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The Air Force Century

1907-2007

December 2007 The Air Force Association Established in 1946, the Air Force Association promotes Air Force airpower. Our mission is to EDUCATE the public about the critical role of aerospace power in the defense of our nation, to ADVOCATE aerospace power and a strong national defense, and to SUPPORT the Air Force and the Air Force family.

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Cover Image: Image from World War II poster by artist Georges Schreiber.

About the Author: After 20 years of service in the US Air Force, John T. Correll joined the staff of Air Force Magazine, journal of the Air Force Association, in 1982. He was editor in chief from 1984 to 2002. He continues to study and write about national defense and air and space power.

© 2007 Air Force Association

Published by the Air Force Association Produced by the staff of Air Force Magazine 1501 Lee Highway Design by Darcy Harris Arlington VA 22209-1198 Tel: (703) 247-5800 Fax: (703) 247-5853 The Air Force Century 1907-2007

Air Force Association December 2007

By John T. Correll

The Air Force Century 1907-2007

Table of Contents

1 The Rise of an Air Force The nation’s air arm, which began with three people and no airplanes, has marked its 100th anniversary.

3 The First Hundred Years < First Force (1907-1919) Signal Corps No. 1 • Foulois • Enlisted Pilots < Air Corps (1920s-1930s) Mitchell • The Airmail Fiasco • GHQ Air Force • Ups and Downs and Ups < Air Force (1940s) Hap • Tuskegee Airmen • Relative Casualties • Aircraft in World War II < Deterrent Force (1950s) LeMay • What They Really Called Them • ICBMs • Air Force Academy < Flexible Force (1960s) Airey • E-8 and E-9 Supergrades • “Bad” Airplanes < Air and Space Force (1970s-1980s) Air & Space and Aerospace • SNCO Academy < Expeditionary Force (1990s-2007) Revolution in Military Affairs • Over Time, Fewer Fliers in the Force • UAVs: Kettering Bug to Predator

26 Lists of 10 Here are some of the most significant events, aircraft, and places of the past 100 years.

27 And Then They Said. . . . The most notable quotes of a century of airpower.

29 Pass in Review Among those who made history in the first 100 years. The Rise of an Air Force

A B-47 takes off.

 The Rise of an Air Force

he organization that would eventually become The Air Force became a separate service in 1947, but the US Air Force started small and progressed that was not all that had changed. The had begun, slowly. When the Army Signal Corps established and national security was tied to the deterrent power of Tthe Aeronautical Division in August 1907, it nuclear weapons carried by Air Force aircraft. The newest consisted of only three people, soon reduced to two when service had become the first line of defense, which was one of them deserted. difficult for the Army and the Navy, with 175 years of The Aeronautical Division did not get its first airplane tradition and seniority, to accept. Competition for roles until 1909 and did not have its own budget until 1911. and missions—as well as shares of funding—would last In 1913, it had about 20 serviceable airplanes, lagging into the next century. behind the British, the Germans, and the French. Its first USAF, in 1948, became the first service to integrate. surge in growth came in , when the Army Air The Air Force increased its range and speed with jet air- Service, as it had been renamed, sent hundreds of airplanes planes, , and other developments. ICBMs to and made a creditable showing, shooting down could put a warhead on target in a matter of minutes. 756 German airplanes and penetrating as deep as 160 miles Platforms in air and space provided an unprecedented behind German lines. degree of strategic information. The precision guided After the war, the Air Service was cut back sharply. weapons the Air Force used in Vietnam pointed ahead Unlike the in Britain, established as a to the coming revolution in military affairs. separate service in 1918, US airmen had to settle for being The and the Air Force Reserve the Air Corps, a combatant arm of the Army. had long been important in the Air Force scheme of The interwar years were a constant struggle to secure things, and their roles increased after the Total Force recognition and support for military airpower. Arguments concept was instituted by in 1970. Women on behalf of airpower sometimes went too far, promising moved into more Air Force career fields, and in 1976, more than could actually be accomplished, but the air- the first women entered pilot training. men were not as far wrong as their traditionalist critics, In 1990, the Air Force published a white paper de- who held that airplanes were a passing fad with limited scribing its role as “Global Reach-Global Power,” but value in war. the Cold War was over and some thought there would be A turning point came in 1935, when the Army estab- little for the Air Force to do. That was soon disproved by lished a “ Headquarters Air Force” and put all the Persian and the other conflicts of the 1990s, Air Corps tactical units under a single commander who in which airpower carried more of the combat workload was an airman. The Air Corps also overcame opposition than before and demonstrated new levels of weapons ac- and embarked on a long-range bombardment develop- curacy and results. The Air Force reorganized its forces ment. When World War II came, the Air Corps was still for expeditionary operations, making them more ready relatively small but was well-prepared to grow, which it than ever to go where they were needed. did, exponentially. When the War on Terror began, the Air Force was called By 1944, the Army Air Forces had a strength of 2.4 upon to fly patrols above American cities and lead the million, which accounted for 31 percent of total Army strike against terrorist concentrations abroad. It has been personnel. Hap Arnold, head of the AAF, was a member of in action constantly ever since. the , and the force was demonstrating As the Air Force observes its 100th anniversary and its its strategic worth both in Europe and in the Pacific. AAF 60th year as a separate service, it is difficult to believe delivery of atomic bombs against brought World that there ever was a serious question about the military War II to a close. value of airpower.

 Key Dates in Air Force History

March 19, 1918. 94th Aero Squadron makes first US operational First Force: 1907-19 flights across front lines. Aug. 1, 1907. Aeronautical Division of the US Army Signal May 24, 1918. Army Air Service established. Corps, forerunner of US Air Force, established. Sept. 12-16, 1918. Brig. Gen. leads 1,500 US and Dec. 23, 1907. Signal Corps issues specification for first military allied aircraft in St. Mihiel offensive in France. airplane. Oct. 2, 1918. First test flight of Kettering “Bug” Aerial Torpedo, Aug. 28, 1908. Army buys its first dirigible. world’s first guided .

Sept. 3, 1908. First test flight of an Army airplane, at Ft. Myer, Oct. 30, 1918. Capt. records 26th aerial Va. victory.

Sept. 17, 1908. Wright Flyer crashes, killing Lt. Thomas E. Selfridge and injuring Orville Wright.

June 3, 1909. First demonstration flight of 1909 Wright Military Flyer.

Aug. 2, 1909. Army buys its first airplane from for $30,000.

Oct. 26, 1909. Lt. Frederick E. Humphreys becomes first Army pilot to solo.

March 31, 1911. Congress makes first appropriation for Army aeronautics, $125,000 for Fiscal Year 1912.

April 11, 1911. Army establishes flying school at College Park, Md. Signal Corps No. 1 The 1909 Wright Military Flyer, the World’s first Feb. 23, 1912. Army establishes standards for “Military Avia- military airplane, can still be seen today. It hangs in tor” rating. the ’s National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C., in essentially the same June 14, 1912. Cpl. Vernon Burge becomes Army’s first enlisted condition it was when the Army Signal Corps retired it pilot. from active duty in 1911. The aircraft, designated Signal Corps No. 1, is a two-place biplane with wooden propellers and a four- March 2, 1913. Flight pay authorized: 35 percent over base cylinder 30.6 horsepower engine. It is a pusher-type pay. aircraft, with the engine and propellers behind the aviators. The airmen sat out in the open with no pro- March 5, 1913. Army’s first aviation unit, 1st Aero Squadron, tection from the elements. organized. This is the airplane in which the Army’s first pi- lots—Lieutenants Frank Lahm, Frederic Humphreys, July 18, 1914. Congress creates Aviation Section of Army Signal and Benjamin Foulois—learned to fly. It is similar in most respects to the first airplane tested by the Army, Corps. the 1908 Wright Flyer that crashed, killing Lt. Thomas Selfridge and injuring Orville Wright. July 28, 1914. World War I begins. The Wright Military Flyer was originally mounted on skids instead of wheels and was launched from March 15, 1916. 1st Aero Squadron joins expedition against a monorail starting track. The airplane was powered Pancho Villa in Mexico. along the rail by the propellers, augmented by a catapult on days when there was insufficient wind. When the Flyer reached takeoff speed, the pilot pulled March 21, 1916. France forms Escadrille Americaine (later back on the elevator lever and rose into the air. In Lafayette Escadrille) with American volunteer pilots. 1910, Benny Foulois and his mechanics bolted wheels from a farm cultivator onto the airplane. That was the April 6, 1917. US enters World War I. Army’s first tricycle landing gear and was still on the Wright Military Flyer when it was turned over to the June 5, 1917. 1st Aeronautic Detachment arrives in France. Smithsonian.

 Foulois Benny Foulois is honored today as an aviation pioneer and as the nation’s first military pilot, but he was seldom so appreciated during his long career. The outspoken Foulois was free with his criticism and made his full share of enemies. Foulois joined the Army as a , was commissioned in the field dur- ing the Philippine insurrection, and was assigned to the Signal Corps be- cause of his interest in aeronautics. He was the Army’s first dirigible pilot. Two other officers soloed in the Wright Flyer before Foulois did, but they returned to duty in their regular branches. Foulois was told to take the aircraft and teach himself to fly. He did this partly by innovation and partly through correspondence with the Wright Brothers. Thus Foulois became the Army’s first operational pilot, and from late 1909 to early 1911, he was the Aeronautical Division’s only pilot. He organized the Army’s first tactical air unit, the 1st Aero Division, and led it in Mexico during the US pursuit of Pancho Villa in 1916. In World War I He was the chief of air service for the American Expeditionary Forces. Foulois was named chief of the Air Corps in 1931. He managed to antagonize the General Staff, the War Department, the , and Congress. However, during his tour, the Air Corps took its first step toward an independent Air Force with the establishment of the GHQ Air Force, and the prototype for the B-17 made its first flight. He retired as a general in December 1935 after 37 years of service. He turned down the opportunity to return to active duty during World War II because he did not want a desk job. By the time he died in 1967, he had finally received the widespread esteem and recognition that eluded him earlier.

