INTRODUCTION

Wetlands are some of the most valued and endangered features of our landscape. are recognized for their many contributions to enhancing water quality, providing valuable wildlife habitat and contributing to public safety and welfare. Wetlands are key components of systems and enhance a vast array of wildlife and fisheries, local and regional hydrologic cycles, natural storm water and flood mitigation and sediment and nutrient capture and storage.

More than 75 percent of the wetlands in the mid-Atlantic region are in private ownership. Urban development pressures and conversion to agriculture contribute to loss, and, as a result, the future of wetland restoration and protection hinges on stewardship-minded individuals, such as you, who understand the importance of practicing natural resource conservation on their lands. Furthermore, most natural resource agencies and conservation organizations are eager to work with private landown- ers to implement wetland restoration projects that provide far-reaching benefits to wildlife, water quality and society as a whole. A number of programs are offered by federal, state and non-profit agencies that provide economic incentives, as well as hands-on assistance regarding private land wetland restoration and management. In the end, you, the landowner, are the key to restoring and protecting the future of our region’s wetlands.

Why some wetlands need to be managed… Waterfowl and wetland-dependent wildlife rely on the contain no standing water during the majority of the growing nesting, feeding and resting habitat that wetlands provide. season. However, the upper 12 inches of the soil profile These wetland habitats can be enhanced for the benefit of both remains moist or saturated during the majority of the growing wildlife and humans. Landowners can achieve these benefits season. Hemi- wetlands are characterized by non-woody through wetland management activities tailored to the wet- vegetation such as grasses, sedges and rushes growing out of lands that exist on their property. The following sections pro- shallow standing water. GTRs are forested areas typically vide a reference of general concepts and techniques to guide flooded from late fall to early spring. If you have other types of your habitat management decisions. wetlands on your land such as , wet meadows or brackish or salt , call Ducks Unlimited to obtain more informa- In addition to our important work on public lands, Ducks tion on management techniques. Unlimited restores and protects three types of wetlands on private lands in the Mid-Atlantic States: (1) managed emergent The purpose of this document is to provide basic guidelines for wetlands; (2) hemi-marsh wetlands and (3) forested wetlands the management and maintenance of your restored wetland for or Green Tree Reservoirs (GTRs). Wetlands managed for maximum waterfowl and wildlife benefits. emergent vegetation are seasonally flooded and typically

Mid-Atlantic Region 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Key Topics/Terms ...... 3

Your Wetland Management Worksheet ...... 4

General Wetland Management ...... 5

Management of Hemi-Marsh Wetlands ...... 7

Emergent Wetland Management ...... 8

Management of Forested Wetlands (Green Tree Reservoirs) ...... 11

Management of Associated Upland Habitat ...... 12

Plants and Wildlife of Concern ...... 13

Adjusting Farm Practices for Nesting Waterfowl ...... 15

Appendices

Water Control Structures ...... 16

Important Plants for Waterfowl ...... 18

Commercial Suppliers of Native Seeds ...... 20

Preserving Your Wetland Investment ...... 21

2 Managing Your Restored Freshwater Wetland KEY TOPICS / TERMS

BROADCAST SEED: scattering seed onto the soil surface. COOL-SEASON GRASSES (CSG): grasses that experi- ence the majority of their growth in early spring and late fall DRAWDOWNS: the drainage (dewatering) of a wetland cor- (the cool months). responding to regional growing season lengths. WARM-SEASON GRASSES (WSG): grasses that experi- FORAGING: searching for food. ence the majority of their growth in summer (the warm months). INVASIVE SPECIES: an aggressive plant or animal that col- onizes a habitat and displaces native and beneficial species. MAST: fruits and seeds produced by trees and shrubs that are eaten by wildlife. MOIST SOIL MANAGEMENT: management of an emer- gent wetland to create conditions that promote the growth of SNAG (TREE): a partially or fully dead tree that remains productive plants to attract waterfowl and other wildlife. Moist standing. Snags provide habitat for a variety of wildlife. soil management units typically are flooded in the fall and drawn down in the spring to expose soil for plant growth during a growing season that promotes benefits to waterfowl and other wildlife.

MUDFLATS: unvegetated areas exposed after drawdown, low tide or natural seasonal drying of wetland areas.Waterfowl and other birds can forage on invertebrates in these exposed areas.

SEEPAGE: movement of water through an earthen berm or dike.

STAGING & LOAFING: areas used by waterfowl to rest and increase fat and protein reserves in preparation for migration.

WATER LEVEL MANAGEMENT: active management of water elevation within a wetland to mimic natural seasonal hydrology patterns that are attractive to waterfowl and other wetland-dependent wildlife.

WATER CONTROL STRUCTURE: a device installed to help control water levels and provide an appropriate outlet for discharging water. Includes stoplogs, weirs, checkdams and inline control structures.

GREEN TREE RESERVOIRS (GTRS): flooded forested areas dominated by mast-producing trees.

SALT MARSH: a that is subject to saline or brackish water.

HEMI-MARSH: diverse stands of emergent vegetation inter- mixed with equal areas of open water.This creates edge within the marsh, providing attractive habitat for waterfowl.

BUFFER: areas of permanent vegetation adjacent to a wetland that help prevent sediments and contaminants from entering wetlands and waterways.

Mid-Atlantic Region 3 YOUR WETLAND MANAGEMENT WORKSHEET

Property ______

Project Name ______Year Restored ______County ______

Note: The dates below are approximate, and should be adjusted yearly depending on spring temperatures and precipitation!

