Commitment, n.s. = Not Significant

Following the Baron and Kenny (1986) procedure, three steps process was followed to test the mediation of perception of politics between role ambiguity and affective commitment. Which provided the following three outcomes;

 Significant effects of role ambiguity on affective commitment (=-0.208, p<0.001).  Significant effects of role ambiguity on perception of politics (=0.143, p<0.001).  Significant effects of perception of politics on affective commitment (=-0.233, p<0.001).

The influence of perception of politics towards affective commitment became insignificant (=- 0.119, p>0.05) with the inclusion of role ambiguity in the regression equation. Therefore, we cannot accept the mediating role of perception of politics between role ambiguity and affective commitment (Table-4.19). 131

Table 4.20: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of RA, POP and TI Mediator Variable : POP Dependent Variable : TI Predictors  R2  R2  R2  R2 Main Effect : RA

Step-1

Control Variables 0.043

Step-2

RA 0.143*** 0.125 0.082

Main Effect : RA Step-1

Control Variable 0.034

Step-2

RA 0.418*** 0.198 0.164 Mediation : POP

Step-1

Control Variable 0.034

Step-2

POP 0.305** 0.055 0.021

Step-3

POP 0.061 n.s. 0.199 0.144

RA 0.41*** Notes: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; RA = Role Ambiguity; POP = Perception of Politics; TI = Turnover Intentions, n.s. = Not Significant

Following the Baron and Kenny (1986) procedure, three steps process was followed to test the mediation of perception of politics between role ambiguity and turnover intentions. Which provided the following three outcomes;.

 Significant effects of role ambiguity on turnover intentions (=0.418, p<0.001).  Significant effects of role ambiguity on perception of politics (=0.143, p<0.001).  Significant effects of perception of politics on turnover intentions (=0.305, p<0.01).

When turnover intentions is regressed with perception of politics and role ambiguity together, perception of politics became insignificant predictor towards turnover intentions (=0.061, p>0.05). Therefore, we cannot accept the mediating role of perception of politics between role ambiguity and turnover intentions (Table-4.20).

132

Table 4.21: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of RA, POP and CPB Mediator Variable : POP Dependent Variable : CPB Predictors  R2  R2  R2  R2 Main Effect : RA

Step-1

Control Variables 0.043

Step-2

RA 0.143*** 0.125 0.082

Main Effect : RA Step-1

Control Variable 0.031

Step-2

RA 0.09* 0.04 0.009 Mediation : POP

Step-1

Control Variable 0.084

Step-2

POP 0.285** 0.053 0.031

Step-3

POP 0.253** 0.056 0.003

RA 0.053 n.s. Notes: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; RA = Role Ambiguity; POP = Perception of Politics; CPB = Counterproductive Behavior n.s. = Not Significant

Table-4.21, shows the mediating analysis of perception of politics between role ambiguity and counterproductive behavior. First condition was held true with the significant impact of role ambiguity towards counterproductive behavior (=0.09, p<0.05). During second stage, the significant influence of role ambiguity towards perception of politics also satisfied the second condition (=0.143, p<0.001). Similarly, perception of politics was also found significant predictor of counterproductive behavior during third stage (=0.285, p<0.01). Moreover, when counterproductive behavior was regressed on both role ambiguity and perception of politics, the effects of role ambiguity became insignificant. This also provided support to the role of perception of politics as mediating variable between role ambiguity and counterproductive behavior relationship.

133

Table 4.22: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of MACH, POP and AC Mediator Variable : POP Dependent Variable : AC Predictors  R2  R2  R2  R2 Main Effect : MACH

Step-1

Control Variables 0.043

Step-2

MACH 0.126*** 0.069 0.026

Main Effect : MACH Step-1

Control Variable 0.032

Step-2

MACH 0.056 n.s. 0.034 0.002 Mediation : POP

Step-1

Control Variable 0.032

Step-2

POP -0.233*** 0.056 0.024

Step-3

POP -0.252*** 0.062 0.006

MACH 0.088 n.s. Notes: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; Mach = Machiavellianism; POP = Perception of Politics; AC = Affective Commitment, n.s. = Not Significant

Following the Baron and Kenny (1986) procedure, three steps process was followed to test the mediation of perception of politics between machiavellianism and affective commitment. Which yielded the following three outcomes;

 Insignificant effects of machiavellianism on affective commitment (=0.056, p>0.05).

 Significant effects of machiavellianism on perception of politics (=0.126, p<0.001).

 Significant effects of perception of politics on affective commitment (=-0.233, p<0.001). The influence of machiavellianism on affective commitment remained insignificant with the inclusion of perception of politics in the regression equation. Since the first order condition could not be established. Therefore, we cannot accept perception of politics as mediator between machiavellianism and affective commitment (Table-4.22). 134

Table 4.23: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of MACH, POP and TI Mediator Variable : POP Dependent Variable : TI Predictors  R2  R2  R2  R2 Main Effect : MACH

Step-1

Control Variables 0.043

Step-2

MACH 0.126*** 0.069 0.026

Main Effect : MACH Step-1

Control Variable 0.034

Step-2

MACH 0.373*** 0.088 0.054 Mediation : POP

Step-1

Control Variable 0.034

Step-2

POP 0.305** 0.055 0.021

Step-3

POP 0.230* 0.100 0.045

MACH 0.344*** Notes: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; Mach = Machiavellianism; POP = Perception of Politics; TI = Turnover Intentions, n.s. = Not Significant

Following the Baron and Kenny (1986) procedure, three steps process was followed to test the mediation of perception of politics between machiavellianism and turnover intentions which yielded the following three outcomes;

 Significant effects of machiavellianism on turnover intentions (=0.373, p<0.001).

 Significant effects of machiavellianism on perception of politics (=0.126, p<0.001).

 Significant effects of perception of politics on turnover intentions (=0.305, p<0.01).

The influence of machiavellianism on turnover intentions (=0.344, p<0.001) is reduced with the inclusion of perception of politics in the regression equation.

In view of reduced effects, we partially accept the mediating role of perception of politics between machiavellianism and turnover intentions relationship (Table-4.23).