Nov. 11, 1918. World War I ends. July 2, 1926. Army Air Service becomes Army Air Corps.

Dec. 4-22, 1918. Army JN-4s make , July 2, 1926. Congress establishes Distinguished Flying Cross to . (retroactive to April 6, 1917).

Sept. 1, 1919. Dive bombing demonstrated. May 25, 1927. James H. “Jimmy” Doolittle flies first successful outside loop. Air Corps: 1920s, 1930s Jan. 1-7, 1929. Air Corps Fokker C-2 sets endur- ance record, staying aloft for more than 150 hours. June 5, 1920. Army Air Service restricted to operating from land bases.

July 13-21, 1921. Martin MB-2 sink three target ships, including former German battleship Ostfriesland.

Dec. 18, 1922. First flight of Army Air Service rotorcraft.

April 6-Sept. 28, 1924. Army Air Service Douglas World Cruis- ers circumnavigate the globe.

Dec. 17, 1925. Court-martial finds Billy Mitchell guilty of “conduct of a nature to bring discredit on the military service.” Mitchell resigns rather than accept demotion.

The Air Corps’ Fokker C-2 Question Mark (lower) takes on fuel during its Jan. 1-7, 1929 record endurance flight.

 Enlisted Pilots In 1912, Cpl. Vernon L. Burge became the first enlisted man to receive the military rating of pilot. The Army was not pleased to find out that 1st Lt. Frank P. Lahm had, without authorization, taught Burge to fly. The official view was that all pilots should be officers. However, the Army changed its mind in 1914 and began training more enlisted pilots. Most of them eventually became officers. Burge, for example, was commissioned in 1917. However, over the next 30 years, enlisted pilots flew regu- larly for the Army in all kinds of airplanes. In the 1930s, Sgt. John Williamson and Sgt. William C. McDonald Jr. were the wingmen for Capt. Claire L. Chennault in an aerial demonstra- tion team that was the forerunner of the USAF Thunderbirds. The great surge in enlisted pilots occurred at the beginning of World War II when the Army could not find enough pilot candidates who could meet the age and education require- ments for commissioning. A total of 2,576 sergeant pilots were trained during the war. Most of them flew in transport, ferrying, and training assignments, but 217 of them flew com- bat missions overseas. Only a handful of enlisted pilots continued flying after the war. The last of them, MSgt. George Holmes, retired in 1957.

March 1, 1935. General Headquarters (GHQ) Air Force cre- ated.

July 28, 1935. First flight of Boeing Model 299, prototype for B-17 bomber.

Dec. 17, 1935. First flight of Douglas DC-3 (military version, C-47).

April 6, 1938. First flight of Bell XP-39 Airacobra.

Oct. 14, 1938. First flight of Curtiss XP-40.

The C-47 transport, popularly known as the Gooney Bird, was the military version of the Douglas DC-3 .

Sept. 24, 1929. makes first blind, all-instru- ment flight in a completely covered cockpit (accompanied by check pilot).

June 20, 1930. Randolph Field, Tex., “West Point of the Air,” dedicated.

May 9, 1931. A-2 leather flight jacket approved for produc- tion.

March 20, 1932. First flight of P-26 “Peashooter,” Army’s first monoplane fighter, first all metal fighter, and last Air Corps fighter with an open cockpit.

This USAAF P-40 fighter was destroyed in Japan’s Dec. 7, 1941 attack on and other US bases in .

 P-40 with shark mouth markings was the trademark of the legendary in . (May 1942 photo)

Feb. 22, 1942. US Army Bomber Command establishes head- quarters in England.

March 9, 1942. US Army reorganized into three autonomous forces: Army Air Forces, Ground Forces, and Services of Supply.

March 26, 1942. First flight of Douglas C-54.

April 8, 1942. Hump —over the Himalayas from to Oct. 26, 1938. First flight of Douglas Model 7B, prototype for China—begins. A-20 Havoc. April 18, 1942. Doolittle Raiders take off from carrier USS Nov. 18, 1938. Roosevelt, in so-called “Magna Carta” meeting, Hornet and bomb . tells Air Corps to develop a program for 10,000 airplanes. May 26, 1942. First flight of Northrop XP-61 Black Widow Jan. 27, 1939. First flight of Lockheed XP-38. night fighter.

Feb. 10, 1939. First flight of North American NA-40, prototype June 12, 1942. US B-24s fly from Egypt against Ploesti, Ro- of B-25 Mitchell. mania, oil fields.

April 3, 1939. National Defense Act of 1940 authorizes 6,000 July 4, 1942. US crews in British Boston IIIs (RAF version of airplanes, 3,203 officers, and 45,000 enlisted personnel for Air A-20) fly first AAF bomber mission over western Europe. Corps.

Sept. 1, 1939. Germans invade , first act of World War II in Europe.

Dec. 29, 1939. First flight of Consolidated XB-24 Liberator.

Air Force: 1940s USAF photo May 16, 1940. President Roosevelt calls for 50,000 military airplanes a year.

Aug. 13-Oct. 5, 1940. .

Oct. 8, 1940. RAF forms Eagle Squadron, consisting of volun- teer US pilots.

March 22, 1941. First black flying unit, 99th Pursuit Squadron, activated; becomes one of three squadrons of 332nd Fighter Group—the Tuskegee Airmen. Mitchell Was Wrong In 1924, Air Service Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell June 20, 1941. Army Air Forces (AAF) established, with Lt. submitted a report predicting that war in the Pa- Gen. H.H. “Hap” Arnold as Chief. cific would start with a Japanese that would begin at 7:30 a.m., followed by Dec. 1, 1941. established. an attack on Clark Field in the at 10:40 a.m. He later added that this would happen on a Sunday morning. Dec. 7, 1941. Japanese attack Pearl Harbor and US bases in Mitchell was wrong, of course. When the Japa- Hawaii. nese struck Pearl Harbor on Sunday Dec. 7, 1941, it was at 7:55 a.m.—almost half an hour later than Dec. 20, 1941. —the legendary Flying Mitchell had predicted—and Clark Field was not Tigers—begins combat operations in China. attacked until 12:35 p.m.

 July 20, 1942. Joint Chiefs of Staff formed. Members are Army Dec. 5, 1943. P-51 pilots begin escorting bombers to European Chief of Staff, Chief of Naval Operations, and Chief of Army targets. Air Forces, with President’s military advisor as Chairman. Jan. 8, 1944. First flight of Lockheed XP-80 Shooting Star. Aug. 17, 1942. B-17s fly first American heavy bomber mission in western Europe against railyards in France. Feb. 20-25, 1944. “” missions by AAF and RAF take heavy toll on German aircraft industry and aircraft.

March 4, 1944. B-17s fly first daylight bomb- ing raid on Berlin.

May 21, 1944. Operation Chattanooga Choo-Choo—systematic Allied air attacks on trains in and France—begins.

B-25 of the Doolittle Raiders takes off from USS Hornet, bound for Tokyo.

The Airmail Fiasco For 78 days in early 1934, the Army Air Corps carried the nation’s airmail. It was a poorly Sept. 21, 1942. First flight of Boeing XB-29 Superfortress. planned venture with one mistake compounding on another. It reflected credit on nobody except the pilots, who gave their best in an impossible Jan. 27, 1943. B-17s make first American air raid on Germany. mission. It began with a political scandal in which the March 1-4, 1943. In Battle of Bismarck Sea, land-based airplanes Roosevelt Administration declared there was sink entire Japanese convoy, foil attempt to resupply and reinforce “evidence of collusion and fraud” in the award of Japanese garrison on New Guinea. airmail contracts to the airlines during the Hoover Administration. The Post Office asked Maj. Gen. Benny Foulois if the Air Corps could carry the March 19, 1943. AAF Chief Hap Arnold promoted to four-star mail. Foulois—who thought he was only reply- rank. ing to a contingency planning question—said it would be possible, given 10 days advance notice. April 8, 1943. Republic P-47 enters combat, escorting B-17s Foulois was totally surprised when President over Europe. Roosevelt terminated the airmail contracts by executive order and announced that the Air Corps April 18, 1943. P-38 fighters shoot down aircraft carrying Japanese would begin delivering the mail 10 days hence. Air Corps pilots were not proficient in night and Adm. Isoroku Yamamoto, planner of Pearl Harbor attack. instrument flying, essential to delivering the mail on time, and the Air Corps did not have enough of Aug. 1, 1943. B-24s based in Libya fly large-scale, low-level the right kinds of aircraft for the job. Open cockpit attack on oil refineries at Ploesti, . fighters, pressed into service, were unsuitable. YB-10 bombers could carry a large load of mail, Aug. 5, 1943. Women’s Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron merges with but the Air Corps had only a few of them. Hazards Women’s Flying Training Detachment to form Women Airforce of the operation multiplied when an extended siege of bad weather struck the nation. To make Service Pilots (WASPs). matters worse, bureaucratic red tape blocked the transfer of essential funding to the Air Corps. Aug. 17, 1943. Eighth Air Force bombers attack Messerschmitt Within a month, 12 pilots had been killed in 66 works at Regensburg, Germany, and ball-bearing plants at crashes or forced landings, and the cost to fly the Schweinfurt; German fighters down 60 of the 376 American mail had quadrupled. The politicians called off the aircraft. operation, laid full blame on the Air Corps, and went back to dealing with the airlines. The only positive outcome of the airmail fiasco Oct. 14, 1943. Eighth Air Force “Black Thursday” mission was that it demonstrated the inadequacies of against Schweinfurt; 600 airmen lost over enemy territory; 60 the Air Corps and led to better equipment and B-17s shot down; five crash en route home. capabilities.