Typical Start of Growing Season (average for your county) ______(a) Typical End of Growing Season (average for your county) ______(b) Early Season Drawdown Start Date (= a + 14 days) ______(c) Regular Drawdown Start Date (= a + 30 days) ______(d) Mid-Season Drawdown Start Date (= b - 90 days) ______(e) Begin Early season re-flood (pump or high clay soils only; must be combined with spring early drawdown to produce ample forage) (= b - 45 days) ______(f ) Begin Regular Re-flood (natural recharge) ( = b - 10 days) ______(g)

Target Wildlife

WATERFOWL ______Mallard Habitat Objective ______Wintering ______Black Duck ______Fall Forage ______Teal ______Spring Forage ______Wood Duck ______Production / Nesting ______Other Dabbling Ducks ______Canada Geese ______Other Geese and Swans

MARSH AND ______Ruddy Turnstone Habitat Objective ______Spring Migration SHOREBIRDS ______Yellowlegs ______Wintering ______Willet & Dowitcher ______Sandpipers ______Glossy Ibis ______Rail/Snipe

GRASSLAND- ______Quail Habitat Objective ______Migration BIRDS ______Pheasant ______Wintering ______Meadowlark & Bobolink ______Production/Nesting ______Songbirds (see grassland management guide)

AMPHIBIANS ______Tiger Salamander Habitat Objective ______Vernal/Seasonal Habitat ______Woodland Salamanders ______Permanent Habitat ______Tree frogs ______Other frogs

4 Managing Your Restored Freshwater Wetland GENERAL WETLAND MANAGEMENT The Benefits of Wetland Restoration and Management Some wetlands can function adequately without any help vary, depending on your goal (e.g., attracting waterfowl or from people. However, in many cases, changes in land prac- shorebirds, improving water level control, etc.). tices and use surrounding wetlands have made it necessary for them to be managed to maintain many functions that original Some of the most notable benefits of wetland restoration and man- wetlands naturally provided. Wetlands management helps agement are those experienced by wildlife. Many types of wildlife, enhance valuable functions like nutrient and sediment reten- ranging from birds, mammals and fish to invertebrates, amphibians tion, flood prevention, wildlife habitat, water quality and and reptiles, depend on wetlands at some point in their life cycle. recreational opportunities. Water level fluctuations are one By restoring and managing wetlands and/or adjacent upland habi- aspect of wetlands that typically needs to be managed. A wet- tat, you can attract an array of wildlife. For instance, migratory land’s original hydrology often no longer occurs naturally in birds such as waterfowl, wading birds, shorebirds and songbirds many areas, so water control structures are installed to help rely heavily on wetlands for food resources and protective cover restore this function. Water level management is important to throughout the year. Wetlands provide many functions that not promote the growth of beneficial plants and attract waterfowl only are crucial to wildlife and ecosystem health but also are of and other wildlife. For example, moist soil management (sea- great benefit to landowners and society as a whole. Many landown- sonal flooding and drawdown) mimics the hydrology of natu- ers realize and understand the economic and recreational benefits ral wetlands to produce abundant food sources for waterfowl. associated with conservation and wise management of wetlands. The plant species growing in a wetland also must often be Wetland habitats provide recreational opportunities in the form of managed. In many wetlands, invasive species such as bird watching, hiking, canoeing, , trapping and fishing. In Phragmites, purple loosestrife and cattails have become prob- some areas landowners can market these activities for a substantial lematic and must be controlled to maintain large populations economic return. Restored wetlands also provide flood control, of native species. Your specific management techniques will improved water quality and reduced soil erosion.

Criteria for Selecting a Site Proper planning plays a crucial role in the success of any watching. Other objectives might include waterfowl and non- wetland restoration project. Landowners must determine the game species production, or improved water quality. feasibility of wetland restoration on their property and take into account the planning process involved in implementing Landowners must understand that project objectives may not be such a project. You must first identify project goals and objec- met based on the type of existing wetlands found on their proper- tives-”What do I want?”-as well as the resources needed to ty and adjustments will have to be made accordingly. Unaltered complete the project-”What will it take?” Project goals and wetlands usually are best left alone for their contribution to the objectives should be discussed with natural resources profes- wetland resources within a region. You should work closely with sionals. Their experience will help determine the most suitable adjacent landowners and follow project plans to achieve your areas and wetland types for restoration on your property. They habitat goals. Your ability to stay organized and remain fully can help determine the feasibility of restoration based on your aware of your limitations will make for a successful restoration objectives. For instance, you may prefer to utilize your wetland project. The following are a few general guidelines to consider for recreational purposes such as or bird when developing a wetland restoration and management strategy.

Topography and Existing Hydrology When evaluating the potential of your property for wet- ty for management or restoration. Topography also will help land restoration, it is important to first determine the topogra- indicate how a restored wetland will tie into the watershed and phy of the land. Topographical maps and site surveys are an easy what function it will have in the landscape. Will adjacent way to identify the drainage patterns of your land. Flat areas landowners be impacted by restored wetland hydrology? Will with low, shallow depressions that may have been previously you have enough upland area to provide a buffer for your wet- tiled or ditched are ideal sites for restoration. Areas that are land against disturbance and predation? Understanding the poorly drained and subject to shallow flooding also have restora- topography and drainage of your land will help answer such tion potential. Deeply flooded areas such as manmade farm questions that likely will need to be addressed when determining are not ideal habitat for waterfowl and will not be a priori- a viable restoration site on your property.

Mid-Atlantic Region 5 Soil Types Wetland restoration or enhancement projects often types found on your property can be obtained free of charge require earthwork to plug ditches or create low berms to cap- from your local USDA-Natural Resources Conservation ture more water. When looking for a suitable location for a Service Office. Soil survey maps list hydric soils that may reveal restoration project, areas containing hydric or clay soils work previously drained wetlands that may be most suitable for best. Dikes or ditch plugs constructed of clay provide a water- restoration efforts. Landowners should also visit a proposed tight barrier resistant to leakage. Soil types such as loam, clay- wetland site and dig several holes to make sure there is a suit- loam and clay-sand are also sufficient for the construction of able layer of hydric or clay-based soils at least 2-3 feet in depth. dikes. If hydric soils are used, dikes need to be designed 33 per- Sandy or gravely soils drain quickly and their presence will cent taller and wider to allow for shrinkage. A map of the soil compromise any efforts to control and maintain water levels.