135

Table 4.24: Main Effect and Mediated Regression Analysis of MACH, POP and CPB Mediator Variable : POP Dependent Variable: CPB Predictors  R2  R2  R2  R2 Main Effect : MACH

Step-1

Control Variables 0.043

Step-2

MACH 0.126*** 0.069 0.026

Main Effect : MACH Step-1

Control Variable 0.031

Step-2

MACH 0.148* 0.041 0.01 Mediation : POP

Step-1

Control Variable 0.031

Step-2

POP 0.285** 0.053 0.022

Step-3

POP 0.260** 0.059 0.006

MACH 0.115 n.s. Notes: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; Mach = Machiavellianism; POP = Perception of Politics; CPB = Counterproductive Behavior, n.s. = Not Significant

Table-4.24, shows the mediating analysis of perception of politics between machiavellianism and counterproductive behavior. First condition to test the mediation was satisfied when counterproductive behavior was regressed with machiavellianism and provided significant effects (=0.148, p<0.05). Second condition was fulfilled when perception of politics was regressed with machiavellianism and yielded significant effects of machiavellianism again (=0.126, p<0.001). Later counterproductive behavior was regressed with perception of politics and showed the significant effects (=0.285, p<0.01). Lastly, counterproductive behavior was regressed on both perception of politics and machiavellianism which yielded significant effects of perception of politics whereas machiavellianism became insignificant. This confirmed the mediating role of perception of politics between machiavellianism and counterproductive behavior.

136

Evaluation of Hypothesis (A Summary)

No. Hypothesis Status

H1: Participation in decision making negatively influences perception of Rejected politics. H2: Role conflict positively influences perception of politics. Accepted

H3: Role ambiguity positively influences perception of politics. Accepted

H4: Machiavellianism has strong positive relationship with perception of Accepted politics. H5: Perception of politics negatively influences affective commitment. Accepted

H6: Perception of politics positively influences whistle blowing. Accepted

H7: Perception of politics positively influences counterproductive Accepted behavior. H8: Perception of politics positively influences turnover intentions. Accepted

H9: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between participation Accepted in decision making and affective commitment. H10: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between participation Accepted in decision making and turnover intentions H11: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between participation Rejected in decision making and counterproductive behavior H12: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role conflict Rejected and affective commitment. H13: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role conflict Accepted and turnover intentions. H14: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role conflict Accepted and counterproductive behavior H15: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role Rejected ambiguity and affective commitment. H16: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role Rejected ambiguity and turnover intentions H17: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role Accepted ambiguity and counterproductive behavior. H18: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between Rejected machiavellianism and affective commitment. 137

H19: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between Partially machiavellianism and turnover intentions. Accepted H20: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between Accepted machiavellianism and counterproductive behavior. Accepted 13 Partially Accepted 1 Rejected 6 Total Hypothesis 20

138

CHAPTER 5

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

5.1 Findings and Discussion

This study endeavored to investigate the causes and consequences of organizational politics. It also clarified some other questions too. This chapter provides the details about the questions addressed and the theoretical evidences of the findings reported. Research Question 1 What are the causes of perception of politics in the public sector of Pakistan? Research Question 2 What reactions employees show in response to high perception of politics in the public sector of Pakistan? Research Question 3 Does perception of politics mediates the relationship between participation in decision making and affective commitment, whistle blowing, counterproductive behavior and turnover intentions? Research Question 4 Does perception of politics mediates the relationship between role conflict and affective commitment, whistle blowing, counterproductive behavior and turnover intentions? Research Question 5 Does perception of politics mediates the relationship between role ambiguity and affective commitment, whistle blowing, counterproductive behavior and turnover intentions? Research Question 6 Does perception of politics mediates the relationship between machiavellianism and affective commitment, whistle blowing, counterproductive behavior and turnover intentions?

Research Question 1

What are the causes of perception of politics in the public sector of Pakistan? Role conflict, role ambiguity and machiavellian personalities are emerged as the key causes of perception of politics. Participation in decision making has been a consistent predictor of perception of politics in different studies of organizational politics (Parker et al., 1995; Vigoda, 139

2001). Studies also revealed that employees’ involvement in decision making helped to establish synergy in the organizational environment and countered any emerging cynical attitude such as perception of politics (Witt’s, 1995; Witt et al., 2000). Participation in decision making as a construct was alternatively used for centralization to predict perception of politics (Aiken and Hage, 1968; Parker et al., 1995) and certainly, centralization had also showed strong positive effects towards perception of politics in past studies (Muhammad, 2007; Kacmar et al., 1992; Valle and Perrewe, 2000). This was the reason that participation in decision making was selected as one of the antecedents for perception of politics. However, a more detailed review of literature shows some indifferent findings. In some studies, participation in decision making emerged as an insignificant predictor to perception of politics (Kacmer et al. 1999; Vigoda and Cohen, 2004). Sometimes employees had the likelihood to involve in organizational politics when they were empowered and given latitude to involve in organizational affairs (Sobel, 1993). Taking these facts into account, participation in decision making showed negative but insignificant effects on perception of politics. Participation in decision making was defined as the extent to which staff members participated in setting the goals and policies of the entire organization (Vigoda, 2001). However, the present study showed that public sector of Pakistan was truly centralized in nature where employees had strong barrier which never allowed them to take part in decision making. Public sector of Pakistan was governed through the rules and regulations established by the ministries and government of Pakistan which rarely allowed any individual from the low rank to contribute in the decision making process. This was reflected from the low mean values given in table-4.8. Machiavellianism showed strong and significant positive relationship with perception of politics. Descriptive statistics also provided a clear picture of machiavellianism tendencies among most of the individuals working in the public sector of Pakistan. Significant relationship between machiavellianism and perception of politics was repeatedly found in previous studies. Previous studies gave due consideration to machiavellianism as the main striking variable towards perception of politics (Biberman, 1985; Valle and Perrewe, 2000; O'connor and Morrison, 2001; Ferris et al., 2002). Machiavellianism referred to a behavior in which an individual used another person as an instrument for achieving his/her goals (Christie & Geis, 1970; Linton & Wiener, 2001; Paal and Bereczkei, 2007; Wilson et al.1996). Same applied to political behavior which 140 originated to maximize self-interests and was contradictory to collective organizational goals or the interests of other individuals (Ferris et al., 1989). Researches showed that Machiavellian personalities are developed gradually. Environmental factors were quite influential in shaping Machiavellian attributes (Guterman, 1970; Touhey, 1973). Considering the public sector of Pakistan, it was recently separated from dictatorial system of governance. Pakistan had experienced three Marshal-Laws which impinged strong effects at the civil bureaucracy and at the other organizations governed by the government. Stiff and restrictive behavior gave rise to Machiavellian orientation. Which could be observed in government organizations where employees were more concerned with their personal benefits even at the cost of organizational goals. In the present scenario when democracy is flourishing, employees are more concerned with advancement in careers and their personal placement at key positions by disregarding the rules and regulations. Employees having good political ties are adequately securing such benefits. However, it may drastically affect the organizational performance when irrelevant persons are posted at key positions. This gives rise to machiavelli orientation and subsequently whole of environment gets politicized. Role ambiguity also showed to have strong positive effects on perception of politics. Role ambiguity according to literature was a transformational form of formalization. Formalization referred to the environment where explicit rules and regulations were laid down to guide employees’ behavior (Taggart & Mays, 1987, p. 186). On the other hand, some researches referred role ambiguity as vagueness of behavioral requirements (Rizzo et al., 1970). Both formalization (Ferris et al., 1989; Ferris et al., 2002) and role ambiguity (Parker et al., 1995; Poon, 2003; Muhammad, 2007) have been highlighted as key variables in explaining perception of politics. Role ambiguity has also shown significant positive relationship with the perception of politics in this study. The study revealed that employees perceived more politics or involved in political behavior under ambiguous and uncertain environment. Reasons might be the lack of standard rule, policy and procedure to direct which were essential to control behavior. It provided an opportunity to indulge in unproductive activities and practices. Some of the government organizations lacked any job descriptions to guide employees about tasks to be performed. If they had job descriptions, it is abstractly developed and provided subjective goal orientation. 141