 Lockheed’s XP-80, shown here, became the F-80 Shooting Star, the jet fighter used in combat.

June 2, 1944. First shuttle bombing mission, using Russia as eastern terminus.

June 6, 1944. Allied pilots fly approximately 15,000 sorties on D-Day.

June 13, 1944. First German V-1 flying bombs launched against England. GHQ Air Force The General Headquarters (GHQ) Air Force, June 15, 1944. B-29s based in India and staging through China established in 1935, was a big first step toward strike targets in Japan. independence from the Army. GHQ Air Force—so named because it was to report to an Army GHQ Nov. 24, 1944. XXI Bomber Command B-29s attack Tokyo. in wartime—took all of the Air Corps tactical units away from individual Army field commands and put them under a single organization headed by Dec. 17, 1944. Maj. Richard I. Bong, America’s leading ace of an aviator. all time, records 40th and final aerial victory. In part, the Army was trying to head off Con- gressional support for a separate Air Force, but Dec. 21, 1944. Hap Arnold becomes General of the Army—first the main reason for creating GHQ Air Force was airman to hold five-star rank. to concentrate airpower capabilities for coastal defense of the United States. However, the GHQ Jan. 11, 1945. Capt. William A. Shomo sets AAF record of seven Air Force split the air arm into two parts. It re- ported directly to the Army General Staff. The Air enemy air victories in single engagement. Corps had no control of air forces in the field and was relegated to training, supply, and policy func- Feb. 25, 1945. B-29 crews begin night incendiary raids on tions. Nevertheless, most airmen regarded the Japan. arrangement as a net gain for airpower. From 1935 through 1939, GHQ Air Force was March 9, 1945. Incendiary night raid by B-29s from Marianas ably commanded by Maj. Gen. Frank Andrews, destroys a fourth of Tokyo. who made good use of his position to push for long-range airpower capability and the B-17 bomber. The principle was firmly established that airpower was more than a supporting auxiliary of ground power. The GHQ Air Force eventually became Air Force Combat Command, a subordinate element of the Army Air Forces, in 1941.

B-29 Enola Gay lands at Tinian after Aug. 6, 1945 atomic bombing of .

 Arnold graduated from West Point in 1907, the year the Aeronautical Division of the Army Signal Corps was estab- lished. Disliking the infantry, he volunteered for aviation and was taught to fly by the Wright brothers. He was an excellent pilot, winning the first-ever for outstanding flight in 1912. (He won the Mackay Trophy again in 1934.) When Arnold was assigned to the Philippines in 1913, his next-door neighbor was Lt. George C. Marshall, and they became lifelong friends. The nickname “Hap”—short for Happy—described Arnold’s disposition accurately but he was also tough. Threatened with court-martial for his intense support of Billy Mitchell, Arnold called the Army’s bluff and got away with it. In the 1930s, Arnold commanded the 1st Wing of the GHQ Air Force. He became Chief of the Air Corps in 1938 and Commanding General of the Army Air Forces when the AAF was formed. He built it from its small prewar size into a force of almost 2.4 million people and 80,000 aircraft. He helped shape opera- tions in Europe and in the Pacific, and he selected and devel- oped leaders for the AAF. His driving energy and determina- tion were legendary. He demanded—and often got—results that went beyond what might have been reasonably expected. Because of the effectiveness of Arnold’s AAF during the war and the support Arnold inspired from Army Chief of Staff Gen. George Marshall and others, the Air Force subsequently Hap became a separate military service. H.H. “Hap” Arnold is recognized by all as the father of He retired with health problems—he had already had four the US Air Force. He is the only American ever heart attacks—in 1946 and founded the Air Force Association promoted to five-star rank in two services—in the Army to inform the public about airpower. He lived long enough in 1944 and in the Air Force in 1949. to see the formation of the US Air Force in 1947 and to be appointed by Congress as the first and (so far) only five-star General of the Air Force. Arnold died in 1950.

Ups and Downs and Ups March 11, 1945. AAF delivers 4,738 tons of bombs on Essen, Army Air Service, Air Corps, AAF Strength Germany, the most on any single target in Europe. Year Officers Enlisted March 18, 1945. Some 1,250 US bombers, escorted by 670 fighters, deal Berlin its heaviest daylight blow, 3,000 tons of bombs. 1919 19,189 178,149

March 18, 1945. First flight of Douglas XBT2D-1, prototype 1920 1,168 8,428 of A-1 Skyraider. 1932 1,305 13,400 March 27, 1945. B-29s begin mining missions around Japan; eventually establish complete blockade. 1938 1,650 6,000

May 8, 1945. V-E Day. War ends in Europe. 1939 2,300 19,000

June 16, 1945. First flight of North American XP-82 Twin 1940 6,437 94,790 Mustang. 1944 306,889 2,104,405 Aug. 6, 1945. B-29 Enola Gay delivers atomic bomb on Hiro- shima, Japan. The Army Air Service grew rapidly during World War I but was cut back by more than 95 percent when the war ended. The Air Corps Aug. 9, 1945. B-29 Bockscar drops second atomic bomb on was unable to achieve much growth until World War II began in Europe. The wartime surge for the Army Air Forces was enor- . mous.

 US Air Force C-54 transport delivers vital supplies during 1948-49 Berlin Airlift.

Navy as standard aeronautical units of speed and distance.

Aug. 2, 1946. Smithsonian establishes National Air Museum (later National Air and Space Museum).

Aug. 8, 1946. First flight of Convair XB-36 prototype.

March 17, 1947. First flight of North American XB-45 Tornado, first Air Force jet bomber put into production.

Sept. 18, 1947. US Air Force becomes a separate service.

Oct. 1, 1947. First flight of North American XP-86 Sabre.

Sept. 2, 1945. Japan surrenders. Oct. 14, 1947. Capt. Chuck Yeager reaches supersonic speed in level flight, Mach 1.06 (700 mph) at altitude of 45,000 feet in Feb. 28, 1946. First flight of Republic XP-84 Thunderjet. -powered Bell XS-1 (later X-1).

March 21, 1946. , , Oct. 21, 1947. First flight of Northrop YB-49 flying wing jet and Air Defense Command activated. bomber.

June 17, 1946. First AAF Scientific Advisory Board meets, chaired by Theodore von Karman.

June 26, 1946. “Knot” and “nautical mile” adopted by AAF and

Tuskegee Airmen In 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt directed the Army Air Corps to organize an all-black flying unit. The Army, as racially biased as the rest of the nation, re- luctantly opened a flying school at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. The first 13 student pilots entered training in 1941, and black enlisted men began aircraft mainte- nance training at Chanute Field, Ill. When the first flying unit—the 99th Pursuit Squad- ron—was activated, Capt. Benjamin O. Davis, one of the first pilots trained, was chosen to lead it. He was one of only two black West Point graduates in the Army. (The other one was his father.) Of the 994 pilots that graduated from Tuskegee Army Air Field, 450 served overseas in the 99th Fighter Squadron, 100th FS, 301st FS, or 302nd FS. The Tuskegee Airmen deployed to North Africa and and were in combat from 1943 on in P-39, P-40, P-47, and P-51 fighters. They soon proved that they could fly and fight with the best the Luftwaffe could put up. (A bombardment group was formed as well, but it did not see combat.) The outstanding performance of the Tuskegee Air- men in World War II helped persuade the Air Force, in 1949, to become the first service to integrate racially. In March 2007, the Tuskegee Airmen received the Congressional Gold Medal. More than 300 of those who served in World War II—pilots, navigators, bom- bardiers, mechanics, and others—came to the award ceremony in the Capitol Rotunda.

10 Nov. 23, 1947. First flight of Convair XC-99, cargo version of B-36 and world’s largest landplane. Nov. 8, 1950. 1st Lt. Russell J. Brown, flying a Lockheed F-80, downs North Korean MiG-15 in history’s first all-jet aircraft April 21, 1948. Air Force given primary responsibility for air aerial combat. defense of United States. May 20, 1951. Capt. James Jabara becomes Air Force’s first April 26, 1948. Air Force becomes first service to adopt policy ace. of racial integration. Feb. 1, 1952. USAF acquires its first digital computer, a Univac June 1, 1948. Navy and Air Force air transport systems consoli- I. dated into Military Air Transport Service under USAF. April 1, 1952. Air Force redesignates grades of private first class, June 26, 1948. Berlin Airlift begins. , and buck sergeant as airman third class, airman second class, and airman first class. Jan. 25, 1949. Air Force adopts blue uniforms. June 23-24, 1952. Combined air elements of Air Force, Navy, Feb. 26-March 2, 1949. B-50A Lucky Lady II flies nonstop and Marine Corps virtually destroy electrical power potential around the world. of North .