Water Sources and Water Quality Available sources of water for a wetland project must coin- Pumps provide a reliable source of water but you must consider cide with landowner goals and objectives. Depending on the initial and long-term costs, maintenance and aesthetics. type of wetland that is being developed, a number of questions may arise concerning water supply. For instance, what time of The quality of water both at the source and downslope of wet- year will the water be needed and will there be a sufficient sup- land establishment are equally important. Well-designed wet- ply at that point in time? How much water is needed to main- land restoration plans are only as effective as the quality of tain desired water levels? Who has the legal rights to the water water they contain. Adjacent land use may affect the amount source? What is the quality of the water source? of pollutants, sediments and excess nutrients entering a wet- land. Buffer zones may remedy this problem, but alterations in Natural seeps and springs, high groundwater tables and precipi- wetland design and management actions are often needed. tation runoff are all natural sources of water that may be avail- Best described as areas of permanent vegetation, buffers help able for wetland restoration. The most desirable restoration prevent sediments, fertilizers, pesticides and heavy metals from projects are those that restore existing hydrology by breaking entering wetlands and waterways. They also slow water runoff, tiles and plugging ditches. These types of restorations do not reduce soil erosion and provide wildlife habitat. Landowners require any long-term maintenance by means of pump stations who install buffers will be satisfied in knowing that they have and pipelines. However, in some instances, installing a pump taken the common sense approach to protecting and improv- station may be the landowner’s only option to maintain a desir- ing the quality of their wetland project. able water level, especially during the early autumn months.

Regulations and Permits Wetlands provide valuable functions that benefit individ- including: modifications (such as dams or levees), develop- uals and society alike. In order to protect these functions in ment (buildings or roads) and conversion to upland for farm- the best interest of the public, regulations have been developed ing. It is imperative that, as landowners, you are fully aware of to control and guide activities within existing wetlands. your legal rights and responsibilities regarding wetland regula- Specifically, Section 404 of the Clean Water Act, administered tions. Thus, before initiating wetland restoration activities, you by the Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Environmental must contact the appropriate regulatory agency to ensure com- Protection Agency, establishes federal protection of wetlands pliance with federal, state and local laws. This is a crucial step in the United States. This program regulates the discharge or in the planning process of a restoration project and, if over- fill of material into waters of the United States, including wet- looked, costly violations and delays may result. Biologists can lands. Permits are required for most wetland-related activities, help you determine the correct contacts.

6 Managing Your Restored Freshwater Wetland Maintenance Proper maintenance of dikes and water control structures deposited by beaver near water control structures and emer- is critical when considering the initial time, effort and cost gency spillways also will need to be removed to reduce exten- invested in a restoration project. Dikes need to be mowed on a sive flooding. Preventative maintenance and initial planning yearly basis to prevent woody plant growth. This should be need to be considered when faced with the threat of potential done during August to avoid destroying nests during the wildlife damage. breeding season. Any leaks or breaches in a dike must be repaired quickly to avoid washouts. Water control structures, spillways and associated pipes need to be checked for proper function on a regular basis. Normal Muskrats also significantly increase the amount of required maintenance of wetland structures and improvements will project maintenance. Muskrats may burrow in dikes, resulting ensure a suitable return on project investments. in leaks that require immediate attention. Woody debris

Monitoring The productivity and water cycles of each wetland are and weather conditions. You also will have a rewarding record unique, thus records should be kept for individual wetland of the success of your wetland over time. basins. Mapping or taking note of the initial conditions of a wetland restoration will help determine changes in condition In addition to your own wetland monitoring, Ducks Unlimited over time. Monitoring during the early stages of management also monitors our completed projects periodically, to ensure can affect the success or failure of certain management recom- that your wetland and waterfowl objectives are being met on mendations and assess whether project objectives have been the site. DU biologists will contact you prior to visiting your met. Detailed records of the following will allow for improved land and generally will not request a monitoring visit during management practices in the future: water depth, duration and the fall migration period. DU monitoring is an important part time of flooding, rates of flooding and discharge, vegetation of showing our funding partners that we are dedicated to the composition, wildlife use, harvest of game species, seed yields long-term benefits of habitat projects.

MANAGEMENT OF HEMI-MARSH WETLANDS

With a 1:1 ratio of open water to wetland vegetation, hemi- marshes have a greater amount of edge (where two habitat types meet). The hemi-marsh stage provides a valuable source of food, diverse cover types and a vegetative structure that are utilized by a variety of wetland-dependent wildlife. During spring and fall migration, hemi-marshes provide resting and stopover sites for large flocks of waterfowl. In addition, these wetlands almost always are utilized by breeding female ducks as brood rearing ponds. The high experienced in these wetlands provides valuable invertebrate food for develop- ing ducklings, while the emergent vegetation provides good cover from predators and bad weather.

Additional activities such as fire management and manipula- tion of muskrat populations aid in achieving hemi-marsh con- ditions. Hemi-marsh creation and maintenance require water control, water supply and vegetation management. From a management perspective, the hemi-marsh can be difficult to maintain for long periods.

Mid-Atlantic Region 7 Frequency of Drawdowns Adjustments in the timing and amount of drawdowns in a growth. Muskrats and other wildlife can help to manage vege- wetland will allow for the establishment of a hemi-marsh stage tation growth, but these also have to be kept in check. By uti- (diverse stands of emergent vegetation intermixed with equal lizing water level control structures, scheduled drawdowns can areas of open water). In nature, hemi-marshes experience peri- be an effective means to regulate a hemi-marsh and increase its odic drying, or drawdown cycles, which regulate vegetation productivity.

Flooding Careful monitoring of water levels may be needed to deep, emergent vegetation may disappear, making the marsh maintain a 1:1 ratio of open water to vegetation. If water is too less attractive for wildlife.