Under subjective job descriptions, loose policy and procedures for task requirement, they had ample opportunity to engage in extra organizational affairs. Another interesting fact reported during the survey was about the conceptualization of organizational politics. Employees particularly at lower level conceived organizational politics as involvement in unionization and developing small coalitions, alliances and lobbies to protect personal interests and the interests of small groups formed on the basis of caste, creed, regional belongingness, orientations etc. Such perceptions were more or less aligned with the key facets of organizational politics which claimed it as any kind of self-serving behavior (Kacmar et al., 1999). When employees were not clear about the task to be performed coupled with the subjective organizational rules and procedures, it provided an opportunity to engage in any kind of personal or group activity which might be contrary to organizational well being. In addition to role ambiguity, role conflict also emerged as a critical variable towards perception of politics which referred to the occurrence of two or more role expectations at the same time and if an employee complied with one expectation it made the compliance difficult with the other expectations (Katz and Kahn, 1978). Role conflict showed strong and significant effects on perception of politics due to two reasons. First related to job description again. The fact noted that public organizations with explicit job profile/work assignments were also a cause of role conflict for the employees. The most common feature of job description was a statement written as “employees will have to perform any duty assigned by the seniors/managers”. This provided an opportunity to all bosses and management to assign any of the work responsibilities irrespective of actual job demands. Especially in this time of democratic era, organizations were strictly working under political control where favoritism and nepotism were at its peak. For example, media reported various cases where HR departments had promoted individuals with political affiliations irrespective of their seniority position. Now if HR officers had to promote undeserving employees then they had to face the dual expectations from two extreme. Employees at the succession plans had the clear expectations to be promoted whereas the pressure groups from within or outside organization wished to protect their interests. So, the undue political expectations were the main cause of role conflict. Second reason might be the internal goal orientations of the departments. Managers entrusted with line and staff authority were also a cause of role conflict due to their autonomous decision 142 making by disregarding the concern of each others. Staff managers took decisions independently without consulting the line managers. It created dual role expectations among employees when both wished a different role from an employee. For example, usually transfers and relocations were made by the administration without taking the managers of the respective departments onboard. Functional managers avoided relieving staff members in such cases and this put a role pressure at the incumbent being uncertain about what to follow. Such situations gave a feeling of inter-departmental politics. Employees falling victim to role conflict perceived that they could take any measure to secure their personal interest by disregarding the rules and regulations.