May 7, 1949. Congress promotes Hap Arnold to permanent rank Oct. 31, 1952. US tests its first thermonuclear device at Eni- of General of the Air Force. wetok.

May 12, 1949. Soviets reopen routes into Berlin. May 18, 1953. Capt. Joseph C. McConnell Jr., flying an F-86, downs three MiG-15s in two separate engagements and becomes leading Sept. 30, 1949. Berlin Airlift officially ends. American ace of Korean War with 16 victories.

May 25, 1953. First flight of North American F-100 Super Sabre Deterrent Force: 1950s prototype.

Jan. 31, 1950. President Truman orders development of hydro- June 1, 1953. USAF aerial demonstration team, the Thunder- gen bomb. birds, activated.

March 15, 1950. Joint Chiefs of Staff assign Air Force respon- June 5, 1953. B-47 bomber achieves initial operational capabil- sibility for strategic guided . ity.

June 25, 1950. Korean War begins. July 27, 1953. UN and sign armistice agreement, producing cease-fire in Korea. June 28, 1950. USAF aircraft attack tanks, trucks, and supply columns along North Korean invasion route. Aug. 23, 1954. First flight of Lockheed YC-130 Hercules.

Oct. 25, 1950. Communist China enters Korean War. Sept. 29, 1954. First flight of McDonnell F-101A Voodoo.

Relative Casualties in World War II

Ratio of Battle Deaths to Battle Deaths Non-Battle Deaths Wounds not Mortal Number Who Served Number Who Served

Army Air Forces 52,173 37,856 17,359 2,244,000 2.33%

Army 182,701 45,544 548,502 9,016,000 2.03%

Navy 36,950 25,664 37,778 4,183,466 0.88%

Marine Corps 19,733 4,778 68,207 669,100 2.95%

AAF Percent of Total 17.89% 33.25% 2.58% 19.93%

It often comes as a surprise to learn that the battle death rate in World War II was higher for the Army Air Forces than for any of the other services. The worst day for the AAF was Oct. 14, 1943, when 67 of the 229 aircraft sent against targets in Schweinfurt, Germany, were lost and 599 airmen—or 26.2 percent of those who went on the mission—were killed.

11 Airplanes on Hand in the AAF

1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Very Heavy Bombers (B-29) 2 445 2,865 Heavy Bombers (B-17, B-24) 54 120 846 4,421 11,720 11,065 Medium Bombers 478 611 1,047 4,242 5,427 5,384 Light Bombers 166 292 696 1,689 2,914 3,079 Fighters 477 1,018 2,950 8,010 15,644 16,799 414 415 468 486 1,056 1,971 Transports 127 144 824 4,268 9,433 9,561 Trainers 1,243 4,124 12,610 22,849 27,907 9,558 Communications 7 53 1,732 3,051 4,211 3,433 Total 2,966 6,777 21,173 49,018 78,757 63,715

Combined total production, counting lend-lease and experimental aircraft, was 230,288. Of these, 31,000 were heavy bombers, 68,259 were fighters, and 22,698 were transports. Figures for 1940-44 are as of June 30. Figures for 1945 are as of Aug. 31.

Source: AAF Statistical Digest

May 27, 1958. First flight of McDonnell XF4H-1 (F-4) Phan- Oct. 12, 1954. First flight of Cessna T-37 trainer prototype. tom II.

Oct. 27, 1954. Benjamin O. Davis Jr. becomes Air Force’s first Sept. 1, 1958. New enlisted supergrade, senior master sergeant black general officer. (E-8), created.

June 19, 1955. B-52 bomber achieves initial operational capa- Feb. 12, 1959. SAC retires last B-36, becomes all-jet bomber bility. force.

Nov. 26, 1955. Pentagon gives Air Force operational control June 3, 1959. First class graduates from Air Force Academy. of ICBMs and all land-based missiles with ranges greater than 200 miles. Sept. 9, 1959. Atlas ICBM operational with SAC.

Nov. 11, 1956. First flight of Convair XB-58A, Air Force’s first Dec. 1, 1959. New enlisted supergrade, chief master sergeant supersonic bomber. (E-9), created.

Dec. 26, 1956. First flight of Convair F-106 Dart. Flexible Force: 1960s Jan. 18, 1957. Three B-52s complete first round-the-world non- stop flight by jet aircraft. Aug. 18, 1960. Air Force C-119J retrieves in midair a

June 28, 1957. SAC receives first KC-135 jet-powered tank- ers.

Aug. 1, 1957. US and form North American Air Defense Command.

Aug. 15, 1957. Gen. Nathan F. Twining becomes first USAF officer to serve as Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff.

Dec. 17, 1957. First successful flight of Atlas ICBM.

Sleek, swept-wing B-47 Stratojet became operational in 1953.

12 August 1957 Air Force Magazine cover observes 50th anniversary of the founding of the Air Force on Aug. 1, 1907.

satellite imagery capsule re-entering atmosphere from space.

Sept. 21, 1960. Tactical Air Command accepts first Republic F-105D Thunderchief.

Feb. 3, 1961. SAC’s EC-135 “Looking Glass” Airborne Com- mand Post begins operations.

LeMay July 21, 1961. Capt. Virgil I. “Gus” Grissom becomes first Air Force in space. Jimmy Doolittle said that Curtis LeMay was the best air combat commander ever produced by the United States or any other nation. Most airmen would Nov. 16, 1961. USAF “Farm Gate” air commandos arrive in agree with that judgment. LeMay was commissioned Vietnam. through ROTC and won his wings in 1929. His name would forever be associated with bombers, but Jan. 17, 1962. Air Force adopts Navy’s McDonnell F4H-1 LeMay began as a and did not transi- Phantom II fighter. tion into B-17 bombers until 1937. He was assigned to GHQ Air Force where he became triple-rated as a pilot, navigator, and bombardier. Oct. 14, 1962. Air Force U-2 obtains photographic evidence of When World War II began, LeMay went to Europe, Soviet SS-4 intermediate-range nuclear missile sites in Cuba. initially as a group commander in Eighth Air Force, rising to command of a bomb division. He led the Oct. 22, 1962. Strategic Air Command goes on airborne alert. toughest missions himself and developed bomber tactics, including the famous “” in which Oct. 27, 1962. First 10 Air Force Minuteman ICBMs go on the guns of the B-17s provided maximum mutual alert. protection for the formation. He went from lieutenant to major general in 18 months. In 1944, Hap Arnold chose LeMay to introduce the Oct. 28, 1962. USSR agrees to remove missiles from Cuba, B-29 bomber into combat, first in XX Bomber Com- ending Cuban missile crisis. mand in India and China and then, in 1945, in the XXI Bomber Command in the Marianas, where LeMay made the B-29 more effective with new concepts of operation. Eventually, the combination of convention-

al and atomic bombardment induced the Japanese photo Boeing surrender. In 1948, Lieutenant General LeMay was recalled from his command in Europe to take over Strategic Air Command, which was in sad shape. LeMay moved the headquarters to Omaha, Neb., molded SAC to his exacting standards, and made it into the most potent fighting force the world had ever known. He did not leave SAC until 1957, when he became Air Force vice chief of staff. He was named Chief in 1961 and retired in 1965. LeMay’s reputation suffered somewhat when he ran for vice president on a fringe party ticket in 1968, but his place in history was secure. He died in 1990. The KC-135 aerial refueler, the Air Force’s first jet-powered tanker, entered the SAC inventory in 1957.

13 Capt. Virgil “Gus” Grissom was one of the first seven US . In 1961, he piloted Liberty Bell 7, becoming the first Air Force astro- naut in space. He died in a 1967 flash fire aboard an Apollo during a training mission.

Oct. 22, 1963. In Exercise Big Lift, Air Force more than 15,000 Army troops from to Germany.

Dec. 17, 1963. First flight of Lockheed C-141A Starlifter.

Aug. 2, 1964. Destroyer USS Maddox attacked by North Viet- namese patrol boats in Gulf of Tonkin.

Aug. 5, 1964. USAF moves in force into Thailand and .

Aug. 7, 1964. Congress passes Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.

Sept. 21, 1964. First flight of North American XB-70A Valkyrie bomber.

Dec. 14, 1964. Operation Barrel Roll, support of ground forces in northern Laos, begins.

Dec. 21, 1964. First flight of General Dynamics F-111A.

Dec. 22, 1964. First flight of Lockheed SR-71A “Blackbird” strategic .

Davis Benjamin O. Davis Jr., was the first black general officer in the Air Force, the son of the first black general officer in the Army. During World War II, he was commander of the fabled Tuskegee Airmen. He led the way, not only for black airmen but also for the Air Force itself. He entered West Point in 1932 and was shunned by the other cadets for four years. None of them spoke to him except for official discourse. He had no roommate. He graduated in 1936 and was commissioned in the infantry. In 1940, to shore up his African- American political support, President Roosevelt promoted Davis’ father, Benjamin O. Davis Sr., to (after 42 years of service) and ordered the Army Air Corps to create a black flying organization with a black commander. Davis won his wings in 1942 as one of the first Tuskegee Airmen. In 1943, Lieutenant Colonel Davis led the 99th Fighter Squadron to Boeing photo Boeing North Africa, returning to the US later that year to take command of the 332nd Fighter Group and deploy to Italy. In 1954, Davis—then director of operations and training in Far East Air Forces—got his first star. In 1959, he became the first black officer of any service to hold two-star rank. His third star came in 1965 when he was assigned as Chief of Staff for the United Nations Command and US Forces in Korea. He finished his career with assignments as commander of 13th Air Force and as deputy commander in chief of US Strike Command. He retired in 1970 and began that same year to organize the Sky Marshals before serving as assistant secretary of transportation from 1971-75. In 1998, Congress promoted Davis to four-star gen- eral. He died in 2002.