Vegetation Choices A hemi-marsh should be approximately 50 percent water within acceptable amounts, you can have a highly diverse set of and 50 percent emergent vegetation, but without manage- plants in the hemi-marsh, such as rushes, bulrushes, duck pota- ment, over time this wetland can become dominated by con- to and pickerelweed. See the Appendix for some recommend- tinuous stands of cattails, with little value to wildlife. By ed species for waterfowl. observing your wetland and managing cattail stands to remain

EMERGENT WETLAND MANAGEMENT

Wetlands managed for emergent waterfowl forage vegeta- amount, rate and timing of wetland flooding. The following tion are characterized by shallow depressions that fill with sections will help you ensure efficient and productive manage- water from autumn and winter precipitation. In the summer ment of wetlands equipped with water control structures. these areas typically dry out. DU wetland restoration projects mimic these natural wet-dry cycles (water levels are lower in summer due to evaporation and transpiration, and higher in autumn due to rainfall) through a practice termed moist soil management. Management mimics or enhances natural water level fluctuation within a wetland to increase productivity of vegetation and habitat use by wildlife. By lowering water levels and exposing during various stages of the year, landowners are able to attract a variety of wildlife effectively. The plant communities commonly found in these wetlands prefer this seasonal flooding. As the wetland dries out the exposed mudflats provide wet soils that favor the germination of a variety of hydrophytic vegetation. This same vegetation produces a vast quantity of seeds, a necessary source of carbo- hydrates for migrating and wintering waterfowl as they move into and through the Mid-Atlantic States. In the spring, water- fowl and migratory shorebirds feed on the abundant supply of protein-rich invertebrates that are attracted to last summer’s dead wetland vegetation.

Wetlands managed for emergent waterfowl forage require the ability to manipulate water levels effectively. Wetlands equipped with water control structures and contour levees give The water level in seasonally-flooded emergent wetlands ranges from landowners the advantage of being able to fine-tune the “none” in the summer months to up to 24” in the winter and early spring.

8 Managing Your Restored Freshwater Wetland Timing of Drawdowns Drainage or drawdown of restored wetlands should be scheduled to coincide with regional growing season lengths. The mid-Atlantic region has a growing season that ranges from 160 to 280 days in length. You can consult Ducks Unlimited for growing season dates in your area.

Drawdowns can be categorized into early, mid- and late season (please see your attached individual project worksheet). Generally, early season drawdowns are the most productive, providing optimal conditions for seed germination, root devel- opment and enhanced plant survival during mid-summer droughts. Mid-season drawdowns also result in high-quality seed production, but some plants will experience poor root development and increased mortality. At the other extreme, mid- to late season drawdowns help reduce seed establishment and adult vigor of unwanted invasive plant species. Drawdown Growing season lengths—Fish & Wildlife leaflet 13.4.6 dates are an important factor determining the composition and production of responding vegetation. It is desirable to note and record plant composition resulting from your man- agement actions. This will ensure that proper water level manipulations have been implemented and will aid in your future management decisions.

Optimal wildlife use will occur where water levels encompass the proper foraging depth of specific species (see flooding sec- tion). For this reason, it is best to manage adjacent manage- ment units or basins at different phases of drawdown in order to provide a diversity of habitats and food resources. Early spring drawdown

Drawdown Rates The period of time during which drawdowns occur helps duction, invertebrate response and wildlife use. Extended peri- determine soil moisture, vegetative response and overall wet- ods of drawdown increase plant and invertebrate food avail- land productivity. Generally, rapid drawdowns (less than seven ability, resulting in longer foraging times for a diverse group of days) should be avoided. Slower drawdowns, extending from wildlife. two to four weeks in length, are more desirable for plant pro-

Frequency of Drawdowns Over time, the frequency at which a wetland is drawn such as disking or deep flooding) after several years, to reduce down also plays a determining role in vegetation community the number of less desirable perennials and increase the num- response and, ultimately, use by wildlife. Drawdowns are typi- ber of high seed-producing annuals. On the other hand, peri- cally scheduled on an annual basis, or preferably on a three-to- odic drawdowns every three to five years create a more diverse five-year schedule. During the first year, a wetland drawdown and productive wetland ecosystem that is much easier for can provide a good response by annual emergent vegetation. landowners to maintain. In this scenario, long-term flooding These plants are a highly sought-after food source of migrating can provide open water that benefits migratory bird species waterfowl during the fall and winter months. Annual draw- and other wildlife throughout the year, and occasional draw- downs also provide excellent shorebird and wading bird habi- downs will help prevent eutrophication, enhance invertebrate tat. However, annual drawdowns should not be done for more levels and improve plant growth. A drawdown schedule should than three years in a row in order to deter noxious weeds. be based on what best suits your individual wetland project Moist soil units may need to be reconditioned (using methods objectives.

Mid-Atlantic Region 9 Flooding Moist soil units should be inundated in the early fall (late August to early October) to coincide with peak migratory bird activity. Impoundments should be flooded gradually to a shal- low depth that is optimal for waterfowl or shorebird foraging. Shorebirds prefer to feed in water 2 inches or less in depth; wading birds in depths of 3–4 inches and water- fowl in depths of 4–10 inches.

right: Fall flooding

Vegetation Choices Depending on the timing of drawdown, a variety of moist species is adapted from: Fredrickson, L.H. 1991. Strategies for soil plants can be recommended for planting, and can indicate Water Level Manipulations in Moist-soil Systems. Fish and which conditions may promote the growth of some invasive Wildlife Leaflet 13.4.6. species. The following table showing the responses of selected

RESPONSE OF COMMON MOIST-SOIL PLANTS TO DRAWDOWN DATE Adapted from Fish & Wildlife Leaflet 13.4.6 Species Drawdown Date

Family Common Name Scientific Name Earlya Midseasonb Latec

GRASS timothy Heleochloa schoenoides +d +++ + Rice cutgrass Leersia oryzoides +++ + Sprangletop Leptochloa sp. +++ +++ Crabgrass Digitaria sp. +++ ++ Panic grass Panicum sp. +++ + + Japanese millet Echinochloa crusgalli + +++ ++ Walter’s millet Echinochloa walteri SEDGE Red-rooted sedge Cyperus erythrorhizos ++ Chufa Cyperus esculentus +++ + Spike rush Eleocharis spp. +++ + + BUCKWHEAT Pennsylvania smartweed Polygonum pensylvanicum +++ Curltop ladysthumb Polygonum lapathifolium +++ Dock Rumex spp. +++ + COMPOSITE Beggarticks Bidens sp. + +++ +++ Aster Aster sp. +++ ++ + a Drawdown completed within the first 45 days of the growing season. b Drawdown after first 45 days of growing season and before 1 July. c Drawdown after 1 July. d + = fair response ++ = moderate response +++ = excellent response