Research Question 2 What reactions employees show in response to high perception of politics in the public sector of Pakistan? Consequences of organizational politics were measured in terms of the reactions against aversive situation, prescribed by Albert Hirschman’s theory of organizational decline (Hirschman, 1970). Although the theory of organizational decline was presented to elucidate the reactions a customer might show to express dissatisfaction from the product. The possible reactions could be exit, voice, loyalty and neglect. They either leave the situation “exit” or raise “voice” in the form of complain or advise. Even they could stay committed and wait to get things better. Lastly, they might ignore the situation termed as “neglect”. In view of the factors, the theory was widely known as the EVLN theory of organizational decline (Hirschman’s, 1970). The theory has been tested in various environments in view of its wide implications (Colgate and Norris, 2001; Rusbult et al., 1988; Sverke and Hellgren, 2001; Naus et al., 2007; Turnley and Feldman, 1999; Si et al., 2008) therefore it was assumed to predict the reactions in highly politicized environment. Previously, Vigoda (2001) has incorporated this theory to compare the reactions of organizational politics in British and Israeli environment. EVLN theory helped to predict various responses which might appear due to unfavorable situations. All the four reactions i.e. exit, voice, loyalty and neglect reflected the intensity of reactions ranging from high to low depending upon situation. For example, exit was the most unwanted reactions as compared to loyalty being most desirable. Since this study was based on the reactions which an employee might portray in case of highly perceived politics, therefore affective commitment represented the loyalty construct whereas whistle blowing as voice, a soft 143 response but slightly protesting against situation. More severe reaction could be counterproductive behavior and the most adverse consequence could be turnover intentions which could further lead towards actual turnover, representing exit. The results highlighted some of the very interesting facts about the employees working in the public sector of Pakistan. The most strong and significant positive effects of perception of politics was found on turnover intentions. This showed that employees working in the public sector started developing quitting intentions in response to ripening politics within their workplace. The strong positive relationship between perception of politics and turnover intentions has also been reported time and again by various authors (Cropanzano et al. 1997; Poon, 2003; Randal, 1999; Hochwarter, 1999; Vigoda, 2001; Kacmar, 1999; Ferris et al., 1989). Bodla and Danish (2008) also found direct relationship between turnover intentions and Perception of Politics in Pakistani environment before. Turnover intention was the extreme response of the dissatisfying situation according to the EVLN theory of organizational decline (Hirschman’s, 1970). Political environment was always advantageous for some individuals. Especially for those who had good political skills to get advantage from the situation. But when decisions were based on favoritism and strong pressure groups were active to get ahead by using various influential tactics then scrupulous and upright employees, started looking for other better opportunities. Turnover intentions revealed the responses of those individuals who were not part of any political activity. Such employees were usually deprived from rewards and promotion and basically aggrieved incumbents who became the victims of nepotism. Labor market conditions of Pakistan played a major role in this regard which was not much favorable. Employees could easily switch the job as a response to political climate, because of fewer opportunities available in the market. However, according to the study they had the intentions to switch. This facet was quite alarming for the administration of public sector because when employees were working with high quitting intentions, it generated various other negative outcomes. They performed less than their capacity which further drastically affected public interests because public organizations strived for the welfare of the society at large. After turnover intentions, affective commitment emerged as strong and significant reaction due to organizational politics. The relationship between perception of politics and affective commitment was found negative but statistically significant. Previous researches had also 144 endorsed the strong relationship between perception of politics and turnover intentions (Cropanzano et al., 1997; Miller et al., 2008; Vigoda and Cohen, 2002). Turnover intentions was found as the most significant reaction among all other reactions therefore, affective commitment being the second highest reaction was not a surprise to the author. Various researches have shown strong negative relationship between organizational commitment and turnover intentions (Slattery and Rajan, 2005; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Mowday, et al., 1982). Even analysis also showed significant negative relationship between these two variables although the relationship was not hypothesized in this study. Perception of politics negatively affected the emotional attachment or loyalty of employees with the organization. Employees had the feelings that when organizations were not loyal with them, why should they. Under highly politicized environment, employees had their loyalty with their groups which helped to secure their interest. They wanted to grow in their career. If they could not grow due to any reason, they looked for other ways. When organizational politics was the factor making difference, then employees had their loyalty with the strong political group or might have the intention to leave the scenario. Statistically significant but relatively low impact was observed in case of perception of politics on whistle blowing. Whistle blowing was selected to represent “voice” category of EVLN theory, to know the employees’ tendency towards raising their voice against any illegitimate, illegal and self-serving activities. Whistle-blowing was defined as ‘‘the disclosure by organization members (former or current) of illegal, immoral, or illegitimate practices under the control of their employers, to persons or organizations that might be able to affect their action’’ (Near & Miceli, 1985, p. 4). Counterproductive behavior was observed as the third significant outcome of perception of politics. Counterproductive behavior was about the voluntary behavior that violated significant organizational norms and in so doing threatened the well-being of an organization, its members, or both (Robinson and Bennett, 1995). Experts from the domain of organizational behavior, had identified various types of counterproductive behavior like theft, fraud, taking excessive breaks, working slow, showing favoritism, leg pulling, verbal abuse, mobbing/bullying etc (Salgado, 2002; Nasir and Bashir, 2012; Knorz & Zapf, 1996). A wide variety of researches confirmed the strong positive relationship between perception of politics and various types of 145 counterproductive behavior (Cropanzano, 1997; Ferris et al., 1996; Kacmar, 1999; Vigoda, 2001; Vigoda, 2002). The operational definitions of counterproductive behavior clearly indicated that any behavior can be termed as counterproductive behavior if it violated the organizational norms and in so doing threatened the well-being of an organization, its members, or both (Robinson and Bennett, 1995). Employees involved in political activities were usually indulged in mobbing, bullying, irresponsible behaviors, delinquency, excessive breaks and many more which were the key facets of political activities (Salgado, 2002; Hogan & Hogan, 1989; Knorz & Zapf, 1996; Vigoda, 2000; Nasir and Bashir, 2012). When employees were engaged in different types of political activities. It revealed their extra organizational activities therefore, perception of politics and counterproductive behavior had strong positive relationship in various settings. It can be concluded that organizations governed under strict disciplined environment barely allowed individuals to involve in political activities. Loosely controlled organizations provided enough opportunity to engage in influential tactics. Since public organizations were governed by weak administrative system, it gave rise to political culture in the organization. This not only caused other employees to start political behavior but rest of the employees had likelihood of engaging in any kind of counterproductive behavior. Employees lacking political skills found ways to engage in deviant work behavior. This is the reason, employees working with public sector of Pakistan showed different unethical and unproductive behavior. Most of them were habitual late comers, absconders, neglected work assignments and engaged in unnecessary gossiping. Moreover, petty thefts were never taken as a crime. Most of the employees preferred to dispose off their personal assignments during office hours. The survey further showed that a vast majority of public sector employees had different kinds of side businesses which had to be looked after during office hours. The political culture not only provided enough time and opportunity to engage in counterproductive and unproductive affairs but also protected them when caught. Perception of politics showed significant positive relationship with whistle blowing which unveiled the fact that employees might go on to report the political activities to concerned authority when perception of politics started penetrating. The survey provided very interesting findings about the whistle blowing tendencies. The reporting mechanism was quite different in the public sector of Pakistan. Employees mostly 146 reported the political activities and other illegitimate behavior through indirect and confidential channel such as anonymous letters, emails or any other secret means. There were a few reasons behind this approach. Employees had the fear of retaliations so they avoided exposing themselves (Miceli and Near, 1985; Lewis, 1995). Secondly, employees were in direct competition with their counterparts and colleagues, therefore they had close eyes at their co- equals to know any deviation. Disclosing anything about their fellow member and colleagues seemed quite unethical to the reporting person. Lastly, employees usually did not have any strong proof of favoritism and self-benefiting activities which were at the cost of the organization. They had the assumption that the authority would investigate to get the proof. On the other hand, managers felt constraint while taking actions at the whistle blown indirectly because, government laws and statutes never allowed to take actions at hidden reporting and aggrieved persons. Some provisions were available to a few agencies but the aggrieved persons had to report in writing. It had become a common feature of government organizations to receive anonymous letters and emails in bulk. Employees might report fake information due to personal grudges and managers found it hard to distinguish the genuine wrongdoings if they wished to take action. Lastly, employees involved in the adverse political tactics had strong affiliations with pressure groups therefore managers could not take action without strong proof against unidentified whistle blower.

Mediation Effects;

Hypothesis (H9-H20) were developed to know the mediating effects of POP among various relationships.

H15: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role ambiguity and affective commitment. H16: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role ambiguity and turnover intentions H17: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between role ambiguity and counterproductive behavior. H18: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between machiavellianism and affective commitment. H19: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between machiavellianism and turnover intentions. H20: Perception of Politics mediates the relationship between machiavellianism and counterproductive behavior.