14 March 2, 1965. Operation Rolling Thunder, sustained air cam- paign against North Vietnam, begins. What They Really Called Them April 3, 1965. Operation Steel Tiger, interdiction of Ho Chi People in the Air Force called the F-4 the Phantom Minh Trail, begins. and the F-15 the Eagle. That was unusual because those were the official names of the airplanes. Air- April 20, 1965. Strategy changes in Vietnam: all air operations men in the field generally ignored official names. in theater subordinated to ground war in South Vietnam. Somebody, somewhere may have once called the C-47 a “Skytrain,” but that’s open to doubt. Listed below are the names actually used for some of the June 3, 1965. Air Force Maj. Edward H. White makes first US Air Force’s noteworthy airplanes. spacewalk. (In some cases, an airplane had no official name, so the troops gave it one. Examples are the P-26 June 18, 1965. SAC B-52s are used for first time in Vietnam. Peashooter and the SR-71, popularly known as the Blackbird but called “Habu” by the pilots who flew Sept. 27, 1965. First flight of YA-7A Corsair II . it. The B-17 was perhaps in a category by itself. The name by which it is known to history, the Flying For- tress, was bestowed on it by a newspaper reporter Dec. 1, 1965. F-100F Super Sabres carry out first in 1935.) suppression mission in Vietnam. Official Actual Boeing B-52 Stratofortress Buff Convair F-102 Delta Dagger Deuce Convair F-106 Delta Dart Six Douglas A-1 Skyraider Spad, Sandy Douglas C-124 Globemaster II Old Shaky Douglas C-47 Skytrain Gooney Bird Fairchild A-10 Thunderbolt II Warthog Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar Dollar Nineteen GD F-16 Fighting Falcon Electric Jet, Viper LTV A-7 Corsair II Sluf Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star T-Bird NA F-100 Super Sabre Hun NASA Dryden Flight Research Center photo Center Research Flight Dryden NASA Republic P-47 Thunderbolt Jug Republic F-105 Thunderchief Thud Rockwell B-1 Lancer Bone

GD = General Dynamics; NA = North American Source: Jeffrey Rhodes, Air Force Magazine

The futuristic North American XB-70A Valkyrie bomber, shown above, made its first flight in September 1964.

Lockheed’s SR-71A “Blackbird,” the world’s fastest-ever air- craft, made its debut in December 1964.

March 4, 1966. MiG 17s attack Air Force F-4C Phantoms in first air-to-air combat near North Vietnam.

Jan. 2, 1967. In MiG sweep, Operation Bolo, 8th Tactical Fighter Wing F-4s down seven North Vietnamese MiG-21s over Red River Valley in North Vietnam.

USAF photo byTSgt. Michael Haggerty April 3, 1967. CMSgt. Paul W. Airey becomes first Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force.

May 13, 1967. F-4s from 8th Tactical Fighter Wing again shoot down seven MiGs in a single day.

15 Jan. 1, 1968. Battle of Khe Sanh in South Vietnam begins. Air Force airlifters deliver average of 165 tons of materiel daily during 77-day siege.

March 31, 1968. President Johnson announces partial halt of

bombing of North Vietnam. USAF photo USAF May 25, 1968. First flight of Grumman EA-6B electronic war- fare-airborne jammer prototype.

Nov. 1, 1968. President Johnson halts all bombing of North Vietnam.

Air and Space Force: 1970s, 1980s

June 6, 1970. First operational C-5A Galaxy transport delivered to USAF.

August 1970. Pentagon promulgates “Total Force” concept.

Dec. 30, 1970. First squadron of Minuteman III multiple warhead Atlas ICBM in 1958 test. missiles becomes operational. ICBMs It was by no means certain that the Air Force July 16, 1971. Jeanne M. Holm becomes first USAF woman would be the service to operate the Intercontinental general officer. Ballistic Missile. In a roles and missions challenge that began in the 1940s and extended into the 1950s, Sept. 3, 1971. New US Air Force Museum building dedicated the Army argued that the ICBM was artillery. The in Dayton, Ohio. Air Force initially thought of missiles as “pilotless airplanes,” but the concept grew considerably as the March 1972. North Vietnamese spring invasion halted and turned technology advanced. In 1950 the Joint Chiefs of Staff assigned respon- back by US airpower. sibility for strategic guided missiles to the Air Force, and in 1955, the Air Force was given specific opera- April 1, 1972. Community College of the Air Force estab- tional control of ICBMs and land-based missiles with lished. ranges greater than 200 miles. The Air Force’s early success with missiles owed a April 6, 1972. US resumes sustained bombing operations against great deal to Gen. Bernard Schriever and a develop- North Vietnam. ment team that fielded four successful ICBMs—At- las, , and the solid-fuel Minuteman—by 1964. There were predictions that the missiles would make April 27, 1972. Four Air Force fighters employing I bombers obsolete. That did not happen, but by 1964, “smart” bombs knock down Thanh Hoa Bridge in North Vietnam, the number of ICBMs on alert pulled even with the where 871 conventional sorties had previously failed. number of bombers on alert, and then moved ahead. ICBMs were the bedrock of strategic deterrence during the Cold War. Land-based and submarine- launched ballistic missiles, along with manned bombers, formed a mutually supporting Strategic Triad. The most advanced US ICBM was Peacekeeper (formerly the MX), operational in 1985. The larger part of the ICBM force was deactivated when the Cold War ended, but a residual comple- ment of 450 Minuteman IIIs are to remain in service, assigned to .

No airplane is more symbolic of the air war against North Vietnam than the F-105. The “Thud” flew 75 percent of the strikes against the north and took more losses over North Vietnam than any other type of aircraft.

16 May 10-11, 1972. F-4 Phantoms with smart bombs take Paul Doumer Bridge at out of use.

July 1, 1972. Senior Noncommissioned Officer Academy acti- vated at Gunter AFS, Ala.

Aug. 28, 1972. Capt. Steve Ritchie becomes Air Force’s first

Minuteman ICBM, shown in test flight, went on alert in October 1962. The Minuteman III version remains the backbone of the nuclear missile force.

The Air Force was designated as Department of Defense executive agent for space in 2001, but, long before that, its space programs had been providing many kinds of capability to all of the armed forces. The satellite, shown here, stood watch against strategic missile launch during the Cold War. USAF image

ace since Korean War.

Dec. 18, 1972. Operation Linebacker II, 11-day bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong, begins.

Jan. 28, 1973. Cease-fire ends US air operations in Vietnam.

Feb. 12, 1973. Operation Homecoming, return of POWs, be- gins.

Oct. 12-Nov. 14, 1973. US Nickel Grass airlift resupplies in Yom Kippur War.

Capt. Steve Ritchie, in combat over Vietnam, notched his fifth victory in August 1972. He was USAF’s first ace since Korea.

17 Nov. 14, 1973. First production F-15A Eagle delivered to the USAF.

Dec. 23, 1974. First flight of Rockwell B-1A variable-geometry bomber.

Jan. 13, 1975. General Dynamics YF-16 wins Air Force Light- weight Fighter competition.

Sept. 1, 1975. Gen. Daniel “Chappie” James Jr., USAF, becomes first black officer to achieve four-star rank in US military.

Oct. 21, 1975. First flight of Fairchild Republic A-10A Thun- derbolt II.

Nov. 29, 1975. First Red Flag exercise at Nellis AFB, Nev.

Aug. 26, 1976. First women enter USAF pilot training. Cadets at Lowry AFB, Colo.

March 10, 1977. First flight of Grumman EF-111A airborne tactical jamming platform. Air Force Academy March 23, 1977. Air Force receives first E-3A Sentry (AWACS) A proposal to establish an Air Service academy was introduced in Congress in 1919. Billy Mitchell called aircraft. for an air academy in 1925. However, it was not until 1954 when Congress finally gave its approval. Almost June 30, 1977. President Carter cancels B-1A bomber pro- 600 possible sites were considered. Randolph AFB, gram. Tex., with its roots as “the West Point of the Air,” was a sentimental favorite. The list was winnowed to three Feb. 22, 1978. First test satellite for Navstar Global Positioning locations, with Alton, Ill., and Lake Geneva, Wis., among System launched. the final contenders. However, the Air Force chose Springs, Colo., as the site for the new Air Force Academy. Oct. 1, 1979. Atmospheric defense assets and missions of Construction began in 1955. Meanwhile, the first 306 Aerospace Defense Command transferred to Tactical Air Com- cadets—with junior Air Force officers acting as “upper- mand. classmen”—entered training at temporary facilities at Lowry AFB, Col. They moved to permanent quarters in April 24, 1980. Desert One mission to rescue hostages in Colorado Springs in 1958 in time to graduate there. fails. The falcon, now famous as the mascot of the cadet wing, was chosen by the Class of 1959. It is seldom remembered that it was a close decision between the falcon and the second most popular candidate, a tiger. The cadet wing consists of 40 squadrons of about 100 cadets each. Women cadets entered the academy for the first time in 1976 as members of the class of 1980. The Air Force Academy draws about a million visitors

a year. USAF photo USAF

The F-15 Eagle, the most dominant air superiority fighter of its era, entered the USAF inventory in 1973. It has compiled a record of 104 kills and 0 losses in air-to-air combat.