10 Managing Your Restored Freshwater Wetland MANAGEMENT OF FORESTED WETLANDS (GREEN TREE RESERVOIRS)

Forested wetlands have been well documented as valuable By managing the fluctuation of the water’s depth and observ- wildlife habitat. Green tree reservoirs (GTRs) are bottomland ing the leaf growth of the trees you will limit the mortality of hardwood forests that are flooded shallowly in the fall and win- your trees. A few trees may die, but it is part of the natural ter and are an uncommon yet effective management strategy process. Dead trees provide nesting cavities for wood ducks, used to attract an array of wildlife. Forested areas dominated by songbirds and a variety of other cavity-dependent species. The large-crowned, mast-producing trees such as red, pin and dead organic material that falls into the water will provide a swamp-white oak provide food (acorns and other mast, along food source for the insects that waterfowl need to eat for pro- with understory plants such as millets and smartweed), secure tein. Larger woody debris such as limbs and tree trunks also roosting sites, cover in bad weather, isolation for pairing, loafing provide preening sites within the impoundment. In order to sites and predator protection. As the manager of a forested wet- control water levels precisely and mimic natural flooding, you land (i.e. flooded timber, GTR) your primary objective is to pay will need to install an impoundment and water control struc- close attention to the annual cycle of leaf growth on the trees. ture.

Timing of Drawdowns In the spring, water should be removed from the flooded and produce sufficient amounts of mast for wildlife use. timber before the trees bud out or flowers start to emerge. The Lowering the water earlier in the year also prevents trapping spring drawdown should begin no later than Feb. 15. Careful ducks in a bad nest site, because you remove the water prior to management and the timely removal of water from a GTR nest building and egg laying. before the growing season begins helps trees remain healthy

Drawdown Rates Allow water to lower over a four-to-six-week period by be drained completely each year. If water is left on the site after gradually removing the boards from your water control struc- leaf out, tree damage will occur in one to two years, but you ture. Do not remove all of the boards at once. The site should may not see it for four to five years.

Frequency of Drawdowns Once every three to five years, allow the impoundment to establishing themselves. Annual variability in your water man- remain dry all year long. Consistent annual flooding will stress agement, including years without flooding, is necessary to and eventually kill trees, and also will prevent young trees from maintain the long-term viability of a stand.

Flooding Flooding your sites in the fall should occur only after the levels properly. To help prevent mortality you should gradually trees are well into winter dormancy to prevent damage. Wait flood the site to a depth of less than 18 inches. Slowly raising until the trees have substantial color in the leaves. Your flood- the water level over a six-to-12-week period allows you to pro- ing dates generally will occur from October to February. You vide a variety of water depths, which helps wildlife species uti- should not start the flooding before Oct. 15 to Nov. 15 lize the food resources more completely throughout the win- depending where you live. The dates given will vary and care- tering season. It is also important to vary the flooding depth ful observation of leaf growth is necessary to manage water and duration from year to year.

Vegetation Choices and Management When managing the timber on the site, your goal should forest and a variety of plant species. Properly laid out selective be to increase the number and quality of flood-tolerant, mast- or group selection cuts (3-acre or less clearcuts) can aid in producing red oaks (i.e. pin, water, willow and cherrybark improving habitat and the quality of timber produced. You oaks). Maintain a good mix of age classes (i.e. seedlings, pole should target non-mast-producing trees (trees not growing and sawtimber) to keep new trees coming in to the site. A vari- nuts and berries) for removal. The smaller group selection cuts ety of age classes will provide a diversity of habitat layers in the promote oak regeneration, allow grasses and smartweed to

Mid-Atlantic Region 11 grow and limit the invasion of pioneer species such as sweet gum and red maple into the openings. Another option to increase mast production is to conduct crop tree release har- vests. Crop tree releases allow the crown to develop by remov- ing all trees that touch the crop tree’s crown. When planning your harvest you should work with long rotations (80-100 years) and design the cuts to maintain a relatively closed canopy. You should also maintain at least two to four cavity/snag trees per acre to provide nesting sites for wood ducks and other wildlife.

Some plantings may be desirable, since repeated flooding can stress regeneration. If planting is needed, you will want to maintain a minimum planting distance between trees of 20 feet by 20 feet. The wide spacing will give you 110 trees per acre if you are planting a cleared location. Contact your local wildlife biologist and forester for species and dates to plant.

As a manager you will have to be vigilant regarding problems. If you notice a lack of understory trees, more than two to three dead trees, a high number of dead branches in the canopy, low numbers of acorns or yellowing of the foliage you should seek management assistance immediately and call your habitat biol- ogist for suggestions. Beaver also will be a management con- cern, as you are creating excellent habitat for them when you bring water and forest land together. Beaver love to plug water control structures. You should inspect your impoundment monthly to prevent permanent flooding. The earlier you catch the debris build-up by beaver the easier it will be to correct the problem and eliminate the chance of damage to the forest. Finally, enjoy hunting and viewing the variety of wildlife using your restoration project and other habitat work.

Allow water to lower over a four-to-six-week period by gradu- ally removing the boards from your water control structure. Do not remove all of the boards at once. The site should be drained completely each year. If water is left on the site after leaf out, tree damage will occur in one to two years, but you Forested wetlands are sensitive, valuable habitats that require attentive may not see it for four to five years. management after restoration.

MANAGEMENT OF ASSOCIATED UPLAND HABITAT

Many vegetation types, including native grasses, forbs, alfal- nesting habitat for waterfowl when compared to CSG. fa and small grains, provide suitable upland habitat for a variety of waterfowl. Cool season grasses (CSG), as their name implies, The appropriate mixture to plant depends on project objec- experience growth during the cool months of early spring and tives and the amount of maintenance landowners are willing to late fall. These mixtures provide good food resources, are relative- provide. Many commercial plant mixes containing species ly easy to establish and require maintenance every three to five native to the region are available for purchase. Valuable crops years. Warm season grasses (WSG), on the other hand, experi- such as alfalfa and small grains also provide attractive upland ence extensive growth during the warm summer months. They nesting cover, but farming techniques and harvest dates must provide good residual cover throughout the winter and provide coincide with waterfowl nesting periods. cover for waterfowl nesting in early spring. Compared to CSG, the establishment of WSG may be more difficult but require less For additional information, please consult Ducks Unlimited’s long-term maintenance. Overall, WSG provide a more desirable Grassland Management Guide.