Participation in Decision Making as Explanatory Variable Hypothesis H9 to H11 were formed to know the mediating effects of perception of politics between participation in decision making to affective commitment, participation in decision making to turnover intentions and participation in decision making to counterproductive behavior relationships. By satisfying the three steps of Baron and Kenny (1986) conditions, counterproductive behavior, affective commitment and turnover intentions were included in the regression equation individually. Participation in decision making was found an insignificant predictor of perception of politics initially during regression analysis along with role conflict, role ambiguity and machiavellianism, but showed significant effects towards perception of politics when taken separately. This confirmed the three steps conditions prescribed by Baron and Kenny (1986). Results confirmed the mediating role of perception of politics between participation in decision making and affective commitment as well as between participation in decision making and turnover intentions relationships. Participation in decision making showed significant impact on affective commitment, however with the inclusion of perception of politics in the regression equation to predict affective commitment the effects of participation in decision making became insignificant. This implied that when employees were given opportunity to take part in organizational decision it enhanced their loyalty towards the organization. However, when employees felt their working environment to be politicized, it affected their loyalty and participation in decision making failed to develop commitment which was shown by the reduced and insignificant impact of participation in decision making on affective commitment in the presence of perception of politics. 148

Same held true for the relationship between participation in decision making and turnover intentions. Although the relationship between participation in decision making and turnover intentions was significant but with the inclusion of perception of politics, participation in decision making showed insignificant effects. This brought to light the fact that when employees were given participation in organizational decision making it reduced the turnover intentions, but when employees observed high politics in their working environment, the impact of participation in decision making on turnover intentions was reduced which was evident from the insignificant value of participation in decision making in the presence of perception of politics. However, mediation was not observed for perception of politics between the relationship of participation in decision making and counterproductive behavior. Participation in decision making showed insignificant but positive effects towards counterproductive behavior. The positive effects of participation in decision making towards counterproductive behavior might be due to the empowerment which employees enjoyed on account of more involvement in organizational affairs and started deviating from the actual assignments (Sobel, 1993). Role Conflict as Explanatory Variable Hypothesis H15 to H17 were formulated to find out the mediating effects of perception of politics between role conflict to affective commitment, role conflict to counterproductive behavior and role conflict to turnover intentions relationships. The stepwise regression analysis was applied on each of the assumed mediating relationships. The mediating role of perception of politics between role conflict and affective commitment was not confirmed as role conflict showed although negative but insignificant impact on affective commitment. However, same analysis confirmed the mediating role of perception of politics between role conflict and turnover intentions relationship as well as between role conflict and counterproductive behavior relationship. Although role conflict and perception of politics caused high intentions to leave the organization individually. But when both role conflict and perception of politics were regressed together to predict turnover intentions, it made role conflict insignificant. This showed that employees suffering from role conflict got the feelings of organizational politics surrounding their working environment. This enhanced their quitting intentions and they started looking for other jobs. Same findings were revealed for the relationship between role conflict and counterproductive behavior. Both role conflict and perception of politics had strong effects on counterproductive 149 behavior individually, moreover when both were included in the regression equation to predict counterproductive behavior, the effects of role conflict became insignificant. This implied that role conflict also had indirect relationship with counterproductive behavior through perception of politics. When employees working in the public sector observed varying expectations from different quarters, it conferred acute feelings that organization lacked any clear direction and employees were working on their personal agendas. Therefore, employees’ themselves started deviating from their legitimate assignments and involved in unproductive activities. Role Ambiguity as Explanatory Variable The mediating role of perception of politics was also examined between role ambiguity to affective commitment, role ambiguity to counterproductive behavior and role ambiguity to turnover intentions relationships. At first, perception of politics as mediating variable was analyzed between role ambiguity and affective commitment. Role ambiguity and perception of politics were found significant predictors towards affective commitment individually. This implied that when employees’ roles and responsibilities were not clear or when employees perceived their working environment as truly politicized, they lost their commitment for their organization. However, when affective commitment was regressed with role ambiguity and perception of politics together, perception of politics became insignificant predictor towards affective commitment rather role ambiguity. Therefore, all mediation conditions couldn’t be satisfied. Role ambiguity had strong negative effects towards affective commitment that it hardly allowed perception of politics to dilute these effects. When perception of politics was examined as mediator between role ambiguity and turnover intentions relationship. Both role ambiguity and perception of politics showed significant positive impact on turnover intentions individually. Whereas, when turnover intentions was regressed with role ambiguity and perception of politics together, the effects of perception of politics became insignificant. This showed that role ambiguity was a strong direct predictor of turnover intentions. When employees’ did not have clear direction about their role and work assignments to be carried out then they started looking for other better jobs where their talents and skills could be properly utilized. The relationship between role ambiguity and turnover intentions was strong enough like the negative relationship between role ambiguity and affective 150 commitment that it marginally allowed organizational politics to intervene between these two variables. Likewise, role ambiguity showed significant effects on counterproductive behavior. This relationship was quite evident because when employees were not clear about their duties, tasks and responsibilities then they started taking part in unnecessary and redundant assignments. Moreover, perception of politics already showed significantly positive relationship with counterproductive behavior. When employees had the perception about politics penetration in the working environment it encouraged them to engage in unproductive and unnecessary activities. However, when perception of politics was included in the regression equation to predict counterproductive behavior in addition to role ambiguity, it made role ambiguity insignificant predictor for counterproductive behavior. This confirmed the mediating role of perception of politics between role ambiguity and counterproductive behavior. Theoretically, this relationship implied that when employees did not have clear job description for the work portfolio to be carried out, it gave them a feeling that they had been a victim of organizational politics which led them away from the productive work assignments and the variety of task they were entrusted, were mere manifestation of the political manipulation therefore they also started taking interest in deviant workplace behavior which was self-benefiting at the cost of the organization. Machiavellianism as Explanatory Variable Hypothesis H18 to H20 were formed to know the mediating effects of perception of politics between machiavellianism to affective commitment, machiavellianism to turnover intentions and machiavellianism to counterproductive behavior relationships. Empirical analysis did not support the mediating role of perception of politics between machiavellianism and affective commitment. Machiavellianism had insignificant effects on affective commitment as mentioned before. This fact was also revealed by the correlation analysis (r=0.048, p>0.05). Since the effects of machiavellianism were not significant towards affective commitment therefore the first order condition recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986) was not met. The results even slightly enhanced the effects of machiavellianism by introducing the perception of politics in the regression equation to predict affective commitment. The same procedure was applied with machiavellianism to turnover intentions relationship which showed that perception of politics mediated the relationship partially. By examining this phenomenon, it was revealed that machiavellianism had strong and significant relationship with 151 the turnover intentions. Machiavellians were keenly concerned with their self-interest and used various tactics like innocuous, flattering, ingratiation, character assassination, deception and sabotage in the pursuance of their self-interest (Sussman, 2002). This was the reason, they had very weak loyalty with their organization (affective commitment, =0.055, p>0.05) and were always ready to quit for the sake of better opportunity. Especially when they had the perception about rising politics in the working environment they keenly looked for better employment opportunities outside the organization. The analysis confirmed the mediating effects of perception of politics between machiavellianism to counterproductive behavior relationship. By satisfying the three steps of Baron and Kenny (1986) conditions, counterproductive behavior was regressed on both machiavellianism and perception of politics. Machiavellianism showed insignificant impact towards counterproductive behavior in the presence of perception of politics confirming the mediating role of perception of politics. All it showed that machiavellian were not only more political in nature but also perceived more politics in their working environment which further resulted in the shape of counterproductive behavior. Machiavellianism being cynic in nature usually have more tendency to be engaged in various negative activities in the form of gossiping, reduced working hours, exchange of words with peers and bosses, ignoring clients etc in the public sector of Pakistan. These behaviors are increased in the presence of perception of politics or political activities surrounding the working environment. Such employees took part in political maneuvering. Political affiliation provided them actual and perceived protection against any action taken by the management.