18 May 28, 1980. First women graduate from Air Force Acad- emy.

Aug. 22, 1980. Department of Defense reveals existence of stealth technology.

Oct. 2, 1981. President Reagan reinstitutes B-1 bomber pro- gram. USAF photo

Feb. 24, 1982. NATO receives its first E-3A AWACS aircraft.

Sept. 1, 1982. Air Force Space Command established.

Sept. 13, 1985. Anti-satellite missile, launched by F-15, destroys a satellite in orbit.

Oct. 10, 1985. Peacekeeper ICBM reaches initial operational capability.

April 15, 1986. In Operation El Dorado , Air Force F- 111s take off from England, refuel in air six times, strike targets in Libya, return to base in England.

Sept. 24, 1987. Air Force Thunderbirds fly in Beijing, first US Airey combat aircraft to land in China in almost 40 years. Paul W. Airey was the first Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force. Airey enlisted in 1942 and became a Nov. 10, 1988. Air Force reveals existence of Lockheed F-117A radio operator and waist gunner of a B-24 bomber. He stealth fighter, operational since 1983. had logged 28 combat missions over Europe when his aircraft was shot down in 1944. He was a prisoner of war Dec. 29, 1988. USAF receives first dual-role F-15E fighters. until 1945. He had lost a third of his weight before he was liberated, but after three months of leave to recu- March 19, 1989. First flight of Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey. perate, he re-enlisted. During the Korean War, Airey was awarded the —an uncommon decoration for an enlisted July 6, 1989. Nation’s highest civilian award, Presidential Medal man—for devising a corrosion control assembly line of Freedom, presented to Jimmy Doolittle. that saved radio and radar equipment from deteriora- tion. In 1953, he became a first sergeant, the specialty in which he spent much of his career. He had quit high school to join the Air Force during World War II, but made up for that by obtaining his diploma through off- duty study. He acquired a college associate degree as well. He was serving at Tyndall AFB, Fla., when the Air Force decided to name a Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force. Airey was chosen from a field of 26 finalists. Airey was effective in Washington, but he believed

USAF photo in personal contact with the field. During his tour as CMSAF, he traveled more than 500,000 miles (including four trips to Southeast Asia) and spoke before audi- ences totaling 100,000. At the end of his term, Airey remained on active duty for another year, going back to Tyndall. So far, he is the only CMSAF to take a follow-on assignment. He retired in 1970 but maintained his interest in the Air Force and the enlisted force. In 2006, the NCO Academy at Tyndall was named in his honor.

The B-52 bomber became operational in June 1955. It has seen combat in Vietnam, Desert Storm, the Balkans, Af- ghanistan, and and continues to have a dual mission.

19 The F-117 was USAF’s first stealth fighter. It made its opera- tional debut in 1989 during Just Cause.

July 17, 1989. First flight of Northrop B-2A stealth bomber.

Dec. 20, 1989. Operation Just Cause begins in Panama.

Expeditionary Force: 1990s-2007 June 1990. Air Force publishes “Global Reach-Global Power” white paper.

July 24, 1990. SAC EC-135 Looking Glass command post aircraft

ends more than 29 years of continuous airborne alert.

Aug. 2, 1990. Iraq invades .

The Enlisted Supergrades Aug. 7, 1990. Operation Desert Shield, buildup prior to Gulf War, begins. When the Air Force became a separate service, it kept the old enlisted grade structure from the Army, Aug. 8, 1990. Air Force C-141s, F-15s, AWACS arrive at bases with seven enlisted grades progressing from buck in . private to master sergeant. In 1952, the Air Force renamed the grades (privates became basic airmen, privates first class became airmen third class, corpo- Aug. 17, 1990. First-ever activation of Civil Reserve Air Fleet. rals became airmen second class, and so on) but the structure did not change. Jan. 16-17, 1991. In 35-hour nonstop mission, B-52Gs take off Before long, the Air Force had serious problems from Barksdale AFB, La., strike targets in Iraq, and return to stemming from the grade structure, as did the other Barksdale to land. services. Military pay lagged far behind compensa- tion in the civilian world. With retention rates sagging, the Air Force and the other services promoted their Jan. 17, 1991. Operation Desert Storm, the War, people as a means of compensating for low pay. begins. The average Air Force enlisted member made mas- ter sergeant (E-7) by the 12th year of service, leaving Jan. 17-Feb. 23, 1991. Iraqi forces sustain attrition of 50 percent eight years or more before retirement with no pos- or more from coalition air campaign. sibility of advancement. In their duty sections, most master sergeants were subordinate to other master sergeants. This undercut the prestige of the top NCO Feb. 24, 1991. G-Day. Start of 100-hour ground battle for Ku- rank and left insufficient separation of grades in the wait and Iraq. enlisted structure. In 1959, Congress created two new grades, E-8 and Feb. 28, 1991. Iraq surrenders. E-9. After polling the field to determine preferences, the Air Force named the new grades senior master April 18, 1991. First successful flight test of Martin Marietta- sergeant (E-8) and chief master sergeant (E-9). The Boeing MGM-134A small ICBM, “Midgetman.” first promotions to E-8 were in September 1958 and the first to E-9 were in December 1959. Concurrently, the Air Force phased out the warrant officer program July 24, 1991. Operation Provide Comfort II begins, humanitar- with E-8s and E-9s assuming the responsibilities ian relief and patrol of no-fly zone in northern Iraq. Becomes previously allocated to the warrant grades. Operation Northern Watch in 1997. Then as now, the E-8 and E-9 “supergrades” carried tremendous prestige and were a challenging career Sept. 27, 1991. Strategic bomber crews stand down from round- goal to which enlisted members could aspire. Today the-clock alert. —in an active duty enlisted force of 273,990—there are only 2,704 chief master sergeants and 5,514 se- nior master sergeants. Dec. 26, 1991. ceases to exist.

Jan. 18, 1992. receives first T-1A Jay- hawk trainer.

20 UN mobility forces are shown moving humanitarian aid in the Balkans during Operation Provide Promise in the mid-1990s.

C-17s such as the one at right have expanded USAF’s transport capabilities. The airlifter was first delivered in June 1993.

June 1, 1992. SAC, TAC, and MAC are deactivated. and established.

July 2, 1992-Jan. 9, 1996. In Operation Provide Promise, USAF April 28, 1993. Department of Defense ends ban on women flies humanitarian relief missions into Croatia and Bosnia. pilots flying combat aircraft.

Aug. 27, 1992. begins to enforce ban June 14, 1993. Delivery of first operational C-17A transport. on Iraqi airplanes south of 32nd parallel. July 1, 1993. Control of ICBMs passes to Air Force Space Com- April 12, 1993. NATO Operation Deny Fight begins in UN no- mand from Air Combat Command. fly zone in Bosnia.

Navy was undone by its own shabby political tactics and the B-36 went into production. The C-5A airlifter controversy in the 1960s was a media circus, complete with whistle-blowing and Congressional muckraking. The critics depicted the C-5 as an overpriced lemon. The clamor ceased when the C-5 did so well in the 1973 airlift to Israel and went on to be an outstanding airlifter for the next 40 years. In 1974, a headline in The New Republic called the E-3 Air- borne Warning and Control System “The Plane That Would Not Die.” The magazine said there was no mission for AWACS and E-3 AWACS urged its cancellation. In 1981, The Wall Street Journal called AWACS “a preeminent example of the Pentagon’s disastrous high tech procurement policies.” “Bad” Airplanes The Military Reform Movement of the 1980s said the F-15 Eagle was too big, too complex, too expensive. Better to go for No airplane looms larger in revered Air Force memory than greater numbers of smaller (and cheaper) fighters, like the F-5 the B-17 Flying Fortress. However, the B-17—like some other Tiger. The reformers had a considerable following in the news aircraft regarded today as classics—had to overcome early media and Congress, but the Air Force stuck with the F-15. opposition to avoid ending up on the scrap heap. In the 1930s, Twenty-five years later, reformers and politicians are trying to the Army General Staff thought two-engine bombers would be stop the F-22 Raptor. Part of their argument is that the F-15 is just as useful as (and much cheaper than) the B-17. In 1939, such a superb fighter that no replacement is needed. the Secretary of War cut B-17 procurement to zero. Fortunate- No other airplane has ever taken the kind of sustained ly, the Air Corps prevailed and the B-17 was there when it was political and journalistic abuse aimed at the B-2 bomber in the needed in World War II. 1980s and early 1990s. Congress cut the program from 132 air- The B-29 bomber, developed in wartime haste, experienced craft to 21, and then complained that the unit cost had risen. all kinds of difficulties in its early development and had to get Critics said the stealthy coatings would melt in the rain. When past a Congressional investigation before it could proceed. In the B-2 astounded the world with its spectacular performance the late 1940s, the B-36 bomber was the target of a propagan- in the Air War over Kosovo in 1999, the critics wanted to know da campaign by the Navy, which hoped to grab the strategic why the Air Force had not acquired more of these excellent power projection mission for its proposed supercarrier. The airplanes.

21 Nov. 21-23, 1994. In Project Sapphire, Air Mobility Command C-5s transport highly enriched uranium from former Soviet republic of Kazakhstan to United States.