12 Managing Your Restored Freshwater Wetland PLANTS AND WILDLIFE OF CONCERN NOTE:Approved herbicides can be an effective management tool. However, many herbicides kill plants indiscriminantly, so extreme caution should be used.

Purple Loosestrife

Identification: Purple loosestrife is an aggressive exotic plant species that commonly invades North American wetlands. It is an herbaceous perennial growing 3–7 feet tall. Flowering throughout the summer, it has reddish-purple blooms on showy spikes. Spread by seeds and vegetative growth, purple loosestrife can form mono- typic stands that suppress native species and reduce diversity. Under certain moist soil conditions, it may outcompete native veg- etation, reducing the availability of important waterfowl food sources and cover types. Eradication is difficult but if detected early, the spread and impact of purple loosestrife can be minimized.

Mechanical Control: Cutting and bagging the flowering spikes will reduce the number of seeds to create future genera- tions. When digging or pulling purple loosestrife, make sure to remove the entire plant, as broken roots can sprout new plants. This technique is best suited for small patches or recently invaded areas. Extended flooding during late spring may exter- minate loosestrife plants but seeds often remain viable in the soil for long periods. However, reduced native plant species composition may result from extended periods of flooding. Biological Control: Biological control programs, notably the introduction of two leaf-eating beetles and a root-boring wee- Chemical Control: EPA-approved herbicides can be effective vil from Europe, have gained popularity in recent years and against purple loosestrife. Check local, state and federal regulations appear to be an effective measure of control. Contact the prior to applying any herbicides within a body of water or wetland. cooperative extension office in your area for more information.

Phragmites (Common Reed)

Identification: Phragmites is a tall (up to 16 feet or more) perennial grass that aggressively invades wetlands. It has long leaves and feathery plumes of flowers. Stands can expand rap- idly using rhizomes and long horizontal runners. There are native strains of Phragmites in the United States, but they are rare and non-invasive.

Mechanical Control: Mechanical removal (hand-pulling and heavy equipment) produces limited results due to the extensive root systems produced by these species. Annual cutting in late July can help reduce stand vigor and may eventually eradicate Phragmites from the area. Extensive flooding of areas recently invaded by common reed to water levels greater than 10 inches can successfully reduce expansion.

Chemical Control: Phragmites can be controlled effectively and federal regulations prior to applying any herbicides within using EPA-approved chemical herbicides. Check local, state a body of water or wetland.

Mid-Atlantic Region 13 Cattail In small amounts (<20 percent cover) cattails are an impor- tant plant in a wetland. Cattail marshes with open water inter- spersion (hemi-marsh) create optimal habitat and provide important invertebrate food sources and cover for wildlife. However, cattails can quickly proliferate into dense stands, reducing wetland plant diversity and productivity.

Mechanical Control: Cattail removal by mechanical methods is possible in the early stages of invasion. It is possible to pull new growth out of the bottom of the , making sure to remove as much root as possible. Drowning (cutting or burn- ing stems followed by flooding at least 2 to 3 inches above the stems) of cattails provide the best overall results. However, water levels must remain stable throughout the growing season to be effective. Contact your local fire department for infor- mation regarding local ordinances prior to burning.

Chemical Control: EPA-approved herbicides can be an effec- tive agent in controlling cattails. Caution should be used when applying herbicide treatments, as some are indiscriminant in the plant species they kill. Check local, state and federal regu- lations prior to applying any herbicides within a body of water.

Woody Vegetation Woody species such as willow and cottonwood are consid- ered a nuisance when trying to manage wetlands for herbaceous plants, as their shade tends to displace herbaceous undergrowth. Willow and cottonwood are highly invasive and difficult to eradicate once they become established (>10 percent cover). Early detection and preventative maintenance is the key to keeping eradication cost low. Disking young saplings up to three times a year works best and is economical. A fall mowing regime, followed by extensive flooding, may effectively control newly established stands. In certain situations, application of herbicides is an option, but will be most effective when used in combination with other control measures, such as disking.

Above left: Black Willow leaves | right: Cottonwood leaves Right: Cottonwood tree

14 Managing Your Restored Freshwater Wetland Beaver Beaver are responsible for creating large amounts of pro- ductive breeding waterfowl habitat. They are also an effective way to manage wetlands and alter successional patterns. However, without water level control, blockage of streams or drainage ditches can cause flooding of roads, farmland and commercial or residential buildings. Beaver commonly are controlled by trapping and relocation, but once dams are built and a population becomes established, the use of water control structures may need to be considered. Installing a pond leveler may be necessary because destroying a beaver dam recreates the sound of flowing water and is a welcome invitation for renewed beaver activity. Clemson beaver dam levelers and three-log drains can be used to help control water levels and are relatively inexpensive to build. Contact your state wildlife or animal control personnel to obtain the appropriate permits prior to implementing control procedures.

Muskrat A small population of muskrats can play a key role in man- aging or maintaining an interspersion of open water and emer- gent vegetation within a wetland. However, muskrats have the Al & Elaine Wilson Al & Elaine potential to overpopulate wetlands quickly and exploit food resources, which often results in a complete clearing of emer- gent vegetation. Muskrats also can create burrows in dikes, causing potential damage and dike failure. Muskrat trapping is one of the most effective control methods in wetlands experi- encing overpopulation. Check your local trapping regulations prior to initiating control measures. In wetlands equipped with water control structures, lowering water levels during winter months increases the amount of winterkill and keeps popula- tions at a manageable level.