5.2 Conclusion

This study was carried out to examine the possible causes and consequences of perception of politics. Participation in decision making, role conflict, role ambiguity and machiavellianism were assumed to be the key causes of perception of politics for the organizations working under the umbrella of public sector of Pakistan. Based on the EVLN theory of organizational decline presented by Hirschman’s, (1970), affective commitment, whistle blowing, counterproductive behavior and turnover intentions were assumed to be the consequences of perception of politics. Descriptive results showed high affective commitment and whistle blowing tendencies among the employees working in the public sector of Pakistan. Public sector of Pakistan emerged as an 152 attractive employer during past few years. Pay and perks have become more competitive as before. Even compensation strategies and emoluments offered by the government organizations have been adjusted at par or even better than the private sector. This might be the reason that employees showed a considerable loyalty towards their organizations. To some extent, they appeared incline to report any wrongdoings which might be in the form of organizational politics to the concerned authorities. Lastly, rising machiavellian tendencies were also found among the employees which needed special attention. Role conflict, role ambiguity and machiavellianism were observed as key predictors towards perception of politics. Whereas, participation in decision making did not show any significant effects towards perception of politics. All the variables helped to explain 17.7% variations in perception of politics while rest of the 82.3% variation was unexplained or explained by other variables. Since various factors impinged upon the political behavior therefore 17.7% variation was found quite significant (R2=0.177, F=8.06, p<0.001). As far as the reactions of perception of politics were concerned, all the hypothesized relationships were substantiated. The analysis shed light at the strong and significant effects of perception of politics on turnover intentions. Organizational politics also showed strong and significantly negative relationship with affective commitment. Counterproductive behavior turned out to be the third most critical outcome of perception of politics. Lastly, relatively low but significant reaction of perception of politics was found in the form of whistle blowing.

5.3 Contribution of the Study

5.3.1 Managerial Contribution

 Organizations working with the public sector have different characteristics, orientation and governance system as compared to private organizations. This study provides a detailed analysis of the causes and consequences of organizational politics from the organizations responsible to provide public services.  EVLN theory of organizational decline proposed by Hirschman (1970) provided the underpinning to the outcomes of organizational politics. This study measures the reactions to undesirable conditions in terms of their intensity. Generally, affective commitment is treated as the most desirable outcome of organizational politics from 153

organizational point of view, whereas whistle blowing follows next and lastly counterproductive behavior and turnover intentions are marked most undesirable consequences of perceived politics. However, the results of the study guide the managers of the public sectors about the predicting qualities of various reactions. Public sector employees start developing turnover intentions in response to perceived politics or otherwise stay committed with their respective organizations. If situation persist, they may start showing deviation from their original assignments and also strives to speak out against the self-centered behaviors of the individuals and groups. Precisely, we may believe that employees have high quitting intentions in response to politicized environment. However, exit largely depends upon the labor market conditions which are not much favorable in Pakistan. This restricts the actual turnover and employees start showing commitment by associating various reasons to the political tendencies exhibiting by different quarters.  This study also reveals the mediating link of perception of politics between various predictors and criterion variables. Perception of politics emerged as a mediator between participation in decision making to affective commitment, participation in decision making to turnover intentions, role conflict to turnover intentions, role conflict to counterproductive behavior, role ambiguity to counterproductive behavior as well as between machiavellianism to counterproductive behavior relationship. In addition, partial mediation is observed between machiavellianism and turnover intentions.

5.3.2 Theoretical Contribution

 Most of the researches on organizational politics were conducted in the developed countries. Theories and research implications originated from one cultural setting cannot be generalized to other cultural settings because cultural dimensions differ significantly from country to country (Hofstede, 1980 & 1993). This study was a contribution from a developing country which was marked high at uncertainty avoidance and collectivism at contrast to developed countries.  This study is among those few which incorporated EVLN theory of organizational decline Hirschman’s (1970) as a reaction to undesirable conditions of perception of politics (Vigoda, 2001). Previously, researches on organizational politics incorporated the 154

actual measures or constructs (exit, voice, loyalty and neglect) to measure reactions against aversive conditions. In this study, the reactions were measured based on EVLN theory in terms of exit as turnover intentions, voice as whistle blowing, loyalty as affective commitment and neglect as counterproductive behavior.  Two of the key constructs counterproductive behavior and machiavellianism which have considerable operational relevance with organizational politics were used.  Some of the variables in the organizational politics literature are of transformational nature. For example participation in decision making and role ambiguity were used in place of centralization and formalization respectively. Centralization referred to the degree to which the right of decision involvement was concentrated (Fredrickson, 1986). Centralization had been proved as the significant predictor to perception of politics (Kacmar et al., 1992) before participation in decision making took into the effect. Contemporary researches have incorporated participation in decision making as an alternate to centralization to predict organizational politics (Parker, et al., 1995; Vigoda, 2001), which was defined as the extent to which staff members participated in setting the goals and policies of the entire organization (Vigoda, 2001). Same construct similarity was traced between formalization and role ambiguity. Formalization referred to the degree to which standard policies, formal rules and procedures were explicitly laid down (Fredrickson, 1986) whereas role ambiguity was defined in terms of clarity of behavioral requirements (Rizzo et al. 1970). Initially, emphasize were made on formalization to perceived politics (Ferris et al., 1989) and now the transformational form of formalization i.e. role clarity (inverse of role ambiguity) has shown strong effects towards perception of politics (Poon, 2003; Muhammad, 2007).  Role conflict and whistle blowing are also the contribution in organizational politics literature which have rarely been used previously.  The antecedents and consequences of organizational politics were based on social exchange theory and EVLN theory of organizational decline respectively. Therefore, this study integrated two of the well accepted theories known as social exchange theory (Homans, 1958) and EVLN theory of organizational decline (Hirschman, 1970). 155