April 27, 1995. Global Positioning System (GPS) achieves full operational capability.

July 29, 1995. Air Combat Command activates (UAV) unit.

Aug. 30-Sept.14, 1995. Operation Deliberate Force brings Serbia to peace talks.

Dec. 20, 1995. NATO air operation Decisive Endeavor begins to monitor and enforce peace in Bosnia.

June 25, 1996. Terrorist truck bomb at Khobar Towers in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, kills 19 airmen.

Troops with a small Global Positioning System receiver pinpoint their location. GPS satellite constellation was fully operational in April 1995.

Crowd gapes at blast-damaged facade of Khobar Towers apartment building, hit by a terrorist truck bomb in June 1996. The attack in Saudi Arabia killed 19 airmen.

The F-22 Raptor, shown here on a training flight, replaces the F-15 as USAF’s premier fighter. It first flew in September 1997.

Air & Space and Aerospace At the beginning of the space age, the Air Force expected that the military program in space would be an extension of the domain of the air. In 1959, Gen. Thomas D. White, Air Force Chief of Staff, told Congress that “air and space comprise a single continuous operational field in which the Air Force must continue to function. This area is aerospace.” The Air Force grew steadily more dependent on support from space, but the concept of “military man in space” began to fade. As late as the 1980s, the Air Force was still considering an “aerospace plane” that could take off from the ground, enter Nov. 26, 1996. First fullup test of GBU-31 Joint Direct Attack low Earth orbit, then re-enter the atmosphere to Munition (JDAM). perform a mission or to land. However, the over- whelming emphasis was on unmanned platforms in Jan. 1, 1997. Operation Northern Watch, follow-on to Provide space for a range of purposes, including surveil- Comfort II, begins in no-fly zone over northern Iraq. lance, navigation, communications, weather, and warning of hostile missile launch. April 1, 1997. B-2A Spirit stealth bomber reaches initial opera- Air Force Space Command was activated in 1982. In 1996, the Air Force declared that “we are now tional capability. transitioning from an air force into an air and space force on an evolutionary path toward a space and Sept. 7, 1997. First flight of Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor. air force.” In 1998, USAF said the term “aerospace” was preferred over “air and space.” In 2002, the Air Dec. 18, 1997. Joint STARS officially achieves IOC seven years Force reversed its position and went back to “air after its employment in Persian Gulf War. and space.” Whatever the terminology, the Air Force regards space as critical to its role in national security. A Aug. 4, 1998. Air Force announces plans to reorganize its opera- new mission statement, adopted in 2005, says that tional capabilities into 10 standing Air Expeditionary Forces. the Air Force operates in three regimes: air, space, and cyberspace. Dec. 16, 1998. US and British air and naval forces conduct Op- eration Desert Fox, a limited four-day operation against Iraq.

22 CMSAF Thomas Barnes

USAF Senior NCO Academy

No place is closer to the heart of the enlisted force than the USAF Senior NCO Academy at the Gunter annex to CMSAF Sam Parish Maxwell AFB, Ala. Since the academy’s activation in July 1972, more than 52,000 noncommissioned officers have been through the course. In order to be promoted to the grade of chief master sergeant, an Air Force senior NCO must graduate in residence from the academy. The first class, which graduated in 1973, included three future Chief Master Sergeants of the Air Force: Thomas N. Barnes, James M. McCoy, and Sam E. Parish. The first six commandants of the academy were colo- nels. In 1983, the Air Force decided that a chief master ser- geant was fully capable of the responsibility and named CMSgt. Bobby G. Renfroe as commandant. Since then, all commandants have been Air Force chief master sergeants. The first woman joined the faculty as an instructor in 1978, and in 2005, CMSgt Pamela A. Derrow became the first woman commandant. The course lasts 6.5 weeks, and five classes (about 360 students per class) graduate each year. NCOs in grades E-7 through E-9 are eligible to attend, but most of the stu- CMSAF James McCoy dents are master sergeants. Located nearby is the Air Force Enlisted Heritage Re- search Institute, which includes Enlisted Heritage Hall. The Institute has the finest collection anywhere of exhibits and materials about the enlisted force.

March 24-June 20, 1999. Operation Allied Force, the NATO air Oct. 6, 1999. Destruction begins of 150 Minuteman III silos, in campaign against Serbia. accordance with Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty.

March 24, 1999. B-2 bomber makes its combat debut in Opera- Feb. 21, 2001. Predator UAV hits a stationary Army tank with tion Allied Force. a live Hellfire-C missile.

June 23-27, 1999. Air Force Lt. Col. Eileen M. Collins becomes April 22-23, 2001. Global Hawk UAV takes off from California, first woman to command . flies nonstop and unrefueled, to precision landing in Australia.

Oct. 1, 1999. First regular Air Expeditionary Force rotational May 8, 2001. Air Force designated as Department of Defense cycle begins. executive agent for space.

23 With the smoke still rising from the World Trade Center after the terrorist attacks on Sept. 11, 2001, an F-16 from the Vermont Air National Guard flies combat air patrol over City.

Sept. 11, 2001. hijacked by terrorists crash into World Trade Center and Pentagon. Operation Noble Eagle—combat air patrols above American cities—begins.

Oct. 7, 2001. Operation Enduring Freedom begins in Afghani- stan.

Oct. 7, 2001. US launches first combat mission of an armed Predator UAV against al Qaeda target in Afghanistan. The Revolution in Military Affairs Nov. 13 - Dec. 9, 2001. Taliban, hammered hard by airpower, Around 1990, US defense thinkers in the Pentagon loses control in Afghanistan. began to study and expand upon Soviet theories of a “revolution in military affairs.” In the Pentagon’s formulation, such a revolution—centering on vastly May 22, 2002. First flight of Boeing X-45A Unmanned Combat improved capabilities for information superiority Air Vehicle prototype. and long-range precision attack—had occurred and had transformed the nature of warfare. March 17, 2003. Northern Watch missions end in Iraq. This “Revolution in Military Affairs” was highly controversial, in large part because the enabling March 19, 2003. Southern Watch missions end in Iraq. capabilities were closely associated with airpower, which pointed to a lesser role for ground forces. The Gulf War and other conflicts of the 1990s March 20, 2003. Air Force F-117 fighters, cruise missiles from US bore out the concept, and the 1997 Quadrennial warships strike “leadership targets of opportunity” in Iraq. Defense Review acknowledged a Revolution in Mili- tary Affairs “that will fundamentally change the way March 20, 2003. Operation Iraqi Freedom begins. US forces fight.” The Air War over Kosovo in 1999 provided further evidence as B-2 bombers attacked April 9, 2003. falls to coalition forces. 16 separate targets per sortie. There was no claim that airpower could win wars by itself, although airpower could take a larger role Dec. 15, 2003. National Air and Space Museum opens huge than before in joint operations. In some instances, Udvar-Hazy annex in Chantilly, Va. there was an alternative to the ages-old attrition model of warfare with high casualties on both March 1, 2005. MQ-1 Predator UAV achieves initial operational sides. The backlash came in the form of a massive capability. propaganda campaign to restore the lost prestige of the Army and Marine Corps. Ground force advo- cates claimed the Revolution in Military Affairs was Dec. 7, 2005. New Air Force mission statement adds cyberspace nothing but a catch phrase and that now, as always, to current combat domains of air and space. wars are won by “boots on the ground.” The ground power advocates were louder and Dec. 15, 2005. F-22 fighter achieves initial operational capabil- more persistent than airpower advocates, and the ity. “boots on the ground” claim gained traction in Congress and in the news media. Favorable men- tions of the Revolution in Military Affairs are cur- March 20, 2006. Air Force receives first operational CV-22 tilt- rently few and far between. rotor aircraft.

24 Over Time, Fewer Fliers in the Force Pilots Navigators Pilots + Navigators Active duty Total Percent of Percent of Percent of total Number Number Number aircraft officers total officers total officers officers 1944 78,757 342,914 132,477 38.63 24,991 7.29 157,468 45.92 1956 24.949 141,296 56,847 40.23 — — — — 1978 7,121 95,242 20,029 21.03 9,550 10.03 29,579 31.06 1986 7,245 109,048 22,283 20.43 9,291 8.52 31,574 28.95 2006 6,013 70,539 12,509 17.73 3,752 5.32 16,261 23.05

In the Army Air Service and the Air Corps, most officers were pilots. Pilots and navigators accounted for a large percentage of AAF officers in the World War II buildup. After the war, the numbers of both aircraft and personnel diminished and the percentage of officers with aeronautical ratings declined. Navigator data for 1956 is not available.

Oct. 14, 2006. Air Force Memorial dedicated in Arlington, Va.

Dec. 15, 2006. First flight, Lockheed-Martin F-35 Lightning II Joint .

March 29, 2007. Tuskegee Airmen awarded Congressional Gold Medal.