ADJUSTING FARM PRACTICES FOR NESTING WATERFOWL

In addition to native grasslands, many species of waterfowl of conservation tillage techniques and delayed cultivation for select hayfields and cropland for nest sites. Therefore, first cut- small grains such as winter wheat and rye allow for increased ting of hay and alfalfa should be delayed until mid-July in nesting possibilities and improved soil conservation. These order to provide ample time for nest hatching. Early season practices are becoming widely used and are incorporated easily cutting often exposes nests and causes hen mortality. The use into farming regimes without experiencing dramatic reduc- of flushing bars attached to farming equipment will help flush tions in yield or profit. sitting hens, preventing unnecessary adult mortality. The use

Mid-Atlantic Region 15 APPENDICES: Water Control Structures Water control structures commonly are installed in wet- may be expensive, but most control structures are long lasting lands to allow for precise water level management. There are and cost effective. It may be unnecessary to install control many advantages to using water control structures. For structures in small restorations, but structures remain very instance, they help control undesirable plants and permit the effective for managing water levels within large wetland units. manipulation of plant community composition. Control Similarly, if a wetland is not to be actively managed and left in structures can be used for water inlet and discharge, but they a natural state, water control structures may not be necessary. require some degree of time and effort by the landowner to monitor and maintain. Initial purchase and installation costs

Types of Water Control Structures A variety of water control structures are available for instal- lation in your wetland. To determine which type to use you should consider costs, desired uses for your wetland and amount of control preferred for water level adjustments. Flashboard and Full-Round risers are the most commonly used structures and remain one of the least expensive options for water level management. Depending on the number of boards inserted in the structure, it is possible for you to make fine adjustments in the water level.

• Full-round risers have advantages over flashboard risers in that they provide some level of beaver control; they do not require a catwalk or boat to access and manipulate stoplogs and they deter vandalism and tampering with stoplogs. Above: Full-round riser However, initial costs may be slightly higher for full-round Below: Half-round riser risers.

• Half-round risers are used at the inlet or outlet of your wet- land restoration (compared to full-round risers, which are installed within the restoration). Like full-round, they can be fit with stoplogs for water level adjustments.

16 Managing Your Restored Freshwater Wetland • Flashboard risers are half-round risers equipped with flash- boards/stoplogs. This will allow you to control the water level easily during flooding and drawdown by adding or removing boards. However, they do require a catwalk for access and the sound of running water generated by this structure may attract beaver, which can plug it with debris.

• In-line water level control structures are built through the dike and are important for lowering the water level in your wetland.

• Screwgate structures are also a relatively inexpensive water control option, but require a substantial amount of monitor- ing by the landowner. This type of structure is ideal for com- plete drawdowns or flooding of an impoundment, but pre- cise water level manipulations are cumbersome and time consuming.

C-10 canal gate (spigotback)

corr. metal pipe canal gate

(unit side) catwalk top of levee water level 3:1 slopes (canal side)

3:1 slopes corr. metal pipe ng

anti-floatation device (pipes larger than 18” dia.)

Mid-Atlantic Region 17 IMPORTANT WETLAND PLANTS FOR WATERFOWL

Native species are often the preferred choice for wetland restorations. Native plants are adapted to their environment and can grow without assistance or management by humans. Often native species are already in the seed bank and will volunteer on their own once the site has been restored. In addition to generating a diverse source of high-quality wildlife food, they can also provide other economic, ecological and aesthetic benefits to humans and the environment. Non-native species can be a threat to native plants and animals if they become invasive. They also may not provide the wide variety of services that native plants do and often must be managed in order to be maintained. However, some non-native plants can provide specific benefits, such as high forage and cover values for wildlife.

The following is a list of common wetland plants that provide food and cover for waterfowl. Although the seeds of most of these plants exist in the seed bed and generally will establish themselves naturally, they can be introduced artificially. Ducks Unlimited discourages the practice of seeding wetland vegetation because it is expensive and generally unnecessary. Caution should be taken when artificially introducing these or any other plants into an ecosystem so that undesirable species such as purple loosestrife and other exotics are not introduced accidentally.

BEGGAR TICKS (Bidens spp.) Beggar ticks, or bur-marigold, DUCK POTATO (Sagittaria lancifolia) The duck potato is an is a moist soil annual. In moist soil management, beggar ticks can emergent perennial plant that grows in shallow waters. It pro- be an important fall food duces roots and corms that source for migrating water- provide excellent waterfowl fowl. Distribute seeds on food. Seeds should be planted exposed mudflats or along in the late fall in shallow water open areas of shoreline or mud flats and roots should between early June and early be transplanted during early August. Broadcast seeding spring. Use approximately 10 works fine. Plant approximately pounds of seed per acre, or five pounds of seed per acre. 1,200 plants. This annual plant may have to be re-planted each year.

BULRUSH (Scirpus fluviatilis, S. atrovirens, S. validus) These large FLAT SEDGES (Cyperus spp.) Flat sedges, otherwise known sedges are an important waterfowl food. It is an emergent wet- as nutsedges, are considered a prolific weed species to agricul- land plant that grows in shal- ture, but they can be a valu- low waters up to 12 inches able food source for water- deep.Waterfowl readily con- fowl.They grow well in satu- sume the seeds. Plant the rated soils along wetlands. roots in early spring, but seeds Seeds or tubers can be plant- should be planted in the late ed along wetland edges or on fall. Plant bulrush in shallow exposed mudflats from early water up to 6 inches deep, April to mid-June. Flat sedges either 1,200 roots per acre or are easy to establish and grow four pounds of seed per acre. well.

BUR-REED (Sparganium spp.) Waterfowl eat the seeds of bur- OLNEY THREE-SQUARE (Scirpus olneyi) Olney three- reeds. Bur-reeds frequently are found along ponds and in shal- square is important for waterfowl, both for the seeds that it low water and can grow in produces and as habitat for seasonally flooded, as well as invertebrates that birds can permanently flooded, sites. feed on. It grows in fresh to Plant 10-15 pounds per acre. brackish shallow water and reproduces by seeds and rhi- zomes.

18 Managing Your Restored Freshwater Wetland PANIC GRASSES (Panicum) Panic grasses are warm season SMARTWEED (Polygonum spp.) This wetland annual grows annual grasses, such as switchgrass, which do well on saturated well on mudflats or in shallow water.The seeds and plants are soils.These grasses grow tall consumed by waterfowl. Either while providing good residual seeds or plants can be used to nesting cover and a food establish this species. Plant the source for waterfowl. Seeds seeds during late fall in moist can be planted in early spring soil or shallow water during on exposed mud flats or in late fall, and the plants in early the saturated zone of the spring. Use approximately 40 wetland margin. Plant approxi- pounds of seed per acre, mately five pounds of seed obtained from a commercial per acre. supplier.