5.4 Managerial Implications

The study provides insight into different areas;  Managers / Directors / Departmental heads should work to develop explicit job descriptions with the collaboration of human resource department (establishment / administration department). Employees should have clear understanding of the task requirements which may be tied with compensation and performance appraisal system. Subjectivity in this regard can prove to be harmful for organizational affairs. Objectively driven standard operating procedures can address the ripening organizational politics to a great extent.  Moreover, dual chain of command should be avoided to cope with the role problems. The most important factor is the political influence which has drastically affected the performance of government institutions. The autonomy and sovereignty of public institutes needs to be ensured. Otherwise, political maneuvering and manipulation becomes a common norm of the organization at all levels.  Since machiavellians have emerged as individuals keenly involved in influential tactics and other political activities. Therefore, MACH inventories can be used to know the machiavellian orientation and individuals marked with high machiavellianism tendencies may be screened out during recruitment process.  Leadership role is quite important in the public sector organizations. They should monitor the subordinate incumbents to know any deviance from the official working. Supervisors need to use all possible means to control the unproductive and illegitimate activities. Mentoring, counseling or any other approach may also be used in the best interest of the organizations. Keeping this fact into account, various national and international agencies have already diagnosed the governance issues which have hampered the performance of government organizations of Pakistan.  There is a strong need to establish direct or indirect channels within or outside the organization, to report any wrongdoings and, illegitimate and illegal practices. This would enhance the communication between managers and subordinates. Employees are usually in the best position to blow whistle when and where they observe any malpractices going on against the interest of the organization. 156

 More importantly, protection should be provided to whistle blowers. Employees normally avoid reporting any wrongdoings when they feel insecure or when they have the likelihood to face retaliation. In the absence of protection employees feel highly reluctant to report any illegitimate activities hampering the performance of the organization.

5.5 Future Direction

 This study employed affective commitment, whistle blowing, counterproductive behavior and turnover intentions as key reactions taping the aversive condition (perception of politics). Contributions from the developing countires are required by incorporating the actual measures of EVLN theory such as exit, voice, loyalty and neglect based on the operationalization of the construct and prescribed items by Farrel and Rusbult (1992) and Leck and Saunders (1992). Previously Vigoda (2001) used these measures by analyzing subjects from two developed countries in a comparative study.  Further studies can be conducted by incorporating the same variables used in this study in different environments where individualism is high like USA, Australia, Canada etc, at contrast to collectivism like Pakistan, India and Bangladesh, to know similarities or differences if any (Hofstede, 1980 & 1993).  Since machiavellian tendencies have scored high in this study therefore, a comprehensive study may be conducted to measure the overall machiavellian orientation of government employees with the help of any widely accepted instrument like Mach-Inventory (Dahling et al., 2009) or Mach-IV scale (Christie and Geis, 1970).  Literature widely shows the role of big five personality traits (Costa and McCrae, 1992) in measuring different types of attitudinal and behavioral orientations. Therefore, big five measures may also be incorporated to know their predicting qualities towards perceived politics and exercising influential tactics.  Various authors have distinguished the nature and functions of public sector from private sector. A similar study may also be carried out in the private sector to know the variations.  The present study was restricted to the public sector under the control of federal government. Future studies may further expand the scope by studying the public sector working under the umbrella of provincial governments. 157

 This study was cross-sectional in nature and the data was collected at one point of time. However, attitude may change over a period of time. Therefore, a longitudinal study may be initiated to tap the attitudinal and behavioral responses in relation with organizational politics.  Since employees scored relatively high at perception of politics scale therefore, a study measuring political skills among the government employees may be carried out with the help of Political Skill Inventory (PSI) developed by Ferris et al., (2005) or any other well accepted instrument.  Other causes of organizational politics which have been confirmed as key antecedents in other settings such as leadership style, organizational citizenship behavior, distributive and procedural justice, demographical variables etc, may also be examined in relation with perception of politics from developing countries.  Future researches may also be carried out to know the impact of “work under-load” on organizational politics. Work under-load may refer to the insufficient work assignments allowing employees to spend time in leisure during office hours. This provides ample opportunity to employees in involving various political activities.  Job security as a construct may also be analyzed in terms of key predictor towards perception of politics as indicated by various subjects in “other comments and opinion”.

5.6 Limitations of the Study

 The results may be considered with the caution that the questionnaire approach is not free from subjectivity.  The data was collected at one point of time being cross-sectional nature of the study. Reactions may change with the passage of time.  Results largely reflected the response of male respondents being the male dominant society.  Some of the standard measures were used without much modification to tap the responses. Employees’ comprehension and general understanding might cause the reporting error especially from employees at lower levels.  The size of the sample and its concentration at one geographical location also poses a limitation. 158

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Appendix-A (Questionnaire)

Mohammad Ali Jinnah University (Department of Management Sciences)

Dear Sir/Madam,

This survey is being administered to know the attitude of public sector employees about various job and organizational related factors. A questionnaire has been designed in this regard and attached with this letter. This study is aimed at contributing to the scientific knowledge in the organizational behavior specifically from Pakistani environment. Therefore, your keen efforts are required to complete the questionnaire in true spirit. The results of these questionnaires are for research purposes only and the anonymity/confidentiality of respondent is guaranteed. If you find anything confusing or ambiguous, you can contact our research associates (on the ext # or cell #) or call me at the given number. You can post the questionnaire through enclosed envelop or return it to our team members

administering this survey when filled in completely. Thank you for giving up your valuable time to assist me in this research study.