Aug. 1, 2007. Centennial of founding of Aeronautical Division of the US Army Signal Corps, the genesis of the US Air Force. n

UAVs, From Kettering Bug to Predator The Air Force’s first unmanned aerial vehicle in 1918 was the “Kettering Bug,” a biplane drone that could deliver a bomb against a target 50 miles distant. It showed promise when tested by the Aviation Section of the Signal Corps, but was canceled when World War I ended. In 1941, Ketter- ing developed a later version of the “Bug” with sponsor- ship from AAF Chief Hap Arnold. It, too, was eventually canceled, not for doctrinal reasons but because it lacked the range from England to strike targets in Germany. After World War II, Air Force UAV programs—inspired by the German V-1 —took the form of ballistic mis- siles. The Air Force continued to use drones, but to a very limited degree, in the years that followed. UAVs came into their own in the 1990s with the appear- ance of the MQ-1 Predator—developed as a reconnais- sance platform but highly successful as an attack system when armed with missiles—and the high-altitude, long-en- durance RQ-4 Global Hawk. In 2001, the chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee predicted that it was a reasonable goal to make a third of all deep-strike aircraft unmanned. The Air Force expects to have 15 Predator squadrons flying by 2010 and, in September 2007 sent its first contingent of MQ-9 Reap- ers, souped-up versions of Predator, to war in Southwest Asia. UAVs have generated a roles and missions struggle, reminiscent of the airpower controversies of the 1930s, as ground force advocates argue that UAVs should be parceled out and attached to local ground units rather than Three spires of the Air Force Memorial in Arlington, Va., tower being centrally controlled. above bronze honor guard statues. The memorial dedication took place in October 2006.

25 Lists of Ten

10 Key People 10 Key Events

1. Billy Mitchell 1. Mitchell sinks Ostfriesland 2. Hap Arnold 2. Doolittle’s Tokyo raid 3. 3. Battle of Bismarck Sea 4. Ira Eaker 4. Big Week 1944 5. 5. Hiroshima 6. Curtis LeMay 6. Berlin Airlift 7. Bernard Schriever 7. Cuban Missile Crisis 8. Benjamin O. Davis Jr. 8. Thanh Hoa Bridge 9. Paul Airey 9. Linebacker II 10. Jeanne Holm 10.

10 Key Airplanes 10 Places to Remember

1. Wright Military Flyer 1. St. Mihiel 2. B-17 2. Pearl Harbor 3. P-51 3. Schweinfurt 4. B-29 4. 5. B-52 5. MiG Alley 6. C-130 6. Fulda Gap 7. KC-135 7. Route Pack 6 8. C-5 8. Hanoi Hilton 9. F-15 9. Baghdad 10. B-2 10. Lackland

10 Key Developments 10 Famous Organizations

1. Powered flight 1. Hat in the Ring Squadron 2. Instrument flight 2. Lafayette Escadrille 3. Radar 3. 4. Aerial refueling 4. Flying Tigers 5. Jet aircraft 5. Tuskegee Airmen 6. Atomic bomb 6. Eighth Air Force 7. ICBMs 7. 8. Space satellites 8. Strategic Air Command 9. Precision guided munitions 9. Red River Rats 10. Stealth 10. USAF Thunderbirds

26 And Then They Said. . . . .

Basic Airmanship gri-La.”.”—President Roosevelt, April 1942, “When in trouble in the air, put the nose down.” on American airplanes that bombed Tokyo. (In —Wilbur Wright, letter to Lt. Benjamin Foulois, fact, Jimmy Doolittle’s raiders flew from the 1910. carrier Hornet.) Passing Fancy Wilbur Wright Cats of the Air “[Airplanes] are interesting toys, but of no military “We were a different breed of cat right from the value.”—French Marshal Ferdinand Foch (later start. We flew through the air while the others Supreme Commander of Allied armies in World walked on the ground.”.”—Gen. Carl A. Spaatz, War I ), 1911. first chief of staff of the independent USAir Force. Unsinkable “I would be glad to stand bareheaded on the deck Fight First, Talk Later or at the wheel of any battleship while Mitchell Josephus Daniels “We won’t do much talking until we’ve done tried to take a crack at me from the air. If he ever more fighting. After we’ve gone, we hope you’ll tries to aim bombs on the decks of naval ves- be glad we came.”—Brig. Gen. Ira Eaker, shortly sels, he will be blown to atoms long before he after arriving in England in 1942 as commander gets close enough to drop salt on the tail of the of US VIII Bomber Command. Navy.”—Secretary of the Navy Josephus Dan- iels, just before Billy Mitchell’s bombers sank Booze and Lose the battleship Ostfriesland in demonstration “You people will lose this war if you don’t stop test, July 1921. drinking.”—Lady Astor on visit to VIII Bomber

Carl Spaatz Command headquarters at High Wycombe, Mitchell’s Force Britain, 1942. “Air power in the future will have a great influence in determining any conflict, so I believe if you fig- Side by Side ure your whole national defense as 100 percent, “Land power and airpower are co-equal and in- air power would make approximately 50 percent, terdependent forces; neither is an auxiliary of the the land forces 30 percent, and the sea forces 20 other.”—Army Field Manual 100-20, July 21, percent.”.”—Billy Mitchell, Congressional testi- 1943. mony, Feb. 5, 1926.

Lady Astor Open to the Sky Buy Cheap, Get More “Hitler built a fortress around Europe but he forgot “The military superiority of a B-17 over two or to put a roof on it.” —President Franklin Roos- three smaller planes that could be procured with evelt. the same funds remains to be established.”.”— Maj Gen. Stanley Embick, Army Deputy Chief of Why We Won Staff, citing the General Staff’s position, 1938. “We had the leaders, we had the logistics, and we had the brave men at the right place at the right From Shangri-La time.”—SSgt. Henry E. “Red” Erwin, B-29 radio “They came from our new secret base at Shan- Franklin Roosevelt

27 And Then They Said. . . . .

operator and recipient of , on … and After World War II. “Lesson number one from the Gulf War is the value of air power.”—Pres. George H. W. Bush, Hap’s Priority after the war. “The main job of the Air Force is bombardment; large formations of bombardment planes must hit Henry “Red” Erwin Detente the enemy before the enemy hits us. In short, the “After a period of confrontation, we are entering best defense is attack.”—General of the Air Force an era of negotiation.”—President Nixon, inau- Hap Arnold, Global Mission, 1949. gural address, Jan. 20, 1969. Atomic Expert Desert Drizzle “This is the biggest fool thing we have ever done. “I call it Desert Drizzle.”—Gen. Merrill A. Mc- … The bomb will never go off, and I speak as an Peak, Air Force Chief of Staff., April 1992, expert in explosives.”—Admiral William D. Lea- on Rep. Les Aspin’s notional “Desert Storm hy, military chief of staff to Presidents Roosevelt William Leahy Equivalent,” which was in actuality smaller and Truman, on atomic bomb project, 1945. than the Gulf War force. Primary Target New Way of War “We should stop swatting flies and go after the “America has not only the opportunity but the manure pile.”.” —Gen Curtis E. LeMay, Air Force obligation to transition from a concept of annihi- Chief of Staff, urging US to press the attack on lation and attrition warfare that places thousands North Vietnam, 1962. of young Americans at risk in brute, force-on- force conflicts to a concept that leverages our That’s News to Many Russell Dougherty sophisticated military capabilities to achieve US “There is nothing in your job description that re- objectives by applying what I like to refer to as quires you to be a son of a bitch.”—Gen. Russell an ‘asymmetric force’ strategy.—Gen. Ronald R. E. Dougherty, commander in chief, Strategic Air Fogleman, Air Force Chief of Staff, 1996. Command, 1974. High Frontier Flexible Response “We are now transitioning from an air force into “Diplomacy is the art of saying, ‘nice doggie’ until an air and space force on an evolutionary path you can find a big rock.”—Chief Master Sergeant toward a space and air force.”—Air Force vision of the Air Force Robert D. Gaylor, 1978. Merrill McPeak statement, 1996. Before … Into Cyberspace “The US depends on the Air Force. The Air Force “I see the mission of the Air Force as: Deliver has never decided a war in the history of war.” sovereign options for the defense of the United —, August 1990. States of American and its global interests —in air, space, and cyberspace.”—Secretary of the Air Force Michael W. Wynne, Nov. 3, 2005.

Ronald Fogleman

27 28 pass in review Among those making history in the first 100 years

Eddie Ward Eddie Rickenbacker First enlisted airman World War I ace

Frank Luke Frank Andrews Balloon buster First Air Corps Chief GHQ Air Force Commander

29 pass in review Among those making history in the first 100 years

Tex Hill Claire L. Chennault Jimmy Doolittle Flying Tiger triple ace Flying Tiger commander Tokyo raider

Ira Eaker Richard I. Bong Eaker of the Eighth WASP leader Ace of aces

30 pass in review

John Alison George Kenney Forrest Vosler All-American airman Leader in South Pacific Medal of Honor 1943

Elwood Quesada Tactical air advocate Enola Gay pilot

31 pass in review

Theodore Von Karman William Tunner James Jabara New Horizons forecaster Hump and Berlin airlifts First ace in Korea

Stuart Symington/Carl Spaatz Lauris Norstad First USAF Secretary/ First USAF Chief NATO commander

32 pass in review

Bernard Schreiver Thomas White Man with the missiles Advocate of Aerospace

Nathan Twining Lance Sijan First USAF Chairman of Joint William Momyer Vietnam POW, Medal Chiefs of Staff 7th Air Force commander of Honor

33 pass in review

John Levitow Bernard Fisher Vietnam loadmaster, Medal of Honor, Vietnam MiG Sweep leader Medal of Honor

Bud Day Jeanne Holm Chappie James Vietnam POW, Medal of Honor USAF’s first woman general First black 4-star

34 pass in review

William Pitsenbarger Eileen Collins Vietnam PJ, Medal of Honor Shuttle commander

Moody Suter W.L. Creech Designer of Red Flag Inspiration and example Gulf War air boss

35 pass in review

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