PICKERELWEED (Pontederia cordata) This emergent wetland SPIKERUSH (Eleocharis spp.) Spike rushes grow in shallow species is found in freshwater water or moist soils.They wetlands and its seeds are a provide habitat and food for source of food for waterfowl. waterfowl, which eat both the Plant in 6-18 inches of water, spikes and the seeds of the making sure that leaves are plant.Transplant whole plants above water, using either in spring to establish spike seeds or rhizomes. rushes or plant at 6-8 pounds per acre.

PONDWEED (Potamogeton spp.) Pondweed is an emergent WALTER’S MILLET (Echinochloa walteri) Walter’s millet is a perennial species of that grows well in calm or rapidly growing annual grass that produces good food and cover flowing water.The seeds are consumed by waterfowl, eaten for waterfowl. Of the millets listed (see others under non-native throughout the late summer listing), it is best suited for wet and early fall.The seeds, plant sites. It grows in soil that is or tubers can be established saturated or shallowly flooded from early April to mid- to 3 inches. Plant seeds in October. Plant seeds in shal- moist soil in spring or dry soil low water up to 18 inches in summer, at a rate of 20 deep. Use approximately 1,200 pounds of seed per acre. plants per acre or 40 pounds of seed. (Not commercially available.)

RICE CUTGRASS (Leersia oryzoides) The seeds and roots of WILD CELERY (Vallisneria americana) Wild celery is a com- rice cutgrass can be eaten by waterfowl and other wildlife. Rice mon submergent wetland plant of the eastern United States. It cutgrass grows in wet soil or standing water. Plant approximate- grows in shallow waters 1-5 feet deep.The leaves, roots and ly 30 pounds of seed per acre in spring/fall or 1,200 plants per seeds are consumed by waterfowl throughout the year, and are acre in spring. especially important to migrating . Seeds can be planted in early spring by mixing with heavy clay mud and depositing in approxi- mately 3 feet of water. Use approximately 1,000 buds or five pounds of seed per acre. (Not commercially available.)

Mid-Atlantic Region 19 WILD RICE (Zizania aquatica) Wild rice is an annual grass SHORT SEDGES (Carex spp.) Sedges often are found grow- that grows in shallow, gently flowing water.The seeds, along ing in saturated soils.They are with their young shoots, are highly prized and consumed by a good food source for water- waterfowl.This plant is diffi- fowl. Sedges can be estab- cult to establish and requires lished using either seeds or specific conditions to grow. roots. Plant seeds in soft, sticky mud in shallow (6-18 inches), slow- flowing water.Water level fluctuations should be mini- mal.Approximately 10 pounds of seed per acre should suf- fice.

RUSHES (Juncus spp.) Rushes provide food and cover for waterfowl, along with habitat for amphibians and fish. Rushes grow best along shorelines, in shallow water or saturated soils.

Non-natives sometimes planted BROWN TOP MILLET (Panicum ramosum) This millet germi- WHITE PROSO MILLET (Panicum milaceum) As with other nates and grows quickly to 2-3 feet tall. It is a heavy seed producer millets, this species also produces large numbers of seeds in a rel- that provides abundant edible seeds for waterfowl.The plant is atively short period of time. Proso millet reaches 3-6 feet tall and adapted to well-drained soils, but can also grow in wetter soils. bends over as the seed matures. Seeds do not mature all at once, Brown top millet shatters easily and often will volunteer or reseed but rather throughout late summer/early fall. Plant in May-June at itself. Plant brown top millet in spring or summer at approximately 20-25 pounds per acre. 20 pounds of seed per acre. SORGHUM & SUDANGRASS Sorghum is an annual small JAPANESE MILLET (Echinochloa crusgalli) Also known as grain crop. Sorghums and sudangrasses should be seeded in Wild or Duck millet, this fast-growing annual produces large spring in moderate- to well-drained soils. Seed sorghum at a quantities of seeds and is a popular planting for waterfowl. It rate of 12-15 pounds per acre, sudangrass at 20- 30 pounds per tolerates shallow flooding or saturated soils and grows well in acre and sorghum-sudangrass hybrids at 20-30 pounds per acre. mudflats, marshes and wet spots, but also will grow in upland soils. Plant seeds in spring or summer at approximately 20 pounds per acre.

COMMERCIAL SUPPLIERS OF NATIVE SEEDS Ernst Conservation Seeds, LLP Meyer Seed International Inc.

9006 Mercer Pike, Meadville, PA 16335 4321 Fitch Avenue, Baltimore, MD 21236 Tel: 1-800-873-3321 or 814-336-2404 Tel: 1-888-503-7333 Fax: 814-336-5191 Fax: 410-665-9005 http://www.ernstseed.com/ http://www.giyp.com/brochure.asp?c=407864&cc=GIYP

20 Managing Your Restored Freshwater Wetland PRESERVING YOUR WETLAND INVESTMENT

As valuable, pristine habitat continues to be lost to urban states. As with other conservation projects in the region, DU development, land protection becomes increasingly impor- accepts easements based on their value as waterfowl habitat tant. Many farmers are under the continual threat of urban most important to migrating and wintering birds. sprawl and financial pressure from increasing taxes. In order to preserve their land and their rural way of life, many landown- DU believes that conservation easements provide a “win-win” ers are turning to conservation easements. A conservation situation for both the landowner and waterfowl by providing easement is a way to preserve their property, keeping it in its habitat for ducks and producing an economic return to its natural and undeveloped state while still maintaining owner- owner. If you, or someone you know may be interested in a ship and the right to use the property for economic gain or , please contact DU at 410.224.6620. recreation. Another reason for the growing interest in ease- To learn more about DU’s land protection efforts, go to ments is the potential reduction in estate, income, and proper- ty taxes. http://www.ducks.org/Conservation/LandProtection/ 2825/ConservationEasements.html Because nearly 75 percent of existing wetlands are found on private land, DU is incorporating land protection as an inte- gral piece of the conservation program in the mid-Atlantic

Mid-Atlantic Region 21