Adnan Riaz Mobile : 0321-5*****0 E-mail: [email protected] 221

Section No. 1 Demographical Section;

(Please tick the appropriate checkbox below)

Highest Level of Education Cadre Age Gender

 SSC  Masters  Gazzetted Officer  20 or below  31-35  Male  HSSC  MS/M.Phil  Non- Gazzetted Officer  21-25  36-40  Female  Bachelors  PhD  Staff  26-30  41 or above

Income Level Years with this Organization Nature of the Organization

 Below 10,000  51,000-75,000  Less than a year  6-10 yrs.  Pure Government  11,000-30,000  76,000-100,000  1-5 yrs.  10 or above  Semi Government  31,000-50,000  Above 100,000  Other

Section No. 2 Job Related;

Please encircle the appropriate number against each statement by following the scale given below;

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always Scale 1 2 3 4 5

How often have you done each of the following at your present job? WDB1 Purposely wasted company materials/supplies. 1 2 3 4 5 WDB2 Came to work late without permission. 1 2 3 4 5 WDB3 Put in to be paid for more hours than you worked. 1 2 3 4 5 WDB4 Started an argument with a coworker. 1 2 3 4 5 WDB5 Refused to help a coworker. 1 2 3 4 5

How frequently you participated in decisions on the following issues? PDM1 Promotion of any of the professional staff. 1 2 3 4 5 PDM2 Adoption of new policies. 1 2 3 4 5 PDM3 Adoption of new programs. 1 2 3 4 5 PDM4 Hiring of new staff. 1 2 3 4 5

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Section No. 3 Perception of Politics;

Please encircle the appropriate number against each statement by following the scale given below;

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree Scale 1 2 3 4 5

POP1 Favoritism rather than merit determines who gets ahead around here. 1 2 3 4 5 There is no place for yes-men around here: good ideas are desired even when it means POP2 1 2 3 4 5 disagreeing with superiors. Employees are encouraged to speak out frankly even when they are critical of well-established POP3 1 2 3 4 5 ideas. POP4 There has always been an influential group in this department that no one ever crosses. 1 2 3 4 5 POP5 People here usually don’t speak up for fear of retaliation by others. 1 2 3 4 5 POP6 Rewards come only to those who work hard in this organization. 1 2 3 4 5 POP7 Promotions in this department generally go to top performers. 1 2 3 4 5 POP8 People in this organization attempt to build themselves up by crossing others. 1 2 3 4 5 I have seen changes made in policies here that only serve the purposes of a few individuals, not POP9 1 2 3 4 5 the work unit or the organization. There is a group of people in my department who always get things their way because no one POP10 1 2 3 4 5 wants to challenge them. I can’t remember when a person received a pay increase or a promotion that was inconsistent POP11 1 2 3 4 5 with the published policies. Since I have worked in this department, I have never seen the pay and promotion policies applied POP12 1 2 3 4 5 politically.

Section No. 4 Organizational Related;

Please encircle the appropriate number against each statement by following the scale given below;

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree Scale 1 2 3 4 5

RC1 I have to ignore a rule or policy in order to carry out an assignment. 1 2 3 4 5 RC2 I receive incompatible requests from two or more people. 1 2 3 4 5 RC3 I do things that are apt to be accepted by one person and not accepted by others. 1 2 3 4 5 RC4 I receive assignments without adequate resources, materials, and skills to execute them. 1 2 3 4 5 RA1 I have unclear, unplanned goals and objectives for my job. 1 2 3 4 5 RA2 I don't know what my responsibilities are. 1 2 3 4 5 RA3 I don't know exactly what is expected of me. 1 2 3 4 5 RA4 I lack any clear explanations of what has to be done. 1 2 3 4 5 AF1 I really feel as if this organization’s problems are my own. 1 2 3 4 5 AF2 I feel a strong sense of belonging to my organization. 1 2 3 4 5 AF3 This organization has a great deal of personal meaning for me. 1 2 3 4 5 AF4 I feel ‘‘emotionally attached’’ to this organization. 1 2 3 4 5 AF5 I feel like ‘‘part of the family’’ at my organization. 1 2 3 4 5 TI1 I plan on leaving this organization. 1 2 3 4 5 TI2 I expect to change jobs in the next few months. 1 2 3 4 5 TI3 I will look to change jobs very soon. 1 2 3 4 5

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Section No. 5 Personality Related;

MC1 It is wise to flatter important people. 1 2 3 4 5 MC2 Never tell anyone the real reason you did something unless it is useful to do so. 1 2 3 4 5 MC3 The best way to handle people is to tell them what they want to hear. 1 2 3 4 5 MC4 Anyone who completely trusts anyone else is asking trouble. 1 2 3 4 5 MC5 It is hard to get ahead without cutting corners here and there. 1 2 3 4 5

Please encircle the appropriate number against each statement by following the scale given below;

Not at all likely Slightly likely Moderately likely Very likely Completely likely Scale 1 2 3 4 5

If you perceive that employees in your organization are mere pursuing their self-interests at the cost of organizational goals OR involve in any other wrongdoings, how likely would you try to do the following? WB1 Report it to the appropriate persons within the organization. 1 2 3 4 5 WB2 Use the reporting channels inside of the organization. 1 2 3 4 5 WB3 Let upper level of management know about it. 1 2 3 4 5 WB4 Inform supervisor about it. 1 2 3 4 5

Do you have additional comments or recommendations?

Thank you very much for your efforts and time.

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Appendix-B (Q-Q Plots)

Normal Q-Q Plot of PDM Normal Q-Q Plot of RA

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0 Expected NormalExpected Expected Normal Expected

-1 -1

-2 -2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 Observed Value Observed Value

Normal Q-Q Plot of RC Normal Q-Q Plot of MACH

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0

-1 -1 Expected Normal Expected Expected Normal

-2 -2

-3 -3

0 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Observed Value Observed Value 225

Normal Q-Q Plot of POP Normal Q-Q Plot of WB

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0

-1 -1 Expected Normal Expected Normal Expected

-2 -2

-3 -3

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 Observed Value Observed Value

Normal Q-Q Plot of AF Normal Q-Q Plot of CPB

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0

-1 -1 Expected Normal Expected Normal Expected

-2 -2

-3 -3

1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 Observed Value Observed Value 226

Normal Q-Q Plot of TI

0 Expected Expected Normal

-1

-2

1 2 3 4 5 6 Observed Value